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Notes and References

All references are given in full at the first mention in each chapter and arelimited thereafter to the name of the author and the year ofpublication.

1 Introduction: African Politics since Independence

1. M . F . Lofchie (ed.), The State of the Nations: Constraints on Development in Independent Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press,1971), pp . 12-13.

2. W. H . Morris-Jones, 'D ominance and Dissent: Their inter-relations inthe Indian party system, Government and Opposition, vol. 1, no. 4(July-September 1966), p . 452.

3. See W. H . Friedland, 'For a Sociological Concept of Charisma', NewYork State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Reprint SeriesNo. 160 (New York, 1964), pp . 20-1.

4. Quoted in I. Wallerstein, 'Elites in French-Speaking West Africa,Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 3, no. I (May 1965), p. 24.

5. J. K . Nyerere, Freedom and Socialism: A Selection from Writings andSpeeches, 1965-67 (Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press, 1968), p.15.

6. W. H. Friedland, 'Basic Social Trends', in W. H. Friedland and C. G.Rosberg, Jr (eds), African Socialism (Stanford University Press, 1964),ch. 1.

7. A. R. Zolberg, Creating Political Order: The Part~States of WestAfrica (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966), p. 125.

8. R. W. Johnson, 'Guinea', in J . Dunn (ed.), West African States: Failureand Promise. A Study in Comparative Politics (Cambridge UniversityPress, 1978), p. 53; R. E. Stryker, 'A Local Perspective on Development Strategy in the Ivory Coast', in Lofchie (1971), p. 137; I.Wallerstein, 'Decline of the Party in Single-Party African States', inJ. LaPalombara and M . Weiner (eds), Political Parties and PoliticalDevelopment (princeton University Press, 1966), p. 208; D. B. CruiseO'Brien, 'Senegal' , in Dunn (1978), pp . 186-7 .

9. B. Munslow, 'A Critique of Theories of Socialist Transition on thePeriphery: Some Preliminary Comments', paper presented to the 1981annual conference of the Development Studies Association, Universityof Oxford, fn. 17; O'Brien, 'Senegal', p. 186.

10. R . L. Sklar, 'The Nature of Class Domination in Africa', Journal ofModern African Studies, vol. 17, no. 4 (1979), p. 540.

11. Stryker in Lofchie (1971), p . 136.12. Sklar (1979), pp. 535, 539-40.

327

328 Notes and References

13. P. Francois, 'Class Struggles in Mali', Review of African PoliticalEconomy, no . 24 (May-August 1982), p. 35.

14. Sklar (1979), p. 531.15. This section is mainly based on relevant entries in The Annual Register.

A Record of World Events, 1989 (Harlow: Longman, 1990) and ibid.,1990-5 (hereafter The Annual Register, followed by the year) ; articlesand reports in The Guardian (London and Manchester) and TheObserver (London), 1991-6; and Keesing's Record of World Events(hereafter Keesing'si , vol. 41 (1995) and vol. 42 (1996).

16. Quoted by M. Huband, "'Sacred unions" take on Mobutu', TheGuardian, 31 July 1991.

17. For Benin, see ibid., 18 February and 25 and 26 March 1991. See alsoC. Duodu, 'Democratic winds blowout French Africa's dictators', TheObserver, 4 August 1991. For a discussion of Senegal's experience, seebelow, pp . 138-9.

18. The Guardian, 17 October and 2 November 1991; The Observer, 3November 1991.

19. J. Ihonvbere and O. Vaughan, 'Nigeria: democracy and civil society.The Nigerian transition programme, 1985-93', ch. 4 in J. A. Wiseman(ed.), Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (London:Routledge, 1995).

20. H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle, 'Uganda: the advent of no-partydemocracy', ch. 7 in Wiseman (ed.), ibid.; The Guardian, 9 and 12May 1996.

21. R. Jeffries and C. Thomas, 'The Ghanaian elections of 1992', AfricanAffairs, vol. 92, no . 368 (July 1993). See also M. Oquaye, 'TheGhanaian elections of 1992: a dissenting view' and A. Boahen, 'ANote on the Ghanaian elections', both in ibid . vol. 94, no. 375 (April1995).

22. See W. Tordoff, 'Kenya' and 'Tanzania', The Annual Register, 1992-5.23. T. Lodge, 'The South African general election, April 1994: results ,

analysis and implications', African Affairs, vol. 94, no. 377 (October1995).

24. The Guardian, 18 and 19 February 1991.25. J. K. van Donge, 'Kamuzu's legacy: the democratization of Malawi',

African Affairs, vol. 94, no . 375 (April 1995).26. R. I. Lawless, 'Algeria', The Annual Register, 1990-4 (Longman,

1991-5); The Guardian, 8 January 1996.27. R. I. Lawless, 'Tunisia', The Annual Register, 1990-94.28. I have adopted Crawford Young's three-fold classification of states

African capitalist, populist socialist and Afro-Marxist. C. Young,Ideology and Development in Africa (New Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 1982).

29. R. Hallett, 'Mozambique', The Annual Register, 1987-90.30. W. Reno , Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge

University Press, 1995), ch. 1.31. For a good summary, see J. S. Barker, 'Political Economy and Political

Management', in African Review, vol. I, no . 3 (January 1972), pp .148-9.

Notes and References 329

32. See S. P. Huntington, 'Political Development and Political Decay' ,World Politics, vol. XVII, no . 3 (1965) and Political Order in ChangingSocieties (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968).

33. For a succinct account of the main tenets of underdevelopment theory,see C. Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya: The Political Economy ofNeo-Colonialism (London: Heinemann, 1975), ch. 1. For a goodsurvey of the literature, see P. Limqueco and B. McFarlane (eds),Neo-Marxist Theories of Development (London: Croom Helm, 1983).

34. R. L. Sklar, Corporate Power in an African State : The Political ImpactofMultinational M ining Companies in Zambia (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1975), p. 201. Sklar carried his discussion of the'managerial bourgeoisie' further in 'Postimperialism. A Class Analysisof Multinational Corporate Expansion', Comparative Politics, vol. 9,no . 1 (October 1976).

35. See the debate on Kenya between R. Kaplinsky, J. S. Henley and C.Leys in Review of African Political Economy, no. 17 (January-April1980) and compare this debate with, for example, R. Jenkins, Dependent Industrialization in Latin America (New York : Praeger, 1977) andTransnational Corporations and Latin American Industry (London:Macmil1an, 1983) and P. Evans , Dependent Development: The Allianceof Multinational, State and Local Capital in Brazil (Princeton University Press, 1979). For an informed discussion of the dependencydebate, see P. Cammack, 'Dependency and the Politics of Development', in P. F . Leeson and M. M. Minogue (eds), Perspectives onDevelopment. Cross-Disciplinary Themes in Development Studies (Manchester University Press, 1988).

36. J. Lonsdale , 'States and Social Processes in Africa: A Historiographical Survey', African Studies Review, vol. XXIV, nos 2/3 (June/September 1981), p. 140.

37. 1. Wal1erstein, The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge UniversityPress, 1979); A. Cal1inicosand J. Rogers, Southern Africa after Soweto(London: Pluto Press, 1977), p.203, quoted in B. Munslow, 'A Critiqueof Theories of Socialist Transition' (mimeo., 1981); S.D. Muel1er,'Retarded Capitalism in Tanzania', in The Socialist Register, 1980; andB. Beckman, ' Imperialism and Capitalist Transformation: Critique ofa Kenyan Debate', Review of African Political Economy, no. 19(September-December 1980).

38. For a discussion of this question, see W. Tordoff, 'The Single PartyState in Africa and Asia: Comparative Accountability' , ch. 6 in J.Healey and W. Tordoff (eds), Votes amd Budgets. Comparative Studiesin Accountable Governance in the South (London: Macmillan, 1995).

39. C. Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison: University ofWisconsin Press, 1976), p. 40.

40. G. Hyden , Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and anUncaptured Peasantry (London: Heinemann , 1980), ch. I.

41. See p. 213 , below.42. M. Szeftel, 'Conflict, Spoils and Class Formation in Zambia', PhD

thesis, University of Manchester, 1978,pp. 330-1. The ful1 quotation isreproduced at pp . lOs--{), below.


43. Sklar (1979), p. 537.44. J. Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe (Berkeley: University of Cali-

fornia Press, 1990), p. 251.45. Ibid., p. 249.46. Ibid., p. 257.47. C. G. Karase and D. Sanders, 'The amalgamation of Rural and

District Councils. Some issues and problems', The District CouncilJournal, 2nd Issue (The Association of District Councils of Zimbabwe,n.d.) pp. 11-12.

48. Herbst (1990) p. 257.49. Reno (1995), p. 19.50. R. L. Sklar, 'The New Modernization', in M. West and W. G. Martin,

A Journal of Opinion, vol. XXIII, no. 1 (1995), p.2.

2 Colonialism and the Colonial Impact

I. See the quotation in R. Oliver and J. D. Fage, A Short History ofAfrica (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), pp.I06-7. I have drawnsubstantially on Oliver and Fage in this chapter. See also H. SetonWatson, Nations and States: An Enquiry into the Origins ofNations andthe Politics of Nationalism (London: Methuen, 1977), ch. 8.

2. J. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge Un iversityPress, 1979), p. 9, ch. 2 and passim.

3. See E. A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa: ThePolitics of Economic Change. 1919-1939 (London: Heinemann, 1973),p.51.

4. R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, with A. Denny, Africa and theVictorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism (London: Macmillan,1961), pp. 393, 397-8 .

5. Quoted in W. Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Dar esSalaam: Tanzania Publishing House, 1972, and London: Bogle-L'Ouverture, 1972), p. 162.

6. Ibid.7. This section on French Africa is based substantially upon K. Rob in

son, 'Political Development in French West Africa ', in C. W. Stillman(ed.), Africa in the Modern World (University of Chicago Press, 1955),pp. 140-81, supplemented by M. Crowder, 'Indirect Rule - French andBritish Style', in M. Crowder (ed.), Colonial West Africa: CollectedEssays (London: Frank Cass, 1978), ch. 9. Professor Crowder's essayalso proved helpful in preparing the first part of the subsequent sectionon (British) indirect rule .

8. T. Hodgkin, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (London: Frederick MulIer, 1956), pp . 33-40.

9. W. Tordoff, Ashanti under the Prempehs, 1888-1935 (London: OxfordUniversity Press, 1965), pp . 301-9 and 322ff.

10. B. B. Schaffer, 'The Concept of Preparation: Some Questions aboutthe Transfer of Systems of Government', World Politics, vol. XVIII,no. I (October 1965), p. 59.


11. Hodgkin (1956), pp. 48-55. See also R. Slade, The Belgian Congo(London: Oxford Univers ity Press, 2nd edn, 1961).

12. G. J . Bender, Angola under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Reality(London: Heinemann, 1978), ch. 1; B. Munslow, Mozambique: theRevolution and its Origins (London: Longman, 1983), p. 8. Part ofMunslow 's book is based on his 'FRELIMO and the MozambicanRevolution', PhD Thesis, University of Manchester , April 1980.

13. Munslow (1983), part 1.14. Oliver and Fage (1962), chs 17 and 19, provide a good and succinct

account of these various phases.15. Munslow, (1983), ch. 2.16. Quoted by A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, 'The Thin White Line: The Size of

the British Colonial Service in Africa', African Affairs , vol. 79, no. 314(January 1980), p. 26.

17. Oliver and Fage (1962), p. 200, and ch. 17, passim.18. For the hold-up of palm-oil 'for several months ' by local traders in the

Eastern Palm Belt of Southern Nigeria, see D. Forde and R. Scott, TheNative Economies ofNigeria, ed. M. Perham (London: Faber & Faber,1946) ch. 2, especially p. 54, n. 1. On Senegal, see D. B. CruiseO'Brien, Saints and Politicians: Essays in the Organisation of aSenegalese Peasant Society (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press,1975), p. 138.

19. Oliver and Fage (1962), p. 218.20. Ibid., ch. 19; Hodgkin (1956), passim.21. Oliver and Fage (1962), pp . 221, 245; Rodney (1972), ch. 5.22. Quoted in D. Austin , Politics in Ghana, 1946-60 (London: Oxford

Univers ity Press, 1964), p. 275.23. See R. H. Bates, Unions, Parties and Political Development- A Study of

Mineworkers in Zambia (New Haven, Conn .: Yale University Press,1971), pp. 198-200, and passim.

24. M. Etienne, 'Women and Men, Cloth and Colonization: The Transformation of Production-Distribution Relations among the Baule(Ivory Coast)' in M . Etienne and E. Leacock (eds), Women andColonization: Anthropological Perspectives (New York : Praeger, 1980).

25. Essential background information is provided by D. Simon, 'Decolonisation and Local Government in Namibia : the Neo-Apartheid Plan,1977-83' , Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 23, no. 3 (1985).

26. Based on information collected as a member of a UNDP consultancyon Namibia, August-September 1989.

3 Nationalism and the Transfer of Power

1. H. Seton-Watson, Nations and States : An Enquiry into the Origins ofNations and the Politics of Nationalism (London: Methuen, 1977),p.332.

2. Ernest Gellner stresses the importance of a homogeneous educationalsystem for a modern society in J. C. Jarvie and J. Agassi (eds),Contemporary Thought and Politics (London: Routledge & Kegan


Paul, 1974), p. 147. For his earlier and subsequent reflections onnationalism, see his Thought and Change (London: Weidenfeld &Nicolson, 1964), ch. 7, and Nationalism and Nations (Oxford: BasilBlackwell, 1982).

3. See D. O. Mannoni , Prospero and Caliban: The Psychology of Colonization (London: Methuen, 1956).

4. Cf. Gellner (1974), pp . 154-6.5. W. TordofT Ashanti under the Prempehs, 1888-1935 (London: Oxford

University Press, 1965), p. 190; R. Young and H.A. Fosbrooke,Smoke in the Hills. Political Tension in the Morogoro District ofTanganyika (Evanston, III.: Northwestern University Press, 1960),passim.

6. T. Hodgkin Nationalism in Colonial Africa (London: Frederick Muller,1956), ch. 3; A. Hastings, African Christianity . An Essay in Interpretation (London: Chapman, 1976), pp . 10-12.

7. Hastings (1976), p. 10.8. Ibid ., pp. 10-12; Hodgkin (1956), ch. 3.9. J. S. Coleman, Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (Berkeley: Univer

sity of California Press, 1958), p. 108.10. Hodgkin (1956), ch. 3. See also B. Sundkler, Bantu Prophets in South

Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1961, 2nd edn).11. Quoted in R. Emerson and M. Kilson (eds), The Political Awakening of

Africa (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965), pp . 9-10.12. Hodgkin (1956), ch. 5, passim; Emerson and Kilson (1965), p. 13.13. Quoted in Hodgkin (1956), p. 146.14. See D. Austin, Politics in Ghana, 1946-60 (London: Oxford University

Press, 1964), especially ch. 2.15. Coleman (1958), chs 15-16; K. Ezera , Constitutional Developments in

Nigeria (Cambridge University Press, 1960), chs 5 and 8.16. Hodgkin (1956), pp . 151, 164; R. S. Morgenthau, Political Parties in

French- Speaking West Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964),passim.17. Hodgkin (1956), pp. 152-6.18. See Austin (1964), ch. VI, which brilliantly captures the excitement of

the struggle for power in Ashanti between 1954 and 1956, and D.Austin and W. TordofT, 'Voting in an African Town', Political Studies,vol. VIII, no. 2 (June 1960).

19. Morgenthau (1964), p. 72.20. See T. Hodgkin, African Political Parties (Harmondsworth: Penguin ,

1961).21. W. J. M. Mackenzie and K. E. Robinson (eds), Five Elections in Africa

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960), p. 478.22. In One-Party Government in the Ivory Coast (Princeton University

Press, 1964), Aristide R. Zolberg notes that the PDCI 'emerged as anorganization for the masses rather than as a mass organization' (p.185) and that it 'had created a sort of confederation of ethnicassociations' (p. 129). Bonnie Campbell has drawn attention to 'thecontinuing importance of ethnicity as an organizational principle ofthe single party' in the Ivory Coast: B. Campbell, 'Ivory Coast', in J.


Dunn (ed.) West African States: Failure and Promise. A Study inComparative Politics (Camnbridge University Press, 1978), p. 90.

23. J . Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), pp. 23Q-4.

24. See W. H. Friedland, 'For a Sociological Concept of Charisma', NewYork State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Reprinted SeriesNo . 160 (New York, 1964). The quotation from Chinoy is taken fromthis paper.

25. Quoted in 1. Wallerstein, 'Voluntary Associations', ch. 8 in J. S.Coleman and C. G . Rosberg, Jr (eds), Political Parties and NationalIntegrat ion in Tropical Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press,1964), p. 331. I have drawn substantially upon Wallerstein's chapter inthe first part of this section.

26. Ibid ., pp. 326-7; Hodgkin (1956), pp . 88-9 .27. See S. Low, 'The Role of Trade Unions in the Newly Independent

Countries of Africa' , in E. M. Kassalow (ed.), National Labor Movements in the Post-war World (Evanston: Northwestern UniversityPress, 1968), pp . 215-16; G . Fischer, 'Syndicats et Decolonisation',Presence Africaine, no . 34-35 (October 196Q-January 1961),especiallypp . 23ff.; and E. J . Berg and J. Butler, 'Trade Unions', in Coleman andRosberg (1964), p. 341.

28. V. D . Du Bois, 'Guinea' , in Coleman and Rosberg (1964), p. 208.29. Berg and Butler in Coleman and Rosberg (1964), pp. 347, 351-2.30. Ibid ., p. 344.31. Ibid ., pp . 348-51. The most authoritative account of trade union

developments in Ghana is R. Jeffries, Class, Power and Ideology inGhana: The Railwaymen of Sekondi (Cambridge University Press,1978).

32. A. H. Amsden, 'Trade Unions and Politics: Kenya' , in collectedseminar papers on Labour Unions and Political Organisations (Instituteof Commonwealth Studies, University of London, January-May1967), no . 3, p. 122.

33. See W. H. Friedland, VUTA KAMBA: The Development of TradeUnions in Tanganyika (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press , 1969),and W. Tordoff, Government and Politics in Tanzania (Nairobi: EastAfrican Publishing House, 1967), ch. 5.

34. Jeffries (1978), p. 207 and passim; R. Sandbrook and R. Cohen (eds),The Development of an African Working Class: Studies in ClassFormation and Action (University of Toronto Press, 1975), pp . 18-19and 313-14 (by the editors) and pp. 117-25 (by C.H. Allen onFrancophone West Africa).

35. Austin (1964), pp . 347, 347 n. 35, 354 (Note - the figures for adultsaged 21 and over for the registered electorate do not include those forfive uncontested constituencies).

36. See D. Austin, 'The British Point of No Return?', ch. 9 in P. Giffordand W. R. Louis (eds), The Transfer of Power in Africa. Decolonization, 1940-1960 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982),p.234.


37. Hodgkin (1956), p. 36.38. Morgenthau (1964), pp. 70, 72.39. R. B. Collier, Regimes in Tropical Africa: Changing Forms of Supre

macy,1945-75 (Berkeley: University of California Press , 1982), chs 2and 3, passim. I have drawn substantially on these chapters in this finalsection.

40. Ibid., p. 47; see also H . F. Weiss, Political Protest in the Congo: TheParti Solidaire Africain during the Independence Struggle (PrincetonUniversity Press, 1967), part I.

41. A. R. Zolberg, Creating Political Order: The Party-States of WestAfrica (Chicago : Rand McNally, 1966), p. 25.

42. Collier (1982), pp. 78-9. As Collier recognises, the picture wasdistorted because voters were allowed to cast their ballots in uncontested constituencies in French Africa and did so on a substantial scale;no voting took place in uncontested constituencies in British Africa .See ibid., pp . 78 and 88.

43. Ibid ., p. 91. 'The bandwagon effect is a description of a process inwhich a dominant party is successful in mobilizing and attractingsupporters', ibid., p. 90.

44. Morgenthau (1964), p. 73.45. Ibid., pp . 73---4.46. R. Luckham, 'French Militarism in Africa', Review ofAfrican Political

Economy, no. 24 (May-August 1982), pp. 58-9; S. K. Panter-Brick,'French African Administration', University of Zambia lecture (mimeo, 1969), P.A. 320/430 .

47. The early part of this section is mainly based on G. M. Carter, 'SouthAfrica : Battleground of Rival Nationalisms', ch. 3 in G. M. Carter andP. O'Meara (eds), African Independence: The First Twenty-Five Years(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977). See also D. Austin,Politics in Africa (Manchester University Press, 1978), ch. 5, and SouthAfrica, 1984 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985).

48. See J. Mayall, 'The South African Crisis: The Major External Actors',in S. Johnson (ed.), South Africa: No Turning Back (London: Macmillan, 1988), ch. 10.

49. J . Spence, 'Domestic Order, Regional Power and International Relations: the Future of South Africa', in J. Mayall and A. Payne (eds), TheFallacies of Hope. The Post-Colonial Record of the CommonwealthThird World (Manchester University Press, 1991), p. 145.

50. See S. Chan, (1990), Part II : 'The Regional Policy of South Africa'.51. S. Marks and S. Trapido, 'South Africa since 1976: An Historical

Perspective', in Johnson (1988), pp. 28-9.52. D. Geldenhuys, quoted by J. E. Spence in Johnson (1988), p. 245.53. C. A. Pycroft, 'South Africa's Regional Foreign Policy during the

Total Strategy Era', PhD thesis, University of Liverpool, 1989.54. Nolutshungu in Johnson (1988), p. 341.55. Marks and Trapido, in Johnson (1988) , p. 26. On the security aspects

of the 'total strategy', see Spence in Johnson (1988), passim.56. Pycroft (1989).


57. See D. Austin, 'The Trinitarians: the 1983 South African Constitution', Government and Opposition, vol. 20, no. 2 (Spring 1985), especially pp. 188-9.

58. Mayall in Johnson (1988), pp. 308-9; The Independent, 16April 1991;The Guardian, 11 July 1991.

59. See Spence in Mayall and Payne (1991), pp. 150fT.60. Report by Allister Sparks, The Observer, 14 July 1991; The Indepen

dent , 16 April 1991 and The Guardian, II June 1991 (lifting ofEuropean Community sanctions - the refusal of the Danish parliamentto approve the move meant that they remained legally in place); TheGuardian, 11 July 1991 (lifting of most United States' sanctions and theANC's response); and The Guardian, 6 June 1991 (OAU sanctionsretained). Robin Hallett, Annual Register, 1988, 'Angola', p. 286.

61. See, for example, The Observer, 19 May, 28 July and 11August 1991;The Guardian, 17 May 1991 , and N. Mathiane, 'Our bloody Sundays',ibid., 3 June 1991.

62. See, for example, Leader Comment in The Guardian, 22 July 1991: 'TheSouth African government has been trying to construct an anti-ANCalliance which exploits tribal rivalries and encourages a climate ofviolence'; The Guardian, 25 July 1991; and A. Sparks, 'De Klerk's fallfrom grace', The Observer, 28 July 1991.

63. The Guardian, 26 and 31 July, 2 and 3 October 1991.64. A. Sparks, 'South Africans fear hidden hand of violencedespite peace

plans ', The Observer, 15 September 1991.65. Ibid., and The Guardian International (London), 9 September 1991 ;

The Guardian, 12, 16 and 20 September 1991.66. Spence in Mayall and Payne (1991), p. 159.67. Keesing 's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, R30-1 :

'South Africa'.68. Ibid.69. The ANC won easily: it gained 66.37 per cent of the votes cast and

secured outright majorities on 387 councils, as against 45 for the NPand none for the IFP. Ibid ., vol. 41, no. 11, 1995, 'South Africa' ,40809.

70. T. Lodge, 'The South African General Election, April 1994', AfricanAffairs, vol. 94, no. 377 (October 1995).

71. Keesing 's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, R3Q-l :'South Africa' .

72. Ibid ., vol. 42 (1996) Annual Reference Supplement, R29-30: 'SouthAfrica' .

73. Austin in GifTord and Louis (1982), p. 233.74. I. Phimister, 'Comrades Compromised: The Zimbabwean and South

African Liberation Struggles Compared and Contrasted', Journal ofHistorical Sociology, vol. 8, no. 1, March 1995, p. 89.

75. Ibid.76. Seton-Watson (1977), p. 353.77. R. H. Jackson and C. G. Rosberg distinguish between empirical state

hood and juridical statehood and argue that the latter is more


important than the former 'in accounting for the persistence of statesin Black Africa'; indeed, 'the survival of Africa 's existing states islargely an international achievement' . See their article: 'Why Africa'sWeak States Persist: The Empirical and the Juridical in Statehood',World Politics, vol. xxxv, no. I (October 1982), pp . 21-2 and passim.

4 State and Society

I. C. Stevens, The Political Economy ofNigeria (London: The EconomistNewspaper Ltd., 1984), p. II.

2. For an informed discussion of this issue, see T. W. Partitt and S. P.Riley, The African Debt Crisis (London: Routledge, 1989). See also S.George, A Fate Worse than Debt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, revisededition, 1989), especially ch. 6. See also pp . 302-4 , below.

3. M. F. Lofchie (ed.), The State of the Nations: Constraints on Development in Independent Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press,1971), Conclusion, pp . 272-3 .

4. C. Leys, 'The Political Climate for Economic Development', AfricanAffairs, vol. 65, no. 258 (1966), p. 55.

5. Quoted in C. Geertz, 'The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States',in C. Geertz (ed.), OldSocieties and New States (New York: Free Press, 1963), p. 106.

6. The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (Edinburgh: Nelson, 1957),p. x.

7. R. Molteno , 'Cleavage and Conflict in Zambian Politics: A Study inSectionalism', in W. Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia (ManchesterUniversity Press, 1974), ch. 3. All subsequent references to Molteno inthis chapter are to this essay.

8. R. L. Sklar, 'Political Science and National Integration - A RadicalApproach', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 5, no. I (1967),p.6.

9. This paper is mainly based on C. and D. Newbury,'Rwanda in the1990s: Democratization and Disintegration', in The Democratic Challenge in Africa. Discussion Papers from a Seminar on Democratization,13-14 May 1994 (Atlanta, Georgia: The Carter Center of EmoryUniversity, 1994), pp . 43-52.

10. Ibid ., p. 43; A. de Waal, 'The Genocidal State', The Times LiterarySupplement, I July 1994, pp. 3-4 .

11. C. and D. Newbury (1994), p. 44.12. Ibid ., p. 43.13. Ibid., p. 47.14. R. Sandbrook, 'Patrons, Clients, and Factions: New Dimensions of

Conflict Analysis in Africa', Canadian Journal of Political Science,vol. V, no. I (March 1972), pp . 105-6.

15. M. Szeftel, 'Conflict , Spoils and Class Formation in Zambia', PhDthesis, University of Manchester, 1978, especially ch. 6.

16. Apart from Szeftel, the main sources of the Zambian material used inthis chapter are Molteno in Tordoff (1974) and W. Tordoff (ed.),


Administration in Zambia (Manchester University Press, 1980), especially the introduction.

17. A. Kirk-Greene in A. Kirk-Greene and D. Rimmer, Nigeria since1970: A Political and Economic Outline (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1981), p. 30.

18. A. L. Epstein, Politics in WI Urban African Community (ManchesterUniversity Press, 1958); R . Sandbrook, Proletarians and AfricanCapitalism: The Kenyan Case, 1962-70 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975); A. M. Elhussein, 'Decentralization and Partic ipationin Rural Development: The Sudanese Experience', PhD thesis, University of Manchester, February 1983, especially part 3; D. B. CruiseO'Brien, Saints and Politicians: Essays in the Organisation of aSenegalese Peasant Society (Cambridge University Press, 1975), especially ch. 5.

19. O'Brien (1975), pp. 164-5 and ch. 5, passim, and D. B. Cruise O'Brien,'Ruling Class and Peasantry in Senegal, 1960-1976: The Politics of aMonocrop Economy', in R. Cruise O'Brien (ed.), The Political Economy of Underdevelopment: Dependence in Senegal (Beverly Hills,California : Sage, 1979), pp . 223-5.

20. N . Chazan, R. Mortimer, J. Ravenhill and D. Rothchild, Politics andSociety in Contemporary Africa (London: Macmillan, 1988), p. 107.

21. Szeftel (1978), p. 332.22. R. Melson and H. Wolpe, Nigeria: Modernization and the Politics of

Communalism (East Lansing : Michigan State University Press, 1971),p. 9; C. Young, 'Patterns of Social Conflict: State, Class and Ethnicity' , Dadalus , vol. III , no. 2 (Spring 1982), p. 91; C. Gertzel, ThePolitics ofIndependent Kenya (London: Heinemann, 1970), p. 17; KirkGreene and Rimmer (1981) p. 16; J. Herbst , State Politics in Zimbabwe(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), pp. 169-71.

23. A. Abdallah, W. Tordoff, R. Gordon, and S. Nyang, Report on theSecond and Third Tier Authorities (Windhoek, Namibia: UNDP, 9September 1989), chs II and III.

24. The admission (previously denied) was made by Theo Ben Gurirab,SWAPO's chief foreign affairs representative on 23 August 1989.Contemporary events, covering the 1989 general election campaignand election results, were well covered by The Independent (London) .

25. J. K. Nyerere , Freedom and Unity: A Selection from Writings andSpeeches, 1952-65 (Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press, 1966),p. 165.

26. For an informed discussion , see R. Sandbrook and R. Cohen (eds),The Development of an African Working Class: Studies in Formationand Action (University of Toronto Press: 1975).

27. M. Burawoy, 'Another Look at the Mineworker', African SocialResearch, no. 14 (December 1972), pp. 261-7, 276ff.

28. R. H. Bates, Rural Responses to Industrialization: A Study of VillageZambia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1976), pp. 133-6.

29. O'Brien (1975), p. 138 and in R. C. O'Brien (1979), ch. 7.30. Bates (1976), p. 259; Sandbrook (1972), p. 107.31. Sandbrook (1972).


32. R. L. Sklar, Corporate Power in an African State: The Political ImpactofMultinational Mining Companies in Zambia (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1975), pp. I98ff.

33. Reno (1995), p. 19.34. 1.G. Shivji, Class Struggles in Tanzania (London: Heinemann, 1976),

pp. 76-9; Pratt (1976), pp. 241-2.35. See C. Pratt, 'Tanzania's Transition to Socialism', and R. H. Green,

'Tanzanian Political Economy Goals, Strategies and Results, 1967-74',in B. U. Mwansasu and C. Pratt (eds), Towards Socialism in Tanzania(University of Toronto Press, 1979). Jeannette Hartmann argued thatpolicy-making in Tanzania was a tripartite process involving thePresident, the government and the party: see J. Hartmann, 'Development Policy-Making in Tanzania, 1962-1982: A Critique of Sociological Interpretations', PhD thesis, University of Hull, April 1983.

36. Szeftel (1978), ch. 7; C. L. Baylies and M. Szeftel, 'The Rise of aZambian Capitalist Class in the 1970s', Journal of Southern AfricanStudies, vol. 8, no. 2 (April 1982); N. Swainson, The Developmentof Corporate Capitalism in Kenya, 1918-1977 (London: Heinemann,1980), p. 203.

37. Szeftel (1978), p. 455.38. For a fuller discussion, see the Africa section of ch. 6: 'Women in

Third World Politics' in P. Cammack, D. Pool and W. Tordoff, ThirdWorld Politics. A Comparative Introduction (London: Macmillan, 2ndedn, 1993).

39. P. C. Garlick, African Traders and Economic Development in Ghana(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971).

40. S. Jacobs, 'Women and Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe', Review ofAfrican Political Economy, nos 27-28 (February 1984), p. 48.

41. G. Geisler, 'Troubled Sisterhood: Women and Politics in SouthernAfrica. Case Studies from Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana', AfricanAffairs, vol. 94, no. 377 (October 1995), p. 545.

42. Ibid., p. 553.43. Ibid. p. 565.44. From an article by G. S. Siso in Zambia Daily Mail (Lusaka) , 30 April

1987, quoted in ibid., p. 564.45. W.Tordoff, 'Tanzania', in The Annual Register, 1995, pp. 245-6..46. Shivji (1976), p. 145; G. Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania. Under

development and an Uncaptured Peasantry (London: Heinemann,1980), ch. 6.

47. Szeftel (1978), pp. 330-1.48. R. L. Sklar, 'The Nature of Class Domination in Africa', Journal of

Modern African Studies, vol. 17, no. 4 (1979); in this article (p. 537),Sklar advances the controversial proposition that 'class relations, atbottom, are determined by relations of power, not production'.

49. See B. J. Dudley, 'Political Parties and the 1979 Elections', in M. Dentet al. (eds), Nigeria: The First Year of Civilian Rule. The Operation ofthe Constitution (Keele, N. Staffs.: The University of Keele ConferencePapers, mimeo., September 1980); Kirk-Greene and Rimmer (1981),pp.35-41.


50. Baylies and Szeftel (1982), p. 212. Their observation is limited toZambia, but has a wider application.

51. Sandbrook (1972), p. 115.52. A. A. Mazrui, 'Pluralism and National Integration', in L. Kuper and

M. G. Smith (eds), Pluralism in Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), p. 339.

53. C. Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison : University ofWisconsin Press, 1976), p. 40. Young, himself a non-Marxist scholar,summarises the Marxist stand, as put forward by Archie Mafeje. JohnS. Saul rejects Marxist determinism: see his 'The Dialectic of Race andClass', Race and Class, vol. 20, no. 4 (1979), p. 371.

54. Hyden (1980) , p. 18 and passim; Young in Dadalus (1982), p. 96, n. 23.For an informed discussion which bears directly on Hyden's thesis, seeD. F. Bryceson , 'Peasant Commodity Production in Post-ColonialTanzania', African Affairs, vol. 81, no. 325 (October 1982), p. 561,where the author argues, inter alia, that: 'The decline in peasants' termsof trade constitutes a very seriou s disincentive for peasant commodityproduction, resulting in the tendency for peasants to revert to subsistence production.'

55. Young (1976), p. 40.56. Szeftel (1978), p. 86.57. M. C. Newbury, The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity

in Rwanda (1860-1960) (New York: Columbia University Press,1988), quoted in Chazan et al. (1988), p. 122; M. F. Lofchie, Zanzibar:Background to Revolut ion (Princeton University Press, 1965), passim.

58. See N . Kasfir, 'Relating Class to State in Africa', The Journal ofCommonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 21, no. 3 (November1983).

59. Young (1976) , ch. 2, p. 47 and passim.60. See J. A. Wiseman, 'The Opposition Parties of Botswana', Collected

Papers , vol. 4 (Centre for Southern African Studies, University ofYork, 1979), especially pp. 189-90.

61. This point is made by Hyden (1980), p. 30.

5 Political Parties

1. R. B. Collier, Regimes in Tropical Africa: Changing Forms of Supremacy , 1945-75 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), ch. 3.

2. J. S. Coleman and C. G . Rosberg, Jr (eds), Political Parties andNational Integration in Tropical Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964), especially p. 5.

3. C. F. Andrain, 'Guinea and Senegal: Contrasting Types of AfricanSocialism', in W. H. Friedland and C. G. Rosberg, Jr, African Socialism (Stanford University Press, 1964), pp. 165--6; P. Francois , 'ClassStruggles in Mali', Review of African Political Economy, no . 24(May-August 1982), p. 27.


4. C. G. Rosberg and T. M. Callaghy (eds), Socialism in Sub-SaharanAfrica: A New Assessment (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1979), p. 1.

5. J. Herbst , State Politics in Zimbabwe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. 236.

6. J. Sarnoff, Tanzania: Local Politics and the Structur e of Power (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1974), p. 69.

7. On trade unionism in the pre-independence period , see E. J. Berg and J.Butler in Coleman and Rosberg (1964), ch. 9, and for a corrective oftheir view of union-party relationships, R. Jeffries, Class, Power andIdeology in Ghana: The Railwaymen ofSekondi (Cambridge UniversityPress, 1978),p. 207 and passim, and R. Sandbrook and R. Cohen (eds)The Development of an African Work ing Class: Studies in ClassFormation and Action (University of Toronto Press, 1975). On Tanzania, see W. H. Friedland, VUTA KAMBA: The Development of TradeUnions in Tanganyika (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, (1969), W.Tordoff, Government and Politics in Tanzania (Nairobi: East AfricanPublishing House, 1967), ch. 5 and I. G. Shivji, Class Struggles inTanzania (London: Heinemann, 1976), ch. 13.

8. R. Otayek, 'The Revolutionary Process in Burkina Faso : Breaks andContinuities', in J. Markakis and M. Waller (eds), Military MarxistRegimes in Africa (London: Cass, 1986), pp . 85 and 95-6. Otayekbelieves that a trial of strength between 'pluralist and anti-centralist'trade unions and an 'authoritarian and integrationist' military wasinescapable: ibid., p. 85.

9. Y. Bangura, 'The Recession and Workers' Struggles in the VehicleAssembly Plants: Steyr - Nigeria ', Review of African Political Economy, No. 39 (September 1987).

10. H. Roberts, 'The Algerian Bureaucracy', Review of African PoliticalEconomy, no. 24 (May-August 1982), p. 53.

II. See A. Kirk-Greene and D. Rimmer, Nigeria since 1970. A Politicaland Economic Outline (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1981), ch. 3.

12. G. Hyden, TANU Yajenga Nchi : Political Development in RuralTanzania (Lund: Scandinavian University Books, 1968), p. 241 and(1980), p. 18.

13. This section on South Africa is based on M. Szeftel, 'Ethnicity andDemocratization in South Africa ', Review of African Political Economy, no. 60 (June 1994), pp. 197-9; Keesing's, vol. 42, no. 5 (May1996),41078; African Research Bulletin, Political , Social and CulturalSeries, vol. 33, no. 9 (1-30 September 1996), 12397, Band C; and TheGuardian, 12 October 1996.

14. Collier (1982), ch. 5; G. Hyden and C. Leys, 'Elections and Politics inSingle-Party Systems: The Case of Kenya and Tanzania' , BritishJournal of Political Science, vol. I, no. 2 (1972); B. Chikulo, 'RuralAdministration in Zambia: Organisation and Performance in FormerOpposition Areas', PhD thesis, University of Manchester, 1983, pp.180-1.

15. The Guardian, 23 and 27 February 1996.16. Herbst (1990), pp. 141, 240.


17. R. Charlton, 'Bureaucrats and Politicians in Botswana's Policy-Making Process: A Re-Interpretation', The Journal of Commonwealth andComparative Politics, vol. xxix, no. 3 (November 1991), p. 276.

18. See C. Pratt, The Critical Phase in Tanzania, 1945-1968. Nyerere andthe Emergence of a Socialist Strategy (Cambridge University Press,1976), p. 238, and passim .

19. The tripartite system of policy-making in Tanzania was stressed byJeannette Hartmann in 'Development Policy-Mak ing in Tanzania,1962-1982: A Critique of Sociological Interpretations', PhD thesis,University of Hull , 1983.

20. A. J. Liviga and J. K. van Donge, 'Tanzanian Political Culture and theCabinet', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 24, no. 4 (1986).

21. For a rather fuller discussion of policy-making in Tanzania, see P.Cammack, D. Pool and W. Tordoff, Third World Politics. A Comparative Introduct ion (London: Macmillan 1988), pp. 88-90. See alsomy contributions on 'Tanzania' to The Annual Register, 1972-91,especially those from 1985.

22. This section is mainly based on W. Tordoff (ed.) Administration inZambia (Manchester University Press, 1980), especially pp. 15ff.,272--4; and C. Gertzel (ed.), C. Baylies and M. Szeftel, The Dynamicsof the One-Party State in Zambia (Manchester University Press, 1984),especially ch.4. For the 1986 food riots, see The Guardian, 18December 1986.

23. S. Kabanje, 'The One-Party State and Democracy in Zambia', PhDthesis, University of London, 1993.

24. See The Observer, 1 July 1990, The Sunday Times (London), I July1990, and The Times (London), 2 July 1990.

25. See Chapter 8 for a fuller discussion of Mozambique's experience.26. Herbst (1990), p. 259.27. Ibid ., p. 241.28. B. C. Chikulo, 'Reorganisation for Local Administration in Zambia :

An Analysis of the Local Administration Act, 1980', Public Administration and Development, vol. 5 (1985).

29. Sarnoff (1974), p. 52.30. See J. R. Finucane, Rural Development and Bureaucracy in Tanzania:

The Case of Mwanza Region (Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute ofAfrican Studies, 1974), ch. 6.

31. R. Chambers, Botswana 's Accelerated Rural Development Programme1973-6: Experience and Lessons (Gaborone: Government Printer,February 1977), p. 37.

32. D. E. Apter, The Polit ics of Modernizat ion (University of ChicagoPress, 1965), pp . 397ff.

33. The account which follows is based on J. P. Mackintosh, 'The ActionGroup, the Crisis of 1962 and its Aftermath', in J.P . Mackintosh,Nigerian Government and Politics (London: Allen & Unwin, 1966),ch. 10.

34. See R. L. Sklar, 'Nigerian Politics in Perspective' and 'Contradictionsin the Nigerian Political System' , in R. Melson and H. Wolpe (eds),Nigeria: Modern ization and the Politics ofCommunalism (East Lansing:


Michigan State University Press, 1971), chs 2 and 19; Kirk-Greene andRimmer (1981), p. 43, table 5, on the 1979 elections; and the weeklymagazine West Africa (London), issues for August and September1983, on the 1983 elections. Electoral malpractices were one reasongiven by the military for seizing power on 31 December 1983.

35. W. Tordoff, 'The Brong-Ahafo Region', The Economic Bulletin (Accra), vol. 3, no. 5 (May 1959); D. Austin, Ghana Observed: Essays onthe Politics of a West African Republic (Manchester University Press,1976), ch. 9.

36. Quoted in M. Szeftel, 'Conflicts, Spoils and Class Formation inZambia' , PhD thesis, University of Manchester, 1978, p. 335; see alsoW. Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia (Manchester University Press,1974), chs 3 and 4.

37. Chikulo (1983), pp. 278-80.38. Szeftel (1978), p. 282.39. Chikulo (1983), pp. 228-36.40. Szeftel (1978), p. 396.41. R. Sandbrook, 'Patrons, Clients and Factions: New Dimensions of

Conflict Analysis in Africa', Canadian Journal of Political Science,vol. v, no. I (March 1972), p. 109; also p. 111.

42. Ibid., p. 117. Sandbrook quotes from John Waterbury's study ofMoroccan politics: 'The entire political elite is the field of action forthe alliance-building of the King, and he maintains a number ofclientele groups of which he is the patron.'

43. Sandbrook (1972), pp. 113-5.44. T. S. Cox, Civil-Military Relations in Sierra Leone: A Case Study of

African Soldiers in Politics (Cambridge, Mass .: Harvard UniversityPress, 1976), p. 135.

45. J. Molloy, 'Political Communication in Lushoto District, Tanzania',PhD thesis, University of Kent at Canterbury, November 1971,passim.

46. T. Rasmussen, 'The Popular Basis of Anti-Colonial Protest', in Tordoff (1974), p. 58.

47. Sarnoff (1974), p. 55 and n. 37.48. In writing this section, I have found helpful the Background Brief:

'Decline of the One-Party State in Sub-Saharan Africa', prepared bythe Foreign and Commonwealth Office (F. & C.O.), London, inAugust 1991 for general briefing purposes and not as an expressionof British government policy.

49. R. Theobald, 'Nigeria', The Annual Register, 1989, p. 256, and W.Tordoff, Uganda, The Annual Register , 1988-90.

50. In February 1991 24 parties contested 64 seats in parliamentaryelections which resulted in the defeat of the ruling People's Revolutionary Party; in presidential elections the next month, Kerekou lostto Nicephore Soglo, Prime Minister since February 1990: The Guardian, 18 February and 25 and 26 March 1991; C. Duodu, 'Democraticwinds blowout French Africa 's dictators' , The Observer, 4 August1991.

Notes and Ref erences 343

51. The Guardian 24, 25 and 26 September 1991. For subsequent events,see inter alia the issues of 1,3, 4 and 15 October 1991. See alsoPeter Hillmore's articles in The Observer, 29 September and 6 October1991.

52. Sub-Saharan Africa. From Crisis to Sustainable Growth. A Long-TermPerspective Study (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1989), p. 192and passim.

53. F. & C.O. Background Brief, August 1991.54. Reported in The Guardian, 26 June 1991.55. K. Whiteman, 'Cote d'Ivoire', The Annual Register, 1990, pp. 269-70;

The Guardian, 27 March 1991. In Gabon, some one-third of theparliamentary elections in September 1990 had to be cancelled becauseof massive malpractices. In re-run elections the next month the PartiDemocratique Gabonais obtained only a slender majority over thecombined opposition. K. Whiteman, 'Gabon', The Annual Register,1990, p. 275.

56. K. Whiteman, 'Senegal' , The Annual Register, 1993, p.263.57. W. Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge

University Press , 1995), p. 12; C. Coulon, 'Senegal: The Developmentand Fragility of Semidemocracy', ch. 4 in L. Diamond , J . J . Linz, andS. M. Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Africa, vol. 2(Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner, 1988), p. 171.

58. C. Coulon and D. B. Cruise O'Brien, 'Senegal', in D . B. CruiseO'Brien, J . Dunn and R. Rathbone (eds), Contemporary West Afr icanStates (Cambridge Uni versity Press, 1989), pp . 145-50; J. A. Wiseman,Democracy in Black Africa. Survival and Revival (New York : ParagonHouse, 1990), p. 175; L. A. Villalon , 'Democratizing a (quasi) democracy: the Senegalese elections of 1993', African Affairs, vol. 93, no. 371(April 1994), pp . 191-2.

59. Anifowose's statement that in the period up to 1970 the Sudan,Soma lia and Morocco 'cha nged their governments by elections' ismisleading when the experience of these countries is examined in detai l.Between independence in January 1956 and the army takeover inOctober 1958, Sudan practised a form of parliamentary government.However, the parli amentary elections of February 1958 were inconclusive: two members of the former tripartite coalit ion retained power,under the same prime minister as before. Parliamentary elections inSomalia in March 1964 and March 1969 did not threaten the monopoly of power of the Somali Youth League, despite intense party andclan rivalry. A military coup followed in October 1969. Morocco wasthe scene of considerable political party activity , but its political systemwas dominated by the King, who ruled personally and directly between1965 and 1970, reshuffiing his Cabinet frequently . A revised form ofconstitutional democracy was restored in 1970, but King Hassan'spowers remained substantial. See R. Anifowose , Violence and Politicsin Nigeria. The Tiv and Youth Experience (New York: Nok PublishersInternational, 1982), p. 201; The Annual Register, 1956-8 (Sudan),1964 and 1969 (Somalia), and 1962-70 (Morocco).


60. W. H. Morris Jone s, 'D ominance and Dissent: Their Inter- relati ons inthe Indian Party System' , Government and Opposition, vol. I, no. 4(July-September 1966), p. 460.

61. Though not at first in Tan zani a: following the legal esta blishment ofthe one-party state in 1965, parliamentary deb ate became livelier thanpreviously. See W. TordofT (1967), ch. I and 'Tan zan ia: Democracyand the One-Party State ' , Government and Opposition, vol. 2, no. 4(July-october 1967). For the subsequent situa tion in the one-partycontext, see my 'Residua l Legislatures: The Cases of Tanzan ia andZambia', Journal ofCommonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. XV,no. 3 (November 1977).

62. W. TordofT, 'The Single Party State in Africa and Asia: compara tiveaccountability', in J. Healey and W. TordofT(eds), Votes and Budgets.Comparative Studies in Accountable Governance in the South (London:Macmillan , 1995), ch. 6.

63. Wiseman (1990), pp. 66-7. Wiseman argues that the combina tion ofclass and communalism (based on race and ethnicity) helps thedemocratic system to survive in Mauritius since individua ls dividedby one form of cleavage are united by another form of cleavage (pp .72-3).

64. D. Venter , 'Malawi: the transition to multi-party politics', in J . A.Wiseman (ed.), Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa(London: Routledge, 1995), p. 177.

65. Keesing's, vol. 42, no . 3 (March 1996),40982. For Kerekou's remo valin 1991, see C. Allen, 'Restructuring an authoritarian state: " democratic renewal" in Benin' , Review of Af rican Political Economy, no . 54(1992).

66. Mitterrand 's sta tement was reported in Le M onde (Paris) and quotedin F. & C.O. Background Brief, August 1991.

6 Administration

I . R. Delavignette , Freedom and Authority in French West Afr ica (London: Oxford University Press, 1950), p. 71.

2. F. G . Burke, 'Public Administrat ion in Africa : The Legacy of InheritedColon ial Institutions' , paper pre sented at the World Congress of theInternational Political Science Association, Brussels, 18-23 September1967, pp. 38--44 and passim.

3. R. S. Morgenthau, Political Parties in French-Speaking West Africa(Oxford : Clarendon Pre ss, 1964), p. 13.

4. D. B. Cruise O'Brien, 'Senegal', in J. Dunn (ed.), West African States:Failure and Promise. A Study in Comparat ive Politics (CambridgeUniversity Press, 1978), pp . 179- 80.

5. M. F. Lofchie , 'Represent ati ve Government , Bureaucracy, and Political Development: The African Case ' , Journal of Developing Areas,vol. II , no. 1 (October 1967), pp . 41-2.

6. H. Rob erts, 'The Algerian Bureaucracy', Review of African PoliticalEconomy, no . 24 (May-August 1982), p. 47. See also G. Hyden, 'Social


Structure, Bureaucracy and Development Administration in Kenya' ,African Review, vol. I , no . 3 (Dar es Salaam, January 1972), pp.123-4.

7. See F. W. Riggs, Administration in Developing Countris: The Theory ofPrismatic Society (Boston, Mass .: Houghton Mifflin, 1964), especiallych.8; N. Kasfir, 'Prismatic Theory and African Administration',World Politics, vol. 21, no. 2 (January 1969).

8. Riggs (1964), p. 227.9. The upsurge of modern academic concern with the question of

corruption dates from the early 1960s. Riggs's own analysis ofcorruption repreented an early and important contribution. Othersignificant contriutions to this growing literature include M. McMullan, 'A Theory of Corruption', Sociological Review, vol. 9, no. 2 (June1961); C. Leys, 'What is the problem about corruption?', Journal ofModern African Studies, vol. 3, no. 2 (1965); J. S. Nye, 'Corruptionand Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis' , American Political Science Review, vol. LXI , no. 2 (June 1967); J. C. Scott, Comparative Political Corruption (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1972); V. T. Le Vine, Political Corruption: The Ghana Case (Stanford :Hoover Institution Press, 1975); and D. J. Gould, Bureaucratic Corruption and Underdevelopment in the Third World: The Zaire Case(Oxford : Pergamon Press, 1980).

10. C. Pratt, The Critical Phase in Tanzania, 1945-68. Nyerere and theEmergence ofa Socialist Strategy (Cambridge University Press, 1976),pp .224-5.

11. See F. W. Riggs, 'Administrative Development : An Elusive Concept' ,in J. D. Montgomery and W. J. Siffin (eds), Approaches to Development: Politics, Administration and Change (New York: McGraw-Hili,1966), and 'The Context of Development Administration' , in F.W.Riggs (ed.), Frontiers ofDevelopment (Durham, NC: Duke UniversityPress, 1970), p. 79.

12. H. Alavi, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Pakistan and Banglaesh', New Left Review, no. 74 (July-August 1972).

13. C. Leys, 'The "Overdeveloped" Post Colonial State: ARe-evaluation',Review of African Political Economy , no. 5 (January-April 1976),p.42.

14. B. B. Schaffer, 'Introduction: The Ideas and Institutions of Training',in B. B. Schaffer (ed.), Administrative Training and Development (NewYork: Praeger, 1974), p 31.

15. J. A. Ballard , 'Four Equatorial States' , in G. M. Carter (ed.), NationalUnity and Regionalism in Eight African States (Ithaca, NY: CornellUniversity Press, 1966), p. 236.

16. K. G. Younger, The Public Service in New States : A Study in SomeTrained Manpower Problems (London: Oxford University Press, 1960),p. 53; D. Austin , Politics in Ghana, 1946-60 (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 8, n. 10; W. Tordoff, Governmentand Politics inTanzania (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1967) p. 202; W.Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia (Manchester University Press, 1974)p. 242; W. Tordoff (ed.), Administration in Zambia (Manchester Uni-


versity Press, 1980), p. 6; D . L. Dresang and R. A. Young, 'The PublicService', in Tordoff (1980), ch. 3.

17. B. B. Schaffer, 'Administrative Legacies and Links in the Post-ColonialState: Preparation, Training and Administrative Reform', Development and Change, vol. 9, no. 2 (April 1978), p. 183.

18. Ghana: A New Charter for the Civil Service (Accra: GovernmentPrinter, 1960), pp. 1-3 .

19. J. M. Lee, 'Parliament in Republican Ghana', Parliamentary Affairs,vol. XVI, no. 4 (1963), p. 382.

20. Tordoff (1967), pp . 86, 103-4, (1974), ch. 7, especially p. 259, and(1980), ch. 3.

21. L. Behrman, 'Party and State Relations in Guinea', in J. Butler andA. A. Castagno (eds), Boston University Papers on Africa: Transition inAfrican Politics (New York: Praeger, 1967), p. 335; J. S. Coleman andC. G. Rosberg, Jr (eds), Political Parties and National Integration inTropicalAfrica (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964), p. 678.

22. G. Hyden , 'Decentralisation in Tanzania' : Summary of a lecturedelivered at the University of Zambia, Lusaka, March 1973 (mimeo),pp. 2-3; J. J . Okumu , 'The Socio-Political Setting', ch. 2 in G. Hyden,R. Jackson and J. Okumu (eds), Development Administration: TheKenyan Experience (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 31.

23. R. Dowse, 'Military and Police Rule', ch. 1 in D. Austin and R.Luckham (eds), Politidans and Soldiers in Ghana (London: FrankCass, 1975), p. 21; A. R. Zolberg, Creating Political Order: The PartyStates of West Africa (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966), p. 125.

24. Hyden (January 1972), p . 124.25. Lofchie (1967), passim.26. Tordoff (1980), p. 21.27. R. S. Milne, 'Bureaucracy and Development Administration', Public

Administration, vol. 51 (Winter 1973), pp. 413-15 and passim. RobertChambers stresses the importance of procedures in rural developmentadministration and area-based planning: see his 'Planning for RuralAreas in East Africa: Experience and Prescriptions', in D. K. Leonard(ed.), Rural Administration in Kenya (Nairobi: East African LiteratureBureau, 1973). See also B. B. Schaffer, 'The Deadlock in DevelopmentAdministration', in C. Leys (ed.), Politics and Change in DevelopingCountries: Studies in the Theory and Practice ofDevelopment (London:Cambridge University Press, 1969), p . 199 and passim.

28. J. O. Udoji, 'Some Measures for Improving Performance and Management of the Public Enterprises', in A. H. Rweyemamu and G . Hyden(eds), A Decade of Public Administration in Africa (Nairobi: EastAfrican Literature Bureau, 1975), p. 238.

29. J. R. Nellis, Public Enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington,DC: IBRD, 1986), pp . 4-5.

30. A. R. Zolberg, 'The Political Use of Economic Planning in Mali', inH. G. Johnson (ed.), Economic Nationalism in Old and New States(London: Allen & Unwin, 1968), p. 117.

31. B. Campbell, 'Ivory Coast', in Dunn (1978), p. 88.


32. G. Hyden , 'Economic Development through Public Enterprises: Lessons from Past Experience' (mimeo., 1981), p. 2; G. Williams and T.Turner, 'Nigeria', ch. 6 in Dunn (1978), p. 153.

33. Behrman in Butler and Castagno (1967), p. 325.34. B. Callaway and E. Card, 'Political Constraints on Economic Devel

opment in Ghana', ch.4 in M. F. Lofchie (ed.), The State of theNat ions: Constraints on Development in Independent Africa (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1971), p. 83; and Udoji in Rweyemamuand Hyden (1975), p. 241.

35. Hyden (1981), p. 5; Review of Statutory Boards (Nairobi: GovernmentPrinter, 1979), pp . 18-19; P. Francois, 'Class Struggles in Mali', Reviewof African Political Economy, no. 24 (May-August 1982), p. 32; andReport of the Committee on Parastatal Bodies (Lusaka: GovernmentPrinter, 1978).

36. L. Adamolekun, Public Adminstration. A Nigerian and ComparativePerspective (London: Longman, 1983), pp. 54-5.

37. See G. K. Simwinga, 'Corporate Autonomy and Government Controlof State Enterprises', in Tordoff (1980), ch. 5; Callaway and Card inLofchie (1971), p. 85; and Francois (1982), p. 32.

38. R. A. Young, 'States and Markets in Africa', in M. Moran and M.Wright (eds), The Market and the State . Studies in Interdependence(London: Macmillan, 1991), ch. 9.

39. Ibid ., p. 165.40. Ibid ., pp. 169-70, and passim. See also P. Cook and M. Minogue,

'Waiting for privatisation in developing countries : towards the integration of economic and non-economic explanations ', Public Administration and Development, vol. 10 (1990), pp. 390-4; P. Cook and C.Kirkpatrick, Privatisation in Less Developed Countries (Brighton:Wheatsheaf Books, 1988).

41. Francois (1982), pp . 32-3.42. R.Hallett, 'Mozambique' , The Annual Register, 1980, p. 249; R.Tan

gri, 'The Politics of Africa's Public and Private Enterprise ', TheJournal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. xxxiii, no. 2(July 1995), p. 183, n. 20.

43. R. Tangri, 'The Politics of State Divestiture in Ghana', African Affairs,vol. 90, no. 361 (October 1991), p. 528.

44. Y. A. Faure, 'Cote d'Ivoire: analysing the crisis' , in D. B. CruiseO'Brien, J. Dunn and R. Rathbone (eds), Contemporary West AfricanState s (Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 72.

45. Tangri (1995), pp . 179-81.46. C. Pycroft , 'Local Government in the New South Africa', LIPAM,

University of Liverpool (February 1996). Decentralisation in otherCommonwealth African states is discussed in W. Tordoff, 'Decentralisation: Comparative Experience in Commonwealth Africa', Journalof Modern African Studies, vol. 32, no. 4 (1994).

47. W. O. Oyugi, 'Local Government in Kenya: a case of institutionaldecline', in P. Mawhood (ed.), Local Government in the Third World(Pretoria: Institute of South Africa, 1993), p. 128.


48. C.Gertzel , The Politics of Independent Kenya , 1963-68 (London:Heinemann , 1970), pp . 166-70.

49. J. M. Cohen , 'Importance of Public Service Reform: the case ofKenya' , Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 31, no. 3, September1993.

50. M. Wallis, 'District Planning and Local Government in Kenya', PublicAdministration and Development,vol. 10, 1990, pp . 445 and 449.

51. Reproduced in British High Commission Press Release (Lusaka), 19March 1993.

52. D. A. Rondinelli, 'Decentralization of Development Administration inEast Africa', in G. S. Cheema and D. A. Rondinelli (eds), Decentralization and Development: Policy Implementation in Developing Countries(Beverley Hills: Sage, 1983), p. 119.

53. For further details, see W. Tordoff and R. A. Young, 'Decentralisationand Public Sector Reform in Zambia', Journal of Southern AfricanStudies (London), vol. 20, no . 2 (June 1994).

54. Developments in the period 1993-5 are examined in W. Tordoffand R.Mukwena, 'Decentralisation and Local Government Reform: AnAssessment', 1995 (Lusaka: Government of the Republic of Zambia,Local Government Support Project) .

55. Pycroft (1996), p. 4. I have drawn heavily on this paper in this section.56. The Guardian, 31 May (Western Cape) and 3 July (KwaZulu Natal)

1996.57. Pycroft (1996), p. 27.58. M. M. Minogue, 'The Politics of Development Planning': lecture for

the core course 'Perspectives on Development' (MA Econ. programmein Development Studies, University of Manchester, 1979); A. Wildavsky, 'If planning is Everything, maybe it's Nothing', Policy Sciences,vol. 4, no. 2 (June 1973); A. H. Hanson, The Process of Planning: AStudy of India's Five-Year Plans, 1950-1964 ( London: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 1.

59. See E. J. Berg, 'Socialism and Economic Development in TropicalAfrica' , Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. LXXVIII, no.4 (November 1964), pp. 558-60 .

60. Hanson (1966), p. 474.61. W. A. Lewis, Development Planning. The Essentials ofEconomic Policy

(London: Allen & Unwin , 1966), preface, p. 7.62. Faure in O'Brien, Dunn and Rathbone (1989), p. 59.63. Lewis (1966), preface, p. 7.64. S. K. Panter-Brick , 'French African Admin istration', University of

Zambia lecture (mimeo, 1969), P.A. 320/430.65. A. H. Hanson, Planning and the Politicians and Other Essays (London:

Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969), p. 198; R. C. Pratt, 'The Administration of Economic Planning in a Newly Independent State: TheTanzanian Experience, 1963-66', Journal of Commonwealth PoliticalStudies, vol. V, no. 1 (March 1967), p. 57.

66. See R. H. Green , 'Four African Development Plans', Journal ofModern Afr ican Studies, vol. 3, no . 2 (1965), pp. 253--4.

67. Panter-Brick (1969).

Notes and Ref erences 349

68. Faure in O' Brien , Dunn and Rathbone (1989), p. 68.69. Pratt (1967), p. 55; Tordoff (1974), chs 4 and 7.70. Lofchie (1967), p. 54.71. W. Tordoff, 'Local Administrat ion in Botswana', Public Administra

tion and Development , vol. 8, no . 2 (April- June 1988), p. 188.72. Ib id., pp . 187-90. See also W. Reilly, 'District Development Planning

in Botswana', in M. Minogue (ed .), 'Studies in Decentralisation: PapuaNew Guinea , Botswana, Sri Lan ka ' , Manchester Papers on Development , issue no . 3 (Manchester: Administrative Studies, December1981), p. 35 and passim.

73. B. Egner, The District Councils and Decentralisat ion, 1978-1986.Report to SIDA, G aborone, February 1987, pp . 101-5; Tordoff(1988), pp. 187-90.

74. A decline in the proceeds of diamond exports has resulted in a slightdrop in the annual growth rate in the early 1990s. See W.Reilly and W.Tordoff, 'Decentralisation in Botswana - myth or reality?', in Mawhood (1993), p.178.

7 The Military

1. General Joseph-Desire Mobutu seized power in Congo-Leopoldville(ex-Belgian colony) in 1965 and Colonel Muamm ar Qaddafi in Libya(ex-Italian colony) in 1969, while President Luis Cabral was arrestedand his government removed in Guinea-Bissau (ex-Po rtuguese colon y)in 1980. In Equatorial Guinea (ex-Spa nish colony), the tyranni cal ruleof Francisco Macias Nguem a was ended with his overthrow in 1979,but human rights abuses have continued under his successor, President(Brigadier-Genera l) Teod oro Obi ang Nguema Mb asogo.

2. Ruth Coll ier , Regimes in Tropical Africa: Changing Forms of Supremacy , 1945- 75 (Berkeley: Un iversity of California Press, 1982) crit icises Professor Finer for introducing a blanket single-party conceptand for his finding th at one-party and multi-party regimes are equallylikely to experience military intervention. She make s a valid distinctionwithin the one-party category and argues that multi -party regimesabove all, but also one-party regimes formed by coercion rather thanas a result of electoral victory or merger, are likely to prove unstable .There ma y be some thing in th is argument, which is particularlyinteresting in view of recent events, but it cannot be pushed to o far :Botswana and Mauritius are examples of multi-party states which haveretained civilian governments continuously since independence, as didthe Gambia for nearly 30 years (1965- 94).

3. Only about 30 officers and 100-150 men were involved out of an armyof over 500 officers and more than 10000 men: R. Luckham, TheNigerian M ilitary: A Sociological Analysis of Authority and Revolt,1960-67 (Cambridge Un iversity Pre ss, 1971), p. 33.

4. T . S. Cox, Civil-Military Relations in Sierra Leone: A Case Study ofAfrican Soldiers in Politics (Ca mbridge, Ma ss.: Harvard UniversityPress, 1976), p. 114.

5. Ibid ., p. 220.


6. S. C. Nolutshungu, 'Fragments of a democracy: reflections on classand politics in Nigeria', in J. Mayall and A. Payne (eds), The Fallaciesof Hope. The Post-Colonial Record of the Commonwealth Third World(Manchester University Press, 1991), p. 95.

7. S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback : The Role of the Military in Politics(London: Pall Mall Press, revised edn . 1981); M . Janowitz, TheMilitary in the Political Development of New Nations : An Essay inComparative Analysis (University of Chicago Press, 1964); A. R.Luckham, 'A Comparative Typology of Civil-Military Relations',Government and Opposition , vol. 6, no . 1 (Winter 1971); R. First,The Barrel of a Gun: Political Power in Africa and the Coup d'Etat(London: Allen Lane, 1970), p. 20; S. Decalo, Coups and Army Rule inAfrica: Studies in Military Style (New Haven, Conn.: Yale UniversityPress, 1976), p. 19. (Note . A revised edition of Decalo's book waspublished in 1990; textual references are to the original edition.)

8. S. P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven,Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968), p. 241.

9. G. Martin, 'Continuity and Change in Franco-African Relations',Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 33, no . 1 (1995), pp . 12-14.

10. R. Luckham, 'French Militarism in Africa', Review ofAfrican PoliticalEconomy, no. 24 (May-August 1982), p. 70. For a discussion of theinternational dimension generally, see his 'Armaments, Underdevelopment, and Demilitarisation in Africa', in Alternatives: A Journal ofWorld Policy, vol. VI, no . 2 (July 1980), in which he argued that theprocess of militarisation in Africa includes not only the actual acquisition of weapons, but also the extension of military values into politicaland social structures.

11. The Guardian, 28, 29 and 30 November and 7 December 1991. Martin(1995, p. 14) writes: 'In the final analysis, France's military presence inAfrica is determined by three main factors : the size and degree of hereconomic interests and involvement; the number of French residents;and the nature of the links existing between France and the nationalruling elites .. . Ultimately, one suspects that the main objective is tohelp pro-French regimes stay in power.'

12. A. Hughes and R. May, 'Armies on Loan: Toward an Explanation ofTransnational Military Intervention among Black African States:1960-1984', paper presented at the 21st Anniversary Conference ofthe African Studies Association of the United Kingdom, University ofYork, 19-21 September 1984.

13. J. R. Cartwright, Politics in Sierra Leone , 1947-67 (University ofToronto Press, 1970), p. 255.

14. Cox (1976), p. 135, and passim.15. D. G. Austin, 'The Ghana Case', in The Politics of Demilitarisation

(Collected Seminar Papers, Institute of Commonwealth Studies , University of London, April-May 1966).

16. First (1970), p. 20.17. E. Hansen, 'The Military and Revolution in Ghana', Journal ofAfrican

Marxists, issue 2 (August 1982), pp. 10-11.18. See Decalo (1976), p. 18.


19. The National Assembly's public accounts committee had drawnattention to a deficit in the defence budget for which Amin was heldresponsible. Before leaving for Singapore, Obote had told Amin thathe would require a full explanation on his return: K. Ingham, Obote. APolitical Biography (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 135.

20. See R. L. Sklar, 'Nigerian Politics in Perspective' , and 'Contradictionsin the Nigerian Political System', in R. Melson and H. Wolpe (eds),Nigeria: Modernization and the Politics ofCommunalism (East Lansing:Michigan University Press, 1971), ch. 2, pp. 46-7 , and ch. 19.

21. Mackintosh (1966), p. 550. Mackintosh referred particularly to 1963,but his description applies to the 1962-6 period as a whole.

22. Sklar (1971 ), p. 49.23. The account which follows draws heavily on Luckham (1971; see note

3), especially chs 1 and 2.24. A. Ademoyega, Why We Struck: The Story of the First Nigerian Coup

(Ibadan: Evans, 1981); B. Gbulie, Nigeria's Five Majors (Onitsha:Africana Educational Publishers, 1981).

25. Decalo (1976), ch. 2.26. Michael F . Lofchie concluded that 'antagonistic social forces within

Uganda society' led to the coup of January 1971. See his article 'TheUganda Coup - Class Action by the Military', Journal of ModernAfrican Studies, vol. 10, no . I (1972). However, this view was challenged in a subsequent issue of the same journal (vol. 10, no. 4) byJ. D. Chick and I. Gershenberg.

27. Huntington (1968), ch. 4.28. C. Clapham, Third World Polit ics. An Introduction (London: Croom

Helm, 1985), p. 121.29. Nolutshungu (1991), p. 97.30. R. Otayek, 'Burkina Faso: between feeble state and total state , the

swing continues', in D . B. Cruise O'Brien, J. Dunn and R. Rathbone(eds), Contemporary West African States (Cambridge University Press,1989), p. 20.

31. M. J. Dent, 'Corrective Government: Military Rule in Perspective', inS. K. Panter-Brick (ed.), Soldiers and Oil: The Political Transformationof Nigeria (London: Frank Cass, 1978), ch. 4.

32. Luckham, The Nigerian Military (1971), pp. 310-25 .33. R. Dowse, 'Military and Political Rule', in D. Austin and R. Luckham

(eds), Politicians and Soldiers in Ghana (London: Frank Cass, 1975),p. 21; A. D. Yahaya, 'The Struggle for Power in Nigeria, 1966-79', inO. Oyediran (ed.), Nigerian Government and Politics under MilitaryRule, 1966-79 (London: Macmillan, 1979), ch. 13; Dent (1978), pp.113ff.

34. M. Berry, 'Factional Conflict in the Nigerian Army: the July 1975Coup and the Decision to Demi1itarise', Huddersfield Papers in Politics, 3 (mimeo, Autumn 1981).

35. See C. Young, Ideology and Development in Africa (New Haven,Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982), p. 164.

36. O. Oyediran, 'Civilian Rule for How Long?' , in Oyediran (1979),ch. 14, especially p. 279.


37. See First (1970), p. 436 and G. Lamb, 'The Military and Developmentin Eastern Africa', in 'Military Regimes', Bulletin of the Institute ofDevelopment Studies, University of Sussex, vol. 4, no. 4 (September1972), p. 22.

38. Dowse (1975), pp. 25ff.39. In this section on the economy, I have drawn on A. Kirk-Greene and

D. Rimmer, Nigeria since 1970: A Political and Economic Outline(London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1981), part 2; A. Iwayemi, 'TheMilitary and the Economy' in Oyediran (1979), ch. 3; O. Oyediranand O. 0lagunju, 'The Military and the Politics of Revenue Allocation', in Oyediran (1979), ch. 10; and R . L. Sklar, 'The Nature of ClassDomination in Africa ', Journal ofModern African Studies, vol. 17, no .4 (1979).

40. As suggested by Rimmer in Kirk-Greene and Rimmer (1981), p. 76.The preponderant view, however, is that agriculture 'consistentlystagnated during the military era ' : see Iwayemi (1979), p . 56.

41. S. Othman, 'Nigeria: power for profit - class , corporatism, andfactionalism in the military ', in O'Brien, Dunn and Rathbone (1989),pp .130-5.

42. Ibid. , pp . 135-7. See also M. Dent, 'Nigeria' , The Annual Register,1984.

43. Nolutshungu (1991), p . 98.44. Quoted by Othman (1989), pp . 139-40 .45. Nolutshungu (1991), pp. 84-100 . See also Othman (1989), pp . 140-4.46. Othman (1989), p. 144.47. This section is based on D . Rothchild, ' Military Regime Performance:

An Appraisal of the Ghana Experience, 1972-78', Comparative Politics, vol. 12, no. 4 (July 1980).

48. R. Rathbone, 'Politics in Ghana and pol itics in Ghana' , in Mayall andPayne (1991), pp. 68-9.

49. J. Haynes , 'Ghana: From personalist to democratic rule ' , in J . A.Wiseman (ed.), Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa(London: Routledge, 1995), p. 99.

50. R. Jeffries, 'Ghana: the political economy of personal rule' , in O'Brien,Dunn and Rathbone (1989), ch. 6, especially pp . 92-8; N. Chazan,'Ghana: Problems of Governance and the Emergence of Civil Society',in L. Diamond, J . J . Linz and S. M . Lipset (eds), Democracy inDeveloping Countries, vol. 2, Africa (Boulder, Col. : Lynne Rienner,1988) p. 121.

51. R. Otayek, 'The Revolutionary Process in Burkino Faso: Breaks andContinuities', in J. Markakis and M. Waller (eds), Military MarxistRegimes in Africa (London: Frank Cass , 1986), and in O'Brien, Dunnand Rathbone (1989), ch. 2.

52. The Guardian, 11 April, 28, 29 and 30 November 1991 ; K. Whiteman,'Togo and Benin', The Annual Register. 1994, p. 284.

53. See pp. 15 and 200, above, and G . Arnold, 'Nigeria' , The AnnualRegister, 1995, p. 250.

54. Decalo (1976), pp. 26-7. See also First (1970), p. 22.55. Otayek (1989), p.26.


56. O. E. Wilton-Marshall, 'Mali, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Niger, Benin,Togo " and 'People's Republic of the Congo', and R. Hallett, 'Rwandaand Burundi', The Annual Register, 1979.

57. Wilton-Marshall, 'Upper Volta', The Annual Register, 1978.58. Keesing's, vol. 42, no. 3 (March 1996), 'Benin' , 40982; Mali: The

Guardian, 26 and 27 March 1991.59. Luckham (1980), p. 217.60. D. G. Austin, 'Ghana', The Annual Register, 1977, pp. 220-1, and

1978, p. 215.

8 Revolutionary Movements and Former Revolutionary Regimes

1. B. Munslow, Mozambique: The Revolutions and its Origins (London:Longman, 1983), ch. 13 and passim.

2. See G. J. Bender, Angola under the Portuguese: The Myth and theReality (London: Heinemann, 1978), part 1.

3. C. G. Rosberg, Jr and J. Nottingham, The Myth of Mau Mau :Nationalism in Kenya (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. xvii.

4. B. Munslow, 'FRELIMO and the Mozambican Revolution', PhDthesis, University of Manchester, April 1980, p. 410.

5. See Munslow (1983), pp. 81-2 and ch. 11. The anti-FRELIMO ComiteRevolucionario de Mocambique (COREMO) was small, based inLusaka, and had only a limited impact on the liberation struggle; itis not discussed in this section.

6. Mozambique Revolution, no . 56 (June-September 1973), quoted inMunslow (April 1980), p. 380.

7. J. Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, vol. I: The Anatomy of anExplosion (1950- 1962) (Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Instituteof Technology Press, 1969), p. 123. As well as this excellent study (intwo volumes), I have drawn in this section on C. Legum and T.Hodges , After Angola: The War over Southern Africa (London: RexCollings, 1976). See also the study prepared by the Research Department of the Institute for the Study of Conflict, London: 'Angola afterIndependence: Struggle for Supremacy ', Conflict Studies, no. 64 (November 1975) and B. Davidson, In the Eye of the Storm: Angola'sPeople (London: Longman, 1972).

8. Marcum (1969), pp . 10 and 318.9. This was admitted by Lucio Lara, the MPLA's leading theoretician .

See J. Steele, 'Social Upheaval' , The Guardian, special issue on Angola,2 March 1981.

10. J. Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, vol. II: Exile Politics and Guerrilla Warfare (1962-1976) (Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Instituteof Technology Press, 1978), passim.

11. Information supplied by B. Munslow ; Legum and Hodges (1976), pp.10-11 ; Marcum (1978).

12. J. Stockwell, In Search of Enemies: A CIA Story (New York: Norton,1978).


13. P. Chabal , 'National Liberation in Portuguese Guinea, 1956-1974',African Affairs , vol. 80, no. 318 (January 1981). I have drawn substantially in this section upon this article , which is extracted from DrChabal 's Cambridge University doctoral thesis and book: Ami/carCabral: Revolutionary Leadership and People 's War (Cambridge University Press, 1983). For an alternative interpretation, see B. Davidson,No Fist is Big Enough to Hide the Sky (London: Zed Press, 1981). Seealso A. Cabral , Unity and Struggle (London: Heinemann, 1980). Thesmall, anti-PAIGC Frente para a Libertacao e Independencia daGuine Portuguesa (FLING), based in Dakar and supported by theSenegalese government, had a minimal impact on the liberationstruggle and is not discussed in this section.

14. Statement by Cabral, quoted in Chabal (1983), p. 66.IS. J. S. Saul, The State and Revolution in Eastern Africa (London:

Heinemann, 1979): Machel quoted on p. 116.16. See T. Ranger, 'The Changing of the Old Guard: Robert Mugabe and

the Revival of ZANU', Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 7,no. 1 (October 1980) and Peasant Consciousness and Guerrilla War inZimbabwe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). See also D.Martin and P. Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe : The ChimurengaWar (London: Faber & Faber, 1981).

17. An account of ZANU-PF structures is to be found in L. Cliffe, J.Mpofu and B. Munslow , 'Nationalist Politics in Zimbabwe: The 1980Elections and Beyond', Review of African Political Economy, no. 18:special issue on Zimbabwe (May-August 1980).

18. Munslow (1983), p. 150.19. B. Munslow, 'The Liberation Struggle in Mozambique and the Origins

of Post- Independence Political and Economic Policy', in Mo zambique(University of Edinburgh: Seminar Proceedings, Centre of AfricanStudies, 1979). This section is based on this and other works by BarryMunslow, notably Mozambique: The Revolution and its Origins (1983),part 4, and 'Disengagement from a Regional Sub- System: Problemsand Prospects' , Journal of Area Studies , no. 4 (Autumn 1981). Unlessotherwise stated, all quotations are from Munslow. Supplementaryinformation is drawn from J. Hanlon, 'Machel back-pedals on privateenterprise' , The Guardian, 15 July 1981, and Mo zambique: The Revolution under Fire (London: Zed Books, 1984). See also the accounts byD.H. Jones (1975-78) and by R. Hallett (1979-81 ) in The AnnualRegister. and N. Zafiris, 'The People's Republic of Mozambique:Pragmatic Socialism', in P. Wiles (ed.), The New Communist ThirdWorld (London: Croom Helm, 1982), ch. 4.

20. K. Middlemas, 'Mozambique: Two Years of Independence' , in Mozambique (1979), p. 104; L. Vail and L. White, Capitalism andColonialism in Mo zambique (London: Heinemann, 1981).

21. P. Goodison, 'The Construction of Socialism in Mozambique' (BAEcon. dissertation, University of Manchester, April 1982), p. 77.

22. Young explains that the National Resistance Movement (MRN,sometimes abbreviated as MNR) was an English acronym and thatthe organisation's subsequent adoption of RENAMO was 'part of an


attempt to Mozambicanize itself: T. Young, 'The MNRjRENAMO:External and Internal Dynamics', African Affairs. vol. 89, no. 357(October 1990), p. 492, n. 5.

23. See P. Goodison and R. Levin, 'The Nkomati Accord: The Illusion ofPeace in Southern Africa' (Department of Political Theory andInstitutions, University of Liverpool, n.d.), and R. Hallett, 'Mozambique', in The Annual Register. 1984, pp. 249-52.

24. The Guardian, 15 March and 7 November 1986, and The Observer, 16March and 26 October 1986.

25. The section on RENAMO is based on Young (1990).26. See the articles on 'Mozambique' by R. Hallett in The Annual Register,

1986-90.27. Hallett, 'Mozambique' , The Annual Register, 1989, pp. 276-8, and

1990, pp. 283-5 .28. Ibid .,1992-4, especially 1994, pp. 297-8 ; Keesing 's, vol. 41 (1995):

Annual Reference Supplement, R22-3 , and nos 1-12, January-December.

29. K. Brown, 'Angolan Socialism', in C. G. Rosberg and T. M. Callaghy(eds), Socialism in Sub-Saharan Africa: A New Assessment (Berkeley:Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1979), pp.298-304.

30. J. Steele, 'Party Leaders ' , The Guardian, 2 March 1981. The variousarticles in this special issue on Angola, notably those by JonathanSteele, provide information which usefully supplements Brown's earlier (1979) account. I have drawn upon both sources in this section. Onthe Angolan economy, see N. Zafiris, 'The People's Republic ofAngola : Soviet-Type Economy in the Making', in P. Wiles (ed.), TheNew Communist Third World (London: Croom Helm, 1982), ch. 2.

31. Brown (1979), pp . 310, 321 and passim, supplemented by informationsupplied by B. Munslow.

32. Following its restructuring in 1977 as a Marxist-Leninist vanguardparty, the full title of the MPLA was the Popular Movement for theLiberation of Angola - Workers' Party (MPLA-PT) . However, I haveused the abbreviated title, MPLA, throughout.

33. R. Hallett, 'Angola', The Annual Register, 1984, p. 253.34. Ibid. , 1988, pp . 283-6 .35. Ibid., 1989, pp . 279-81 , and 1990, pp. 286-8.36. Keesing 's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, R3.37. Ibid ., vol. 41 (1995), nos 1-12, January - December.38. V. Brittain, 'Peace games spur Angolan collapse', The Guardian, 8 June

1996.39. Chabal (1981), pp . 76-9 ; B. Munslow, 'The 1980 Coup in Guinea

Bissau', Review ofAfrican Political Economy , no. 21 (May-September1981), p. 110. The remainder of this section is based on the latterarticle, supplemented by B. Davidson, 'No fist is big enough to hidethe sky: building Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde', Race and Class, vol.XXIII, no . I (Summer 1981), extracted from Davidson (1981).

40. R. Hallett, 'Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde', The Annual Register ,1985, p. 243, and 1990, p. 282.


41. Keesing's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, RI6-7.42. Hallett, 'Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde', The Annual Register,

1980-1990.43. Keesing 's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, R7, and

no. 1: January, 40347, and no . 12, December, 40857; Keesing 's, vol.42, no. 2 (February 1996),40935.

44. S. K. Panter-Brick, 'Africanisation in Zimbabwe', in P. Lyon and J.Manor (eds), Transfer and Transformation: Political Institutions in theNew Commonwealth (Leicester University Press, 1983).

45. 'Focus on Zimbabwe', The Times (London), 10 February 1982,especially the articles by Stephen Taylor.

46. C. Stoneman , 'Some Concluding Thoughts', in C. Stoneman (ed.),Zimbabwe's Prospects. Issues of Race, Class, State, and Capital inSouthern Africa (London: Macmillan, 1988), p. 363.

47. Poor health had effectively prevented Chidzero from running theFinance Ministry for over two years before he was formally replacedin April 1995.

48. J. Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. 212. This section is based mainly on Herbst'sinsightful analysis.

49. Ibid., p. 227.50. Quoted in ibid., p. 231 .51. Stoneman, 'Some Concluding Thoughts', in Stoneman (1988), p.

364.52. Nkomo returned to Zimbabwe five months later. R. W. Baldock,

'Zimbabwe', in The Annual Register , 1980, pp. 255-60; C. Nyawoand T. Rich, 'Zimbabwe after Independence', and 'Peter Yates ', 'TheProspects for Socialist Transition in Zimbabwe', Review of AfricanPolitical Economy, no . 18 (May-August 1980); The Guardian, 18January, 18 February 1982 and 19 August 1983.

53. R. W. Baldock, 'Zimbabwe' , The Annual Register, 1987-90, especially1989, p. 285 (the 'Willowgate' affair) and 1990, p. 292 (the generalelection).

54. Keesing 's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, R36-7, andnos 1-12, January-December.

55. J. K. Nyerere, Freedom and Unity: A Selection from Writings andSpeeches, 1952-65 (Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press, 1968),introduction, chs 26, 27 and 37; A. Coulson, Tanzania's FertilizerFactory', in A. Coulson (ed.), African Socialism in Practice: TheTanzanian Experience (Nottingham: Spokesman, 1979), ch. 14; G.Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania. Underdevelopment and an UncapturedPeasantry (London: Heinemann, 1980),passim; S. D. Mueller ,'Retarded Capitalism in Tanzania', in R. Miliband and J. Saville (eds),The Socialist Register, 1980 (London: Merlin Press, 1980); and D. F.Bryceson, 'Peasant Commodity Production in Post-Colonial Tanzania', African Affairs , vol. 81, no . 325 (1982).

56. W. Biermann, 'Tanzanian Politics under IMF Pressure' , in M. Hodd(ed.), Tanzania After Nyerere (London: Pinter, 1988), ch. 19; W.Tordoff, 'Tanzania' , The Annual Register, 1986, pp. 226-7 .


57. W. Tordoff, 'Tanzania', The Annual Register , 1985-90. See also C.G.Kahama, T.L. Maliyamkono and S. Wells, The Challenge for Tanzania's Economy (London: James Currey, 1986), Part II, for an analysisof the Tanzanian economy before the IMF agreement was formalised.The authors observed that 'Tanzania is aid-dependent exactly in theway the Aru sha Declaration sought to avoid' (p. 159).

58. For essential background reading, see C. Pratt, The Critical Phase inTanzania , 1945-1968. Ny erere and the Emergence of a Socialist Strategy (Cambridge University Press, 1976)and his 'Tanzania's transitionto socialism: reflections of a democratic socialist' , in B. U. Mwansasuand C. Pratt (eds), Towards Socialism in Tanzania (Toronto : Unversityof Toronto Press, 1979), pp . 193-236.

59. The Guardian, 11 June 1986.60. J. K. van Donge and A. J. Liviga, 'The Democratization of Zanzibar

and the 1985 General Election', The Journal of Commonwealth andComparative Politics, vol. XXVIII, no. 2 (July 1990), p. 214.

61. For details see W. Tordoff, 'Tanzania' , The Annual Register, 1995, pp.245-6.

62. In this section I have drawn on R. W. Johnson's chapter on 'Guinea' inJ. Dunn (ed.), West African States: Failure and Promise. A Study inComparative Politics (Cambridge University Press, 1978). Supplementary material has been taken from Ladipo Adamolekun, 'The SocialistExperience in Guinea', in Rosberg and Callaghy (1979) and K. Whiteman, 'Guinea' , The Annual Register, 1984-90 .

63. For a discussion of the extent and ways in which the economic crisis ofthe 1980shas impinged on Africa 's franc zone countries, see P. Chabal ,'The Price of Money : France and Structural Adjustment in Franco phone Africa', African Affairs, vol. 90, no. 359 (April 1991).

64. K.Whiteman, 'Guinea', The Annual Register, 1963, p. 264; Keesing 's,vol. 41 (1995), no . 2, February, 40395-6, and no. 6, June, 40586--7.

65. See S. Decalo, ' Ideological Rhetoric and Scientific Socialism in Beninand Congo /Brazzaville', in Rosberg and Callaghy (1979), pp. 231-64.Useful background informa tion is to be found in A. Racine, 'ThePeople's Republic of Benin' and 'The People's Republic of Congo', inWiles (1982).

66. This section is based especially on M.L. Martin, 'The Rise and" Thermidorianization" of Radical Praetorianism in Benin', in J.Markakis and M. Waller (eds), Military Mar xist Regimes in Africa(London: Frank Cass, 1986), pp . 58-81, supplemented by Decalo(1979) and Racine (1982). Unless otherwise indicated, the quotationsare from Martin.

67. West Africa (London), 24 Ma y 1982, pp. 1379-80.68. K. Whiteman, 'Togo and Benin' , The Annual Register, 1985-90; The

Guardian, 26 March 1991. See also C.Allen, ' ''Goodbye to all that" .The short and sad story of socialism in Benin' , Journal of CommunistS tudies, vol. 8, no . 2 (1992).

69. K.Whiteman, 'Togo and Benin' , The Annual Register, 1994, p. 284.Keesing's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, R3-4, andnos 3-5 , March-May; vol. 42, no. 3: March 1996,40982 .


70. S. Decalo, 'Socio-economic Constraints on Radical Action in thePeople's Republic of Congo', in Markakis and Waller (1986), p. 41.This section is mainly based on Decalo's essay, supplemented by C.Young, Ideology and Development in Africa (New Haven, Conn.: YaleUniversity Press, 1982), pp . 32-42, Racine (1982) and for the recentperiod K. Whiteman , The Annual Register, 1985-90 .

71. Young (1982), p. 42.72. K. Whiteman, 'Congo', The Annual Register, 1992, pp . 274--5.73. Ibid., 1993, pp. 273-4, and 1994, pp . 287-8; Keesing's, vol. 41 (1995),

Annual Reference Supplement, RIO, and nos 1-12, January to December.

74. In this section I have drawn upon the articles on 'Somalia' contributedannually by Christopher Clapham to The Annual Register from 1969,David D. Laitin's chapter on 'Somal ia's Military Government andScientific Socialism', in Rosberg and Callaghy (1979) and J. Markakis,'Radical Military Regimes in the Horn of Africa', in Markakis andWaller (1986). Additional points have been drawn from B. Lynch, 'TheSomali Democratic Republic. The one that got away', in Wiles (1982),ch.9.

75. R. Dowden, 'Siad Barre leaves a legacy of division', The Independent(London) , 29 January 1991, p. II.

76. Markakis, 'Radical Military Regimes', in Markakis and Waller (1986),p.27.

77. Clapham, 'Somalia', The Annual Register, 1986--90; Dowden (1991);The Guardian, 25 June 1991.

78. Clapham, 'Somalia ', The Annual Register, 1993, pp. 247-8 , and 1994,pp. 261-2; Keesing's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement,R29-30, and nos 1-12, January-December.

79. This section is based on J . W. Harbeson, 'Socialist Politics in Revolutionary Ethiopia', in Rosberg and Callaghy (1979), pp . 345-72; F.Halliday and M. Molyneux, The Ethiopian Revolution (London: Verso,1981); J. Markakis, 'Radical Military Regimes' in Markakis andWaller (1986), pp. 14--38; D. Pool, Eritrea . Africa 's Longest War(London: Anti-Slavery Society, 1979); and especially on the followingauthoritative writings of Christopher Clapham: his annual articles on'Ethiopia' for The Annual Register, 1974--90, his article 'RevolutionarySocialist Development in Ethiopia', African Affairs, vol. 86, no. 343(April 1987), and his book Transformation and Continu ity in Revolutionary Ethiopia (Cambridge University Press, 1988).

80. J. Markakis, Ethiop ia: Anatomy of a Traditional Polity (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1974), p. 394 and conclusion, passim .

81. The reader's attention is particularly drawn to the discussion ofagriculture in Clapham's article in African Affairs (April 1987) andto ch. 7 of his book Transformation and Continuity (1988). See alsoP. T. W. Baxter, 'Ethiopia's Unacknowledged Problem: The Oromo',African Affairs, vol. 77, no. 308 (July 1978) and Halliday and Molyneux (1981), p.197, who point out that an additional grievance amongthe Oromos was 'the regime's desire to extract the surplus from the

Notes and R eferences 359

countryside and carry through the " second" land reform against theinterests of richer peasants' .

82. See Clapham (1987) and (1988).83. See C. Clapham, 'The Workers' Party of Ethiopia', Journal of Com

munist Studies, vol. I, no. I (March 1985), pp . 76-7 .84. The events leading to , and immediately following, Mengistu 's downfall

were fully covered in several British newspapers, for example: TheObserver , 26 May and 2 June 1991; The Guardian, 22 and 30 May , 4July 1991.

85. Quoted by J. Hammond, 'Revolution of Hearts and Minds' , TheObserver, 2 June 1991.

86. C. Clapham, 'Ethiopia and Eritrea: the politics of post-insurgency ', inJ . A. Wiseman (ed.), Democra cy and Political Change in Sub-SaharanAfrica (London: Routledge, 1995), ch. 6, especially pp. 128-34, and'Ethiopia' , The Annual Register, 1994, pp . 259--60.

87. Keesing's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, R13, andno. 5, May, 40539, and no . 8, August, 40665.

88. Clapham (1995), p.122 and passim. Paul H. Brietzke argues that thereare grounds for 'a guarded optimism' over Ethiopia's 'constitutionalleap into . . . an ethnicized attempt at democratization': see his article'Ethiopia's "leap in the dark" : Federalism and Self-Determination inthe New Constitution', Journal of African Law , vol. 39, no . I (1995),p. 19.

89. Clapham (1995), pp . 125-8; Keesing's , vol. 41 (1995), RI2-13.90. D. Pool , 'Eritrean Independence: the Legacy of the Derg and the

Politics of Reconstruction' , African Affairs, vol. 92, no. 368 (July1993), p. 389.

91. An estimated 60000 fighters were killed in the struggle for independence ; there were also over one million refugees, emigres and exiles:Pool (1993), p. 394.

92. For elaboration of this argument see Clapham (1995), pp. 124-5 and128.

93. The small , anti-FRELIMO COREMO, based in Lusaka , counted forlittle and only put a very small number of guerrillas in the field.The multitude of tin y Mozambican exile movements indulged inhostile criticism of FRELIMO, but did not join the fight against thecolonial government. However, with the end of the independencestruggle in Zimbabwe, the MRN transferred its base to South Africafrom where it began operations in Mozambique. The latter thenbecame a two-party state and eventually - when a new constitutioncame into effect in November 1990 - a multi-party state (the Democratic Union and II smaller parties put up candidates for the NationalAssembly elections in October 1994). See Munslow (1983), pp . 84, 128and passim ; R. Hallett, 'Mozambique', The Annual Register, 1994, pp.296-8.

94. See Stoneman, 'Some Concluding Thoughts', in Stoneman (1988),p.365.

95. Clapham (1995), p. 123.


96. K. E. Svendsen, 'Socialist Problems after the Arusha Declaration',East Africa Journal, vol. IV, no . 2 (Ma y 1967), p. 12.

97. See R. L. Sklar , 'The Nature of Class Domination in Africa', Journal ofModern African Studies, vol. 17, no. 4 (1979), pp . 551-2.

9 Regional Groupings and the OAU

1. K. Nkrumah, Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism (NewYork: International Publi shers , 1965); Africa Must Unite (London:Heinemann, 1963).

2. R. L. Sklar , 'Political Aspects of Regional Organization in Africa' ,synopsis ofa lecture in the 'Africa and the World' series, University ofZambia, 1966 (mimeo). The first two points were also made byProfessor Sklar in this paper.

3. W. J. Foltz, From French West Africa to the Mali Federation (NewHaven , Conn .: Yale University Press, 1965), p. 97. This account of theMali federation is based substantially on Foltz's study.

4. Ibid ., p. 187.5. J. S. Nye, Jr., Pan-Africanism and East African Integration (Cambridge,

Mass.: Harvard University Press , 1966), supplemented by my personalrecollections as a result of attending a University of East Africaconference on federation in Nairobi in 1963.

6. See W. Tordoff, Government and Politics in Tanzania (Nairobi: EastAfrican Publishing House, 1967), pp. 171-3, and 'Tanzania' , in TheAnnual Register, 1977, p. 217.

7. W.Tordoff, 'Tanzania', The Annual Register, 1990-5. For the 1995elections, see pp . 235-6, above.

8. K. Whiteman , 'African Conferences and Organizations', in The AnnualRegister, 1989, p. 406; Keesing's , vol. 41 (1995), Annual ReferenceSupplement, 'Regional Groupings, R38.

9. The early part of this section is based on E. N . Gladden, 'The EastAfrican Common Services Organisation' (mimeo ., 1963), and especially on the paper by J. Banfield , 'The Structure and Administrationof the East Africa High Commission and the East African CommonServices Organisation', University of East Africa Conference on EastAfrican Federation, Nairobi, 26-30 November 1963.

10. The section which follows is based on 'The Reshaping of East AfricanEconomic Co-operation', part 1 by P. Robson, and part 2 by A. R.Roe, in East Africa Journal, vol. IV, no . 5 (August 1967).

11. A. Hazlewood, 'The End of the East African Community: What arethe Lessons for Regional Integration Schemes?' , Journal of CommonMarket Studies, vol. XVIII, no . I (September 1979), p. 44.

12. This section is based on 'African Conferences and Institutions', in TheAnnual Register, 1976-80 (by O.E. Wilton-Marshall) and 1981-90 (byK. Whiteman); on articles in West Africa (London), 24 May and 7June 1982, notably the article by S. K. B. Asante on 'Trade problemsand prospects' in the 24 May issue and on Asante's chapter ' ECOWASjCEAO: Conflict and Cooperation in West Afr ica' , in R. I.


Onwuka and A. Sesay (eds), The Future of Regionalism in Africa(London: Macmillan, 1985). See also O.J.C.B. Ojo, ' Regional Cooperation and Integration' , in O.J.C.B. Ojo, D.K. Orwa and C.M.B.Utete, African International Relations (London: Longman, 1985).

13. Keesing 's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, 'SierraLeone', R29; M. Huband, 'Secret war of mindless mutilat ion' , TheObserver, 4 February 1996.

14. V. Brittain, 'A land shackled by war and factional ism', The Guardian,10 April 1996.

15. Keesing 's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement , 'Liberia',R18-19 and no. 10 (October), 'Liberia', 40759.

16. The Observer, 7 April 1996; The Guardian, II and 17 April 1996.17. Keesing's , vol. 41, nos 7-8 (July 1995), 'ECOWAS', 40635.18. This section is based on P. Goodison, 'SADCC: Prospects and

Problems until the year 2000' (University of Liverpool , 1982, mimeo);R. Leys and A. Tostensen, 'Regional Co-operation in Southern Africa :The Southern African Development Coordination Conference', Review ofAfrican Political Economy, 23 (January-April 1982); R. Tangri,Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa (London: James Currey, 1985) pp .143-6; and R. Sakapaji, 'Regional Cooperation in Southern Africa :The Southern African Development Coordination Conference(SADCC) - Collective Self-Reliance or Collective Dependence?' , MAEcon . Dissertation in Development Studies, University of Manchester(December 1984). The above sources have been up-dated in the light ofDouglas G. Anglin's informative paper, 'SADCC after Nkomati',Af rican Affairs, vol. 84, no . 335 (April 1985); E.A. Friedland, 'TheSouthern African Development Co-ordination Conference and theWest : Cooperation or Conflict?', Journal of Modern African Studies,vol. 23, no . 2 (1985); and S. Chan (with L.J. Chingambo) , 'Dependency in the Region' , in S. Chan (ed.), Exporting Apartheid. ForeignPolicies in Southern Africa, 1978-1988 (London: Macmillan , 1990).Among other accounts is that by L. Abegunrin, 'The Southern AfricanDevelopment Coordination Conference: Pol itics of Dependence' ,ch. II in Onwuka and Sesay (1985). Basic factual information is tobe found under 'African Conferences and Organizations ' , in TheAnnual Register, 1979-90.

19. Friedland (1985), pp. 290-1.20. J. Mayall , 'The South African Crisis: The Major External Actors' , ch.

10 in S. Johnson (ed.), South Africa. No Turning Back (London:Macmillan, 1988), p. 317.

21. Tangri (1985), p. 129.22. Chan (1990), quotations in turn at pp . 136, 134, and 141.23. S.c. Nolutshungu, 'Strategy and Power : South Africa and its Neigh

bours', in Johnson (1988), p. 347.24. Keesing's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement , R38, and

'Mauritius', December, 40854.25. Ibid., vol. 41 (1995), Annual Reference Supplement, 'SADC', R38 and

'SADC': no . 2 - February, 40397, no . 6 - June , 40588, no. 8 - August,40670.

362 Notes and Ref erences

26. Ibid., vol. 41, no. 8 (August 1995),40670.27. Th is issue was discussed at a SADC con sultati ve confere nce at

Lilongwe, Malawi, in February 1995. Keesing 's, vol. 41, no . 2 (February 1995), 'SADC' , 40397.

28. C. Hoskyns, 'The Organ isation of African Unity and Eastern Africa'(University of Dar es Salaam, mimeo , December 1966), p. I, subsequently published in an amended form as 'Pan-Africanism and Integration' in A. Hazlewood (ed.) , Af rican Int egra tion and Disintegration:Case S tudies in Economic and Political Union (London: Oxford University Press, 1967). I have found this paper helpful in prepar ing thissection; quotation s are taken from the original version.

29. Stud ies of Pan-African ism includ e C. Legum , Pan-Africanism: A ShortPolitical Guide (London: Pall Mall, 1962) and I. Geiss, The PanAfrican M ovement (London: Methuen, 1974).

30. The story of PAFMECSA is told by R.H.F. Cox in Pan-Africanism inPractice: An East African Study , PAFMECSA, 1958-64 (London:Oxford University Press, 1964). For the background to the form at ionof the OAU, see I. Wallerstein, Af rica: The Politics of Unity (NewYork: Random House, 1967).

31. Hoskyns (1966); Z. Cervenka, The Organisation of African Unity andits Charter (New York: Praeger , 1968); and C.O.C. Amate, Inside theOA U. Pan-Africanism in Practice (London: Macmillan , 1986), which isa detailed and thorough study of the Organisation.

32. Amate (186), passim; D. Austin and R. Nagel , 'The Organ izat ion ofAfrican Unit y', The World Today , vol. 22 (December 1966); R. Nageland R. Rathbone, 'The OAU at Kin shasa', The World Today , vol. 23(November 1967); and M. Wolfers, Politics in the Organization ofAfrican Unity (London: Methuen, 1976), pp . 88- 9 and 201.

33. R. Luckham, 'French Militar ism in Africa', Review of African PoliticalEconomy, no. 24 (May- August 1982), p. 77. For an account of theFranco-African conferences, see J. L. Dagut, 'Les Sommets FrancoAfricains: Un Instrument de la Presence Francaise en Afrique' , AnmieAfricaine, part II, ch. 2 (Pa ris: Editions A. Pedone, 1980).

34. Further details will be found in ch. 9 of the first edition of this bookand in relevant ent ries - 'Chad' , 'Western Sahara' , and 'AfricanConferen ces and Organizat ions' - of The Annual Register, especially1982-4.

35. The Observer, 29 September 1991; A. G . Pazzan ita, 'Morocco versusPolisario : a Political Interpretation', Journal of M odern African S tudies, vol. 32, no. 2 (1994).

36. For an excellent study of Chad , of how the problems facing it werehandled by the OAU, and of fore ign interference in its affairs, see S. C.Nolutshungu, Limits of Anarchy . Int ervention and State Formation inChad (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia , 1996). See also K.Whiteman, 'Chad', The Annual Register, 1990, pp. 274-5.

37. See Wolfers (1976), ch. V.38. J. Mayall , 'African Unit y and the OAU: The Place of a Political Myth

in African Diplomacy', Handbook of World Affairs, vol. 27 (1973),p. 121.


39. See my articles on Tanzania and Uganda in The Annual Register, 1972,1978 and 1979 .

40. K.Whiteman, 'African Conferences and Organizations', The AnnualRegister, 1993, p. 427; Keesing's, vol. 41 (1995), Annual ReferenceSupplement, 'OAU', R37, and no. 6 (June) 'OAU', 40588.

41. The Guardian, 29 June ; 6, 8, 10,26,27 and 31 July, 1 and 5 August, 4,10 and 13 September 1996.

42. Based mainly on 'African Conferences and Organizations' in TheAnnual Register, especially for 1974-90, and Keesing's, vol. 41(1995), Annual Reference Supplement, R37.

43. Keesing's, vol. 41, no. 11 : November 1995, 'OAU', 40813; vol. 42,no. 2 (February 1996), 'OAU', 40941.

44. Keesing's, vol. 41, no. 6 (June 1995), 'OAU', 40588.45. Ibid ., vol. 42, no. 2 (February 1996), 'OAU', 40941.46. K. Whiteman, 'African Conferences and Organizations', The Annual

Register, 1990, pp . 419-20 .47. Ibid. , 1993, p.426.48. Amate (1986), p. 568.49. Keesing's, vol. 42, no. 2 : February 1996, 'OAU', 40941.

10 Conclusions: Ideology, the Post-Colonial State and Development

1. C. Geertz, 'Ideology as a Cultural System' , in D. E. Apter (ed.),Ideology and Discontent (New York : The Free Press, 1964), pp. 47and 52ff.

2. E. Shils, 'The Concept and Function of Ideology', A Reprint from theInternational Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 7 (New York :Macmillan and the Free Press, 1968), p. 68.

3. Paper on 'Ideology' presented to the Political Theory seminar, Department of Government, University of Manchester , 1972. In his bookIdeology (London: Pall Mall, 1970), p. 15, John Plamenatz providedthe following minimal definition of ideology: 'a set of closely relatedbeliefs or ideas, or even attitudes, characteristic of a group or community' .

4. L. W. Pye, Politics, Personality and National Building. Burma's Searchfor Identity (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962).

5. J. P. Nett!, 'Strategies in the Study of Political Development', in C.Leys (ed.), Politics and Change in Developing Countries: Studies in theTheory and Practice of Development (Cambridge University Press,1969), p. 22.

6. See p. 213, above .7. C. Young, Ideology and Development in Africa (New Haven, Conn .:

Yale University Press, 1982), ch. 6.8. A. H. Hanson, The Process of Planning: A Study of India's Five Year

Plans, 1950-64 (Oxford Universit y Press, 1966), p. 535.9. Cf. Richard L. Sklar: 'Few sophisticated socialists today rate the

"developmental merits " of socialism above those of capitalism; fewerstill would dispute the short-term advantages of capitalism for societies


at early stages of industrial development.' 'Beyond Capitalism andSocialism in Africa', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 26, no. I(1988), p. 14.

10. The Guardian, 16 September 1991.II . J. K. Nyerere, Freedom and Socialism: A Selection from Writings and

Speeches, 1965--67 (Dar es Salaam : Oxford University Press, 1968),p.4.

12. Sklar (1988), p. 14.13. R. L. Sklar, 'The Nature of Class Domination in Africa', Journal of

Modern African Studies , vol. 17, no. 4 (1979) , pp . 532, 539, and'Postimperialism. A Class Analysis of Multinational Corporate Expansion' , Comparative Politics, vol. 9, no. 1 (October 1976), p. 87.

14. D. H. Jones, 'Rwanda and Burundi', The Annual Register , 1972, andR. Hallett, 'Burundi' , The Annual Register, 1988; K. Whiteman,'Mauritania', The Annual Register, 1988-90; The Guardian, 21 August1991 .

15. Sklar (1988), p. 19, summarises the views expressed by Bender in hisPresidential Address, 'The United States and Africa ', to the twentyninth annual meeting of the African Studies Association, Madison,Wisconsin, 31 October 1986.

16. Mozambique Revolution, no. 56, June-September 1973, quoted in B.Munslow, 'FRELIMO and the Mozambican Revolution', PhD thesis,University of Manchester (April 1980), p. 380.

17. See W. Tordoff, 'Decentralisation: Comparative Experience in Commonwealth Africa', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 32, no. 4,1994.

18. Bienen exempted Kenya from this trend on the ground that theadministration itself became 'a vehicle' for citizen access to the state .See H. Bienen, Kenya: The Politics of Participation and Control(Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 64 and 195; N. Kasfir , TheShrinking Political Arena (Berkeley: University of California Press,1976).

19. W. Tordoff and R. A. Young, 'Decentralisation and Public SectorReform in Zambia', Journal ofSouthern African Studies, vol. 20, no. 2,1994.

20. S. Decalo, 'Socio-Economic Constraints on Radical Action in thePeople's Republic of Congo', in J. Markarkis and M. Waller (eds),Military Marxist Regimes in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1986), p. 53.

21. N. Swainson, The Development of Corporate Capitalism in Kenya,1918-1977 (London : Heinemann, 1980), p. 288.

22. S. George, A Fate Worse than Debt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, revisededn, 1989), especially chs 3 and 11 (IMF) and 5, 6 and 7 (Africa).

23. M. J. Dent, 'Lessons of the World Debt Tables (1992-3), figures for theyears 1985-92; the measurement of progress in the battle to obtainremission of all the backlog of the unpayable debt of the governmentsof poorer countries before the year 2000 AD' (Keele, 1993, mimeo),pp. 12-14. I have benefited from several helpful discussions withMartin Dent - a Fellow of Keele University and Co-Chair of Jubilee2000 - on the subject of debt remission.

Notes and Refer ences 365

24. W. Reno , Corruption and Stat e Politics in Sierra Leone (CambridgeUn iversity Press, 1995), p. 15 and passim.

25. R. A. Young, 'Sta tes and Markets in Africa ', in M. Moran and M.Wright (eds), The Market and the Stat e. Studies in Interdependence(London: Macmillan, 1991), p. 159. My discussion of privat isat ionboth here and in Chapter 6 draws heavily on this paper.

26. P. Cook and M. Minogue, 'Wai ting for privatization in developingcountr ies: towards the integration of economic and non-economicexplanations' , Public Administration and Development, vol. 10 (1990),p. 10. In discussing the dela ys in privatisation I have drawn upon thispaper and P. Cook and C. Kirkpatrick, 'Privatisation in Less Developed Countries (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1988), as well as Young (1991),pp . 158 and 169-72.

27. Young (1991), pp . 165-9.28. Ibid ., p.165.29. Under a new deal with Sierra Rutile Ltd ., the Sierra Leone government

stood to receive a ten-fold increase in the revenue paid to it by thecompany. 'Inside Story - "Trade Slaves" : Sierra Leone', BBCl , 2October 1991 (produced by Steve Hewlett) .

30. N. Woodsworth, 'Namibia 3: A difficult path to economic independence' , Financial Times (London), 22 March 1990, p. 19. In anothersection of this informed survey, Woodsworth points out that 'Namibia's independence is pol itical; for a long time to come, however, it willremain tied to South African trade, transportation networks , privateinvestment, techn ology and Johanne sburg financial markets' . Unemployment is Namibia's grea test development problem, parti cularly as itaffects Owamboland , the base of SWAPO 's poli tical support (Wood sworth, 'Namibia 2', p. 18).

31. Woodsworth, 'Namibia 2 and 3' , pp . 18-19, and 'Trial run for regionalpeace', ibid., 'Namibia ' , p. 17.

32. J. K. Galbraith, 'At the Mercy of the Military', The Guardian, 6 August1991.

33. J. Healey, 'Botswana: A Study in Political Accountability' , in J. Healeyand W. Tordoff (eds), Votes and Budgets. Comparative Studies inAccountable Governance in the South (London: Macmillan, 1995), p. 36.

34. See P. Cook and M. Minogue, 'Towards a Political Economy ofPrivatisation in Less Developed Countries' (International Development Centre, University of Manchester, 1989, mimeo), p.ll , and E. A.Brett, 'Adjustment and the State: The Problem of AdministrativeReform' , IDS Bulletin (Sussex), vol. 19, no. 4 (October 1988). Brettmaintains (p. 4) that ' the role of the state must remain central in anyeffective developmental strategy' .

35. ASEAN: Association of South-East Asian Nations, formed in 1967;SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, formedin 1985. See P. Bhalla, 'ASEAN: A Study in Regional Cooperation',and 'Regional Cooperation: Can South Asia meet the Challenge?',Manchester Discussion Papers in Development Studies (InternationalDevelopment Centre, University of Manchester), nos 8803 dated July1988 and 8804 dated No vember 1988 respectively.


36. See M. F. Lofchie, The Policy Factor: Agricultural Performance inKenya and Tanzania (Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner, 1989).

37. Report on Industrialisation and the Gold Coast, by W. A. Lewis (Accra:Government Printing Department, 1953), para. 253.

38. C. Pratt, 'Has Middle Power Internationalism a Future?', in C. Pratt(ed.), Middle Power Internationalism. The North -South Dimension(Kingston & Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990), pp.146-7.

39. See p. 30, above.40. North-South: A Programme for Survival, the Report of the Indepen

dent Commission on International Development Issues under theChairmanship of Willy Brandt (hereafter the Brandt CommissionReport: London: Pan Books, 1980), p. 240.

41. C. Kirkpatrick and F. Nixson, 'The North-South Debate: Reflectionson the Brandt Commission Report', Manchester Discussion Papers inDevelopment Studies (International Development Centre, University ofManchester, n.d.), no. 8104, p. 14.

42. The Guardian, 15 February 1996 (British aid) and 13 September 1996(Third World funding).

43. 'Official Debt of Developing Countries: The Trinidad Terms', Background Brief, F. & C.O., London, January 1995 (revised). (This paperwas prepared for general briefing purposes and was not an expressionof government policy.)

44. Symposium on 'Africa: Transcending the Debt Crisis', University ofManchester , 7 February 1996, address by A. Adedeji .

45. Dent (1993), p.14.46. K. Watkins, 'IMF holds a gold key for Third World', The Guardian, 10

June 1996.47. 'Official Debt . . .' , Background Brief, F. & C.O., January 1995

(revised).48. Watkins (1996).49. G. Martin, 'Continuity and Change in Franco-African Relations',

Journal of Modern African Studies , vol. 33, no. I (1995), pp . 14-20(quotation, p. 20). The impact of the shift in French policy was alreadyclear by the end of 1993, as the case of Madagascar reveals. Francejoined its Western partners and the Washington-based financial institutions in pressing the Malagasy government - as the price ofgranting much-needed loans - to devalue its currency by 40 per cent,reduce its budget deficit, and cut down the size and cost of the civilservice: The Guardian, 30 December 1993.

50. 'Lome IV Convention as revised by the agreement signed in Mauritiuson 4 November 1995', The ACP-EU Courier, no. 155: January-February 1996, p. 2; Sklar (1979), p. 551. See also Richard L. Sklar 'spresidential address on 'Democracy in Africa' to the twenty-fifthannual meeting of the African Studies Association, November 1982,reprinted in R. L. Sklar and C. S. Whitaker, African Politics andProblems in Development (Boulder, Col. : Lynne Rienner, 1991), ch. 12.

51. Quoted in Background Brief, August 1991, p. 5.


52. L. Diamond, J. J. Linz, and S. M. Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries, vol. 2: Africa (Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner, 1988),p. xxxi.

53. W. Tordoff, 'Democracy in Botswana: an external assessment', in J.Holm and P. Molutsi (eds), Democracy in Botswana. The Proceedingsof a Symposium held in Gaborone, 1-5 August 1988 (Gaborone:Macmillan, 1989), p. 281.

54. C. McGreal, 'Museveni swears by his no-party panacea ', The Observer,12 May 1996, p. 19.

55. R. Sandbrook, 'Liberal Democracy in Africa: A Socialist-RevisionistPerspective', Canadian Journal of African Studies, vol. XXII, no. 2(1988) , p. 251.

56. The ACP-EU Courier, no . 155 (January-February 1996), p. 7.57. M. H. Lekorwe, 'The kgotla and the freedom square: one-way or two

way communication?', in Holm and Molutsi (1989), p. 217.58. The election for Thamaga constituency could not be held on 15

October 1994, the general election date, because of the death of MrP. S. Mmusi, the BDP candidate. The election for this seat took placeon 26 November 1994 and was won by Mrs G.T. K. Kokorwe, the newBDP candidate: Republic of Botswana . Report to the M inister ofPresidential Affairs and Public Administration on the General Elect ion,1989, and 1994, and Report on the 1994 Parliamentary Elections forThamaga Constituency, 26 November 1994 (all three reports wereprinted in Gaborone by the Government Printer, n.d.).

59. See J . D. Holm , 'Botswana: A Paternalistic Democracy', in Diamond,Linz and Lipset (1988); R. Charlton, 'Bureaucrats and Politicians inBotswana's Policy-Making Process: A Re-Interpretation', The Journalof Commonwealth and Comparative Polit ics, vol. XXIX, no. 3; and W.Tordoff, 'Local Administration in Botswana', Public Administrationand Development, vol. 8, no. 2 (April-June 1988).

60. T. Hodgkin, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (London: Frederick MulIer, 1956), p. 34; K. Robinson, 'Political Development in French WestAfrica ', in C. W. Stillman (ed.), Africa in the Modern World(Universityof Chicago, 1955), pp . 143-5. It was not , however, until 1914 that anAfrican was elected to the French Chamber of Deputies; this wasBlaise Diagne, who became an under-secretary in several Frenchgovernments. R. S. Morgenthau, Political Parties in French-SpeakingWest Africa (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1964), p. 131.

61. J. A. Wiseman, Democracy in Black Africa: Survival and Revival (NewYork : Paragon House, 1990), p. 12.

62. J. A. Wiseman, The New Struggle for Democra cy in Africa (Aldershot:Avebury, 1996), p. 157.

63. An opposition alliance won all 60 seats in the 20 constituencies on theisland of Mauritius; it claimed that the outgoing government had beendefeated because Sir Anerood Jugnauth, the former Prime Minister,had lost touch with his rural base and the urban poor: Keesing 's,vol. 41, no. 12, 1995: 'Mauritius', December, 40854. For Benin seeKeesing's, vol. 42, no. 3 (March 1996),40982.


64. In May 1996, the MMD used its parliamentary majority to pushthrough the National Assembly a constitutional amendment bill, theeffect of which was to prevent ex-President Kaunda from standing forre-election.

65. C. Clapham , 'Ethiopia and Eritrea: the politics of post-insurgency', inJ. A. Wiseman (ed.), Democracy and Political Change in Sub-SaharanAfr ica (London: Routledge, 1995), pp . 117 and 128-34.

66. The Ogonis hold Shell responsible for causing pollution and for actingin collusion with the Nigerian security agencies, to which it hassupplied arms in the past. The company was now seeking a contractto supply 'upgraded weapons': P. Ghazi and C. Duodu in TheObserver, II February 1996.

67. Sklar (1988), p. II. Brett argues for 'the introduction of effectivecompetition into service provision, rather than changes in the form ofownership . . . consumers must be allowed to choose between publicagencies' . Brett (1988), p. 10.

68. Galbraith (1991).69. C. S. Whitaker, 'Doctrines of Development and Precepts of the State :

The World Bank and the Fifth Iteration of the African Case' in Sklarand Whitaker (1991), p. 345.

70. P. Chabal, 'Introduction' in Chabal (ed.) Polit ical Domination inAfrica. Reflections on the Limits of Power (Cambridge UniversityPress, 1986), p. 15.

71. In 'Politics and Vision in Africa', in Chabal (1986), ch. 2, p. 36, T. M.Callaghy writes that: 'As in early modern Europe and nineteenthcentury Latin America, the African centralising patrimonial state is aLeviathan, but a lame one.'

Index

Abacha, Sani, 10, 13, 15,200,204,205,317Abiola, Moshood , 15, 92Abo rigines' Rights Protection Society (ARPS) , 51Acheampong, I. K., 189, 195: corruption of

regime, 197,201; perfo rmance, 200- 1; Uni onGovernment , 196, 200-1, 207

Action Group (AG) (Nige ria) , 53, 131: origins, 54;seeks electoral allies, 92; use of regional powerbase, 130, 131

Adamoleku n, Lad ipo , 238Admi nistra tion, 145- 53: Africa nisa tion, 153- 5; civil

service relations with military regimes. 156-7 ;colonial legacy, 3, 145; decent ralisation, 8-9 , II ,164-70; parasta tal secto r, 1584 ; post-colonia l,effect on development, 155- 8; see alsoBureaucracy; Institutions

Aferwerki, Issaias , 252, 253, 254, 287African Liberatio n Committee (ALC), 278, 280, 28IAfrica n Minework ers' Union (AMU) (Northern

Rh odesia, Zambi a), 60, 92African National Congress (AN C) (South Africa ), 16,

70,72-4,76-9,219, 273-4: local governmentreform, 169; national integration , 120, 121;women's representation. 105

Africa n National Congress (ANC) (zambia), 133Afrique Equatoriale Francaise (AEF), see French

Equatorial AfricaAfri que Occidenta le Francaise (AOF), see Fre nch

West AfricaAfro-Shirazi Par ty (ASP) (zanziba r), 114, 235Agric ulture, 98-9: food produ ction levels, 84;

functional specialists, 40; IMF prescriptions,31)- 12; investment in inter-war years, 38-9 ;planning measures, 176-7; see also Cash crops

Ahidjo, Ahmadou, 60, 183Aki nto la, S. L., 13(}-I, 190Akoto, Bafuor Osei, 54AkulTo, Fred , 201-2Alavi, Harnza, 151Algeria, 14,41 , 78, 119: bur eaucracy, 148;

constitutional experiments/reforms, 14, 17- 18,136; economic Iiberalisation , 18; econo micperforma nce, 292, 293; fight forindependence, 209; fundamentalistcha llenge, 17, 18; ideo logy, 289; loca l electio nresu lts (1990), 17; military coup, 180

All-African Peop le's Confe rence (AAPC), 276All Peop le's Congress (APC) (Sierra Leone), 114, 188Alliance for Democracy (AFORD) (Ma lawi) , 17, 141Alves, Nito, 223Ama te, C. O. c., 287Amin, Idi , 189, 267, 268,309: hum an rights

abuses, 296Amin, Samir, 20Amour, Salmin, 16, 235Anglo-Nigerian Defence Pact (1960), 68An gola , 230, 233, 254, 255: civil war , 91; class no t yet

political determinant, 106-7; coup attempt, 180,223; Cuba n intervention , 72- 3, 74, 212, 223,withdrawal, 74; degree of aut onom y, 12-1 3,222-3, 280, 292; earl y trade with Euro peans, 29;economic and politica l libera lisatio n, 17, 18, 136,225; economic performance, 292, 293;

educational standards, 3; indebtedness, 302;institutions created, 223; joins IMF, 225;liberat ion struggle, 211-12 ; manpower, 154,222,308; member PTA, 265, SADCC, 271; oilwealth, 13; post-in dependencedevelopments, 221-6; relations with foreigncompanies, 222, 307, with South Africa , 72, 224,272, 273; revolutionary regime, 7, 57; ru ralproletariat, 98; state capacity , 300;sulTering, 26; UN presence, 221, 225; women'srole. 102- 3; see also Portuguese colonies

Apter, David, 20Ara b Mahgreb Unio n (AMU), 265Arboussier Gabriel d' , 52, 53, 146Ashant i, 28, 33, 34, 54, 132: cocoa hold-ups, 39;

Confederacy, 33, 34; sub-nationalis m, 10, 85-6Association of Southern African States , 274Austin, D., struggle for power in Asha nti, 332, n. 18Awolowo, Obafemi , 92, 130, 131Aydid, Mohammed Farah , 246Azikiwe, Nnamdi , 42, 53

Babangida, Ibrahim, 92, 118, 194, 199- 200, 204: ondivestiture, 162,306; electoral competition, 15

Banda, Hastings Kamuzu, 154Band a, W. H., 17, 101, 142Banfield, Jane, 266Baran , Paul, 20Barre, Mohamed Siyad , 95, 137, 242, 243, 244, 245:

human rightsabuses, 296; mediation role. 281Barwah, C.M., 189Battuta, Ibn, 28Baylies, Caro lyn, 107Bechauanaland, pre-independenceelections, 64; see

also BotswanaBehrma n, Lucy, 156, 160Belgian Congo , 35, 37, 41, 66, 276: see a/so zaireBen Ali, Zayn al-Abdin , 18Ben Bella, Mohammed , 209Bender, Gerald J ., 297Benin, 9, 121, 137, 139, 142,206, 239-40:

decentralisation, 299; removal of Kerekou , 14,136, 206, 240; smuggling, 19, 26; see a/soDahomey

Berg, Elliot, 59, 61, 62Berlin conference (1884-5), 29,31Biya, Paul, 14, 137Black Consciousness Movement (Sou th Africa), 74Bloc Dernocratique Senegalais (BDS), 53Boer War, 69Bokassa, Jean-Bedel, human rights abuses, 197,296Bongo,Omar, 137Botha, P. W., 71-2,73Botha, Pik, 75Botswana, 47, 65, 107, 182, 289: ARDP, 129;

competition in part y politics, 114, 121, 136;democratisation, 142; dominant partysystem, 13~; economic performance, 293,319- 20; educat ion, 11; elections: behaviour, I ll ,results (1989), 319; elements of democ racy, 318,319; human rights record, 296; localgovernment, 299; member of SAD CC, 271;

369

370 Index

Botswana (conI .): planning, 173, 177, frombelow, 175-6 ; position of privateenterp rise, 158;state regulation of econo my. 317; women'srole, 103,104; youth unemployment, II ; see alsoBechuan aland

Botswana Council of Women, 103Botswana Dem ocr atic part y (BOP) , 103, 104, 123,

139Botswana Nation al Fro nt (BN F), 103, 1i1Bourguiba, Habib , 18, 187Bowdich, Th omas, 28Brandt Report , 312Brazzaville conference (1944), 32, 38Brit ish co lonies, 30, 37: administration, 33-5, 145;

comparat ive party poli tics, 113- 14;decclonisation, 40; increasing nationalism. 48;indirect rule, 33- 5, 66-7; preparation for selfrule, 35; route to independence, 78; transfer ofpower, 63-5 ; union-party links, 58

Brittain, Victo ria, 47, 64Buganda, 47, 64: federa lism, collapse of, 10; Kabaka

removed, 86Buhari, Muh amm adu , 199,31 7Bura woy, Michael, 98Bureaucracy. 49: as communic ation channel, 135;

corruption. 148, 149; dominating sub-nationallevels of government, 119; heavy demands atindependence. 147; limits of competence andpower, 107, 158; in pos t-colonial sta tes, 148-53;reforms, 158; relationship with pol iticians, 147;supplanting political parties. 7; see alsoAdministration

Bur kina Faso, 194, 207, 269, 293: compariso n withGhana, 202-3 ; democratisation , 136; electio ns(1992), 122; see also Upper Volta

Burund i, 180, 268, 278, 282-3 , 285: coups, 269;human rights abuses, 282, 296;independence, 88; suffering, 26

Bush, Georg e, 73Busia, K.A., 54, 132,189,201 , 205: dialogue with

South Africa , 70Buthelezi, Mangosuthu Gatsha, 75, 76: on

constitution. 121Butler , Jeffrey, 59, 61, 62Buyoya, Pierre, 283

Ca bral, Amilcar, 24, 215, 228: advice to partycadres, 213,291; assassi na ted , 213,226;influence on MP LA, 221

Cabral, Luis, 227Ca llaghy, T. M., 115Cameroon, 5, 182, 261: democra tisation, 136;

economic and politicalliberalisation, 142;economic perfo rma nce, 293; electoralcoercion. 113; planning, 174; see also FrenchCameroons

Cape Verde , 213,226-7,254,279:democra tisatio n, 136, 139, 142, 228; eco no micmeasures. 228; independence, 209, 226; multiparty elections, 17; see also Portuguese co lonies

Capitalism: exploitation of Third World , 20;favoured development strategy, 14, 307, 315- 16,324; peasant production modes not destroyedby, 107

Ca rdoso, Ferna ndo Hen riqu e, 20,21,22Ca rtwright, Joh n, 187-8Cas h crops, 37-8, 49: impact on rural life, 42- 3;

Increased prices, 39; see also AgricultureCentral Africa n Fede ration, 43, 64Central African Repub lic/Emp ire, 180, 186: hu man

rights record, 197, 282

Cesai re, Aime, 6Chaba l, Patrick, 213Cha d, 279-80,281 : civil war, 91; electo ra l

coerc ion, 113; extreme factionalism, 108;military coup, 180; multi-part y systempr om ised, 279- 80; OAU intervention , 285;suffering, 26

Chadli , Bendjedid, 17Cha lker , Lynda, 137- 8, 316Chama cha Mapinduzi (CC M) , 114, 124, 234, 235-6 :

election s (1995), 105; mult i-par tyism, 16; seealso Tanganyika African Na tional Union(TAND)

Cham berlain, Joseph , 30,3 1,31 2Chambers, Robert, 129Chan, Stephen, 273Chazan, Naomi, 93, 203Chidzero , Bern ard , 230,2 31Chiefs: attitudes towards nationalism moveme nts, 48;

non-traditional rulers. 33- 4; socia l status. 96Chiha na , Chakufwa, 17Chiluba , Frederick, 15, 104, 140, 143: local

governm ent reform , 167, 168Chissano , Joaquim, 127, 219, 221Chitepo , Herbert, 214Civic United Front (Tan zan ia) , 235Clapha m, Chri stopher, 194, 253, 254, 323Clark e, Kenn eth , 314Coa lition for the Defence of the Republ ic

(Rwa nda), 89Coetzee . Johan, 71Co hen, John, 166Coleman, James, 20, 115, 156Collier, Ru th , 67, 205Colonia lism. I : aims of co lonisation, 30-1; artificial

bo unda ries, 261; beneficial effects, 31;characteristics. 37-8, of administration, 145;condemnation, 48; during Dep ression, 38; effecton women . 43-4; influencing socia lstratification, 96-7; inter-waradministration. 38-9 ; phases, 36-7; post-wardiscontent, 40. legacy. 41-5; see also Preco lonial history

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa(COM ESA), 265-6, 275

Communalism, 85-8: relationship with class, 108-12Co rnmunau te Economique des Etats de I'Afrique

Centra le (CEEAC) , 266Co mpa gnie Fran eaise de I'Afri que Occidenta le

(C FAO), 39Co mpa nh ia U niao Fabril (CU F), 212- 13,228Co mpaore, Blaise, 118, 194, 203Conference of Independent African States

(C IAS), 276Congo (ex-Co ngo-Brazzavi lle), 239, 240-2 :

depende nce on France. 255; eco nomic andpoliticalliber alisation , 18, 136; elections, 66,206; manpower , 153; sta te ca paci ty, 300;strikes, 117

Co ngress of South African T rade Unions(COSAT U), 75

Co nseil Nat ional de la Revolu tion (CNR) (Bur kinaFaso), 203

Co nservative Party (South Africa), 76Co nte, La nsa na, 238, 239Co nvention People 's Party (CPP) (G ha na) , 4, 7, 57,

115, 195, 298: competition with Uni tedParty, 114; fou nda tion , 52-3 ; genera l electionresul ts (1956), 63- 4; patro nage of Bron gs, 132;'positive action ' campaign . 60; relations withbureauc racy , 150; type of pa rty, 55, 57

Co te d 'lv oire , 183, 289, 292, 294,297:autonomy, 297; eco nomic and poli ticalliberalisation, 18, 136, 138, 142, 304,305;economic performance. 293; electio ns(1990), 122; hum an right s reco rd, 296; midd leclass, 23, 107; party decline, 7, 157, checked, 7;regional balance. 91; see also Ivo ry Coast

Coulon , Christian , 138, 139Cuha , 72-3, 74Cultures, impact of Western-style institutions, 48:

importance in development, 21; pluralism, 110;variety, 1, 47

Dahomey, 117, 262: elections, 66; manpower, 153;military coups, 9, 180, 181- 2, 192; see a/so Benin

debt, 302-4 , 313-14Deb y, !dri ss, 137, 280Decalo, Samuel, 182, 189, 204, 239Delgad o, Cabo, 210Democrat ic Party (DP) (Uganda), 122Dem ocratic Tumhalle Alliance (DTA) (Na mibia), 96Dent, Martin, 194Development: capitalist roader view, 22; con vergence

of theo ries, 21; Herbst's propositions, 24-{i;impo rtance of ideo logy, 302; modernisatio ntheory, 20,21,22; planning, 171- 3,implementation, 173- 7; prospects, 311- 23; stateas main agent, 147; state capacity, 299-300;Third World interaction with developedworld , 20, 315; underdevelopment theory, 20-1

Dhl ak ama, Afon so, 219,221Dia, Mam ad ou, 262Diamond , Larry , 316, 3I7Diou f, Abd ou , 138Doe, Sam uel, 181, 196, 270Donge, Jan Kees van, 235Dongo, Margaret, 233Du Bois, W. E. B., 275Dum as, Roland , 185--{jDupuis, Joseph, 28

East African Co mmon Services Organisation(EACSO), 263, 266-8

East African Com munity (EAC) , 266-8East African High Commi ssion , 263, 266Ebo ue, Felix, 146Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), 278, 285,

286Economic Co mmunity of West African States

(EC OWAS), 266, 268-7 1, 287Economic organisations : smaller regional

gro upings, 265--{jEconomies: external imbalance and

indebtedness, 304; ideo logical and performancedifferences, 291- 301; at independence, 2; ininter-war years, 38-9; liberalisatio n, 299;NIEO, 312; pri vati sation of, 162-3,304-5 ;western demands. 315; see also Developm ent

Educati on , II , 50: affecting Africanis ation , 153-4Egypt, 194, 293: Cairo declaration , 285; politi cal

liberalisat ion, 17.136; see also Un ited ArabRepubli c

Elections: British and French systemscompared, 66-8; in British co lonies. 63;coe rcion. 113; in French co lonies. 66;<managing' electoral competition , 138- 9;'pl ebiscitary', 122, 206; resulting in cha nge ofgove rnment. 139-40; see also Political parties

Elhussein, A. M., 92

Index 371

Elites, 48, 92, 98: compa rison of British and Frenchpolicy effects, 67

Ema ng Basadi (Botswana) , 104Entrepreneurship: indigenou s, 42, 97, 147; political

situat ion, 107- 8Epstein, A. L. , 92Equatorial Guinea: election (1996), 122; human rights

record , 197, 282Erit rea, 248, 250,251,252,253-4: OA U's rejection of

independen ce, 287; secession, 11Eritrea People' s Libera tion Front (EPLF ), 251, 252,

253, 254Ethiopia, 246-53, 268, 292: altitude towards

Eritrea, 248, 250, 262; autonomy, 295,undermined , 280; borders, 261;democra tisation , 137, 322- 3; Derg, 246, 247;dispute with Somal ia, 282; eco nomic difficulties:villagisation, coo perativisation, 249. reformmeasures, 251; ethnic conflict , 90; ethnicfederalism , 11; Marxi sm-Leninism, 250,renounced, 306; movements seekingautonomy, 248; nati onalisation and itseffects, 246; OAU support, 287; People 'sDemocratic Republic and Workers' Partyformed, 250; rura l and urban landreforms, 248-9 ; state capacity, 300; state controlincreased, 299; sub-nationalism, 10

Ethiopian People's Revoluti onary Democratic Front(EPRDF), 11,253

Ethiopian People's Revolu tionary Part y(EPRP), 247-8

Ethnic aspects: conflict and cooperation, 87.Rwanda. 87-91 ; disaffection of minorities, 85;intra-ethnic conflict, 93-6; pluralism, 80

Etienne, M., 44Eyadema, G nassingbe, 14, 137, 142, 185, 206:

legal ises politica l parties, 204

Fanon, Fran tz, 20Finer , S. E., 182, 183First, Ruth, 182, 189Fischer, Georges, 59Foltz, William, J., 263Forces for the Defence of Democracy (FDD)

(Burundi), 283Francophone states, links with F rance, 184- 5, 278-9Frank, Andr e Gund er, 20, 21, 22French Cameroo ns, 32, 53, 65-6: part y/union

links, 59-60; see also CameroonFrench colonies: administration, 31- 3, 145-6;

decolonisation , independence, 4()... I, 67- 8, 113;military assistance and defence agreements. 68,184-5

French Equat orial Africa (AEF), manpower, 10,153

French Soudan , union with Senegal, 12, 113, 262; seea/so Mali

French West Africa (AOF) , 10, 262Frente de Liber tacao de Mocambique

(FRELIMO) , 209,215,216,217,221 ,254:integrative function. 120; internal conflicts, 210;Marxist-Leninist basis, 115, 211, 216; popul arpart icipation, 298; role in policy-making, 127;transformed into vanguard party, 218

Frente Nacional de Libertacao de Angola(F NLA), 211,212: moribund, 224

Front de Liberat ion Nati onale (FLN) (Algeria), 17,56, 119

Fro nt Islamiqu e de Salul (FIS) (Algeria), 17, 18Furta do, Celso, 20

372 Index

Gabon, 113, 182,293: coup attempt, 180;decolonisation, 41; democratisation , 136, 142;middle class, 23, 107; 'pervertedcapitalism', 292, 294; political experiment, 14;recognition of Biafra, 280

Galbraith, John K., 309, 324-5Gamb ia, 63: attempted military coup , 183;

competitive party politics, 114, 121, 136, 142,318; groundnuts, 2; union with Senegal, 261

Garve y, Maurice , 275Gaseitsiwe, B. S., IIIGaulle, Charles de, 68, 78, 262Gbedemah, K. A., 189Geertz, Clifford , 289Geisler, Gisela , 103Germany : break up of African empire , 38;

colonisat ion by, 30-1Ghana, 5,7, 117, 132, 150, 181, 197, 293:

Africanisation , 153; artificia l boundaries, 261;authoritarianism, 22; Charterfor the Civilservice, 155; cocoa, 2, socio-economicimpact, 42-3 ; democraticconstitution to followmilitary regime, 205; democr atisation, 142;divestiture, 304, 306;economic and politicalliberalisation, 16, 18, 202; elections (1992), 122;executive presidency, 65; federalelements, 34,85-{j; 1MFjWorid Bank suppo rt , 202; militarycoup, 180, 181, 269, justificati on and reasonsfor, 8, 188- 9; military regime, 181, economicperformance, 200- 1, role of civil service, 156- 7,withdrawal , 205; NLC , 9, 156, 195, 197; oneparty system, 114, 115; performance of publicenterprises, 160, 161; quas i-militaryregime, 9-10; restoration of multi-partypolitics, 49, 298;sub-nationalism, 10;union withBritish Togoland, 261; union with Guinea andMali, 261,276; women's role, 102; seea/so GoldCoast

Ghana Congress Party (GCP), 53Gold Coast , 29: cocoa hold -ups (1930s), 38-9;

decolonisation, 40; early appointments toLegislative Council , 320; elections (l950s), 63;independence, 55, 63; NLM, 34, 54;representative government, 35, 40 ; riots(1948), 40, 52, 63, 78; socio-economic impact ofcocoa, 49; women 's politica l activism, 60; seea/so Ghana

Gowen, Yakubu, 95, 195, 196, 198Greene , Graham, 139Groupe Islamique Armee (GIA) (Algeria) , 18Gueye, Lamin e, 53Guinea, 32, 233, 236-9, 260: chose independence

option, 68, 113, 262; development planning , 171;economic and political liberal isation . 238-9 ;human right s record, 197, 238, 256; ideo logy, 4,237- 8, rigidly applied , 238, 291; militarycoup, 238; partystate relat ions, 7, 156;performance of publicenterprises, 160; relianceon multinationals, 255; trade-union-partylinks, 59; union with Ghana and Mali , 261

Guinea-Bissau , 57,209,210,211 ,212-14,226,227-9,233, 254: allends Franco-Africanconferences, 279; democratisation, 136, 228;economicproblems, 227-8; relations withIMF, 228; state capacity, 300; weakne ss ofpolitical party, 8; see also Portuguesecolonies

Habre . Hissene, 279, 280Habyarimana, Juvenal , 88, 89, 90Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia, 246, 247, 250Hansen , Emmanuel, 189

Hanson, A. H ., 171, 172, 173,293Harris, William Wade , 50Hassan II , King of Morocco, 281Hayfo rd , Casely, 51Hazlewood, Arthur, 267Hempstone, Smith , 137Herbst , Jeffrey , 24-6 ,93, 116, 123, 128, 152, 231Ho skyns , Catherine, 275, 277Houphouet-Boigny, Felix, 6, 53, 154, 187: dialogue

with South Africa , 70; lukewarm towardsOAU,287

Hughes, Arnold, 186Huntington , Samue l, 20, 71, 183, 193, 290Hurd, Douglas, 137Hyden, Goran, 23, 108-9, 112, 120, 157

Ideologies: definitions, 289-90; impact , 301-10;relationship with development, 291-301

Ifeaju na , E. A., 190-1Independence: as constitutional monarchies, 65;

preparation distorted in white settler areas, 35;as prerequisite of socio-economicimprovement, 62

Indirect rule, 33-4 , 67Industrialisation, 43, 84-5: African capitalists, 97;

developmentcorporations, 159; precedingdemocraticprocesses in West, 2, 147

Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) (South Africa) , 16,75-7 : local government reform, 169; nationalintegration, 120, 121

Institutions: weak nesses, 2-3, 24; Western-style,imposition, 48 ; see also Administration;Bureaucracy

Interest groups, 58-63 , 140: discouraged inTanzania, 116-17 ; sectional groups as; 87, 111

Internat ional Monetary Fu nd (IMF)jWorldBank, 204,314: aid criteria: economicliberalisation, 14, 256, 303-4 , 'goodgovernment ' , 137, 143; aid sought by/given toBenin, 240, Congo, 241, Ethiopia, 251,Gui nea , 238, Ivory Coast, 172, Nigeria , 200;planning, 177; Tanzania's response toconditions, 100, 234, 295, OAU criticism , 286

Ironsi, Aguiyi, 187, 191, 195-{)Islam, Mahdist movements, 50, 51Ivory Coast, 182: administrativedecentralisation, 11;

divestiture, 162; effect of colonialism onwomen , 44; federa l solution rejected , 262;increasingbureaucratic power, 7; middleclass, 45; political experiment, 14;position ofprivate enterprise, 159, 161; recognitionofBiafra, 280; seeks external assistance, 172; stateenterprises, 161, reorganisation, 163; see alsoCote d 'Ivoire

Janowitz, Morris, 182Jeffries , Richard, 62Johnson, R. W., 237Jumbe, Abo ud, 264

Kaplinsky, Rafael, 21Ka pwepwe, Simon , 133Ka rl-i-Bond , Nguza, 14Karume, Abeid, 264Kasfir, Nelson , 110, 148Kategaya, Eryra, 318Kaunda, Kenneth, 116, 154, 187: electoral defeat

(1991), 15, 137, 139; Humanist ideology , 101-2;increa singly authoritarian, 310; on debt, 314;policy-making, 125-{); prevented from standingas presidential candidate, 143

Kazibwe, Specioza , 105Keita, Mod ibo, 115, 262, 263Ken ya, 5,39,92, 110, 182,209, 261, 263-4, 289:

administrat ion (relations with part y, 156);attempted military coup, 180, 181, 183;au tonomy, 295; c1ientelism, 134-5;decentralisation and local governmentreform , 165- 7; defence links, 186;divestiture , 304, 305; East Africancooperation , 266, 267- 8; economicliberalisation , 18, performance, 294; elections(1992), 122; ethnic conflict, 90-1; federalco nstitutio nal elements, 8, 34; federationpro posal, 263, 264; human right srecord , 32{}-1;inequality, 292, 294, 301;Kikuyu domination , 87, internal division, 94;Mau Mau , 209- 10; middle class, 23, 45;one-part y state, 4, 114, 122; overlap ofpolitical and business interests , 107. 317;performance of state enterprises, 160-1 ;pol itical participation , 297; pre-independenceelections, 64; private enterprise, 158; rurallocal autho rities, 298; stat e capacity, 300;trade union-p arty links, 60-1; unitarystructure, to

Ken ya African Dem ocratic Union (KADU ), 114Ken ya African Nat ional Uni on (KA NU) , 16, 114,

156, 264: type of part y, 56Kenya Fede ration of Labo ur (KF L), polit ical

influence, 60, 62Kenya People's Unio n (KPU), 114Kenyatta , Jomo, 127: c1ient elism, 134,263; local

government reform , 165Kerekou, Mathieu, 239: removal from o ffice, 14,

137, 185, 20&-7, 240; return to power, 143,321

Khama, Seretse, 57,3 19Kimbangu, Simon, 50Klerk , F . W. de, 74,75,77,272,287: with drawa l from

go vernment of national unity, 121Koffigoh , Joseph Kokou , 185Kotoka, E. K., 189

Labour unions, 6, 43, 58-63: autonomy limited sinceindependence, 117; penet rated by factio nalpolitics, 98; strikes, 117-1 8

Laitin , D. D., 243Lamizana , Sangoule, 206Lansana, David, 188LaPalom ba ra, Joseph, 151Leopold II, King of the Belgians, 29, 35Lesotho: ANC facilities, 72; membe r of SACU , 273,

SADCC,271Levy, Marion , 19Lewis, Ar thur, 172,3 12Leys, Colin, 21, 151Liberal democracy, determining co nditio ns and

prospects, 318- 23Liberia , 2, 139, 284: civil war , 91,269, 27{}-1; facti on

fighting, 19; member of Monr ovia group, 276;military coup, 181; suffering, 26

Libya, 180: interference in Chad, 279,28 1Limann, Hilla, 202, 205Lissouba , Pascal , 241,242Liviga , A. J., 235Lofchie, Michael F. , 85, 175Lonsdale, John, 21Low, Stephen, 59Luckham, Robin, 182, 185, 190Lugard, Lord , 33

Index 373

Macauley, Herbert , 51Machel, Samora, 57,210,211,214,218: death, 219;

on abuse of power, 107, 217Madagascar: democratisation, 136; manpowe r, 153Magimbi, Fatma, 105Major , John, 313Malan , D. F., 69Malan , Magnus, 75Malawi, 141, 182, 183,21 9, 220, 293: elections

(1994), 17; member of SADCC, 271; one-pa rtysystem, 122; presidentia l power, 5; privatisationlimited, 162; repub lican constitution, 65; see a/soNyasaland

Malawi Cong ress Party (MCP), 17, 141Ma li, 7, 9, 261: democratisation, 136; dro ught, 269;

eco nomic performance, 292; federal union, 261,262, collapsed, 10, 262- 3; military coups, 180,181,207,269; single-party election, 206; stateenterprises, 159, 161, dissolutio n resisted, 163;trading links, 12; see a/so French Soudan

Mandela, Nelson , 75, 77, 78, 274-5: elections(1994), 16, 76; imprisonment, 70,73; release, 74

Mangope, Lucas, 76Manp ower, 3, 24, 35, 45,82-3 , 153-5 , 164Marcum , John, 211Margai, Albert , 187, 188Margai, Milton , 57, 187Markakis, John , 243, 244- 5Marketing boards, 159Mart in, Guy, 184, 315Mart in, Michel L., 240Marxist philosophy in underdevelopment theory, 20:

on class and ethnicity, 108; o rthodox yrejected, 6

Masire, Quett Ketumik, 173, 319Mauritania , 262, 276: claimed by Morocco, 276;

differences with Senegal, 281; human rightsabuses, 296; manpowe r, 153; WesternSaha ra, 279

Maurit ius, 182, 278, 279: competitive part ypolitics, 114, 121,136, 139,140; democracyin, 142, 318; member SADCC, 274

May, Roy, 186Mayall, James, 272Mazrui, Ali, 108, 111Mba, Leon, 183Mbeki, Tb abo, 77Mboya, Tom, 62Meisson (Ethiopia) , 252Mendes, Piro, 227Mengistu Haile-Mariam, 90,137 , 25{}-1 : hum an

rights abuses , 296Military coups, 180--3: multiple causes of, 193;

officers' traini ng, 181; theories ofintervention, 182

Military regimes, 8--10, 193- 205: acquisi tion ofcivilian trappings, 196; aims, 194; alliesunrelated to previous regime, 195;developmental role, 197-203; dissolution ofpolitical parties, 194; evaluation ofperformance, 203--4; relations with civilservice, 156-7; revival of part ies, 205-6 ;stability: Francophone and Angloph one statescompared, 184-8; withdrawa l, 9, 141- 2, 205-8

Milne, R. S., 158Minewor kers, as 'labour aristocracy' , 105Mining, 43: investment during inter-war years, 39;

public ow nership, 6; use of indigenouslabour, 37

Minogue , Martin, 171Mitterrand. Francois, 137, 143

374 Index

Mk apa, Benjami n, 16, 236Mobu tu, Sese Seko , 14, 17, 137, 142, 212: defence

links, 186; human rights abu ses, 296; UnitedStates backing , 280

Moh ammed, Mu rtala, 194, 196, 197, 198Moi, Daniel Arap, 16, 32()-1: hum an rights

abuses, 296; local government, 165, 166Molten o, Robert, 87, 109, IIIMom oh, Jo seph Saidu , 304Mondlane, Eduardo, 210Monrovia group, 276Monteiro, Antonio Mascarenhas, 229Mor occo, 84, 136, 182, 277: claim to

Maurit an ia, 276, to Western Saha ra , 279;fundame nta list challenge, 17; independence, 41

Mov ement for Dem ocra cy Party (MO P) (Ca peVerde), 229

Movement for Mult i-Part y Dem ocra cy (M M D)(Zambia), 15, 126, 140, 143: local governmentreform, 167, 168; women's representation, 104

Movirnento Popul ar de Libertacao de Angola(MPLA ), 73, 209, 226: ideology: Marxi smLeninism, 115,211 ,215, increasedpragmatism, 254; pledge to tran sformsociety, 221- 2; suppo rt: ethnic and other, 211,external, 212

Mozambique, 176, 209, 230, 233, 255: agriculturein, 216- 17; bord er with Rh odesia closed , 13;civil war. 91;class not yet political determinant.106- 7; conflict with South Africa, 72, 74; degreeof aut onomy, 295; destabili sation by SouthAfrica, 272; development planning, 171;economic and political liberalisation , 18, 107,136;econo mic dependence on South Africa, 13,216,217,220, Nkomati Accord, 219; eco nomicperformance, 292, 293; equality in, 292;manpowe r, 3,154, 216-17,308; Marxist-Leninistideology, 211, 216, renounced, 17, 306; memberof PTA , 265, SADCC, 271; nati onal iststruggle, 21()-11; policy decisions , 127, 216-21;popular participation, 129- 30, 298; privateenterprise, curtailed, 159, small-scaleallowed, 163; reform measures, 217-18;relations with IMF, 220, 295; revoluti onaryregime, 7, 57; state capacity, 299, 300; sta tecontrol increased, 299; women' s role, 102-3; seealso Portugu ese col onies

Mswati III , King of Swaziland, 322Mubarak, Mohammed Husni, 17Muelle r, Susann e, 22Mug abe, Robert, 116, 214, 232: ca utio us approach to

socialist transformation, 230, 231; women'srepresentation, 103

Mult inational companies, 13: Anglo-AmericanCorporation, RST, 39, 307; in Angola, 307;G uinea, 237; Nami bia, 45, 308; Nigeria , 198;Sierra Leone, 307-8; zambia, 13, 307

Muluzi, Bakili, 17, 141Munslow, Barry , 22, 37, 210, 216Museveni, Yoweri, 1>-16,23,268,318, 32()-1Muslim Associa tion Party (MAP) (Gh an a), 54, 64Muwanga , Paul o, 193Mwinyi , Ali Ha ssan , 125,233: economic

hberalisation policy, 234,235

Namibia (ex-South West Africa ), 41, 136, 209, 224,281: democratisation , 142; elections (1989), 96,298; independence, 74; member of SADCC, 271;mixedeconomy, 57, 309; mult inationalcompani es, 45, 308; population gro ups, 9>-6 ;

ruled by South Africa , 38, 72, 74;urbanisation, 44-5

Nasser, Gamel Abdul, 57, 115, 194Na tional Congress of British West Africa

(N CBWA),51N ational Co uncil of Nig eria and the Camer oons

(NC NC), 52, 53, 130National Democratic Congress (NDC) (Ghana), 16Nati onal Liberation Council (NLC) (Gh ana), 163Nati on al Liberation Movement (NLM) (Ghana), 34,

54, 64, 132: Ashanti suppo rt, 86, 132Nati on al Party (South Africa) , 16,69, 70, 71,76-7,

78: loca l government refo rms, 169; with dr awalfrom government o f national unity, 121

Nat ion al Party (zambia), 140National Party of Nigeria (NPN), 131, 205National Patriotic Front (Liberi a), 270National Republican Movement for Democracy and

Development (M RND) (Rwa nda), 89Nat ional Resistan ce Movement (MRN)

(Mozambique), 217: see also RENAMON ational Unio n of Tang anyik a Workers

(NUTA), 118Nationalism: characteristi cs, 47-50. 77-8 ; political

parties /ro le, 51; th reat to South Africa, 71N ationalist movements: labour unio n links, 58- 9;

leaders as rulers. 82; post-war development, 40,42

Nduwayo, An toine , 282Neo-c olon ialism, 42, 260, 280Ner o, Agosthino, 212, 222, 223Nelli, Pete r, 290Newbury, Catharine, 90Newbury, David, 90Nguema, Francisco Maci as, 197,296Nguema, Teod or o Obiang, 122, 142, 296Niger, 66, 180, 262: coups, 269; divestiture, 305;

drought, 269; manpower, 153Nigeria, 2,3, 120, 13()-I, 181,261 ,276,289,299:

Biafr an secession, 87, 197, 280; Briti sh Petroleumnationalisation, 13; civil-militaryrelations, 189-92 , 197; class formation/consolidation, 12, 23, 96; concern ove rChad. 279; constitutions and cons titutiona lamendment , 65,92, 119-20 , 205;corruption, 197, 198, 255; degree ofau tonomy, 292; dominate s ECOWAS, 269;eco nomic and politi cal libcralisati on /democraticgovernment, 18, 142,303,305,306;education, 83; electoral co mpetition, 15;executio n of Ogon i rights activists, 3; expul sionof aliens, 269; external borrowing, 293; federa lstruct ure, 10, 63; foreign finan cialdomination, 295; Ibo intra-ethnic conflict, 94;indebtedness, 302,3 14; middle class, 45; militarycoup, 9, 180, 181, 183, 198-9; militaryregime , 10, performance, 197-200, 293,withdrawal, 205; oil, 293, 302-3 ; patronage bypolitical parties, 13()-1; planning, 174; pri vateen terprise, 106, 158; privatisation, 162;regionally based parties, 114, 130; relations withIM F, 200; rep resentative government , 35, 40;restoration of multi-party politics , 4.9, 298; stateeconomic regulation, 317; state enterp rises, 160,16;1 strike s, 107, 108; sub-nationalism, 10;unions ' fluctuating po litical activism , 60

Nigerian National Allian ce (NNA), dominat ed byNPC, 131

Nige rian Na tio nal Dem ocratic Party (NNDP), 51,131, 190

Nk om o, Joshua, 188-9, 214, 232

Nkrumah, Kwame, 5, 54, 57, 115, 123, 195,236:authoritarianism, 22; emergency measures, 86;founds CPP, 52; on neo-colonialism, 42, 260,pan-Africanisrn, 80, 276, 277, 287; weakens roleof administrators, 150, 155

Nolutshungu, Samuel C; 72North ern People's Congress (NPC) (Nigeria), 53, 55,

114, 190: dominat es NNA , 130; origins, 54; typeof part y, 56; use of regional power base, 130

North ern People's Part y (NPP) (Ghana), 64North ern Rhodesia, 64, 83, 110: conditions of white

workers, 62; unions' pol itical activities , 60-1; seealso za mbia

Ntibantunganya, Sylvestre , 282Nujoma, Sam, 96Num eiri, Ja 'far , 194: human rights abu ses, 296Ny asaland , 64: investment in inter-war years, 39; see

a/so MalawiNyerere, Julius, 5,57, 124: ideology, 6, 115,300;

manipulated by bureaucracy ?, 100; onanny, 309, bureaucracy, 8, capitalists, 96 , EastAfrica, 263, 264, 267-8, equality , 294, Marx istsocialism, 6, 233-4, mediator role, 282-3, partysystem, 234, Uganda, 280, ujamaa , 291;presidential initiatives, 65; relations withIMF, 125; retires as state president , 125, 183;union with Zanzibar, 264

Nzeogwu, C. K., 190

O'Brien, Donal Cruise, 7,92, 138, 139Obasanjo,Olusegun, 198, 204Obote , Milton, 23, 122, 189, 192- 3,264: human rights

abuses, 197, 296Ojukwu , Odumegwu , 199Okello, Tito, 193One-party system, 4, 114, 115: emergence, 113; part y

subordinate to state, 119Organisation Commune Africaine et Mauritienne

(OCAM),265Organisation of African Unity (OAU), 12, 80, 136,

261,263, 275--88:·ANC's role, 79; Charter, 277,279; dispute settlement , 281-2; financialproblems, 284; forma tion, 260, 275-84;institutions, 277-8; non-interference and nonalignment principles breached, 280; peacekeeping force to Chad , 279-8 0; performance,weakness, 286-7; poor attend ance atsummits, 278; prom otion of eco nomic cooperation. 284-6

Oro mo Liberation Front (OLF), 248Ouedd ei, Goukouni, 186

Padmcre , George, 276Pan-African Congress (PAC) (South Africa ), 70, 74Pan-African FreedomMovement of East, Central and

Southern Africa (pAFMECSA), 276, 277Pan-Africanism, 275-6Parastatal sector, 15~: divestiture, 162-3, 164;

reorganisation, 163Parsons, Talcott, 19Parti Congolais du Travail (PC!), 241Parti de Regroupement Africain (PRA) , 262Part i Democratique de Cote d'ivoire (POCI), 7, 53,

55, 115, 298: election result (1959), 66; loss ofpower, trend stemmed, 7; origins, 54; type ofpart y, 56

Part i Democratique de Guinee (POG ), 53, 55, 114,156,237: as broad-based mass part y, 55,236;revolutionary promise, 56

Parti Progessiste Nigerien (PPN), 55Part; Republicain Doh omeen (PRO), 53

Index 375

Part i Socialiste (PS) (Senegal), 7. 8, 138- 9Partido Africano da Independ encia da Cabo Verde

(PAICVJ, 17, 229Partido Africano da Independencia da Guine e Cabo

Verde (PAIGC), 8, 115, 213- 14, 228-9 :independence struggle, 209; link between twostates, 226, 227, 228; loss of power, 8;support, 213

Party of Unity and Progress (PUP) (Guinea), 239Peasant societies, 49, 98-9: emergence, 42; links with

urbanworkers, 107; little classconsciousness, 24, 99, 107

Pemba, 15People's Front for Democracy and Justice (pFDJ)

(Eritrea), 253People's National Party (PNP) (Ghana ), 202, 205Pereira, Aristides, 17, 229: removal from office, 229Perez de Cuellar,Javier, 294Petras, James, 20Petty-bourgeoisie: mixedcharacter, 97;

nationalism, 49Philip, Kjeld, 267Phimistre, Ian, 78, 79Plamenatz , John, 289Polisario Front (PF) (Western Sahara), 279Politicalculture. 183: in pre-colonial Africa, 47;

unsettled, 2; see also InstitutionsPolitical parties, 51-11, 113-43: decline of power, 7,

141; degree of support , 63-4; differences, 55-6;functions, integration, 119-21,legitimacy, 121-2 , mobilisation andreconciliation, 129-30, patronage, 13(}"5,policy, 123-9, political communication, 135-6;ideologies, 56, 115; labour union links, 49;'mass' and 'elite' types, 5Hi; styles ofleadership, 57; subordination to state, 119;support from metropolitan parties, 53

Political pluralism, 14-19, 136-41, 299: demanded byWestern donors, 315

Portuguese colonies: myth of Lusotropicalism, 209;decolonisation opposed, 37, 4 1, 209; economicexploitation, 35-6, 37; forced labour, 38

Pratt, Cranford, ISO, 173, 174Pre-colonial history, 1- 2: organisational units, 28, 47Preferential Trade Area (PTA), 265, 269Presidents: charismatic leadership, 5, 57;

constitutionalposition, 65;election, 122; ofFrancophone states, 68-9; freedoms ofaction, 116; party leaders, 4, 116

Principe, 17, 136: see also Portuguese coloniesProfessional class: attitudes to nationalism

movements, 48-9; emergence, 97; safeguardingAfrican rights, 51

Progress Party (PP) (Ghana), 132, 205Prophetic movements, 50-1Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC)

(Ethiopia), 246Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC)

(Ghana), 16Public service: Africanisation, 154; expatriates, 97;

integrative role, 150; problems, 158Pycroft, Christopher, 168Pye, Lucian, 290

Rassemblement Constitution al Democratique (RCD)(Tunisia), 18

Rassemblement Democratiqu e Africain (ROA), 52,53, 55, 146, 262

Rassemblement du Peuple Togolaise (RPT), 204, 206Rat siraka, Didier, 14Rawlings, Jerry, 9-10, 16, 194,201 -2 , 203, 205, 270

376 Index

Regional organisations, functional, 12, 265-75:political unions, 12, 26(}-5

Reilly, W., 1 7~

Religious association, 50--1: related to Marxistphilosophy, 6; see a/so Christianity; Islam

RENAMO, 218,21 9, 220,221 ,308; see also NationalResistance Movement (MRN)

Reno, William, 19, 26Revolutionary regimes. 215-16: differences

between, 254-5 ; emergence, 7, from liberationmovements - preconditions, 57

Revolutionary United Fro nt (RU F) (SierraLeone), 270

Rhodesian Fro nt (RF) , 230Rhodesian Selection Trust/Roan Selection Trust

(RST), 39Riggs, Fred, 148-52 , 177, 290Roberto, Holden, 212Roberts, Hugh, 119, 148, 149Rob inson. Kenneth, 32Robinson, Ronald, 37Rod ney, Walter, 20Rondinelli, Dennis, 167Rosberg, Carl, 115, 156Ruanda-Urundi, 66, 88: see also Burundi; RwandaRwanda, 206, 268, 279, 282, 283, 296: class and

ethnicity, 87-9 1, 110; privatisation limited, 162;refugees, 17; suffering, 26; women'srepresentation, 105

Rwandan Patrio tic Front (RPF), 88, 89

Sadat, Anwar, 285Salim, Salim Ahmed, 278, 283Sarnoff, Joe l, 116, 128, 136Sandbrook, Richard , 134, 318Sankara, Thomas, 205: co mparison with Rawlings

(Ghana), 202-3 ; relations withbureaucracy, 194, Muslim chiefs, 93, tradeunions, 118; removal, 203

San tos, Jose Eduardos, 221, 22~Santos, Marcelino dos, 210Sao Tome, 17, 136: see also Portuguese colonie sSaro-Wiwa, Ken, 13, 142, 200Sassou-Nguesso, Denis, 14, 241Saul, John, 20Savimbi, Jonas, 212, 221, 225Schaffer, Bernard, 35, 152, 158Sekou Toure, 5,6,57, 115, 186, 233, 236-7 , 238:

human rights record , 197, 256, 296; ideology rigidly applied, 291; on African'comm unaucracy', 238, socialism andIslam, 238; trade union backgroun d, 59

Senegal, 5, 29, 53, 113, 117, 146, 182, 183:constitutional experiments, 4, 14, 121, 136, 298;decolonisati on, 41; democratisation and itsextent , 138-9 ,1 42,207 ,3 18,319; differences withMauritania, 281; divestiture, 304,306; economicperformance, 293; groundn uts, 2, 19,smuggling, 39, 84, 98-9; human rightsrecord, 296; increasing bureaucratic po wer, 7-8;manpower, 153; middle class, 45; Mou ridebrotherhood, 92- 3, 99; organisation of peasa ntsociety, 92- 3; planning, 174; section of FrenchSocialist Party formed, 53; troops toGambia, 187; union with French So udan, 12,262, with Gambia , 261

Senegambia, 261Senghor, Leopold Seda r, 57, 138, I3Y, 1M3, 263Seton-Watson, Hugh, 80Shagari, Shehu, 10, 198, 199, 205

Sharpeville massac re (1960), 70Shils, Edward , 289Shivji, Issa, 100, 105Shonekan, Ernest Adegunle, 15, 200Sierra Leone, 29, 194, 279: civil-milita ry

co nnections, 135; civil war, 91, 270; coups. 269;decolonisa tion , 40; delays beforeindependence. 63; democratisation , 136;external constraints on developm ent, 304;factio n fight ing, 19; inter-partycompetition, 114; military coup, 181, 188;multinational com panies , 307-8; multi-partyelections, 321; rural loca l authorities, 298;suffering, 26

Sierra Leone People 's Part y (SLPP): armyco nnections. 135, 188; co mpetition withAPC, 114; origin s, 54-5

Sisulu, Walter, 70Sithole, Ndabaningi, 232, 233Sklar, Richard L., 24, 87, 109, Ill , 261: managerial

bourgeoi sie, 99, 101, nationalism of, 20- 1; oncapitalism, 294. 295, foreign domination byproxy, 13. grand theo ries andmethodo log ies, 26, increasing public sectorefficiency, 324

Socia l class, and comm unalism, 108-1 2: formatio nand action, 96- 105, 106-8; middle class - earlygrowth stunted , 42, growth facilitated by holdingof publi c office, 45

Socia l Democrat ic Party (SDP) (Nigeria), 15Socialism. claimed basis of many parties, 5-7, tIS :

renunciation of Marxism-Leninism, 256--7Soc iete Co mmerciale de I'Ouest Africain

(SCOA) ,39Societe Generate (Belgian Congo), 39Soglo, Nicephore, 143, 240Somali Nationa l Movement (SNM), 245Somali Pat riotic Movement (SPM), 245Somal i Revolu tionary Socia list Par ty (SRSP), 243Somalia, 47, 137,239, 242--<i, 268: borders, 261; civil

war, 91; dispute/wa r with Ethiop ia, 244, 282:economic performance, 292; faction fighting, 19;human rights record, 245, 256; IM F stand-bycredits, 244; inter-class and intra-classrivalry, 95, 244-5 ; liberalisation measures, 245;na tiona lism, 255; political party formed , 196,243, 255; privatisation limited, 162;revo lutionary military regime, 9;sectio nalism. 308; Soviet influence, 243-4;suffering , 26; UN interve ntion, 24~

South Africa, II , 13, 69-77, 78- 9, 287- 8: att itudetowa rds Namibia, 41, 143, 254- 5, 272;co nstitution, 11. 76, 120- 1; decent ralisation andlocal governm ent reform , 168- 70;democrat isat ion, 143; destabi lisationpolicy, 254-5, 272; economic reformoptions, 304; elections (1994), 16; emp loymentoppo rtunities for women. 97, 102-5; expo rts toAfrica, 273; 'homelands' - urban drift, 309;incu rsion into Angola , 223,224; OAU, 281,283;SADCC and SAD C, 273- 5; women' srepresentation , 105

South African Commun ist Par ty (SACP), 74South African Cou ncil of Ch urches, 74South African Customs Union (SAC U), 273Sou th West Africa, see Nami biaSouth West Africa n Peop le's Organisatio n

(SWAPO), 72, 75, 96, 223, 224: mixedeconomy, 57, 308

Sout hern Africa n Dev elopment Community(SADC) , 266,268,274-5,3 11: ANC' s role, 79

Southern African Development Coo rdinationConference (SADCC), 266, 271-4 : depend enceon South Africa, 271; on external aid , 272

Sou thern Rhode sia/Rhodesia, 35, 41, 64,78, 218,277: see also Zimbabwe

Sout hern Sudan l iberation Movemen t (SSl M), 10Southwich, E. Michael, 318Spence, Jack, 76Stevens, Siaka, 188Ston eman, Colin, 231Strasser, Valentin e, 270Stryker, Richard E., 11Sud an , 84, 117: ethnic conflic t, 91, 95;

federalism, 10; limited impact ofrevolution, 194; military coup, 9;sectionalism, 308; socia l "param eters, 93; statecapacity, 300; sub-nationa lism, 10; suffering, 26

Sudanese Nat ional Unionist Part y (SNUP) , 53Sudanese People's liberation Arm y (SPl A), 95Svend sen, Erik , 256Swainson, Nicola, 30 ISwaziland , 65, 182,219, 321-2: member of

SACU , 273, of SADC C, 271; privatisat ionlimited, 162

Sylvester-Williams, Henry, 275Szeftel, Morris, 24, 94, 101, 105-{i, 107, 109, 132:

UNl P pat ronage, 133-4

Tam bo, Oliver, 70Tangan yika: de facto one-party system, 114; peasa nt

protest, 49-50; peasant societies, 42; preindependence elections , 64; republic, 65; tradeunions' expansion, polit ical links, 62; union withZanzibar, 261, 263-4; see a/so Tanzania

Tanganyika African National Union (TAN U), 4,lIS , 235, 263: competing with bureaucracy, 8,156; government educational goalsthwarted, 136; origins, 54- 5; role - inpolicy-ma king, 124, in po liticalcommunication, 135, 136; trade unionaffiliation, 118; trade union links, 61, 62; seea/sa Chama cha Ma pinduzi (CCM)

Tangan yika Fed eration of labour (TFl), polit icalnon-involvement policy, 61

Tanzania , 182, 233--6,249, 255,271 , 273, 283:acceptance of IMF conditions, 295, 306;administration, relations with party, 156;Africanisation, 153 - and EAC, 267, andEASCO, 267; anti-government conspiracy, 183;arm y mutin y, 181; Aru sha Declaration,S, 100,159-60 , 233-4 ; capitalism checked, 12;decent ralisation , II , 156, 298; degree ofcorru ptio n, 149, ISO; developmen t, 22;economic Iiberalisation, 18, 234; economicperformance, 292; education, 3, II , 83, 128;equali ty in, 292; formation , 114, 264-5; humanrights record , 296; ideology, 289; interest grou psdiscouraged, 116-1 7; limits on trade unionautonomy, 117; Marxist view of Nyer ere'saims, 100; member of SAD CC, 271; one-partysystem, 4, 114, 115, 122; peace agreement withUganda, 281; planning, 173,174, frombelow, 175, ujamaa , 176,234,291 ; policymaking , 124-5 , 128-9; po liticallibera lisation Presidential Commission report, 16; politicalneutrality of private enterprise, 159; popularparti cipation, 297; privati sation, 163,234, 304;recogniti on of Biafra, 280; regionalautonomy, 11; relations with bureaucracy, 100;state enterpri ses, 159-60 , 161,

Index 377

reorganisation, 163; troops toMozambiqu e, 219; war with Ugand a, 282;women's representation, 104-5; workers'assertion of rights, 105, 117; see also Zanzibar

Tanzania Federation of Free Trade Unio ns(TF FTU) , 118

Taylor, Cha rles, 270Tekere, Edgar, 232Telli, Diallo, 278Tettegah, John , 60Tigray, 250Tigray People's liberation Front (TP lF), 248,251 ,

252Tinker, Hugh , 19Tofa, Beshir , ISTogo, 65-{i, 162,261, 277: democratisation, 136, 204;

divestiture, 304, 306; electoral coercion, 113;military coup , 180; single-party election, 206

Togoland Congress Part y (TCPl (Ghana), 54Tolbert, William R., 196, 284Trading companies, 39: links, 12Tran sfer of power, 63-9Tra ore, Moussa, 185, 196, 207Treurnicht, Andries, 76True Whig Party (liberia), 2Tunisia: democratic reforms, election results (1989),

fundamentali st challenge, 14, 17, 18, 136;independence, 41; trade union strikes, 117

Uganda: Asian dominance of trade, 158;constitutional amendment and force,committee, 136; divestiture, 305; East Africancooperatio n, 267-8 , federation proposal, 263-4;elections - 1980, 121- 2, 1996, 318; electoralcompetition, 15-16; factionalism, 108; federalelements, 10, 34; human rights record, 197, 282;intra-ethnic conflict, 94; militarycoup, 8, 192-3 ;military regime, 193; non-executivepresidency, 65; overthrow of Amin, 187; peaceagreement with Tanzania, 281; preIndependence elections, 64; publ ic service-partyrelation, 156; Rwandan refugees in anny, 88;sub-nationalism, 10; war with Tanzania, 282;women's representation, 105

Uganda People's Congress (UPe), 122, 264Uniao nacional para a Independencia Total de

Angola (UNITAl, 72,74, 212, 226: ethn icsupport , 211; external support, 223, 224, 308;peace agreement with Angolan government, 225

Union Africaine et Malgache (UAM), 276, 277Union Camerouna ise (UC), 60Union Democratiqu e du Peuple Malien

(UDPM), 206Union Democra tique Tchadienne (UDn, 53-4Union Dernocratique Voltaique (UDV), 206Union Douani ere et Economique de l'Afrique

Centrale (UDEAC) , 265Union des Populat ions du Cameroun (UPC), trad e

union links, 59-60Union des Syndicats Confederes du Cameroun,

political links, 59Union Economique et Monetaire Ouest

Africaine, 269Union Ge nera te des Travailleurs d'Afrique Noire

(UGTAN) (Guinea), 59Union Monetaire Ouest-Africaine, 269Union Pan-Africain pour la Democratic Sociale

(UPADS) (Congo), 241,242Union Progressiste Mauritanienne (U PM), 53Union Progressiste Senegalaise(UPS), 7,56,263 , 298:

see a/so Parti Socialiste (PS)

378 Index

Union Souda naise (US), 7, 57, 115, 159, 262, 263United Africa Compan y (UAC), 39, 41United Arab Republ ic (UAR), 261, 276: see also

EgyptUnited Democratic Front (UD F) (Malawi), 17, 141United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) , 52United Nat ional Independence Party (UN IP)

(zambia), 56, 113-14, 135-{i, 167:decentralisation, II; decline of power, 8;electoral defeat, 15; factions, 130; materialbenefits of membership, 113; role in loca lauthorities - at local level, 128, in policymaking, 125, 126; seen as dominated byCopperbelt, 113

United Nations Conference on Trade andDevelopment (UNCfAD), 13, 286

United Party (UP) (Ghana), competition withCPP, 114

United People's Part y (UPP) (Nigeria), 131United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA)

(Nigeria ), 191United Progressive Part y (UPP) (zambia), 33United Somali Congress (USC), 245United Worker s' Union of South Africa

(UWUSA), 75Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN), 131Upper Volta , 117- 18, 262: constitut ional

experiments, 4, 9; military coup, 180, 182;military rule (Sankara), 202- 3; Mossi chiefs, 32,86, 203; multi-party elections, 9, 206; see alsoBurkina Faso

Urbanisation: causes, 44-5 ; effects, II , 84Uwilingiyirnama, Agathe , 89, 105

Veiga, Carlos, 229Vieira, Joao Bernardo, 228, 229Villalon. Leonardo A.. 139Vlok, Adriaan , 75Voluntary associations, post-wargrowth, 52Vorster, B. l ., 71- 2

Wallerstein, Immanuel , 7. 21-2Wallis, Malcolm, 166-7Washington, Booker T., 275Watk ins, Kevin, 314Weber. Max. 5, 19Western powers, aid policy. 137- 8: politica l and

economic liberalisation, 143Western Sahara, dispute, 279, 282Western Somalia Liberation Fron t (WSLFl , 244Whitaker. C. S.• 325Wildavsky, Aaron, 171Wiseman, John A., 139, 321, 322Women:class formation and class action, 97; effect of

colonialism. 43-4: non-membership of politicalparties and labour organisations, 62-3; pettytraders, 49

Women's Lobby Group (zambia), 104Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE), 250, 255WorldBank, see International Monetary Fund

(IMF)

Youlou, Abbe Fulbert, 240Young, Crawford, 23, 109, 110, 233, 291:

conclusions, 291- 2; on participation , 297, statecapacity, 299

Young, Ralph A., on divestiture. 162, 304-6

zaire, 100. 212, 278,280: corruption, 19, 255;deoentr alisation, 299; defence links. 186;democ ratisation, 136; divestiture, 304; economicrecord , 292; human rights record , 296;manpower, 83, 153-4,308; middle class, 100;private enterprise, 158; resumes diplomaticrelations with Israel, 285; Rwandan refugees, 17;state powe r and societal network s, 26; subnationalism, 10; transition to independence, 55;see also Belgian Congo

zambia, 140,182,207,268, 317: anti-governmentconspiracy, 183; autonomy, 13, 295;competition between parti es - (1968) 115, (1991)15; copper, 2; copper mines nationalised, 13,effects 307; decentral isation, II , 128, 167- 8, 298;democratisation, 136, 137, 139, 142, 143;education and manpower, 3,82-3. 153; elections(1991). 15. 106. 121; executive presidency atindependence, 65; foreign financialdomination, 295; growth of middle class, 23,101; human rights record, 296; Humanistideology, 100-2, 115; imports from SouthAfrica, 273; interaction between and withinethnic gro ups, 87, 91, 93-4 ; member ofSADCC, 271; patronage by politicalparties, 132-4; planning, 173, 174, 175; policymaking , 125-{i; political participat ion in, 297,298; position of Barotseland , 34, 86; privateenterprise. 301; public service problems, 157;reco gnition of Biafra, 280; stagnation of ruraleconomy. 294; sta te enterpri ses, 160, 161, 163,reorganisation, 163;sub-nationalism, 10; urbanproletariat. 98; urban workers in, 98, 105-{i,assertion of rights , 117; women' s role, 103. 104;see also Northern Rhodesia

zanziba r. 110.235,263: elections (1995), 16; regionalautonomy. 11; uni on with Tangan yika , 264-5;see a/so Tanzania

Zenawi , Meles, 252, 253Zeroual, Liamine, 18Zimbabwe, 136, 229- 33, 254: Africanisation of the

public service,guerrillas absorbed intoarmy. 229-30 ; auton omy, 295; compared toSouth Africa, liberation struggles, 78- 9;eco nomic nationalism, 274-5;independence, 214. 281; inequality andunempl oyment, 255; influence of whitesettlers, 230; inter- and intra-ethnicco nflict, 94-5; intervention inMozambique. 187, 219; land issue, 230;liberation struggle, 56- 7, 209, 210, 214-15;manpower. 3; member of SADC C/SADC. 271;multi-part y elections (1980), 298; policyissues, 24,25-{i. 127, impact of ideology. 230-1,308-9 ; pull of market forces, 231; sta tecapacity, 300; steps to aid eco nomicreco very, 23 1; sub-nationalism, 10; 'WiHowga te'scandal, 232; wome n's role, 103, 105; see alsoSouthern Rhodesia

Zimbabwe Africa n Nati onal Liberation Ann y(ZANLA), 103,214,217

Zimbabwe African Nati onal Union - Patriotic Front(ZANU-PF) , 64, 79,214, 215,229,231 , 232,233

Zimb abwe African Peop le's Unio n (ZAPU), 214- 15,232

Zimbabwe People 's Revo lutionary A nny(ZIPRA) , 215

Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZU M), 232Zo lberg, Aristide, 7, 20, 159

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