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NOTE-TAKING, STUDYING, AND TEST-TAKING: A SURVIVAL MANUAL FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS

Craig H. Jones John R. Slate

Arkansas State University Sam Houston State University [Authors Retain all Rights]

Most students define academic success and failure in terms of the grades they receive. Test

scores are extremely important determinants of grades in most courses. This manual will help you to earn the highest test scores that are possible for you. Although some tips on how to take tests are given, most tests are passed or failed long before you enter a classroom on exam day. Thus, the tips concentrate on note-taking and studying. If you are interested only in remembering course material long enough to get through the next test, this manual is not for you. It does not provide short-cuts that will help you cram at the last minute. Good study habits require time and effort, and, if you follow the tips in this manual, you will work hard. But, if your I goal is to learn what you are studying so that you can use this knowledge to earn higher grades, you will find this manual helpful.

Before you read any further, turn to Appendix A and complete the Study Habits Inventory. This inventory will help you identify many of the strengths and weaknesses in your current study habits. Then you can use the tips in this manual more efficiently to reinforce your strengths and to correct your weaknesses.

TAKING NOTES

The most frequent study activity is note-taking and, even if you have a fantastic memory, you will need to take notes. Unfortunately, many students are not proficient at taking good notes. The most common mistake students make in note-taking is to write too much, that is, trying write down everything their instructor says word-for- word. This is hard to do, makes going to class an unpleasant chore, and usually results in a frantically scrawled jumble of words that is impossible to interpret. The second most common mistake is not to write something because you are sure that you will remember it later. Together, these two mistakes lead to the first law of applied terror, “The night before an exam the most important notes are either missing or uninterpretable.” Although learning shorthand can help, all students can improve their note-taking by following these tips.

1. PREPARE FOR EACH CLASS. Reading assignments should be completed prior to attending class. Knowing something about the material in advance will increase your understanding of what your instructor says, allowing you to organize your notes and to distinguish between essential and nonessential information. Technical terms will be familiar and easier to spell. This not only will make note-taking easier, but also will make class more interesting. Thus, you will go to class more often, pay better attention, and find school more enjoyable.

2. ATTEND CLASS REGULARLY. The second law of applied terror is that 80% of the exam will

be based on the one class you missed. Thus, going to class as often as you can is a good idea even when there is no attendance policy. You cannot take notes unless you go to class, nor can you rely on other students to take good notes for you. Even if your friends are good note-takers, you may not understand the material and you will have missed the best opportunity to ask your instructor questions.

3. LISTEN CAREFULLY. Listening in class is different from listening to a casual conversation.

Not only will the information presented in class be more technical than the content of a normal conversation, but you also will need to recall lecture material more accurately and in more detail. Thus, you will need to concentrate on what your instructor is saying, and not allow your thoughts to wander back to your date last night or ahead to your trip home this weekend. Being prepared for class will help. Listen actively, by trying to integrate what your instructor is saying with what you have read in the textbook. When you are having difficulty concentrating, remember that you paid a great deal of money to

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attend college and daydreaming is a waste of that money. Also, remember the positive impact good grades will have on your life, and how much failing to earn a degree can damage your future.

4. BE BRIEF. If you try to write a word-for-word transcript, you will be too busy writing to listen. Thus, you will miss a good deal of what your instructor says. Good note-takers write only enough to help recall the material at a later time. Do not try to. write complete sentences. Instead, jot down phrases that capture complete ideas. Abbreviate words when possible, developing your own shorthand for words that you write frequently. Leave a blank space when You miss something so that you can add that material later. Put a question mark in the margin beside information you do not understand so that you will remember to ask your instructor about it.

5. BE SELECTIVE. A good note-taker listens carefully to what is said, evaluates it, and writes

down only essential information. Trivial information should not be included. In psychology courses, definitions, theories, and research results are usually very important. Most instructors give clues as to what is important. Look for signals in gestures, tone of voice, pauses, time spent on a topic, and writing on the chalkboard. If the instructor took the time to put something on a PowerPoint slide, that material is probably important. However, every instructor is different so you will need to observe each of your instructors carefully.

6. BE ORGANIZED. Good notes help students see how various aspects of a course relate to

each other. Thus, an outline is frequently the best format for taking notes. The extent to which the formal structure of an outline is followed depends upon your instructor's style and the nature of the material. When the instructor is well organized and the material moves from the general to the specific, notes often can be structured into a formal outline. When an instructor's style is closer to storytelling, a less formal outline can be used in which you simply jot down phrases under major topic headings. Be flexible and choose the format that works best for you in any given course.

Keep the notes for all of your courses in the same notebook. Many experts recommend that you

use a large, three-ring binder. This allows you to add pages easily, including handouts given by your instructor, and keeps you from accidentally taking your psychology notebook to English class. Always date your notes so that, if you should need to miss class, you will know what notes to borrow. Dating your notes also allows you to reorganize your notes easily if the pages become mixed up. Keeping a backup copy of your notes is also a good idea in case your notebook is lost or misplaced.

Figure 1 illustrates lecture notes taken using a formal outline. Notice that the student headed the

page with the course name and the date. The topic of the lecture has been written at the top of the page with a notation that this is the continuation of a lecture begun during the previous class meeting. There are no complete sentences, and abbreviations and symbols have been used frequently. When the instructor used a term the student did not understand (i.e., neuroticism), the student put a question mark in the margin to remind him or her to ask the instructor what this term means.

Lecture notes following an informal outline are illustrated in Figure 2. Only the super ordinate

headings are labeled with Roman numerals. The major points under these headings are indicated with hyphens, and elements in series are numbered. Notice that the student has developed his or her own abbreviation for behavior (i.e., bhr) because this word is used very frequently in psychology courses. When the instructor mentioned that there are three parts to the structure of the personality, the student made a note of this. If the student did not write down all three parts, this note would remind him or her that something was missing. Also, when the instructor drew a triangle on the board to illustrate Freud's theory of the mind, the student copied this drawing.

Notes can also be taken in a question and answer format as illustrated in Figure 3. You do this by

drawing a vertical line roughly one third of the way across the page. Terms and questions are written on the left side of the page, and definitions and answers are written on the right side. When studying, you cover the right side with a sheet of paper. Read the term or question and try to give the definition or answer. Then slide the paper down far enough to check your answer. Put a pencil mark in the margin next to the definitions and questions you miss to remind yourself what material you still need to learn.

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Figure 1. Example of Lecture Notes Using a Formal Outline

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Figure 2. Example of Lecture Notes Using an Informal Outline

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Figure 3. Example of Lecture Notes in Question and Answer Form

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7. EDIT YOUR NOTES. The notes that you take in class will be brief and selective. As soon as you can after class, go over your notes and write them out more completely. Except for definitions of technical terms, you should paraphrase what your instructor says. Use your own words that organize and summarize the important points of a lecture so that the notes make sense to you. This will enable you to discover omissions, errors, or areas that are unclear to you so that you can ask your instructor for help. If you do need help, seek it immediately. Do not wait until just before an exam. Students who wait too long may not get to their instructor in time.

8. STUDY YOUR NOTES. Use the SQ3R method described later in this manual to study your

notes in the same way that you should study your textbook. Simply reading over notes is not an effective study strategy.

9. EVALUATE YOUR NOTES. Most students never look at their notes again after an exam. This

gives you very little opportunity to improve your note-taking. once you have taken an exam, you should look over your notes and identify their strengths and weaknesses. If some of the material on the test is not in your notes, ask yourself why you failed to include this material and how you can prevent similar problems on the next test.

10. TAPE REOORD LECTURES. Unless a mechanical failure occurs, a tape recorder can

provide an excellent record of what is said in class. Unlike you, tape recorders do not daydream or become distracted. Thus, a tape recording of a class can help you to fill in gaps while you are editing your notes. However, a tape recorder is not a substitute for note-taking. First, taking notes helps to keep you actively involved in the class, increasing both your interest and your understanding. Second, to study effectively, you need to take notes from the tape anyway. By not taking notes in class you are actually adding a step and wasting your time. Third, when your tape recorder fails, it fails completely. Without your hand-written notes you really would be lost.

Always get permission before you tape. Some instructors object to being recorded, especially

in the era of YouTube. In addition, when you record a class in which other students make comments or ask questions you are also taping them. As a result, there may be policies requiring that you get their permission as well.

STUDYING

Students often believe that they already know how to study. Unfortunately, most of these students are wrong. Even students who earned good grades in high school often do not know how to study properly. In general, students devote too little time to studying, are too unorganized, and study too passively. Because college is more difficult than high school, good students sometimes receive a rude shock during their first semester. The following tips will help you to study more effectively. 1. SCHEDULE YOUR STUDY PERIODS. Set up a regular study schedule each week. Try to select times when you will be alert and that are unlikely to conflict with other things you will need, to do. Scheduling a study period immediately after a class will allow you to edit your notes while the material is still fresh in your mind. Your study schedule should include time to review previous material and to prepare for upcoming classes. The most important thing is to be realistic. Setting a study schedule that you cannot follow is a waste of time.

The amount of time you need to schedule for studying can vary greatly from one course to another. Generally speaking, you will need at least two hours of study time for each hour you spend in class. If you have a 12 hour course load, you will need to schedule at least 24 hours each week for studying. You may need to set aside even more study time for especially difficult courses or if your instructor seems to follow the third law of applied terror, Every instructor assumes that students have nothing to do except study for his or her course.

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Figure 4 illustrates how a good weekly study schedule should be prepared. The student began by entering all required activities that occur at fixed times, that is, class meetings, work schedule, and church. Next, the student scheduled times before each class period to prepare for the class, and time after each class period to edit notes and to review. Review sessions were scheduled as soon after class as possible. The rule of two hours out of class for every hour in class was followed for Psychology, fine arts, and the physical science lecture. Because a lab report was due for the physical science lab, the student scheduled a little extra time to work on this report. Notice that the student planned to type this report on Thursday night, allowing plenty of time to adjust if the report cannot be finished on schedule. Because English class requires a great deal of reading, the student has scheduled three additional hours to prepare for this class. English class also requires a term paper and several compositions. Thus, the student scheduled two hours in the library to work on these papers.

The student realizes that he or must maintain a high energy level to do well in school. Thus, his

schedule provides time to eat, exercise, and get plenty of rest. Life cannot be all work, so the student scheduled times to watch a favorite movie on Thursday night, and time to go out with his girlfriend on Saturday. The open times on the schedule serve several purposes. They allow time to travel to and from school, they can be used to rest or to socialize, and they also give the student flexibility to add additional study time if he needs it. Finally, the student scheduled some time on Friday to plan his schedule for the following week. Having completed his classes for the week, he will be aware of up coming assignments and can set his schedule accordingly.

You should notice that this student has a very busy week ahead of him. This is normal. Going to

college full-time requires the same investment of time as holding a full-time job. You would expect to give an employer a full week's work, and even put in some overtime on occasion. Because of his outside work commitment, and the extra demands of his English and physical science courses, this student is very busy even though he is carrying only a 12 hour course load. If you are a full-time student, you may be able to handle an 18 hour course load. But 18 hours, or even 15, will be too much for many students to handle. For most students, working more than 15 hours a week will require a reduced course load. This is particularly true if you work off-campus. Each semester will be different, so careful planning during registration periods is important.

In addition to your weekly study schedule, you should establish a semester schedule. This

schedule will remind you to allow some extra study time during “crisis periods” such as when you have a big exam scheduled or a term paper due. Your semester schedule should also remind you to take into account important social events (dances, football games, etc.) and/or weekends home so that you can reorganize your study time rather than cut into it. Your instructors will make new assignments, reschedule tests, and make other changes as the semester progresses. Unanticipated social events will occur also. Remember to update your semester schedule as the need arises.

Figure 5 shows the semester schedule for the student whose weekly schedule you have already examined. The student has listed the dates for all scheduled exams and the due dates for all papers. (Because lab reports are due each week, these are listed only on the weekly schedule.) The student also has listed other important academic dates (i.e., fee payment, last day to drop a class, and study day). Family events (i.e., Mom's birthday) and important social events (i.e., an important dance and a sporting event) are also listed. In planning his weekly schedule, the student will consult this semester schedule so that he can make needed adjustments. In order to attend the “big game” on a Thursday night, the student will need to reschedule his time to type lab reports (perhaps to the open space at 4 o’clock that afternoon) and his English preparation time (perhaps to 10 o'clock on Monday and Wednesday). He may need to add a few hours of preparation time for physical science the week of February 1st so that he will be ready for the test on the 8th. If he keeps to his study schedule, the number of hours he needs to add will be minimal.

If you want to write your own study schedules, you can use the checklist provided in Appendix B. This appendix also includes blank schedule sheets that you can Xerox.

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Figure 4. Example of a Weekly Study Schedule

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Figure 5. Example of a Semester Schedule

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2. SPACE YOUR STUDY PERIODS. Fatigue is one of your worst enemies when you study. Find the length of your attention span and do not study beyond this length of time without taking a brief rest. Generally, three one-hour sessions are better than one three-hour session, but the exact length of your study and rest periods depends on You. Although the length of time you select for your study periods should not be too long, it should be long enough to allow you to complete the study task that you set for yourself (i.e., do not try to read 100 pages in 15 minutes). If you look back at Figure 4, you will see that the student used lunch and dinner to create natural breaks in his day. Whenever he could, he also left same open time between study sessions. When he had to study for several hours in a row, he changed activities so that he did not study the same thing for a prolonged time. Even if the change was only to go to class, at least he was working on something different. Because he would be tired immediately after work, he allowed an hour to rest before preparing for psychology.

3. KEEP UP. Your study schedule will not work unless you follow it. Make studying a habit. Follow your schedule whether or not you are in the mood to study. Settle down and get to work. Do not daydream, get up and wander about, or begin to do other things. After a while, following your schedule will become a normal part of your daily routine. Also, inform family and friends of your schedule and ask that they not disturb you during study periods (friends who are Worth keeping will cooperate).

If you follow your schedule and still seem to be falling behind, you should reevaluate your schedule. Perhaps you have not scheduled enough study time. Perhaps you have scheduled your study periods at the wrong times, that is, when you are tired or when You cannot work effectively (e.g., if you are a morning person, you may not study well at night). Some people work better by setting specific study goals (e.g., read a certain number of pages a day) rather than working on a time schedule.

4. WORK IN A SUITABLE PLACE. Although people differ in their preferences for study areas, a

place that is as free of distractions as possible should be selected. Areas where there are people talking, stereos playing (including your own), and so forth, should be avoided. All necessary materials (books, pencils, paper, a dictionary, etc.) should be readily available. A desk facing a blank wall is best for most people. There should be nothing on the desk but the materials you will need to study (a picture of you boyfriend or girlfriend distract you). The chair should be comfortable but not too relaxing. Lighting that is neither too dim nor glaring, adequate ventilation, and so forth are important also. If clocks distract you or make time seem to drag by, use a timer with a bell to time your study sessions and place it out of sight.

5. AVOID DRUGS. Drugs interfere with memory by altering your state of consciousness. During

study periods, the drugs students are most likely to use are those that prevent sleep and alcoholic beverages. These and all other drugs should be avoided, especially when you are studying.

6. STUDY ACTIVELY, NOT PASSIVELY. Most students study by simply reading the textbook

and/or memorizing lecture notes. These techniques usually are ineffective and whatever is learned is soon forgotten. More active study habits are needed. The SQ3R method developed by F.R. Robinson is one such active method that gives proven results. This method is especially effective for studying textbooks and factual material, however, this method also can be applied to studying your lecture notes.

a. The first step in the SQ3R method is to SURVEY the material. Scan the textbook looking at

headings, italicized words, names, and dates. Try to get a feel for how the material is organized, possibly using the headings and subheadings to write a brief outline of the chapter. If there is a chapter summary, read it now even if it is at the end of the chapter.

b. Next QUESTIONS should be formulated based upon your survey. Write out these question so

that you will remember to answer them as you read. One way to do this is by turning chapter heading and subheadings into who, what, when, why, and how questions. In addition, italicized words can be turned

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into “What is.. .? questions, or a separate vocabulary list can be made. Some textbooks provide objectives and lists of important terms that can be of significant help during this step. Sometimes the objectives are published in a separate workbook that accompanies the textbook. If your instructors follows the book, buying the accompanying workbook can be a good investment.

Table 1 shows an outline a student made from the headings and italicized words in a chapter on

learning, and the questions he or she generated from this outline. The overall structure of the chapter indicated two things to the student. First, an entire section is devoted to defining three basic approaches to learning. Being able to define and to tell the differences among these approaches was obviously very

Table 1. Example SQ3R Questions on Classical and Operant Conditioning

OUTLINE MADE FROM HEADINGS AND ITALICIZED WORDS I. Approaches to Learning

A. Behaviorist B. Humanistic C. Cognitive

II. Classical Conditioning A. Basic Model

1. Unconditioned Response 2. Unconditioned Stimulus 3. Conditioned Stimulus 4. Conditioned Response

B. Generalization and Discrimination C. Extinction, D. Relevance to Daily Life

III. Operant Conditioning A. Basic Model

1. Positive Reinforcement 2. Negative Reinforcement 3. Punishment 4. Extinction

B. Stimulus Control C. Types of Reinforcers

1. Primary Reinforcers 2. Secondary Reinforcers

SAMPLE QUESTIONS MADE FROM OUTLINE 1. What are the three basic approaches to learning and how do these approaches differ? 2. What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? 3. What are an unconditioned response, an unconditioned stimulus, a conditioned stimulus, and a

conditioned response? What role does each play in classical conditioning? 4. What are generalization and discrimination and what role does each play in classical

conditioning? 5. What is extinction and what role does it play in classical conditioning? 6. What is the relevance of classical conditioning to daily life? 7. What are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction? What

role does each play in operant conditioning? 8. What is stimulus control and what role does it play in operant conditioning? 9. How do primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers differ, and what role does each play in

operant conditioning?

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important. The first question the student wrote will remind him or her to identify all three approaches and to think about how they differ from each other. Second, learning theories are organized around a distinction between classical and operant conditioning. Learning to tell the difference between these types of learning also seemed to be very important, causing the student to write the second question. Next, the student noticed that one section for each type of conditioning begins with a subsection on “Basic Model.” This pattern suggested that concepts vital to understanding how each type of conditioning works are presented in these subsections. The student wrote questions so that he or she will not only define the italicized concepts in these subsections, but also think about how these concepts function (i.e., the role they play) in producing the two types of conditioning. The student then wrote questions for the remaining subsections.

c. The third step is to READ the material actively. Do not read through from beginning to end without stopping. Instead, read carefully and thoughtfully. Read one section at a time, thinking about the questions you formulated during the second step of SQ3R. Be sure to pay attention to boxes, graphs, and tables, because these often contain very important information. Take notes just as you would in class, simply underlining parts of the text is too passive. Chances are you will never get back to reread your underlinings but, if you do, you may not remember why you underlined these sentences or what they mean. Include page numbers in your notes so that you can refer to the textbook quickly if you need to look something up later. Be sure that You understand everything before going on to the next section. If you do not know the meaning of a word, look it up in the glossary or a dictionary. If you read the textbook actively, you should only need to read it once. Too often students think that studying involves rereading the book. This approach, however, is too passive. Simply reading the text stores the information in short-term memory for a few seconds. After that, the information disappears from memory completely.

d. After you have read the material the next step is to RECITE. This means that you should

actively go over the material--organize it and put it in your own words (except for important quotes and technical terms) so that it becomes more meaningful. This process is necessary to transfer the information from short-term memory into long-term memory. Also, practice recalling the material so that you can remember the information easily during an exam. Long-term memory stores a great deal of information, so you want to be sure you know where to find the information when you need it. Some of the most effective ways to do recite material include:

(1) RESTRUCTURE THE MATERIAL. Actively search for relationships within the material. Look

for categories, hierarchies, networks, or other structures that will help you organize, understand, and remember the material. A student could use the network shown in Figure 6 to learn the organization of the nervous system.

Logically reorganize the material into smaller, more manageable, clusters. Study the smaller

clusters first, then relate them to each other. For example. try to memorize the words in Table 2 as they are. listed in this table: Then reorganize this list into smaller clusters. The reorganized list will be much easier to remember. If you need help, Appendix C will show you how to reorganize the list, but try to do it yourself first.

(2) SEEK OUT EXAMPLES that illustrate the material you are trying to master. You can do this

in two ways: (a) pay careful attention to examples given by your instructor or in your textbook, and (b) try to create examples for yourself.

( 3) PUT THE MATERIAL INTO A CONTEXT. Generally, what you are learning is related to

things you already know. Identifying these relationships makes the new information more meaningful and, thus, easier to learn and to remember. For example, students who have a basic knowledge of computers can improve their understanding of memory processes by drawing an analogy between short-term memory and a CPU, and an analogy between long-term memory and a flash drive. A new term can be learned by thinking of situations in which the concept can be applied, and by using the word in a meaningful sentence. Also, the terminology in many fields is easier to learn if you first develop a knowledge of Latin roots. Psychology has numerous terms that involve Latin roots (e.g., amoral, neologism, hyperactivity).

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Figure 6. Network of Nervous System

Table 2. Unorganized List of Words to Remember

cow pea corn iron

horse coal

diamond lettuce celery salt dog cat

(4) USE MNEMONICS. Mnemonics are special memory devices that work by increasing

meaning, improving organization, or providing unique cues for recall. Because there are enough mnemonic devices to fill an entire book, only a few examples can be given here. The trick in all these mnemonics is to associate information to be learned with cues that will be easy to remember at a later date.

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(a) Generating visual images, such as remembering the capital of Arkansas by visualizing an ark sawing a little rock that is sitting on a can.

(b) Incorporating a list of words to be learned into a meaningful sentence. For example, musical

notes are often remembered with the sentence, Every good boy does fine. Rhymes such as i before e except after c, are also easy to remember.

(c) Forming acronyms by using the first letter of each word to be remembered, The name Roy G.

Biv can be used to remember the colors in spectrum of visible light--red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Notice that this acronym not only cues the names of the colors, but also cues them in the correct order.

(d) Using a well known list of places to remember a new list. For example, if you need to give a

speech without using notes, you could associate each major point you wish to make with a different room in your house. Then you would mentally walk through your house to recall your speech.

( 5 ) DRAW INFERENC'ES ABOUT THE MATERIAL. Deepen your understanding by evaluating

the truth or importance of information, and by working out its implications. Engage in critical thinking by asking questions such as How can this be used?, Is the author biased?, or Can I think of counter examples.

(6) MONITOR YOUR LEARNING. Studies have shown that testing yourself to find out what you

have or have not learned is the single most powerful study skill. In essence, you should create your own exam to test your knowledge of the material. Then you can use your performance to guide future study, concentrating on the material that is giving you problems. When testing yourself, use the same standard of excellence your instructor uses. If your instructor's criterion for an A is 90% correct, you should strive to exceed this criterion when you are studying.

Taking notes on index cards can help you to monitor your learning. Write a question on one side

of a card and the answer on the other side. To learn definitions write a term on one side and its meaning on the other. You should also put a page number on the card for reference. As you study, you can rearrange the cards any way you like. Put material you know in one stack and material you do not know in another stack. This will help you concentrate your efforts where they are needed most. If you are studying for an essay test, you should group the cards by topic. If you can give the correct definitions when looking at the terms, turn the cards over and see if you can give the terms when looking at their definitions. The variations are endless. (If this sounds like using flash cards in elementary school, it is! Little children have very poor memory skills. If this method is powerful enough to help them, think how much better it will work for you.)

If you use index cards, you can use the SAFMEDS method developed by Ogden Lindsley. This

acronym stands for Say All Fast Minute Every Day Shuffled. Every day (Saturday and Sunday included) shuffle you deck of cards to prevent learning the material in a particular order. Set a timer for one minute or, better yet, have someone else time you. When the timer is started, go through as many cards as you can in the next minute. Use shortcut to maximize your speed (e.g., autonomic is good enough, you do not have to say autonomic nervous system). If you do not know the answer, do not puzzle over the answer. Say, skip, and go to the next card. When you are finished count the number you got correct and the number you got incorrect (skipped cards are counted as incorrect). Then graph both these numbers. As your learn the material the number correct should go up and the number incorrect should go down. There are a number of excellent Web sites on how to make and use SAFMEDS cards that often provide a copy of a Standard Celeration Chart for graphing the results. Currently, SAFMEDS on the Web by John W. Eshleman is one of the best sites. The URL for this site has changed over the years. You can try

http://standardcelerationcharttopics.pbwiki.com/SAFMEDS-on-the-Web

which is the link as of this writing. In any case, typing SAFMEDS into your favorite search engine should bring a wealth of information.

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e. The final step in SQ3R is to REVIEW. When you have learned the material, set it aside for a few hours or days and then go over it again. Review is necessary because you will start to forget as soon as you stop studying. However, overlearning the material through occasional review greatly reduces forgetting, allowing you to remember the information for long periods of time.

7. STUDY WITH FRIENDS. Friends can discuss material, clarify material for each other, check

each other's notes for accuracy, and test each other's knowledge of the material. Students with poor study skills can use better students as role models. Working with friends also can make studying more enjoyable, but remember to stick to business. Group study can work only if all members of the group prepare ahead of time by studying on their first. Unprepared group members turn study sessions into social events, and students who expect others to do everything will lose study partners quickly.

8. BUY THE WORKBOOK. If there is a workbook that accompanies the text, the workbook will

provide many useful activities to focus your attention on important material, increase your involvement with the material, and help you test your knowledge of the material. However, a the workbook is only a device to help you study. Doing the workbook exercises is not a substitute for the other work you should be doing yourself.

9. TAKE COURSES AND USE RESOURCES THAT WILL IMPROVE STUDY SKILLS.

Universities typically offer a study skills courses or workshops. Other courses on reading, keyboarding, shorthand and so forth can also help you develop important skills. Other resources such as tutoring centers and writing labs are also available at most universities. TAKING TESTS

If you take good notes and study properly, you should be well prepared for a test. However,

knowing how to take tests properly is also important. The following tips will help you to reduce anxiety, improve your answers, and allow you to use your time more effectively.

1. GET A GOOD NIGHT'S SLEEP. Sticking to a well-planned study, schedule will eliminate the

need for an all night cramming session. Get to bed early so that you can take the exam refreshed and alert.

2. DO NOT STUDY AT THE LAST MINUTE. Last minute studying does more to confuse you, and

generate anxiety, than to help you. If you have been following a good study schedule, you can stop studying about 20 minutes before the exam and still feel confident that you are ready.

3. GET TO CLASS EARLY. Arrive at the classroom as early as possible. This will give you a

chance to find a good seat and settle down. Try to relax by breathing slowly and deeply. Clear your mind of worry by thinking about something pleasant. Do not talk about the exam with other students. Their confusion and anxiety will only add to your own.

4. FOLLOW INSTRUCTIOSS. Read and/or listen to instructions carefully. Ask questions if you do

not fully understand what you should do. Too many students have tried frantically (and unsuccessfully) to answer all six essay questions on a test, only to learn later that the instructions were to answer any four of the six questions.

5. CHECK YOUR WORK. If there is time, check over your work carefully before you turn in your paper. Do not let silly mistakes lower your grade.

If the test contains OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (e.g., multiple-choice items), follow these tips. 1. READ THE ENTIRE ITEM CAREFULLY BEFORE RESPONDING. The first option may be

correct but the last option may be All the above. Some instructions ask questions that require you to pick the best answer.

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2. The first time through, SKIP OVER A QUESTION IF YOU ARE UNSURE OF THE ANSWER.

Give the answers to the questions you know before you waste time, get confused, or become anxious. 3. LOOK FOR KEY WORDS. Words such as not and except change the entire meaning of a

question. Note differences between such words as usually and always, or some and many. 4. ELIMINATE ALTERNATIVES. If you do not know the correct answer, see if you can eliminate

incorrect answers before selecting a response from the remaining options. When you can write on the exam paper, cross out incorrect options to make your decision easier.

5. DO NOT OUT-THINK YOURSELF. Most instructors are not trying to trick you, so do not read

more into the question than is there. 6. LOOK FOR PATTERNS OR HINT'S IN THE QUESTIONS. Often the questions are arranged in

a logical pattern that will provide clues to the correct answer (e.g., all questions in a particular section may be related to the same theory). Sometimes the wording of one question will remind you of the correct answer to another question.

7. CHANGE ANSWERS, BUT DO SO CAREFULLY. Sometimes students are told not to change

answers on a multiple-choice test because your first answer is usually best. Research does not support this advice. You should certainly change answers if you notice you marked the wrong answer or misread the questions. You should also change your answer if you are sure you have remembered sometime you did not consider when you make your first response. Otherwise, your first answer was probably best. So be sure you need changes answers before you do so.

8. BEWARE OF PENALTIES FOR GUESSING. If there is a penalty for guessing, do not guess

wildly. Guess only if you can make an educated guesses by eliminating some of the incorrect alternatives. Fortunately, research indicates that guessing penalties are rarely needed, so even nationally standardized tests are employing these penalties less than was once the case.

If the test contains ESSAY QUESTIONS, follow these tips. 1. READ EACH QUESTION CAREFULLY. Many students lose points, not because what they

wrote was incorrect, but because they did not answer the entire question. Other students receive little or no credit because they did not answer the question that was asked. You must answer your instructor's question, not your own. Pay careful attention to verbs because they usually define the task that must be accomplished to answer an essay question. The most Common tasks are to define, to summarize, to analyze, to compare, to contrast, and to evaluate. So, if asked to compare, you will need to say why the things being compared are similar. If asked to contrast, you will need to say why they are different. If asked to compare and contrast, you will need to give both the similarities and the differences.

2. THINK BEFORE YOU WRITE. Organize your answer. Write a brief outline in the margin so

that you will remember your main points. Put the most important information first so that your instructor does not have to look too hard to find it.

3. KEEP TO THE MAIN POINT. Give examples and illustrations but avoid irrelevant material.

Including nonessential information wastes time and may cause your instructor to overlook some of the important points you make. You may also annoy your instructor which is never a good idea while he or she is grading your work.

4. WRITE LEDGIBLY AND USE GOOD GRAMMER. If the instructor cannot read your writing, he

or she will probably consider your answer to be wrong. Even when spelling and grammar are not graded explicitly, they affect your instructor's impression of how smart you are and how much you know.

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5. If you don't know the entire answer, WRITE WHAT YOU DO KNOW. Give your instructor a chance to give you partial credit, no matter how small. But do not try to give your instructor a .snow job. A snow job is unlikely to work because most instructors are looking for specific words, ideas, or information. Having to waste time reading a snow job may make your instructor angry or read your other answers less carefully, thus, lowering your grade even further.

6. If you can, LEAVE SOME BIANK SPACE BETWEEN ANSWERS. This will allow you to add

more to the answer if you need to do so later. 7. PLAN YOUR TIME. Give the greatest amount of time to the questions with the greatest point

value. 8. DO NOT WASTE TIME. Put down what you know and go on to the next question. Come back

to ponder only when you have finished all the questions. MOTIVATION

As the famous literary detective Charlie Chan once said, “Words do not cook rice.” The single most important reason why students fail is that they do not devote enough time to study. Simply saying that you are going to study will not be enough. You are most likely to be motivated to study if you set clear goals for yourself. You will need to set some manageable, short- range goals (e.g., studying for a given amount of time, reading a certain number of pages) so that you can quickly experience the satisfaction which comes from meeting these goals. You will also need to set some long-range goals related to earning your college degree. When you find your motivation is sagging, stop a minute and think of your goals that cannot be accomplished if you fail to earn a degree. If this does not rekindle your motivation, perhaps you need to rethink your goals, including whether or not college is the right place for you. Students who are having problems deciding what career goals to pursue will benefit from taking courses on how to select a major or receiving career counseling at the counseling center.

When you put your good intentions into action, remember that simply putting more time into

studying will not be enough. Unless you begin following the tips in this manual you will simply be wasting that extra time. Because studying involves using skills that must be learned and practiced, your first efforts to study effectively may seem awkward and time consuming. But studying gradually becomes easier and quicker if you stick with it. Good Studying!

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APPENDIX A STUDY HABITS INVENTORY

Instructions: Read each statement below and answer:

True, I usually study in this way. False, I usually DO NOT study in this way. Your responses should describe your typical study habits. The inventory will be of value to you only to the extent that you are perfectly honest in answering the questions. 01. I study most subjects with the idea of remembering the material only until the test is over. 02. I try to write down everything my teacher says, as close to word-for-word as possible. 03. If I am sure I will remember something, I do not write it in my notes even if it seems to be

important. 04. I try to complete assigned readings before my teacher discusses them in class. 05. I sometimes skip classes, especially when attendance is not required. 06. When sitting in my classes, I have a tendency to daydream about other things. 07. When taking notes in class, I simply try to get everything down and do not take time to think about

what the material means. 08. When taking notes in class, I abbreviate words and jot down phrases rather than complete

sentences. 09. I tend to include a lot of irrelevant or unimportant information in my notes. 10. When I take notes, I try to follow an outline or some other type of organized format. 11. I take notes on odd, loose slips of paper instead of in a notebook. 12. I keep the notes for all my courses in the same notebook. 13. As soon as possible after class, I go over my lecture notes and try to fill in gaps. 14. Except for important quotations and the definitions of technical terms, I copy my notes in my own

words rather than the exact words used by my teacher or my textbook. 15. When I have difficulty with my work, I do not hesitate to seek help from my teacher. 16. I put my class notes, handouts, and so forth away after a test and never look at them again. 17. I tape record lectures instead of taking notes. 18. I have a definite, although reasonably flexible, study schedule with times for studying specific

subjects. 19. I spend too much time on loafing, movies, dates, and so forth that I should be spending on my

coursework. 20. I spend too much time on some subjects and not enough on others. 21. My study periods are too short for me to get "warmed up" and really concentrate on studying. 22. I usually write reports several days before they are due, so that I can correct them if necessary. 23. I frequently do not get enough sleep and feel sluggish in class or when studying. 24. I often do not have reports ready on time, or they are done poorly if I am forced to have them in

on time. 25. I do most of my reviewing for a test the night before the examination. 26. I try to space my study periods so that I do not become too tired while studying. 27. I stick to my study schedule except for very good reasons. 28. My study time is interrupted frequently by telephone calls, visitors, and other distractions. 29. I have trouble settling down to work and do not begin studying as soon as I sit down. 30. I have to wait for the mood to strike me before attempting to study. 31. I frequently get up, write notes to friends, or look at other people when I should be studying. 32. I have a tendency to doodle or daydream when I am trying to study. 33. I often study with a radio/stereo playing, or with other people talking in the same room. 34. I often sit down to study only to find that I do not have the necessary books, notes, or other

materials. 35. I read by indirect (diffused) light rather than by direct light.

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36. To help stay awake while studying, I frequently drink a lot of coke, coffee, or other beverages that are high in caffeine.

37. I often try to make school work more enjoyable by having a beer or other alcoholic beverage while studying.

38. I make a preliminary survey by skimming a chapter before reading it in detail. 39. I use the headings to make an outline of a chapter before I begin to read it. 40. Before reading a chapter, I jot down a few questions and a list of key terms to focus my attention

while reading. 41. I pause at logical breaks in my reading, such as the end of a section or chapter, and recite to

myself the principal ideas in that section. 42. Frequently I discover that I have "read" several pages without knowing what was on them. 43. I take notes after I have completed a reading assignment rather than taking notes as I go along. 44. I look up in a dictionary the meanings of words that I do not understand. 45. I tend to skip over the boxes, tables, and graphs in a reading assignment. 46. In studying a textbook, I try to memorize the exact words in the text. 47. Sometimes I make simple charts or diagrams to show how the facts I am learning are related to

each other. 48. I try to break large amounts of information into small clusters that can be studied separately. 49. I work out personal examples to illustrate general principles or rules that I have learned. 50. I use the facts I learned in one course to help me understand the material in another course. 51. I practice using new words by putting them into meaningful sentences. 52. I use the facts learned in school to help me understand events outside of school. 53. I try to think critically about new material and not simply accept everything I read. 54. I frequently test myself to see if I have learned the material I am studying. 55. I use a special indexed notebook, card file, or other system for learning new words and their

meanings. 56. I review frequently. 57. I try to do some "overlearning" by working beyond the point of immediate recall. 58. I review previous work before beginning work on an advanced assignment. 59. If I plan to study with friends, I do not study by myself ahead of time. 60. Whenever possible, I use the workbook that accompanies a textbook. 61. I often read too slowly to complete reading assignments on time. 62. I have to reread material several times before I get the meaning of it. 63. I have trouble in picking out the important points in the material I read.

WHEN YOU HAVE FINISHED, CHECK YOU ANSWERS USING THE KEY ON THE NEXT PAGE.

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STUDY HABITS INVENTORY KEY

1. F 2. F 3. F 4. T 5. F 6. F 7. F 8. T 9. F 10. T 11. F 12. T 13. T 14. T 15. T 16. F 17. F 18. T 19. F 20. F 21. F 22. T 23. F 24. F 25. F 26. T 27. T 28. F 29. F 30. F 31. F 32. F 33. F 34. F 35. T 36. F 37. F 38. T 39. T 40. T 41. T 42. F 43. F 44. T 45. F 46. F 47. T 48. T 49. T 50. T 51. T 52. T 53. T 54. T 55. T 56. T 57. T 58. T 59. F 60. T 61. F 62. F 63. F

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APPENDIX B CHECKLIST FOR STUDY SCHEDULES

Semester Schedule

1. Does the schedule list the dates for all announced exams, tests, and quizzes? 2. Does the schedule list the due dates for all term papers, and for all written and oral reports? 3. Does the schedule list the dates for all trips you must take field trips; business trips, or, if you are

an athlete, road games)? 4. Does the schedule list the dates for all important social events or, if you are an athlete, home

games? 5. Does the schedule list the dates for all vacations, holidays, and important family occasions (e.g.,

birthdays)? 6. Does the schedule list all important dates from the academic calendar (e. g., fee payment, last

day to drop a class)?

Weekly Schedule

1. Does the schedule list the times for all your classes and lab periods? Are specific times listed to study for each course?

2. Does the schedule list the times you will be at work, at church, or engaged in other nonacademic activities which occur at fixed times?

3. Does the schedule make adjustments for the events on your semester schedule that will occur within the next two weeks? Has the semester schedule been updated to include all relevant additions and changes?

4. Does the schedule allow adequate time to prepare before each class and to review after each class and lab period? Are the review sessions scheduled as soon after class as possible?

5. Does the schedule allow adequate time to work on papers and to prepare for exams? If you are doing a term paper, have you scheduled specific times to be in the library?

6. Does the schedule space out study periods so that you will not try to study beyond your attention span?

7. Dos the schedule include the times for important social activities and for relaxation? 8. Does the schedule allow enough time for sleeping, eating, and keeping yourself physically fit? 9. Does the schedule allow adequate time for travel between home, school, and work? 10. Does the schedule include enough flexibility to adjust if things do not work out exactly as

planned? 11. Does your study schedule include a time to work on a new schedule for next week? 12. Is the schedule realistic (e.g., if you scheduled a study session on Saturday afternoon, are you

really going to study then)? 13. Are you trying to do too much? If so, do you need to reduce your outside activities or your course

load?

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APPENDIX C REORGANIZED WORD LIST FROM TABLE 2

Animals

cow horse dog cat

Vegetables

pea corn lettuce celery

Minerals

iron coal diamond salt