Notes

Preface

1 . H. A. Drake, “Intolerance, Religious Violence, and Political Legitimacy

in Late Antiquity,” Journal of American Academy of Religion 79, no. 1

(2011): 197.

2 . Ibid.

3 . Ibid.

4 . For details on postcolonial theory, read the works of Bart Moore-

Gilbert, Postcolonial Theory: Contexts, Practices, Politics (London

and New York: Verso, 1997).

5 . For an exhaustive discussion on postcolonial criticism, see Gregory

Castle (ed), Postcolonial Discourses: An Anthology (Oxford, UK:

Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2001).

6 . Moore-Gilbert, Postcolonial Theory , 11ff.

One Precolonial Sokoto Caliphate and Kanem-Borno Empire and the Advent of Islam

1 . See Toyin Falola, Key Events in African History—A Reference Guide

(Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002), 85–86.

2 . Ibid., 93 and J. D. Fage, —A History of Africa (New York: Alfred A.

Knopf, 1978), 187–212.

3 . For more details about the ethnicities and languages in Kanem-

Bornu, see C.C. Ifemesia, “States of the Central Sudan,” in A

Thousand Years of West African History—A Handbook for Teachers

and Students , ed. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie (Ibadan, Nigeria:

Ibadan University Press, 1967), 72–74.

4 . For more details see Ifemesia, “Bornu under the Shehus” in A

Thousand Years of West African History—A Handbook for Teachers

and Students , eds., J.F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie (Ibadan, Nigeria:

Ibadan University Press, 1967), 284–293.

5 . See Ifemesia, “States of the Central Sudan,” 74.

6 . “Bornu.” Encyclop æ dia Britannica. Encyclop æ dia Britannica Online

Academic Edition . Encyclop æ dia Britannica Inc., 2012, accessed

June 19, 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/74323

/Bornu .

NOT ES196

7 . According to historical evidence, a king of Kanem-Bornu, Mai

Umme Jilmi (1085–1097), died on his way to Mecca for a pilgrim-

age and his successor made three pilgrimage trips to Mecca. See

Ifemesia “States of the Central Sudan,” 74f, for more details.

8 . See Ifemesia, “Bornu Under the Shehus,” 286.

9 . See ibid., Ibid., 284–293.

10 . Ibid., 286. For further information on the correspondence between

the dan Fodio camp and al-Kanemi’s on this issue, see Roland Cohen

and Louis Brenner, “Bornu in the Nineteenth Century,” in History

of West Africa , vol. 2, eds. J.F.A. Ajayi and Michael Crowder (New

York: Columbia University Press, 1973), 96ff. For a complete version

of this correspondence, cf. Thomas Hodgkin, Nigerian Perspectives,

an Historical Anthology (London, Ibadan, Accra: Oxford University

Press, 1960), 198–205.

11 . Ibid., 288.

12 . Ibid., 289.

13 . Ibid., 288.

14 . Ibid.

15 . Ibid.

16 . Ibid., 92.

17 . Ibid., 91–92. It is significant to note that this system differs con-

siderably from that applied by the jihadists of the Sokoto caliphate,

who insisted on appointing emirs of Fulani ancestry in major politi-

cal regions of the caliphate, as explained later.

18 . See Ifemesia, “Bornu Under the Shehus,” 92.

19 . Ibid.

20 . For more information about the legendary origin of the “Seven

Hausa States” see Ifemesia, “States of Central Sudan,” 90–92.

21 . The use of Banza Bakwai to identify these seven states is a conde-

scending reference to the fact that these states are not originally Hausa

or not authentically Hausa, but have been adopted into the household

of the Hausa people or rather that they are Hausa by affiliation.

22 . See Ifemesia, “States of Central Sudan,” 93.

23 . J.O. Hunwick, “Islam in West Africa,” in A Thousand Years of West

African History—A Handbook for Teachers and Students , eds. J.F.

Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press,

1967), 124f and Lissi Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in

Africa: The Cases of Northern Nigeria and Tanzania Compared

(London and New York: British Academic Press, 1993), 6.

24 . cf. Thomas Hodgkin, Nigerian Perspectives, an Historical Anthology

(London, Ibadan, Accra: Oxford University Press, 1960), 75.

25 . Ibid., 92ff and Robert W. July, A History of the African People ,

5th ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1998), 72ff.

26 . July, A History of the African People , 77f.

27 . See Ifemesia, “States of Central Sudan,” 94.

28 . Ibid.

NOT ES 197

29 . July, A History of the African People , 77.

30 . For details on the administrative structure and judicial principles

of the pro-Islamic Hausa states, see Ifemesia, “States of Central

Sudan,” 107ff.

31 . Ibid., 110.

32 . Hunwick, “Islam in West Africa,” 125.

33 . Ibid.

34 . Peter B. Clarke, West Africa and Islam: A study of religious devel-

opment from the 8th to the 20th century (London: Edward Arnold

Publishers Ltd., 1982), 60–66 and Michael Crowder, A Short

History of Nigeria (Revised and Enlarged Edition) (New York:

Frederick A. Praeger, 1966), 91ff.

35 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, 6 and J.D. Fage,

A History of Africa (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), 193ff.

36 . Ibid.

37 . Ibid.

38 . Ibid.

39 . Ibid., 6.

40 . Fage, The History of Human Society , 201.

41 . Ibid., 196. Also cf. Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in

Africa , 7.

42 . See Cohen and Brenner, “Bornu in the Nineteenth Century,” 100.

43 . Fage, The History of Human Society , 202f.

44 . E. D. Morel, Nigeria—Its People and Its Problems (London, Great

Britain: Frank Cass, 1968), 99f; Sidney John Hogben and A. H. M.

Kirk-Greene, The Emirates of Northern Nigeria, a Preliminary Survey

of Their Historical Traditions (London: Oxford University Press,

1966), 116–123.

45 . See R. A. Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria

1804–1906: The Sokoto Caliphate and Its Enemies (New York, NY:

Humanities Press, 1971), 31–33. Also see Murray Last, The Sokoto

Caliphate (New York, NY: Humanities Press, 1967), 63f.

46 . See Lamin Sanneh, Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in

West Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 2.

47 . Victor Chukwulozie reports that of the 14 jihad flag bearers, only

one was a Hausa chief. Therefore, Fulani leaders were overtly favored

with most of the political appointments of the newly created politi-

cal order. See Chukwulozie, Muslim-Christian Dialogue in Nigeria

(Ibadan, Nigeria: Daystar Press, 1986), 28f.

48 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, 8.

49 . Uthman Dan Fodio, “The Origins of the Fulani Jihad,” in Nigerian

Perspectives, An Historical Anthology , ed., Thomas Hodgkin (London,

Ibadan, Accra: Oxford University Press, 1960), 192.

50 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria, 97f.

51 . See Yusufu Turaki, The British Colonial Legacy In Northern Nigeria:

A Social Ethical Analysis of the Colonial and Post-Colonial Society

NOT ES198

and Politics in Nigeria (Jos, Nigeria: Challenge Press, 1993), 39f.

N. I. Okonjo, British Administration in Nigeria, 1900–1950: A

Nigerian View (New York: NOK, 1974), 2f. Turaki further explains

that enslaving and utilizing the services of non-Muslims as slaves was

a major desirable obligation toward the support of the caliphate.

52 . Murray, The Sokoto Caliphate , 90–102.

53 . Mahmoud Hamman reflects the argument substantially held by

many non-Hausa–Fulani ethnicities that “they were deliberately

left un-Islamized by the emirates in order to be used as a justifiable

reservoir for slavery.” See Hamman, “Inter-Ethnic Relations and

Inter-Ethnic Conflicts,” in Islam in Africa , eds., Nur Alkali et al.

(Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd., 1993), 458.

54 . Murray, The Sokoto Caliphate , 106. Also see Adeleye. Power and

Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria, 19–22.

55 . Ivor Wilks, “The Juula and the Expansion of Islam into the Forest,”

in The History of Islam in Africa , eds., Nehemiah Levtzion and

Randall L. Pouwels (Athens, OH; Oxford, UK; and Cape Town,

South Africa: Ohio University Press; James Curry Ltd.; & David

Philip Publishers Ltd., 2000), 95.

56 . Adeleye. Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria 1804–1906,

1971.

57 . Ibid., 32ff.

58 . Ibid., 4.

59 . Ibid., 32ff.

60 . During the trans-Saharan slave trade, Hausa states frequently raided

the towns and cities of the minority ethnicities for slaves. Similar

activities continued as the Fulani-controlled leadership under

Sokoto Caliphate depended economically largely on slave market

and slave ownership and most of the slaves came from the ethnic

minorities. See Crowder, Short History of Nigeria , 218f and Andrew

E. Barnes, “ ‘ The Great Prohibition’: The Expansion of Christianity

in Colonial Northern Nigeria,” History Compass 8/6 (2010), 441.

Therefore, people of these minority ethnicities were historical looked

down upon by the Hausa-Fulani oligarchy. Moreover, Islam in its

earlier stages in the Hausa states was a religion of the merchants and

aristocrats in the society, because these were those initially evange-

lized by their business partners and aristocratic contacts from Mali,

eastern and northern frontiers of the region. See Adeleye. Power and

Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria 1804–1906, 7ff.

61 . These were the original warriors and propagators of the jihad.

62 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, 8–9.

63 . Ifemesia, “States of the Central Sudan,” 93.

64 . It is documented that dan Fodio and his successors highly valued

and used the support of Arab scholars from north Africa and given

the cherished communication and contacts with Mecca and Medina

by dan Fodio and other Muslim scholars in western Sudan, it is very

NOT ES 199

likely that the activities of Abd al-Wahhab in Saudi Arabia must

have attracted dan Fodio and his spiritual followers. Therefore, the

trademarks of his jihad no doubt reflected the ethos of Wahhabism

in Saudi Arabia. For more on this argument, see Murray Last, The

Sokoto Caliphate (New York: Humanities Press, Inc., 1967), 90ff;

Mohammed Ayoob and Hassan Kosebalan, Religion and Politics

in Saudi Arabia: Wahhabism and the State (Boulder, CO: Lynne

Rienner Publishers, 2009); and Hiskett, Mervyn, The Sword of

Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usman Dan Fodio (New

York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 62f.

65 . The Salafis advocate a puritanical Islam in imitation of the first

three generations of Muslims who are revered as the quintessen-

tial Muslims. See Global Security.org, “Salafi Islam” in Military .

Retrieved on October 10, 2011. http://www.globalsecurity.org

/military/intro/islam-salafi.htm .

66 . Through commerce and travels for pilgrimage, Muslims in west-

ern Sudan, part of which is today’s northern Nigeria, had ongoing

contacts and relationships with Islamic scholars in Mecca, Medina,

as well as other parts of Middle East. See Adeleye, Power and

Diplomacy , 11.

67 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria, 93.

68 . Ibid., 96.

69 . Abdulai Iddrisu, Contesting Islam: “Homegrown Wahhabism,”

Education and Muslim Identity in Northern Ghana, 1920–2005

(PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2009), 6.

70 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 95–106.

Two Colonial Northern Nigeria and the Politics of Muslim-Christian Relations

1 . Andrew E. Barnes, “ ‘ The Great Prohibition’: The Expansion of

Christianity in Colonial Northern Nigeria,” History Compass 8,

no. 6 (2010): 441.

2 . Ibid. What Barnes means by “denationalized” Africans is a refer-

ence to Christianized Africans from southern Nigeria, who have

chosen to abandon their African traditional way of life to adopt

Western lifestyle due to the influence of Christianity.

3 . Jan Harm Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial

Context: A Case Study of the Sudan United Mission (Amsterdam,

Netherlands: Rodopi N.V., 1979), 205ff.

4 . Barnes elaborates these points further. See Barnes, ‘ The Great

Prohibition,’ 443. Also see E. A. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact

on Modern Nigeria, 1842–1914: A Political and Social Analysis

(London: Longmans, 1966), 117–152.

5 . For a more comprehensive analysis of the exploration of these two

German explorers in the Muri Mountains, see J ö rg Adelberger,

NOT ES200

“Eduard Vogel and Eduard Robert Flegel: The Experiences of

Two Nineteenth-Century German Explorers in Africa,” History in

Africa 27 (2000):1–29.

6 . Mukhtar Umar Bunza provides some summarized information

about the activities of these early European travellers and explor-

ers. See Bunza, Christian Missions Among Muslims: Sokoto Province,

Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2007),

13–16.

7 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria, 210–230.

8 . Ibid., 21ff.

9 . Ibid., 217.

10 . In his annual report for the period January 1, 1900 to March 31,

1901, Lugard accounts for his hoisting the Union Jack flag at Lokoja

on January, 1, 1900. See Colonial Reports – Annual, No. 346,

Northern Nigeria, 1900–1901 . Government Publications Relating

to Nigeria 1862–1960, Group Two: Protectorate Northern Nigeria,

Annual Reports, 1900–1913, 1.

11 . Ibid., 219.

12 . This was considered harsh and unacceptable by many of the Fulani

leaders, as this deprived them a major source of income and labor.

There is the case of the Magaji of Keffi who killed Captain Moloney,

the local British resident, with his bare hands because the latter

instructed him to stop his trade on slaves. See Crowder, A Short

History of Nigeria , 223.

13 . This is not discountenancing the challenges posed by some emirates

such as Kontagora, Ilorin, Yola, and Nupe at the earlier stages of

the conquest of northern Nigeria. See Crowder, A Short History of

Nigeria , 219ff.

14 . This translation is a reproduction from Crowder, A Short History

of Nigeria , 224 but originally from Colonial Reports – Annual,

Northern Nigeria, 1902 . Government Publications Relating to

Nigeria 1862–1960, Group Two: Protectorate Northern Nigeria,

Annual Reports, 1900–1913, 159.

15 . Sultan Abdurrahaman who had written a defiant letter to Lugard

had died the year before.

16 . The original text is from Colonial Reports – Annual, Appendix III .

Government Publications Relating to Nigeria 1862–1960, Group

Two: Protectorate Northern Nigeria, Annual Reports, 1900–1913,

164.

17 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 220.

18 . Ibid., 235.

19 . It needs to be underscored that although the emirs and the sultan

were no longer the ultimate authorities in the former Fulani Empire,

the application of the Indirect Rule by administrations after Lugard

intervened less frequently in the administration of the Hausa–Fulani

oligarchy, thus still giving them wide ranging authorities to approve

NOT ES 201

or decline the activities of Christian missionaries and the fate of the

minority ethnicities under their domain. And as was the case, the

colonial administration was very much in favor of entrusting lead-

ership of geopolitical areas of minority ethnicity in the care of the

established leadership structure and control of the Hausa–Fulani

oligarchy.

20 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 169.

21 . Ibid., 231.

22 . Ibid., 228.

23 . E. A. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria, 1842–

1914: A Political and Social Analysis (London: Longmans, 1966),

117ff.

24 . Ibid., 120–123.

25 . According to the information retrieved by one SMA chronicler,

Edward O’Connor, the SMA missionaries arrived in Lokoja on

November 6, 1884 but abandoned the mission in 1891 because

“Lokoja was not a happy place for the mission with deaths (Filippo

Fiorentini and Andrew Dornan), sickness and lack of progress.” See

O’Connor, From the Niger to the Sahara: The Story of the Archdiocese

of Kaduna (Ibadan, Nigeria: Intec Printers Limited, 2009), 11–12.

26 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 172ff.

27 . Ibid., 137f. The merchants resented the missionaries not only for

their call for military expedition on the north but also for the mis-

sionaries’ opposition to the liquor trade, leading to very high duty

tax on liquor.

28 . Because northerners did not embrace Western culture and educa-

tion, they were lacking in knowledge and skills required to develop

and maintain emerging civilization brought about by colonial pres-

ence. For more information about this category of Christians in

the north see E.P.T. Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria

(London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1979), 137–144.

29 . Mukhtar U.Bunza confirms this phenomenon and the fact that

churches supported by these converts for the most part coex-

isted very peacefully with their Muslim relatives and neighbors.

See Christian Missions Among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria

1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2007).

30 . John B. Grimley and Gordon E. Robinson, Church Growth in

Central and Southern Nigeria (Grand Rapids, MI: William B.

Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1966), 43.

31 . CMS experienced several obstacles and objections to setting up

mission in Kano first from the emir and subsequently from the

local colonial authorities, regional colonial administration, and the

Colonial Office in London. See Crampton, Christianity in Northern

Nigeria , 37–40 and 56–58.

32 . See Barnes, ‘ The Great Prohibition,’ 445ff. Mukhtar U. Bunza

extensively comments on and narrates the spread of Christianity

NOT ES202

among the Maguzawas and other former Muslims through scheme

of missionaries to provide charity or welfare assistance, education,

and health services in Sokoto province between 1935 and 1990.

A phenomenon that certainly became consistent with Christian mis-

sionary activities among Muslims in northern Nigeria from 1930s.

See Bunza, Christian Missions Among Muslims: Sokoto Province,

Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2007). It

is therefore noteworthy to add that the British government in 1930

relaxed its restriction of missionary evangelization in the north due

to the pressure coming from Christian missionaries. The new policy

or rather a modification of the old policy desired that while allow-

ing missionaries to engage in mission activities in the north such

missionary activities must receive the approval of the emir or the

highest Native Authority of the place.

33 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 141.

34 . Ibid., 140. It needs to be clearly pointed out that Christian mis-

sionaries focus on education was solely to facilitate the conversion

of natives and the spread of Christianity; hence they were adamantly

opposed to higher education as they considered it redundant.

Ayandele clearly elucidates this point in his account, “Father Zappa,

the Prefect of the Mission [Society of African Mission in Mid-

Western Nigeria], became inveterately opposed to schools on the

grounds that the true purpose of all education, from the Christian

viewpoint, was to develop the moral and spiritual fibers of the con-

verts. In his judgment Christian missions would be committing a

‘crime against the souls’ of the converts and pupils who employed

their acquired knowledge for social services primarily”, ibid., 288.

35 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 240ff.

36 . Ibid., 240. Mukhtar Umar Bunza in his Christian Missions Among

Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa

World Press, Inc., 2007), 41–46, corroborates this information.

He specifically stated that majority of the Muslim population in

northern Nigeria avoided all forms of Western education, whether

government or missionary sponsored, as it was seen as a bait toward

Christian proselytization.

37 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 148f.

38 . Ibid., 149.

39 . Ibid., 149f and Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a

Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Sudan United Mission

(Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi N.V., 1979), 72–73.

40 . This is as quoted by Jan Harm Boer, Missionary Messengers of

Liberation in a Colonial Context , 18 and 58.

41 . Ibid., 60. That fundamental philosophy explains for the variation

in application of the Indirect Rule system from the north to the

south as well as the missionary differentiation in relationship with

Christian missionaries between the north and south. For more

NOT ES 203

details on these, see Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern

Nigeria (1966); Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria (1966); Barnes,

“The Great Prohibition,” (2010); Margery Perham, Lugard: The

Years of Authority 1898–1945 (London and Glasgow, Great Britain:

Collins Clear-Type Press, 1960); and John B. Grimley and Gordon

E. Robinson, Church Growth in Central and Southern Nigeria

(Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,

1966).

42 . Quoted by Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial

Context , 60.

43 . Crowder, A Short Story of Nigeria , 233.

44 . Harry A. Gailey, Lugard and the Abeokuta Uprising – The Demise of

Egba Independence (London, England; Totowa, New Jersey: Frank

Cass and Company Ltd., 1982), 44.

45 . Gailey, Lugard and the Abeokuta Uprising , 44. John M. Carland

provides a detail of the contributions coming from southern Nigeria

and the British Treasury to subsidize the financial needs of north-

ern Nigeria from 1899 to 1913. He argues that contrary to what

the British thought of northern Nigeria and the royal privileges it

enjoyed from London, the territory was one of the most indigent

“tropical estate” in the British Empire. See Carland, The Colonial

Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution

Press, 1985), 118–14. Carland actually alleges that financial impro-

priety was going on in northern Nigeria as the Treasury, contrary

to prevailing regulation, was not in complete control of expenses of

the Colonial Office in northern Nigeria.

46 . E. D. Morel suggested that the four provinces should comprise

a Northern Province, consisting of Kontagora, Sokoto, Katsina,

Kano, Zaria Emirate, and Bornu; a Central Province corresponding

roughly with the Middle Belt state advocated by the then Action

Group Party and consisting of Bauchi, Plateau, Adamawa, and parts

of Niger and Benue provinces; a Western Province consisting of the

present Western Region, Mid-West State, Ilorin and Borgu; and an

Eastern Province that would take in Benue Province as far as the

Benue River, together with the present Eastern Region. See Harry

A. Gailey, Lugard and the Abeokuta Uprising – The Demise of Egba

Independence (London; Totowa, NJ: Frank Cass and Company

Ltd., 1982), 48f.

47 . Hatch, Nigeria: A History (London: Martin Secker & Warburg

Limited, 1971), 156–157.

48 . Gailey, Lugard and the Abeokuta Uprising , 43.

49 . Ibid., 49.

50 . Ibid., 48–49.

51 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 241.

52 . Ibid. This development gave birth to Ethiopianism, a term used to

describe African nationalism that developed through the church.

NOT ES204

Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 177ff dis-

cusses this subject extensively.

53 . Ibid., 175ff; 241–280 and Elizabeth Isichei, A History of Nigeria

(London, Lagos, and New York: Longman Inc., 1983), 401ff.

54 . Ayandele reports that all those elected into the legislative council

through this period were Christians, including religious ministers.

Cf. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 342.

55 . Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial Context ,

106.

56 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 176.

57 . Ibid., 285.

58 . Isichei, A History of Nigeria , 401ff.

59 . Many authors traditionally refer to these people as pagan and their

abode as pagan territories. The seminal work of Boer provides

detailed information and facts about schools and hospitals run by

the Karl Kumm founded Sudan United Mission (S.U.M) in Bauchi-

Jos Plateau, Wase, Muri, Wukari, and Ibi territories. These are huge

settlements of traditionalists who had hitherto resisted the intro-

duction of Islam in their territories. See Boer, Missionary Messengers

of Liberation in a Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Sudan

United Mission (Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Rodopi N.V., 1979).

Grimley and Robinson also provides very detailed accounts of the

beginning and spread of Christianity in a large part of present-day

northeast and Middle Belt areas of Nigeria during the colonial era.

See Church Growth in Central and Southern Nigeria (Grand Rapids,

MI: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1966).

60 . Ibid., 196.

61 . In reference to this development, Barnes writes: “By the 1930s the

Great Prohibition ceased to have much value as a tool for control-

ling the evangelization of traditionalist peoples, primarily because

by then an ever-increasing percentage of the itinerating was being

done by African evangelists from local ethnic communities.” See

Andrew E. Barnes, “ ‘ The Great Prohibition’: The Expansion of

Christianity in Colonial Northern Nigeria,” History Compass 8,

no. 6 (2010): 444.

62 . The origin, activities, and development of these local churches and

their nondenominational features are substantially covered in the

works of Edgar H. Smith, Nigerian Harvest (Grand Rapids, MI:

Baker Book House, 1972); Niels Kastfelt, Religion and Politics in

Nigeria: A Study in Middle Belt Christianity (New York and London:

British Academic Press, 1994); and Grimley and Robinson, Church

Growth in Central and Southern Nigeria (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B.

Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1966).

63 . Smith, Nigerian Harvest , 98–99.

64 . Kastfelt, Religion and Politics in Nigeria , 19ff.

65 . Ibid., 19.

NOT ES 205

66 . Ibid.

67 . Kastfelt, Religion and Politics in Nigeria , 20–21.

68 . Kastfelt, Religion and Politics in Nigeria , 22.

69 . Ibid., 23.

70 . For a full content of the oath of office taken by Sultan Attahiru II,

see Bunza, Christian Missions Among Muslims , 23.

71 . Muhammad S. Umar, Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual Responses

of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule (Leiden, the

Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers, 2006), 8.

72 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 18.

73 . These two authors in particular have held in their different works

that the British colonial administration significantly undermined

the Muslim leadership of northern Nigeria as well as enhanced the

spread of Christianity among Muslim communities. For details

about their line of argument and thoughts, see Mukhtar Umar

Bunza, Christian missions among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria

1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World; London: Turnaround [dis-

tributor], 2007) and Muhammad S. Umar, Islam and Colonialism:

Intellectual Responses of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British

Colonial Rule (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers,

2006).

74 . Encyclopedia of African History , s.v. “Nigeria: Colonial Period:

Christianity and Islam,” accessed July 9, 2012, http://www.cre-

doreference.com/entry/routafricanhistory/nigeria _ colonial _ perio

d _ christianity _ and _ islam .

75 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 19.

76 . Umar, Islam and Colonialism , 7f.

77 . Umar, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Conceptm Manifestations and Role

in Nation-Building,” in Nigeria since Independence: The First 25

Years, Vol. IX – Religion , eds. Atanda, J. A., Garba Ashiwaju, and

Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books

Ltd., 1989), 76.

78 . This is the subtext of Trimingham’s argument in his historical anal-

ysis of the spread of Islam in Africa. See Trimingham, The Influence

of Islam Upon Africa (New York and Washington: Frederick A.

Praeger Publishers, 1968).

79 . The Muslim organizations that sprang up in different parts of western

Nigeria with the intent of providing Western education for Muslim

students include: Ahmadiyya Movement (Lagos 1916), Ansar-

Ud-Deen Society (Lagos 1923), Nawair-Ud-Deen Society (Abeokuta

1939). For more information, see Balogun, S. A. “Islam in Nigeria:

Its Historical Development” in Nigeria since Independence: The First

25 Years, Vol. IX – Religion , eds. Atanda, J. A., Garba Ashiwaju, and

Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books

Ltd., 1989), 56 and Umar, “Islam in Nigeria:,” 76. It is important

to point out that the minimal success of the Ahmadiyya Movement

NOT ES206

in northern Nigeria was largely due to the resistance it met from

legalistic Muslims who were uncomfortable with the claim of the

founder of the movement, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, to be a new

prophet or Messiah. See J. Spencer Trimingham, The Influence

of Islam Upon Africa (New York and Washington: Frederick A.

Praeger Publishers, 1968), 80f.

80 . Umar, “Islam in Nigeria:” 76.

81 . Catholic and Anglican priests wore specific regalia and use certain

items for their rites not locally available. For instance, the wafers

and wine for Holy Communion among Catholics were products

that were strictly imported from Europe. The vestments used by the

priests for mass were also imported and the official language at mass

until after the Second Vatican Council (1963–1965) was Latin.

82 . Bunza, Christian Missions among Muslim , 63.

83 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 20.

Three Northern Nigeria from Independence (1960) to 1979

1 . In reference to the unethical and political robbery committed by

the British against the so-called democratic principle they pre-

tended to have brought to modern African states, in the case of

Nigeria, Chinua Achebe writes, “It is now widely known that

Sir James Robertson played an important role in overseeing the

elections (or lack thereof) at independence, throwing his weight

behind Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, who had been tapped to become

Nigeria’s first prime minister.” See Achebe, There Was A Country:

A Personal History of Biafra (New York: The Penguin Press, 2012),

50. One of the key players of the British colonial authority in

Nigeria in the preindependence and independence period, Harold

Smith, in 2005, made public what had been rumored and suspected

by many Nigerians, namely that the British authorities deliberated

manipulated the census of 1953 and rigged the preindependence

election of 1959 in favor of northern Nigeria. In his own words,

“Through a cynical display of horse dealing, the 1959 Federal elec-

tion became a mockery, because the outcome—Northern domina-

tion of Nigeria after independence—was assured before a single

vote was cast.” The justification for this chicanery was “because

of Britain’s self-interest.” And as reported in New African maga-

zine, “Nigeria, one of the richest and most populous colonies in

the British Empire, should be left in the safe hands of ‘friends of

Britain’ after independence. As such, the North had to win the

independence elections by any means necessary.” All the quotes

above after the one from Achebe are from the interview granted by

Harold Smith to New African magazine. See Harold Smith, “How

Britain Undermined Democracy in Africa,” New Africa 440 (May

2005): 8–13.

NOT ES 207

2 . See Muhammad Sani Umar, Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual

Responses of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule

(Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers, 2006), 29–30

3 . See Umar, Islam and Colonialism, 29–40. The British secured fat-

was from Saudi Arabia against possible mahdi elements in Nigeria

and other British colonial territories with Muslim population. In

addition, they used Islamic ideas and arguments to justify and

defend the British causes in the colonies.

4 . Many scholars allude to this fact including E. P. T. Crampton, Lissi

Rasmussen, E. A. Ayandele, Michael Crowder, and Jan H. Boer.

See E. P. T. Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria (London:

Geoffrey Chapman, 1979), 71.

5 . Raymond Hickey consistently makes this point in his book. He

argued that the failure of the Anglican mission in Borno and

Gongola is due to the failure to invest energy in evangelizing the

indigenes of these places who lived predominantly in the rural areas.

See Hickey, Christianity in Borno State and Northern Gongola

(Bodija-Ibadan, Nigeria: Claverianum Press, 1985).

6 . See S. A. Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Historical Development,”

in Nigeria since Independence: The First 25 Years, Vol. IX – Religion,

eds., Atanda, J. A., Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan,

Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 54. It should

be noted that while Christians made concerted efforts to evangelize

the north and convert non-Muslims as well as even former Muslims,

the Muslims under the leadership of Sir Ahmadu Bello equally

made concerted efforts to convert, especially the Igbos of Eastern

Nigeria, into Islam. That mission earned some dividends, especially

among the Igbos of Nsukka area. See Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,”

p. 57ff.

7 . See E. P. T. Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria (London:

Geoffrey Chapman, 1979), 82. Kukah also affirms the outstanding

sociopolitical commitment of individual Christians from the north

in their bid to strategically advance the cause of non-Hausa-Fulani

ethnicities and Christians in northern Nigeria. See Kukah, Religion

Politics and Power , 49ff.

8 . See Edward O’Connor, From the Niger to the Sahara: The Story of

the Archdiocese of Kaduna (Ibadan, Nigeria: Intec Printers Limited,

2009), 115.

9 . Ibid., 115.

10 . See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 89.

11 . For details on the political achievements and activities of U.M.B.C.

See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 86ff.

12 . Ibid., 219.

13 . The geographical area covered under the substantive diocese of

Makurdi used to be called Prefecture of Oturkpo and by 1959 was

raised as diocese of Oturkpo. The name was changed to Makurdi

NOT ES208

diocese the following year. However, by 1995, Oturkpo regained

the title of a diocesan seat under the official name Oturkpo diocese

carved out of the diocese of Makurdi.

14 . See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 167–173.

15 . Ibid., 166f.

16 . See Raymond Hickey, A History of the Catholic Church in Northern

Nigeria (Jos, Nigeria: Augustinian Publications Nigeria, 1981), 41.

17 . Ibid., 41.

18 . Ibid.

19 . See Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 54.

20 . See Mukhtar Umar Bunza, Christian Missions Among Muslims:

Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World

Press, Inc., 2007), 137.

21 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 55.

22 . See Muhammad Sani Umar, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Concept,

Manifestations and Role in Nation-Building” in Nigeria Since

Independence – The First 25 Years, Vol. IX (Religion) , eds., J. A.

Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria:

Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 80.

23 . See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 215f.

24 . Ibid., 89, quoted from Dean S. Gilliland, “African Traditional

Religion in Transition: The Influence of Islam on African Traditional

Religion in Northern Nigeria” (PhD diss., Hartford, CT, 1971),

269.

25 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 81.

26 . For more detailed account of the origin and growth of the JNI

see Loimeier, Roman, Islamic Reform and Political Change in

Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press,

1997), 135–148.

27 . This is the plural for the Arabic word tariqa (brotherhood).

28 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 81. Loimeier explains how Bello tried

to endear himself to the two revival groups by visiting and carousing

the international headquarters of both organizations. See Loimeier,

Roman, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria

(Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 113.

29 . See Loimeier, Roman, Islamic Reform and Political Change in

Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press,

1997), 114.

30 . Ibid.

31 . See Elaigwu, The Shadow of Religion on Nigerian Federalism :

1960–1993, 7–8

32 . Kukah strongly commends the northern leaders for holding off

the pressure from the south. See Kukah, Religion Politics and

Power , 57.

33 . See “Official Census Results: Nigeria has 140 million people.”

Nigerian Village Square ( http://nigeriavillagesquare.com/newsflash

NOT ES 209

/official-census-resultsnigeria-has-140-million-people.html , December

29, 2006). Retrieved February 3, 2013.

34 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 92–93.

35 . Ibid., 93; Peter B. Clarke, Islam in modern Nigeria – a study of a

Muslim community in a post-independence state, 1960–1983 (Mainz:

Gr ü newald publishers, 1984), 131f; and Victor Chukwulozie,

Muslim-Christian dialogue in Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Daystar

Press, 1986).

36 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 93.

37 . Matthew Hassan Kukah reads other motives for the formation of

the group. He, however, traces its origin to a meeting held by indi-

vidual northern Christians in 1948 at a place on the outskirts of

the city of Jos. For more information on the formation and goals of

NCA, see Kukah, Religion Politics and Power , 49–57. However, in

general, it was understood that that NCA was established as a man-

ifest response to the presumed Islamization of the north agenda

led by the sardauna of Sokoto. See Abdullahi M. Ashafa, “British

Colonial Rule and the Transformation of Inter-Group Relations,”

in Northern Nigeria: A Century of Transformation, 1903–2003 ,

eds., A. M. Yakubu, I. M. Jumare, and A. G. Saeed (Kaduna: Arewa

House, Ahmadu Bello University, 2005), 442ff.

38 . Raymond Hickey, Christianity in Borno State and Northern Gongola

(Bodija, Ibadan: Claverianum Press, 1985), 94 and Crampton,

Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 93.

39 . See Kukah, Religion Politics and Power , 54.

40 . See Peter Schineller, ed., Pastoral Letters and Communiqu é s of The

Catholic Bishops Conference of Nigeria, 1960–2002: The Voice of the

Voiceless (Ibadan: Daily Graphics Nigeria Limited, 2002), 44.

41 . Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria (Ibadan,

Nigeria: Spectrum Books, 1993), 56.

42 . Ibid., 59; Clarke, Islam in Modern Nigeria, 44f; and John N. Paden.

Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1973), 73–204.

43 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 82.

44 . During the civil war years, the activities of this group were

restricted to the northern states, but expanded to the south after

the war. In 1973, JNI merged with the Western State Joint Muslim

Organization (WESJOMO) to form the Nigerian Supreme Council

for Islamic Affairs. See Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations

in Africa , 59; Saheed Ahmad Rufai, “The Interplay of Power and

Religion in Nigeria from Colonization to Democratization,” World

Journal of Islamic History and Civilization 3 (2011): 173–174. The

major objectives of the organization include: “To cater for the inter-

ests of Islam throughout the Federation, to serve as a channel of

contact with the governments of Nigeria on Islamic affairs, where

necessary, and to serve as the only channel of contact on Islamic

NOT ES210

matters.” See Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 57

and Daily Times , August 17, 1973. In 1963, the Kaduna Council

of Mallams was formed with the objective of bringing together the

different religious leaders in northern Nigeria. Both the JNI and

the association of mallams were headed by the sultan of Sokoto.

45 . S.A. Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Historical Development,” in

Nigeria since Independence: The First 25 Years, Vol. IX – Religion ,

eds., Atanda, J. A., Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan,

Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 59.

46 . The mission of Sir Bello and his allies also received a lot of finan-

cial support from many Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia,

Libya, the United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, and Sudan. Ricardo

Laremont and Hrach Gregorian confirmed the efforts of this mis-

sion by adding that the support from these countries significantly

enhanced the building of mosques and Qur’anic schools in dif-

ferent parts of Nigeria, especially in the north. See Laremont and

Gregorian, “Political Islam in West Africa and the Sahel,” Military

Review 86, no. 1 (2006): 27–36, at 29 and Muhammad S. Umar,

“Islam in Nigeria,” 80–84.

47 . Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 60.

48 . For more information on the activities of Jama’atu Nasir Islam (JNI)

see Matthew Hassan Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern

Nigeria (Ibadan, Owerri, Kaduna, Lagos: Spectrum Books Limited,

1993), 43–48. Also see Balogun,”Islam in Nigeria,” 61.

49 . Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 62.

50 . Sultan of Sokoto was considered the traditional leader of the group.

However, Nasiru Kabara of Kano assumed more active leadership of

the group in the later part of the twentieth century. See Balogun,

“Islam in Nigeria,” 63 and John N. Paden, Faith and Politics in

Nigeria (Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press,

2008), 28–29.

51 . Idris was one of the close disciples of Sheikh Gumi. See Ousmane

Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study of the

Society for the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement of Tradition

(Leiden and Boston: Kominklijke Brill NV, 2003). 85f

52 . Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 62.

53 . For more information about the dynamics between the Tijaniyya,

Qadiriyya, and Izala , see Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and

Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern

University Press, 1997) and “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable

Religious Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society

Relations Transformed , ed., William F.S. Miles (Boulder, Colorado

and London: Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 43–72.

54 . Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 62–63 and Paden, Faith and Politics

in Nigeria , 29–30.

NOT ES 211

55 . See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 90ff and Hickey,

Christianity in Borno State, 73.

56 . As a little child during the war years, I remember hearing some of

those war songs.

57 . See Schineller, The Voice of the Voiceless , 53.

58 . Ibid.

59 . See Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 61.

60 . See Hickey, Christianity in Borno State and Northern Gongola

(Bodija, Ibadan: Claverianum Press, 1984 (85)?), 73 and O’Connor,

From the Niger to the Sahara: The Story of the Archdiocese of Kaduna

(Ibadan, Nigeria: Intec Printers Limited, 2009), 158–159.

61 . See Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern

Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997),

112.

62 . See Kukah, Religion Politics and Power, 55.

63 . Ibid., 48.

64 . For more information on the events and discussions leading to the

formation of CAN, see Kukah, Religion Politics and Power , 49ff.

65 . See Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change , 123.

66 . Ibid.

67 . Ibid., 124.

68 . A. M. Mainasara testifies to the existence of this practice. See A.

M. Mainasara, The Five Majors: Why They Struck (Zaria, Nigeria:

Hudahuda Publishing Company, 1982), 10ff. I can actually testify

to this practice, because I personally know one or two military per-

sonnel (whose parents are from the south) but who got into the

military by claiming northern ethnic origin.

69 . See Chinedu Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts Since 1903”

in Northern Nigeria: A Century of Transformation, 1903–2003 ,

eds., Mahmood Yakubu, Ibrahim Muhammad Jumare, and Asma’u

Garba Saeed (Kaduna, Nigeria: Baraka Press and Publishers Ltd.,

2005), 179.

70 . Ibid., 183 quoting from Kumo, “Shari’a under Colonialism –

Northern Nigeria” in Islam in Africa , eds., Nur Alkali et al.,

(Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd., 1993), 2.

71 . See Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts Since 1903,” 182.

72 . Umar, Islam and Colonialism (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill,

2006), 40–55.

73 . Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts Since 1903,” 183ff.

74 . Ibid., 184.

75 . Ibid.

76 . For more details on the report of this panel, see Philip Ostien,

ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006: A

Sourcebook, Vol. 1 Historical Background (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum

Books Limited, 2007), 49–56.

NOT ES212

77 . For more on this see Umar, “Islam in Nigeria” 76f. He was quot-

ing from Statement by the Government of the Northen Region of

Nigeria on the Re-organization of the Legal and Judicial Systems of

the Northern Region (Kaduna: Government Printer, 1958), 2.

78 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria” 82.

79 . Ibid.

80 . See Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 62

81 . See Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts,” 192–193 and

Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 62–63.

82 . Quoted by Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 64

from Sabiya 1977:6.

83 . Quoted by Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 65

from Sabiya 1977:2.

84 . Ibid., 66.

85 . Ibid., 67.

86 . In February 1976, the new military government led by General

Murtala Mohammed created seven additional states making the

total number of states in the country 19.

87 . See Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts,” 192.

88 . Ibid., 192.

89 . Ibid., 192f.

90 . For more on the conflict between these two brotherhoods, see Roman

Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria

(Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 71–83.

91 . See Schineller, The Voice of the Voiceless , 44.

92 . May be a closer look with specific focus on that will unearth such

incidents, but it is an incontrovertible truth that intra-Christian con-

flicts where they exist have not raised any major security problem

as has the numerous incidents of intra-Muslim conflicts in northern

Nigeria.

93 . The use of Islamic revivalists and Islamists sometimes overlap. Or

rather, there is growing understanding of the words to be either

synonymous or one transiting into the other, namely Islamic reviv-

alists end up becoming Islamists. From philosophical or literary

studies perspective, the two are often distinguishable. However,

in empirical reality the two often overlap, hence an Islamic reviv-

alist often becomes known as an Islamist. In this study, the two

words will be considered as overlapping in application and meaning.

For further elucidation on this, consult Charles Kurzman and Ijlal

Naqvi’s three categories of Islamists: leaders, activists, and support-

ers. Kurzman and Naqvi, “Who are the Islamists?,” in Rethinking

Islamic Studies: From Orientalism to Cosmopolitanism , eds., Carl W.

Ernst and Richard C. Martin, (Columbia, SC: University of South

Carolina Press, 2010), 133–158.

94 . See Atanda, “Conclusion – Paradoxes and Problems of Religion and

Secularism in Nigeria: Suggestions for Solution,” in Nigeria Since

NOT ES 213

Independence: The First Twenty-Five Years , eds., J. A. Atanda, Garba

Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational

Books, Nigeria, Limited, 1989), 187f.

95 . Ibid., 187.

96 . Ibid.

97 . Matthews A. Ojo also references to this problem evident in Islamic

fundamentalists demand for a “convergence to the center” in pursuit

of Islamic orthodoxy and how such absolutism is unattainable in a

democratic pluralistic society. See Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements,

Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam

and Christian-Muslim Relations , 18, no.2 (2007): 176 and 184.

98 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Concept, Manifestations and Role in

Nation-Building,” in Nigeria Since Independence: The First Twenty-

Five Years , eds., J. A. Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar

(Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books, Nigeria, Limited, 1989),

88–89.

99 . Some scholars choose to use renewal rather than revival to identify

or express the same ideology and practice of revolutionary reform

among Muslims. Levtzion and Voll choose to use renewal and

revival interchangeably. See Nehemiah Levtzion and John O. Voll,

eds., Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse,

New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987).

100 . Also see Kurzman and Naqvi’s three categories of Islamists.

Kurzman and Naqvi, “Who are the Islamists?” 134. Azhar Ibrahim

argues that taxonomy in Islam in contemporary society is as complex

as is the case with other major world religions such as Christianity

and Judaism. He groups Muslims into five schools of thought and

highlights the existence of gray areas even within identical groups.

He also provides some historical analysis on the development of

Islamic reformists. See Ibrahim, “Contemporary Islamic Thought:

A Critical Perspective” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations , 23,

no. 3 (July 2012): 279–294.

101 . Ousmane Kane thoroughly highlights this phenomenon in his sem-

inal work on Yan Izala in postcolonial Nigeria. See Ousmane Kane,

Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study of the Society for

the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement of Tradition (Leiden

and Boston: Brill Publication, 2003), 149–177.

102 . See Nehemiah Levtzion and John O. Voll, eds., Eighteenth Century

Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University

Press, 1987), 5f.

103 . Bruce Lawrence strongly concurs with this history. Thus affirm-

ing the connection between European colonization of Muslim-

dominated countries and the rise of Islamic revivalism and the

Islamist movement. See Bruce B. Lawrence, Defenders of God: The

Fundamentalist Revolt against the Modern Age (Columbia, SC:

University of South Carolina Press, 1995). Lawrence’s primary

NOT ES214

argument in the book is that Islamic fundamentalism or Islamist

movement is both a reaction to modernity introduced by the West

and an interaction with it. Therefore, while it attempts to resist

modernity on the one hand it uses modernity at the same time on

the other hand.

104 . See Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, Mawdudi & the Making of Islamic

Revivalism (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 4.

105 . See Nehemiah Levtzion and John O. Voll, eds., Eighteenth Century

Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University

Press, 1987), 3.

106 . See Masud, “Islamic Modernism,” in Islam and Modernity – Key

Issues and Debates , eds., Muhammad Khalid Masud, Armando

Salvatore, and Martin van Bruinesssen (Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press, 2009), 240ff.

107 . See Nasr, Mawdudi & the Making of Islamic Revivalism , 3.

108 . Ibid., 4.

109 . It is important to again highlight that the European worldview that

was introduced to these Muslim societies was based strongly on

the philosophy of the Enlightenment Age, whose poster child is

secularism.

110 . Levtzion and Voll, Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in

Islam , 8.

111 . Ibid., 8f.

112 . Philip Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria

1999–2006: A Source book – Volume III Sanitizing Society (Ibadan:

Spectrum Books Limited, 2007), 3ff. In the other volumes of this

collection, it is amply demonstrated that northern Nigerian Muslim

leaders and agitations for Shari’a will like to see a Wahhabi brand of

puritanist Islam practiced in their states.

113 . See Levtzion and Voll, Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in

Islam , 8.

114 . For more enlightening information about the anti-Sufi position of

the Wahhabiyya movement, the influence of Ibn Taymiyyah who

denounced Ibn al-Arabi as an infidel Muslim, and the evolution of

“neo-Sufi” turuq with strong activists construct, see Levtzion and

Voll, Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam , 9ff.

115 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 83. According to Umar, “The reason

for such a positive development relates to the Muslims’ mistrust

of Western education because of its apparent Christian character.

This mistrust was further strengthened by the close association of

Western education missionary activities. Furthermore, Western edu-

cation was openly secular when it was not Christian. It will be seen

later that this secular character of Western education became one of

the issues in the agitation of the Islamic revivalist trends” (p. 83).

Also Umar goes on to say, “At the level of intellectual renaissance,

young Muslims begin to identify the problems confronting Nigeria

NOT ES 215

as that of moral decadence and spiritual bankruptcy, both of which

emerged out of religious levity. Nigerian educational system, whose

dormant contradictions suddenly exploded in the ‘Ali must go’ crisis

is identified as the corrupting agent. And its corrupting influence is

perceived to be due to two factors that are apparently contradictory,

i.e., Its Christian-oriented and its secular. This trend has been gath-

ering momentum in the Nigerian universities, especially, but no

means exclusively, in the Northern parts of the country. This trend

has persistently insisted that Nigeria’s problems are essentially that

of moral decadence arising out of irreligiosity. Also identified as

contributing is the secular character of the Nigerian state and pol-

ity. Consequently, all the solutions proffered by this trend revolve

around the call for a return to a puritan brand of Islam.” (Umar,

“Islam in Nigeria,” 88–89).

116 . The Hausa commoners who supported the early campaign became

the worst losers after the chips were down, because, they were played

out in the distribution of power and booties from the wars.

117 . See Turaki, The British Colonial Legacy In Northern Nigeria (Jos:

The Challenge Press, 1993), 40f.

118 . See Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power , 48–57.

119 . For more information on the origin of Christian fundamentalism,

see Bruce Lawrence, Defenders of God , 160–170 and George M.

Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of

Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism, 1870–1925 (Oxford, New York:

Oxford University Press, 1982).

120 . See Lawrence, Defenders of God , 1.

121 . See Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 3.

122 . The Millenarian component has been significantly downplayed

since early twentieth century, see Lawrence, Defenders of God , 167f

and Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 51f.

123 . See Lawrence, Defenders of God , 161 and Marsden, Fundamentalism

and American Culture Marsden, Fundamentalism and American

Culture Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture Marsden,

Fundamentalism and American Culture, 103ff and 109–118.

124 . See Dijk, Christian Fundamentalism in Sub-Saharan Africa: The

Case of Pentecostalism (Copenhagen: Center of African Studies,

University of Copenhagen, February 2000), 2 and 4. For a brief his-

tory of the origin of Christian fundamentalism in Nigeria, especially

in higher institutions, see Dokun Oyesola, O. P., Fundamentalism

and the Catholic Faith in Nigerian Higher Institutions (Iperu-Remo,

Nigeria: The Ambassador Publications, 1994), 1–4. Although Ogbu

Kalu in his book African Pentecostalism: An Introduction , substan-

tially argues that the Pentecostalism existing in African commu-

nities has very strong African cultural and spiritual roots, he still

acknowledges the significant influence the American Pentecostal

movement has made on the African Pentecostalism. See Ogbu,

NOT ES216

African Pentecostalism: An Introduction (New York, Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2008).

125 . See Matthews A. Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and

the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and

Christian-Muslim Relation , 18, no. 2 (2007): 179f; Dijk, Christian

Fundamentalism in Sub-Saharan Africa, 4ff; and Oyesola, O.P.,

Fundamentalism and the Catholic Faith in Nigerian , 1. Ojo suggests

that the beginning of the National Youth Service Coup (NYSC) pro-

gram by the Gowon administration provided the regional mobility

of Christian fundamentalism led by young college graduates who

moved from the south to the north, as required by the program.

126 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 94.

Four Muslim-Christian Conflicts in Northern Nigeria from 1979 to 2012

1 . There were, however, two other minority parties that originated

from the north; People’s Redemption Party (PRP) led by Mallam

Aminu Kano and Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) led by Alhaji

Waziri Ibrahim from the northeast. These two leaders were of Hausa

and Kanuri ethnicities respectively, but with less political clout as

the NPN, which was seen as the reincarnation of the saudauna of

Sokoto and Tafawa Balewa led NPC. Therefore, NPN had a wider

northern embrace and significant national grip as it succeeded in

wining some states in the southwest and southeast regions of the

country.

2 . The armed Islamists attacked the Grand Mosque (the holiest

mosque in the Islamic world) with the intent of taking it over. They

took some pilgrims who were in Mecca for the annual pilgrimage

hostage. In the two-week long battle for the mosque, hundreds of

pilgrims, security men, and some insurgents were killed, before the

insurgency was crushed.

3 . Gumi, after failing, due to the death of Ahmadu Bello in 1966, to

redefine Islam in northern Nigeria by establishing the Usmaniyya

(a project, initiated by Bello, to diminish the influence of the two

existing tariqas —Tijaniyya and Qadiriyya) saw the beginning

of the Izala movement as another opportunity to accomplish his

goal. One of his major reasons for actively working to phase out

or minimize the influence of the two tariqas was to eliminate the

influence of culture on Islam in northern Nigeria. He pursued this

goal because of his obsession to establish a so-called global form of

Islam or Islamic reform, which is the euphemism for comprehen-

sively imposing a Wahhabi Islamic model on northern Nigerians.

See Abdulkader Tayob, “Sub-Saharan African Islam,” in Global

Religions , ed., Mark Juergensmeyer (New York and Oxford, UK:

Oxford University Press, 2006), 429 and Roman Loimeier, “Islamic

NOT ES 217

Reform and Political Change: The Example of Abubakar Gumi and

the Yan Izala Movement in Northern Nigeria,” in African Islam and

Islam in Africa , eds., Eva Evers Rosander and David Westerlund

(London: Hurst and Company, 1997), 286–307.

4 . See Omar Farouk Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A View from

the North,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil

Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-

Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner

Publishers, Inc., 1997), 436. It became imperative for Muslims to

put aside their hostility toward each other and unite against the

growing political influence of Christians. See Abdulkader Tayob,

“Sub-Saharan African Islam,” in Global Religions , ed., by Mark

Juergensmeyer (New York and Oxford, UK: Oxford University

Press, 2006), 429.

5 . See Anthony Oyewole and John Lucas, Historical Dictionary

of Nigeria , 2nd. edn. (Lanham, Maryland, and London: The

Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2000), 277. For a summary listing of the

numerous conflicts between the Izala movement and other Muslims

in the north, see Omar Farouk Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A

View from the North,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics

and Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony

Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner

Publishers, Inc., 1997), 430–431.

6 . See Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics,” 437.

7 . See Roman Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious

Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations

Transformed , ed., William F. S. Miles (Boulder, CO and London:

Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 57ff.

8 . The group in Katsina is said to have masterminded the conflict

of radical Muslims against the state military government under

the leadership of Colonel Yohana Madaki (a Christian who had

threatened to execute those who challenged his authority, which

this group dared). See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable

Religious Option,” 56ff. Also for a more documented information

about the origin and activities of the Yakubu Yahaya-led group, see

Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and

Secular Ideologie s (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press,

1998), 194–203.

9 . See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,”

56.

10 . Ibid., 57.

11 . Ibid., 58.

12 . Hisba Committee is popularly called “Shari’a police,” because it is

charged with the responsibility of ensuring effective implementa-

tion of the Shari’a penal law in the state. See See Loimeier, “Nigeria:

The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 59.

NOT ES218

13 . See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,”

62.

14 . One of Ulrich Berner’s major arguments in presenting Christianity

as either global or world religion is its tendency to be exclusive and

desire to exterminate (even by violence) any other forms of religion

that operates in its domain. See Berner, “Early Christianity as a

Global – Religion,” in New Religions and Globalization – Empirical,

Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives , eds., Armin W. Geertz

and Margit Warburg (Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 2008),

145–164.

15 . See Aniagolu, The Making of the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria

(Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 1993), 254–255.

16 . Matthews A. Ojo shows how militant Christianity became impera-

tive in northern Nigeria. See Matthews A. Ojo, “Pentecostal

Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern

Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 18, no.2 (2007):

175–188

17 . See Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria –

The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 5.

18 . Ibid., 5–6. The incidents, which CBCN was referring to, recorded

lots of casualties on both Christians and Muslims in the affected

cities of Kaduna state. For more information about the 1987 riots

that began in Kafanchan, Kaduna state, see Matthews A. Ojo

“Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in

Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 18, no.2

(2007): 182.

19 . Human Rights Watch publications provide extensive information

from victims, journalists, and NGOs involved in helping people

affected by the different violent incidents about the havoc and

destructions associated with Christian youths in many parts of

northern Nigeria, including the famous Yelwa massacre of about

700 Muslims by armed Christians in May 2004. For two of such

reports, see Carina Tertsakian, “Nigeria – Jos: A City Torn Apart”

New York: Human Rights Watch 13, no. 9(A) (December 2001) and

Tertsakian “Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence

in Plateau and Kano States” New York: Human Rights Watch 17,

no. 8 (A) (May 2005).

20 . Based on all the reports consulted for this study, the violent activities

of Christian youths against Muslims are officially said to be unor-

ganized spontaneous defense responses to the incidents of violent

attacks initiated by their Muslim neighbors. Therefore, there is no

known militia that has taken responsibility for any of the sometimes

organized attacks by the Christian youths. See Carina Tertsakian,

“Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence in Plateau

and Kano States” New York: Human Rights Watch 17, no. 8 (A)

(May 2005): 6.

NOT ES 219

21 . See Anthony Oyewole and John Lucas, Historical Dictionary

of Nigeria, 2nd. edn. (Lanham, Maryland, and London: The

Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2000), 128–129.

22 . Quoted from the work of Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The

Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies (Rochester, NY:

University of Rochester Press, 1998), 165.

23 . Ousmane Kane attributes the rise of Muslim-Christian conflict,

among other agents, to “the growth of Pentecostal and charismatic

movements” and “the campaigns of the Christian Association of

Nigeria.” See Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A

Study of the Society for the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement

of Tradition (Leiden and Boston: Kominklijke Brill NV, 2003), 178.

24 . See Rijk A. van Dijk, Christian Fundamentalism in Sub-Saharan

Africa: The Case of Pentecostalism (Copenhagen: Center of African

Studies, University of Copenhagen, February 2000), 11–12.

25 . This is a common phraseology used to differentiate what they con-

sider “born-again” Christians and nominal Christians.

26 . See Dijk, Christian Fundamentalism in Sub-Saharan Africa , 12.

27 . Ojo’s use of the word “Pentecostalizing” is reference to the desire

of Pentecostal Christians’ emphasis on all Christians conducting

themselves in worship and life as the Pentecostals do, which is a

reference to their extreme conservative approach to life and exces-

sive theatricals in worship. See Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam

and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and

Christian-Muslim Relations 18, no.2 (2007): 180.

28 . See Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public

Space in Northern Nigeria,” 181.

29 . Ibid. However, Ousmane Kane and Roman Loimeier suggest that

the success of Christian politicians in the local government elec-

tions of 1987 had a lot to do with the existing discord between

tariqa and Izala Muslims in the north. See Roman Loimeier,

“Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,”61. See also

Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria (Leiden

and Boston: Brill, 2003), 180.

30 . See Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public

Space in Northern Nigeria,” 182.

31 . See J. A. Atanda, “Conclusion – Paradoxes and Problems of Religion

and Secularism in Nigeria: suggestions for Solution,” in Nigeria the

Fist Twenty-Five Years: Religion , eds., J. A. Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju,

and Yaya Abubakar, 184 (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational

Books, Ltd., 1989).

32 . See Matthew Hassan Kukah, Democracy and Civil Society in Nigeria

(Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 2000), 103f.

33 . Islamists are fundamentally against secularization because for

Islamists the primary tenets of secularism are ipso facto opposed to

Islam, which a priori sees itself as a total way of life, hence has no

NOT ES220

room for the operation of secularism. Islamists “wish to organize

the whole society by the Islamic Shari’ah.” See William E. Shepard,

Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation and Critical

Analysis of Social Justice in Islam (Leiden, New York, and K ö ln: E.J.

Brill, 1996), xiif.

34 . One of the progressive Muslims identifiable with this school

is Lamido Sanusi. See Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir and Franz

Kogelmann, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Shari’ah in Nigeria

(Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 2005), xxxi.

35 . Danny McCain, “Which Road Leads Beyond the Shari’ah

Controversy? A Christian Perspective on Shari’ah in Nigeria,” in

Comparative Perspectives on Shari’ah in Nigeria , eds., Philip Ostien,

Jamila M. Nasir and Franz Kogelmann (Ibadan: Spectrum Books

Limited, 2005), 14.

36 . Jadesola O. Akande, The Constitution of the Federal Republic of

Nigeria 1979, with annotations (London: Sweet and Maxwell

Limited, 1982), page six of “General Introduction.” However,

to define a modern African state constitution like Nigeria’s to be

autochthonous is a failure to appreciate the irrepressible impact of

the West and the direct influence of Neo-colonialism as well as the

subaltern features as marks of Nigerians’ loyalty to imperial influ-

ences through culture, politics, religion, and economy. Therefore,

in a strict sense, insofar as Nigerians are heavily influenced by neo-

colonial mentalities and are responding to the impulses designed

by other foreign elements and factors, it is oxymoron to speak of

Nigerian constitution being autochthonous, when its contents

definitively reflect and embellish Western legal philosophy and

Western viewpoints.

37 . The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Apapa-Lagos:

Daily Times Publication, 1979), 14.

38 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria – The

Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 9.

39 . Ibid., 9.

40 . Ibid., 14.

41 . Olakunle Odumosu, “Social Implications of the 1999 Constitution,”

in Issues in the Review of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic

of Nigeria , eds., Olu Ajakaiye and Solomon Akhere Benjamin

(Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research

(NISER), 1999), 99. Odumosu proposes an amendment of this sec-

tion of the constitution.

42 . Ibid., 100.

43 . Ibid.

44 . Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999. Chapter IV ,

Fundamental Rights , section 38, subsection 1, accessed August 30,

2012, http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederal

RepublicOfNigeria.htm .

NOT ES 221

45 . According to Rotimi T. Suberu, “Alhaji Shehu Shagari displayed

considerable broad-mindedness in religious matters as president.”

However, toward the end of his presidency, the Shagari adminis-

tration was heavily criticized for establishing an office of Islamic

affairs in the office of the presidency and for appointing presidential

assistants for Christian and Muslim affairs. See Suberu, “Religion

and Politics: A View from the South,” in Transition Without End:

Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry

Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder,

CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1997), 403f.

46 . This election was reported by most independent observers and

based on the general opinion of most Nigerians to be the most free

and fair election ever conducted in Nigeria since the independence.

47 . See Suberu, “Religion and Politics:,” 402.

48 . Anthony N. Aniagolu, The Making of the 1989 Constitution of

Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 1993), 254.

49 . Rafiu A. Akindele, “The Constituent Assembly and the 1989

Constitution” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and

Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony

Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne

Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1997), 114.

50 . W. Ibekwe Ofonagoro, Abiola Ojo, and Adele Jinadu, eds., The

Great Debate: Nigerian Viewpoints on the Draft Constitution

(Apapa-Lagos: Daily Times Publication, 1989).

51 . Aniagolu, The Making of the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria , 93.

52 . E. E Ochokwu, “Religions and Law” in Daily Times Newspaper,

April 19, 1977 quoted by The Great Debate: Nigerian Viewpoints on

the Draft Constitution , eds., W. Ibekwe Ofonagoro, Abiola Ojo, and

Adele Jinadu (Apapa-Lagos: Daily Times Publication, 1989), 372,

53 . Omar Farouk Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A View from the

North,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society

Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and

Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.,

1997), 428.

54 . Suberu, “Religion and Politics:,” 403.

55 . Ibid.

56 . Ibid. Omar F. Ibrahim confirms that the controversy generated by

the OIC membership was huge and divisive. See Ibrahim, “Religion

and Politics: A View from the North,” 430.

57 . Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria (Washington,

D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001), 16f and 133f.

58 . Some of the conditions for securing loan from IDB (which is a sub-

sidiary of OIC) are for beneficiary country to have in place certain

Islamic-guided principles, which require a Muslim in certain posi-

tions of power and for the promotion of particularly Islamic pro-

grams and activities.

NOT ES222

59 . Catholic Secretariat, “Statement By the Catholic Bishops Conference

of Nigeria,” in Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria: The Stand of

Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d), 6.

60 . Ibid., 2.

61 . It is worthy to note that as of March 2012, the IDB finally and for-

mally signed a major business deal with the federal government of

Nigeria to finance major projects in the country. At the ceremony,

the agreement was endorsed between the financial institution and

the federal government, the president of the IDB group rejected the

idea that the IDB is a religious institution. For more details, see

Emeka Anuforo, “Islamic Development Bank Berths in Nigeria,” The

Guardian – Nigeria (Friday, March 16, 2012), accessed September

12, 2012, http://odili.net/news/source/2012/mar/16/12.html .

62 . Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study

of the Society for the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement of

Tradition (Leiden and Boston: Kominklijke Brill NV, 2003), 187.

Also see Advisory Council of Religious Affairs Act, PLAC – The

Complete Laws of Nigeria, accessed March 14, 2013, http://www

.placng.org/lawsofnigeria/node/13 .

63 . Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict , 134.

64 . Ibid.

65 . Alhaji Maitama Sule, popularly known as Dan Masin Kano, in

many of his public addresses during the political campaigns in sup-

port of a Hausa–Fulani presidential candidate frequently argued

that since the Yorubas (one of the three major ethnic groups in

Nigeria; the other two being Igbo and Hausa) are renowned tech-

nocrats and have essentially captured plum positions in civil service

and the Igbos are not to be equaled by any ethnic group in Nigeria

with regard to private entrepreneurship, it was quite judicious and

reasonable that those two ethnic groups willfully surrender political

control to the Hausas.

66 . Philip Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria

1999–2006: A Sourcebook, Vol. I: Historical Background (Ibadan,

Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 2007), viii.

67 . The application or implementation of the Shari’a was however dif-

ferent from one state to another.

68 . Numerous publications have recorded, condemned, or analyzed the

conflicts that ensued with the adoption of full Shari’a legal system

in various northern Nigerian states. See Frieder Ludwig, “Christian-

Muslim Relations in Northern Nigeria since the Introduction of

Shari’ah in 1999,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion

76, no. 3 (September 2008): 602–637; Toure Kazah Toure, Ethno-

Religious Conflicts in Kaduna State (Kaduna: Publication of

Human Rights Monitor, 2003); Catholic Secretariat, “Statement By

the Catholic Bishops Conference of Nigeria,” in Christian/Muslim

Relations in Nigeria: The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast

NOT ES 223

Enterprises, n.d.), 5–7; and Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in

Northern Nigeria 1999–2006, xi.

69 . Professor Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im is the Charles Howard

Candler Professor of Law at Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia. A

Sudanese-born Muslim who taught at the University of Khartoum.

70 . An-Na’im, “The Future of Shari’ah and the Debate in Northern

Nigeria,” in Comparative Perspectives on Shari’ah in Nigeria , eds.,

Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir and Franz Kogelmann (Ibadan,

Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 2005), 328.

71 . From “White Paper on the Report of the Committee on the

Implementation of Sharia Law in Kebbi State,” Chapter 2 , 184.

Quoted from the text of Philip Ostien, “Sanitizing Society,”

in Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006: A

Sourcebook, Vol. III: Sanitizing Society , ed., Philip Ostien (Ibadan,

Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 2007), 3–4.

72 . Ostien, Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria – Sanitizing

Society , 11.

73 . Frederick Lugard, “Colonial Annual Reports, No. 346 – Northern

Nigeria 1900–1901,” Government Publications Relating to Nigeria

1862–1960 (Microfilm), 10–11.

74 . Frederick Lugard, “Colonial Annual Reports, No. 346 – Northern

Nigeria 1902,” Government Publications Relating to Nigeria

1862–1960 (Microfilm), 78.

75 . An-Na’im, “The Future of Shari’ah,” 331.

76 . These will be those of the second school of thought earlier refer-

enced who are in favor of the interpretation of the relationship of

religion and state that is akin to what many Christians will subscribe

to; the progressive or moderate Muslims.

77 . An-Na’im, “The Future of Shari’ah,” 336.

78 . Ibid., 333–338.

79 . Ibid., 338.

80 . Ibid., 329.

81 . Ibid., 329–330.

82 . Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006 , xi.

83 . In an earlier publication, I listed a number of the major violent inci-

dents and occurrences of destructions and killings in the name of

religion, between Muslims and Christians. See Marinus Iwuchukwu,

“Revisiting the Perennial Religious Conflicts in Northern Nigeria,

1990–2010: Broadening the Focus of Muslim-Christian Dialogue,”

in Can Muslims and Christians Resolve Their Religious And Social

Conflicts? Cases From Africa and the United States , eds., Marinus

Iwuchukwu and Brian Stiltner (Lewiston, New York: The Edwin

Mellen Press, 2013), 3–37.

84 . For approximate records of lives lost and property destroyed in

some of these conflicts consult the following: Toyin Falola, Violence

in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologie s

NOT ES224

(Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998); Carina

Tertsakian, “Nigeria – Jos: A City Torn Apart,” New York: Human

Rights Watch 13, no. 9(A) (December 2001); Karen Stauss,

“Testing Democracy: Political Violence in Nigeria,” New York:

Human Rights Watch 15, no. 9(A) (April 2003); Carina Tertsakian,

“Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence in Plateau

and Kano States,” New York: Human Rights Watch 17, no. 8 (A)

(May 2005); Frieder Ludwig, “Christian-Muslim Relations in

Northern Nigeria since the Introduction of Shari’ah in 1999”

Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 76, no. 3 (September

2008): 602–637; Toure Kazah Toure, Ethno-Religious Conflicts in

Kaduna State (Kaduna: Publication of Human Rights Monitor,

2003); Omar Farouk Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A View from

the North,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil

Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-

Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner

Publishers, Inc., 1997), 427–447; Carina Tertsakian, “The ‘Miss

World Riots’: Continued Impunity for Killings in Kaduna” New

York: Human Rights Watch 15, no. 13 (A) (July 2003); Carina

Tertsakian , “‘ Political Sharia’? Human Rights and Islamic Law

in Northern Nigeria,” New York: Human Rights Watch 16, no. 9

(A) (September 2004); Cletus Tanimu Gotan, “Nigeria’s Religious

Conflicts: A Call for a Dialogue of Life” in Religion, Violence,

And Conflict Resolution in Nigeria , ed., Cyril Obanure (Makurdi,

Abuja, Ibadan: Aboki Publishers, 2008), 97–100; and Marinus

Iwuchukwu, “Revisiting the Perennial Religious Conflicts in

Northern Nigeria, 1990–2010: Broadening the Focus of Muslim-

Christian Dialogue,” in Can Muslims and Christians Resolve Their

Religious And Social Conflicts? Cases From Africa and the United

States , eds., Marinus Iwuchukwu and Brian Stiltner (Lewiston, NY:

The Edwin Mellen Press, 2013), 12–28.

85 . Carina Tertsakian, Nigeria – Jos: A City Torn Apart , 2 and 11f.

86 . Carina Tertsakian, The “Miss World Riots,” 4ff.

87 . For a detailed record of the incidents of conflicts arising from the

Zango Kataf, the casualties, trials, or mistrials, as well as the dif-

ferent layers of the conflicts and its resolution, see Troure, Ethno-

Religious Conflicts , 160.

88 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relationship, 5.

89 . Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 62.

Five The Jos Crises and Boko Haram Terrorism: Case Reviews of Muslim-Christian Conflicts

in Postcolonial Northern Nigeria

1 . For a summarized analysis of these riots, see Ousmane Kane,

Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria (Leiden and London:

Brill, 2003), 196–198 and 201–204.

NOT ES 225

2 . For a comprehensive history of Jos, Plateau State as documented

by the indigenes of the area, see Plateau Indigenous Development

Association Network (PIDAN), The History, Ownership, Establish-

ment of Jos and Misconceptions about the Recurrent Jos Conflicts (Jos,

Nigeria: Dan-Sil Press, 2010).

3 . Umar Habila Dadem Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities: Pa Divination

Among the Ngas, Mupun and Mwaghavul in Nigeria (Frankfurt:

Peter Lang Press, 1995), 27f.

4 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 28.

5 . PIDAN provides historical data of the series of attacks from the jiha-

dists that were successfully rebuffed by the combined forces of the

Afizere, Anaguta, Berom, Buji, and Amo ethnicities. See PIDAN,

The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 4–5.

6 . Ibid., 6f,

7 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 28 and Wambutda, A Study of

Conversion Among the Angas of Plateau State of Nigeria with

Emphasis on Christianity (Frankfurt: Peter Lang Press, 1991), 34.

8 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities, 28. Considering that the jihad,

which tended to enforce Islam and Islamic values on conquered

people, was only a phenomenon that began in eighteenth century,

the account of Wambutda may be more accurate. Wambutda sug-

gests that the conquering influence of the Kanuri kingdom of the

fourteenth and fifteenth centuries must have called for the reset-

tling of the Angas (Ngas) and other Jos Plateau peoples further

south to the present hills of Bauchi and later to the Plateau area. See

Wambutda, A Study of Conversion Among the Angas of Plateau Stat ,

34–35.

9 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 28–29. The Hausa–Fulani people in

Jos self-identify as Jasawa people. This name is a product of political

construct to symmetrically identify their ethnicity with the found-

ing of Jos, as a city. Hence the Hausa–Fulani of Jos North Local

Government Area or the Jasawa people (as they prefer to be identi-

fied) claim to be original indigenes of Jos. See a news report about

a recent claim of their indigene-ship, Chesa Chesa, “We’re Jos indi-

genes, Hausa-Fulani Tell Jonathan,” Nairaland Forum (August

10, 2012), accessed September 17, 2012, http://www.nairaland

.com/1015428/re-jos-indigenes-hausa-fulani-tell#11764002 .

These Hausa settlers might have also settled in the Jos area on the

basis of the Amana (trust) negotiation between the indigenes and

the Hausa leadership. For more on this Amana relation see PIDAN,

The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 3–4.

10 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 29.

11 . Ibid., 34.

12 . Wambutda, A Study of Conversion Among the Angas of Plateau

State, 52–53. Wambutda also argues that the sale of land to a new

landowner is possible, but leasing or land lending is more common.

NOT ES226

Danfulani concurs to the prevalence of leasing or land lending. See

Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 34.

13 . Rasmussen, Religion and Property in Northern Nigeria (Copenhagen,

Denmark: Academic Press, 1990), 48.

14 . Ibid.

15 . The dates above are reflective of information from PIDAN publi-

cation. The publication provides copies of evidences of the official

correspondence regarding the 1913 proposal for the creation of Jos

and the 1920 ordinance officially establishing the city of Jos by the

then governor of Northern Province, Hugh Clifford. See PIDAN,

The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 9–11.

16 . PIDAN, The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 21.

17 . Lissi Rasmussen, Religion and Property in Northern Nigeria , 48–49.

18 . Much of the data and facts about the conflict in Jos in this sec-

tion is culled from my earlier publication covering in part the topic

of violence in Jos and its environs. For those details, see Marinus

Iwuchukwu, “Revisiting the Perennial Religious Conflicts in

Northern Nigeria 1990–2010: Broadening the Dialogic Topics

toward Effective Muslim-Christian Dialogue,” in Can Christians

and Muslims learn to live together: Cases from the United States and

Africa , eds., Marinus Iwuchukwu and Brian Stiltner (New York and

London: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2013), 29ff. I also significantly

reference facts and information from the 42-page special report

by Philip Ostien, “Jonah Jang and the Jasawa: Ethno-Relgious

Conflict in Jos, Nigeria,” Sharia Debates in Africa website, accessed

on October 16, 2010, http://www.sharia-in-africa.net/media/pub

lications/ethno-religious-conflict-in-Jos-Nigeria/Ostien_Jos.pdf .

19 . As appropriately observed by Lissi Rasmussen, because the Hausas

and Fulanis who settled in Jos are predominantly Muslim, it was nor-

mative for Jos natives who had converted to Islam to adopt Hausa as

their new language or preferred language of communication. This

further complicates the demographics, as it turns out that not all

who are identified as Hausa may actually be Hausa, but for the

most part such people are Muslims. See Rasmussen, Religion and

Property in Northern Nigeria (Copenhagen, Denmark: Academic

Press, 1990), 241f.

20 . Carina Tertsakian “Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle

of Violence in Plateau and Kano States” New York: Human Rights

Watch 17, no. 8 (A) (May 2005): 7. PIDAN alleges that other fac-

tors that fomented the crises include the formation of the Jasawa

Development Association, creation of Jos North Local Government

Area, manipulation of religion, and media propaganda. See PIDAN,

The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 98–114.

21 . Carina Tertsakian, “Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle

of Violence in Plateau and Kano States,” New York: Human Rights

Watch 17, no. 8 (A) (May 2005), 7.

NOT ES 227

22 . Shedrack Gaya Best, “Background and Introduction,” in Causes and

Effects of Conflicts in the Southern Zone of Plateau State , Nigeria ,

ed., Shedrack G. Best (Ibadan, Nigeria: John Archers Publishers

Ltd., 2008), 10f and Shedrack G. Best, Conflict and Peace Building

in Plateau State, Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Ltd.,

2007), 54–56.

23 . Boer, Nigeria’s Decades of Blood – 1980–2002 , 92–93.

24 . Philip Ostien, “Jonah Jang and the Jasawa: Ethno-Relgious Conflict

in Jos, Nigeria,” 14.

25 . BBC News , “Nigeria Ethnic Violence ‘Leaves Hundreds Dead’,”

Monday, March 8, 2010, accessed October 16, 2010, http://news.bbc

.co.uk/2/hi/8555018.stm ,. These facts and information are corrobo-

rated by the accounts of United States Commission on International

Religious Freedom (USCIRF) (Annual Report 2010), 81–82.

26 . This Christian who resided in Jos, Plateau State, during some of the

conflicts was a student at a university in Germany when I was in the

same institution doing my research toward this study.

27 . “Death toll of bomb blast reaches 80 in Nigeria’s Jos.” Xinhua News

Agency , accessed February 25, 2011, http://news.xinhuanet.com

/english2010/world/2010–12/28/c_13666730.htm .

28 . Roman Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious

Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations

Transformed , ed., William F.S. Miles (Boulder, CO and London:

Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 50.

29 . Carina Tertsakian, Revenge in the Name of Religion , 8.

30 . Ibid.

31 . Olayinka Oyegbile, argues in his book Home Away From Home ,

that the Ogbomosho people (a group of people in the Yoruba fed-

eration) arrived in Jos, the mining city, in the later part of the nine-

teenth century, even before the advent of the colonial authorities.

There are yet historical records that show that some Urhobo people

from south–south Nigeria got involved in the mining business as

early as 1840s. These historical information stand to disprove the

argument of some Hausas who hold that their ancestors resided in

Jos even before the arrival of the presumed indigenes of the land.

See Oyegbile, Home Away from Home (Lagos: Target Response

Associates, 2012) and a book review by Temitope Adeogun,

“Between Ogbomosho People and Jos,” Tell Magazine , Wednesday,

July 25, 2012, accessed September 15, 2012, http://tellng.com

/tellmobile/newspage.php?id=1641 .

32 . Rotimi T. Suberu argues that it has informally been in practice long

before, but found its official voice toward being a federal law in

1975 from a public address by the then head of state, Brigadier

Murtala Muhammad. See Rotimi T. Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic

Conflict in Nigeria (Washington, D.C: United States Institute of

Peace Press, 2001), 111–112.

NOT ES228

33 . Federal Constitution of Nigeria, 1979, Section 272.

34 . Ibid., Section 14 (3). For detailed discussion on the federal character,

see Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria , 111–140.

35 . Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria , 116.

36 . One of the logistics involved in the application of federal charac-

ter for some federal government appointments that may not have

enough openings to have even representations from every state or

local government is zoning. Oftentimes, such positions or appoint-

ment for northern Nigerian zones go to candidates recommended

by members of the northern elites (consisting of the emirs and oth-

ers within the oligarchic structure of power in the zone).

37 . Daniel Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” in Transition

without end: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society under Babangida ,

eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran

(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1997), 335. Bach argues

that given the overdependence on federal government revenue allo-

cation, states and local governments, Nigerian politicians are con-

stantly agitating for the creation of more local governments and

states. These states and local governments are agitated for often not

based on their resource viability or ability to be self-supporting, but

because they wish to directly benefit from federal government allo-

cations, which they will be entitled to once created. Hence opening

up opportunities for privileged members of such communities to

have access to accruing benefits from federal character application.

38 . Section 135 (3) of the 1979 constitution (retained even in the 1999

constitution) simply instructs that “the President shall appoint at

least one Minister from each State, who shall be an indigene of such

state.” See Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” 337ff for

more analysis on this subject. Earlier, the Native Authority Law of

1954 in its attempt to regionalize the Nigerian Civil Service came up

with the term “non-indigenes” and defines it as “any Native who is

not a member of the native community living in the area of its author-

ity.” See The Native Authority Law , 1954, Appendices, Part III, 47

(1). People who fell into the category of “non-indigenes” were simply

referred to as strangers.

39 . Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” 337.

40 . Quoted by Daniel Bach. See Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and

Federalism,” 337. Expatiating on the implication of this definition

of indigene, Bach is spot on to say: “In other words, any acqui-

sition of indigenous status through marriage or residence is pre-

cluded. Nigerian citizens have no right to indigeneity outside the

state ascribed to them on the sole basis of their genetic antecedents.

A Nigerian who marries a fellow citizen from another state has no

indigenous status there, although their children can claim indig-

enous status in any of their parents’ communities of origin even if

they have never lived there.”

NOT ES 229

41 . Carina Tertsakian, “Jos: A City Torn Apart,” New York: Human

Rights Watch 13, no. 9 (A) (December 2001): 22.

42 . Tertsakian, Jos: A City Torn Apart, 23.

43 . A. N. Aniagolu, The Making of the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria

(Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 1993), 255.

44 . Ibid., 255–256.

45 . Rotimi T. Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria

(Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001),

111.

46 . In a signed statement by one Mallam Sanni Umaru, a presumed

de facto leader of the group, the Boko Haram sect articulated its

beliefs and goals. The full text as made available to the media can be

accessed in the following weblink: http://www.vanguardngr.com

/2009/08/boko-haram-ressurects-declares-total-jihad/ . In its report

on the activities of Boko Haram in July 2009, the USCIRF reports

that between 900 and 2,000 people were killed in Bauchi, Borno,

Kano, and Yobe states following the confrontations between the

radical Islamic sect and government security forces. See USCIRF,

Annual Report 2010, 83.

47 . While the manuscript of this book was going through its final stages

of submission to the publisher, there were reports of this group

already strategizing to bring its mayhem further to the south of

the country, having successfully unleashed its attacks already in the

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The group made good its threat

with reported bombing of the police headquarters and UN head-

quarters at Abuja in June and August 2011, respectively. By suc-

cessfully executing some of their serious threats, the group sends a

crucial message about its capability and earns itself the official status

as a terrorist organization of national and international relevance.

48 . The Salafis advocate a puritanical Islam in imitation of the first

three generations of Muslims who are revered as the quintessential

Muslims.

49 . Xan Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” Vanguard (May 24,

2012), accessed September 15, 2012, http://www.vanguardngr.com

/2012/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/ . Ibn Taymiyyah lived

through the Mongols invasion and take over of Baghdad in 1258,

which brought an end to the cherished Abbasid dynasty and the

classical age of Islam it was reputed for. That event jolted the psyche

of Muslims with traumatic residue, not only because of the savagery

and destruction the infidels (polytheists) inflicted on an Islamic

empire but also the despondency of knowing that God would

permit such unholy act from unholy people against God-fearing

Muslims. Therefore, Ibn Taymiyyah resolved that an appropriate

sociopolitical response was to promote the institution of an ideal

Islamic society. One that will be based on the principles of the

first Islamic state at Medina. This transition, he argued, requires

NOT ES230

“a literalist interpretation of the Qur’an and Sunna and the obser-

vation of Islam based on the period of the Prophet in Medinah.”

See Ron Geaves, Islam Today (London and New York: Continuum

International Publishing, 2010), 92f.

50 . Geaves, Islam Today , 93.

51 . This mosque and affiliated structures belonging to Boko Haram

were destroyed in 2009 following the group’s major conflict with

government security operatives. Consequently, the group has gone

underground, operating from unspecified locations making it dif-

ficult for the security operatives to physically identify them with any

particular physical structure or city.

52 . In view of the fact that this group was new and unknown to

many at the time, it was popularly called “Nigerian Taliban,” due

to its Taliban-like activities of attacking police posts and govern-

ment establishments. See S ü ddeutsche Zeitung , September 25–26,

2004; informationszentrum dritte welt , August/September, 2004;

and Roman Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious

Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations

Transformed , ed., William F.S. Miles (Boulder, CO and London:

Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 59.

53 . Gwamna Dogara Je’adayibe and Amango Kudu A., “Sliding Towards

Armageddon: Revisiting Ethno-Religious Crises in Nigeria,”

accessed on September 15, 2012, http://www.tcnn.org/index_files

/rb52.gwamna.html .

54 . Sunday Nwankwo, “Unholy Week”, The Week , August 10, 2009,

p. 19.

55 . Olayinka Oyegbiye, “Shielding Patrons of Boko Haram,” Tell ,

August 17, 2009, p. 68.

56 . The government did not disclose any official record of the number

of lives lost. However, it is speculated that hundreds of people were

killed as a result of the government security attack on the group.

57 . According to the BBC report, at the time, it was speculated that

between 300 and 600 people were killed. The Red Cross reported

that they provided shelter to about 3,500 people who fled the con-

flict spots. See BBC News – Africa , “Nigeria sect head dies in cus-

tody,” Friday, July 31, 2009, accessed on October 18, 2010, http://

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8177451.stm .

58 . Vanguard – Online Edition, Headlines , “Boko Haram resurrects,

declares total Jihad,” August 14, 2009, accessed on October 18, 2010,

http://www.vanguardngr.com/2009/08/boko-haram-ressurects

-declares-total-jihad/ .

59 . Olayinka Oyegbile, et al., Tell magazine, July 26, 2009, p. 28.

60 . News reports of guerrilla-type activities of this group resulting in

the deaths of their targeted individuals and innocent citizens emerge

regularly. One such reports is: Madu Onuorah, et al., “Gunmen

Kill Borno Commissioner, Attack Prisons’ ex-Boss,” The Guardian

NOT ES 231

(Wednesday, September 19, 2012), accessed September 19, 2012,

http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_con

tent&view=article&id=99163:gunmen-kill-borno-commissioner

-attack-prisons-ex-boss&catid=1:national&Itemid=559 .

61 . BBC News Africa , “Nigeria Police Station Destroyed in ‘Boko

Haram Attack’,” October 12, 2010, accessed on October 18, 2010,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11523131 . Also see Xan

Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” Vanguard (May 24, 2012).

accessed September 15, 2012, http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012

/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/ .

62 . A recent newspaper report estimates that about 500 Muslims have

been killed by Boko Haram since their operation in northern

Nigeria began. See Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” http://

www.vanguardngr.com/2012/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/ .

63 . See Tajudeen Suleiman, “The City Boko Haram Captured,” Tell

Magazine: Nigeria’s Independent Weekly , September 10, 2012,

accessed on September 15, 2012, http://www.tellng.com/index.php?

option=com_k2&view=item&id=1818:the-city-boko-haram

-captured .

64 . Xan Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram.” Vanguard , May 24,

2012, accessed September 15, 2012, http://www.vanguardngr.com

/2012/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/s .

65 . For a detailed report on the information provided by Salkida in an

interview by another journalist, see Rice, “Changing Face of Boko

Haram,” http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/05/changing-face

-of-boko-haram/ .

66 . Ibid.

67 . Ibid.

68 . Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” http://www.vanguardngr

.com/2012/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/ .

69 . Carina Tertsakian, Revenge in the Name of Religion , 7.

70 . Oyegbile, Home Away from Home (Lagos: Target Response Associates,

2012).

71 . The discrimination non-indigenes are facing in northern Nigeria

and the entire country is dangerously looking like the systematic

and legitimate exclusion of Jews and gypsies in the social and politi-

cal order in Europe. No one wants a repeat of the experiences of

Jews and gypsies in many European countries. This is the time to

arrest the situation from drifting into such ugly form of segrega-

tion and tribal hatemongering that may evolve from the continued

pursuit of the federal character and indigene policies as prevalent

today.

72 . Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” 339.

73 . Recently, there are news reports of legal prosecution of some of the

suspected Boko Haram agents who are in police custody. For more

on this legal development, see Reuters , “Nigeria Arraigns Seven On

NOT ES232

Terrorism Charges in Violent North,” http://www.reuters.com

/article/2013/02/21/nigeria-crime-idUSL6N0BL9I720130221 ,

February 21, 2013.

74 . It was encouraging to hear from a BBC reporter, Abdullahi Kara,

from the city of Kaduna on September 25, 2012 (morning news

program) that military forces in the northeast stormed locations

used by Boko Haram. As a result of such proactive moves, govern-

ment security is reported to have arrested about 150 Boko Haram

members, who will allegedly be facing due legal processes. The

reporter also alluded to the concern of the people that government

security forces are being “high handed” in their approach through

extra judicial killings, harassment of residents, and arrest of inno-

cent citizens. For more information related to this development see

BBC News – Africa, “Nigeria Boko Haram Crackdown Kills 35,”

September 24, 2012, accessed September 25, 2012, http://www

.bbc.co.uk/go/em/fr/-/news/world-africa-19703828 .

Six International Influences and Impacts on Muslim-Christian Relations in

Postcolonial Northern Nigeria

1 . Yusufu Bala Usman, The Manipulation of Religion in Nigeria

1977–1987 (Zaria: Gaskiya Corporation Limited, 1987), 13f.

2 . “Appendix 3: Classification of Protestant Denominations,” Pew

Forum on Religion and Public Life/US. Religious Landscape

Survey, 167. (167–73), accessed on September 20, 2012, http://

religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study

-appendix3.pdf .

3 . “Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian

Religions,” Nostra Aetate , # 5, accessed September 20, 2012,

http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council

/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html .

4 . Nostra Aetate , # 5.

5 . The World Council of Churches, “Declaration on Religious Liberty.”

Adopted at the First Assembly of the World Council of Churches

in Amsterdam in August 1948, accessed on September 20, 2012,

http://www.religlaw.org/content/religlaw/documents/wccdecre

liglib1948.htm .

6 . “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World,” Recommendations

for Conduct drafted at the end of January 25–28, 2011 meeting

at Bangkok, Thailand, accessed on September 20, 2012, http://

www.oikoumene.org/f i leadmin/f i les/wcc-main/2011pdfs

/ChristianWitness_recommendations.pdf .

7 . See “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World,” Principles #7.

8 . “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World,” A basis for

Christian witness, #7.

NOT ES 233

9 . It is important to note that some of the Evangelical Churches

already mentioned have the same fundamental faith assumption

as the Pentecostal Churches. They also believe in the Bible as the

unchangeable word of God more properly termed the inerrancy of

scripture. They accept literarily whatever they find in the Bible as

unchangeable truth and order their lives based on their belief in the

Bible.

10 . Deji Ayegboyin and S. Ademola Ishola, African Indigenous

Churches: An Historical Perspective (Lagos, Nigeria: Greater Heights

Publications, 1999), 24.

11 . Ayegboyin and Ishola, African Indigenous Churches , 19.

12 . It however needs to be pointed out that some of the African

Independent Churches today have branches in Europe, America, and

other parts of the world where their members may have migrated.

These foreign branches no doubt provide some funding and finan-

cial assistance to their mother churches in Nigeria, but the financial

support they provide is relatively low compared to what churches

from the other three categories receive from overseas donors and

funding agencies.

13 . Adoyi Onoja, “The Pentecostal Churches: The Politics of Spiritual

Deregulation Since the 1980s,” in Religion in Politics: Secularism

and National Integration in Modern Nigeria , ed., Julius O. Adekunle

(Toronto and New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc., 2009), 272.

14 . The Qadiriyya Sufi brotherhood was founded in Baghdad by Sheikh

Abd al-Qadir al-Jaylani in the twelfth century. It spread to north

Africa, becoming firmly established in Morocco by the fifteenth

century (c. 1450). It is from north Africa that it spread south of

the Sahara, to Agades, and eventually to the Fulani Muslims in the

Hausaland in what is today’s northern Nigeria. However, Qadiriyya

is said to have reached Borno earlier directly from north Africa.

The distinctive thing about the Qadiriyya teaching is the focus

on the mystical aspects of Islamic teaching, a normative feature of

Sufism. Qadiriyya followers, like other Sufis, revere their saints and

make pilgrimages to their graves, a practice sustained by both the

Qadiriyya and the Tijaniyya in northern Nigeria. This practice is

however frowned upon by conservative Sunni Muslims, especially

those who subscribe to the Wahhabi tradition. Also consistent with

the Qadiriyya, especially as it f lourished in the late eighteenth and

early nineteenth centuries’ northern Nigeria were the two doctrines

of Prophet Muhammad as the “Perfect man” (al-Ins ã n al-K ã min)

and that of Usuman dan Fodio as the saving wali , namely, the inter-

mediary between “the Believer and God and who would intercede

for those who accept him on the Last Day” (p. 248). For more

about the Qadiriyya tariqa see Mervyn Hiskett, The Development

of Islam in West Africa (London and New York: Longman Group

Limited, 1984), 244–251.

NOT ES234

15 . The founder of the Tijaniyya tariq a is Sheikh Ahmad al-Tijani, a

devout Sufi mystic from Algeria (b. 1737). The tariqa was estab-

lished in about 1780 (See Mervyn Hiskett, The Sword of Truth: The

Life and Times of the Shehu Usman Dan Fodio (New York: Oxford

University Press, 1973), 62). Sheikh Tijani is held by his follow-

ers as the “Seal of the Awliy ã ,” a claim that pitches them already

against the Qadiriyya. Even though Caliph Mohammed Bello, the

son of Dan Fodio, had some sympathy for the Tijaniyya, the rest of

the Sokoto ulama did not find their claim to be credible, because

it undermines their core belief in the efficacy of the wali of Sheikh

Qadir and that of Dan Fodio. Therefore, the question of who is the

greater wali was at the heart of their dispute and subsequent fierce

antagonism. For more information about the Tijaniyya tariqa , see

Hiskett, The Development of Islam in West Africa , 251–256.

16 . Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” in

Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations Transformed ,

ed., William F.S. Miles (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner

Publisher, Inc., 2007), 44.

17 . Ibid., 44–45.

18 . Ibid., 46ff.

19 . Muhammad Sani Umar, Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual

Responses of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule

(Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers, 2006), 29f.

20 . Muhammad Sani Umar, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Concept,

Manifestations and Role in Nation-Building” in Nigeria Since

Independence – The First 25 Years, Vol. IX (Religion) , eds., J. A.

Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria:

Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 80.

21 . Alexander Thurston corroborates this development in his work.

See Thurston, Interactions Between Northern Nigeria and the

Arab World in the Twentieth Century (master’s thesis, Georgetown

University, Washington, D.C., April 22, 2009), 1f and 23–36,

accessed September 19, 2012, http://repository.library.george-

town.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/552835/thurstonAlexander

.pdf?sequence=1 .

22 . E. P. T.Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria (London,

Geoffrey Chapman Book, 1976), 215f.

23 . In “Political Islam in West Africa and the Sahel,” Ricardo Laremont

and Hrach Gregorian confirmed the efforts of this mission by add-

ing that the support from these countries significantly enhanced the

building of mosques and koranic schools in different parts of Nigeria,

especially in the north. See Ricardo Laremont and Hrach Gregorian,

“Political Islam in West Africa and the Sahel,” Military Review 86,

no. 1 (January–February 2006): 29. Also see Andre Simmons,

Arab Foreign Aid (London and Toronto: Associated University

Press, 1981); Anthony Sylvester, Arabs and Africans: Co-operation

NOT ES 235

for Development (London: The Bodley Head, 1981); Robert Anton

Mertz and Pamela MacDonald Mertz, Arab Aid to Sub-Saharan

Africa (Munich, Germany: Kaiser, Grunewald [Distributed by

Westview Press], 1983).

24 . In Roman Loimeier’s discussion about the activities of Muslim activ-

ists, he writes about radical Islamic organizations such as Muslim

Students Society (MSS), the Umma movement, the Ikhwan , Islamic

Movement, and the Dawa group denouncing the Izala for receiving

funding from corrupt Saudis. See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest

for a Viable Religious Option,” 55.

25 . Mervyn Hiskett, The Course of Islam in Africa (Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press, 1994), 129–130.

26 . See Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern

Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997),

291.

27 . Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 48.

Qaddafi had a poor relationship with the Saudi regime for a while

and the latter in 1981 had denounced the former as “a heretic and

infidel.” Qaddafi on his part had called for the liberation of the

Kaba from the Saudis.

28 . Muhammad Sani Umar, “Changing Islamic Identity in Nigeria

From the 1960s to the 1980s: From Sufism to anti-Sufism,” in

Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Saharan Africa , ed.,

Louis Brenner (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University

Press, 1993), 162.

29 . Thurston, Interactions Between Northern Nigeria and the Arab

World , 29ff and Umar, “From Sufism to anti-Sufism in Nigeria,”

162f.

30 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria ,

137 and Thurston, Interactions Between Northern Nigeria and the

Arab World , 35.

31 . The radical Islamic group, Izala , was so heavily funded by the

Saudis that other radical Islamic groups resented them as morally

decadent for failing to distance themselves from corrupt Saudi offi-

cials. See “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 55.

32 . Ibid., 58.

33 . All those donations will amount in today’s monetary value to bil-

lions of Naira (current Nigerian currency). All these funds came

through the combined networking efforts of Ahmadu Bello and

Abubakar Gumi. See Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political

Change in Northern Nigeria , 135–136.

34 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria ,

289.

35 . Ibid., 290–291.

36 . Ibid., 290

37 . Ibid., 289.

NOT ES236

38 . Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and

Secular Ideologies (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press,

1998), 157.

39 . “Boko Haram is Foreign-driven, Says Army,” Naijavote , accessed

September 20, 2012, http://www.naijavote.com/view/2334 .

40 . Loimeier, “The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 55–57.

41 . Loimeier, “The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 56.

42 . Ibid., 56–57.

43 . Ibid., 57.

44 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria ,

289.

45 . Loimeier, “The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 66.

46 . Ibid., 49.

47 . In two different publications on this pattern of receiving funds from

mutual antagonists, Loimeier holds either position. In his first pub-

lication I came across on this subject, he was of the opinion that

Libya and Iran were working hard to secure favorable relationship

with northern Nigerian Muslims, being well aware that the Saudis

were actively wooing the same people with lots of money to fund

different projects. Therefore, for these foreign donors, northern

Nigerian Muslims were toss up for grabs and they tried to undo

each other. See Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in

Northern Nigeria , 287–291. In yet another publication where he

referred to the same pattern, Loimeier provided examples of north-

ern Nigerian reformists switching foreign donors and basically going

with who has more money to offer. See Loimeier, “The Quest for a

Viable Religious Option,” 58f.

48 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria ,

287.

49 . Usman, The Manipulation of Religion in Nigeria 1977–1987 (Zaria:

Gaskiya Corporation Limited, 1987).

50 . Adoyi Onoja, “The Pentecostal Churches: The Politics of Spiritual

Deregulation Since the 1980s,” in Religion in Politics: Secularism

and National Integration in Modern Nigeria , ed., Julius O. Adekunle

(Toronto and New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc., 2009), 263–273

and many other published works have tied the emergence or boom in

Pentecostalism to economic decline among other social and political

factors, including the work of Olujide Gbadegesin, “New Religious

Movements and the Politics of Nation Building,” in Religion in Politics:

Secularism and National Integration in Modern Nigeria , ed., Julius O.

Adekunle (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2009), 279.

51 . Maier, This House has Fallen, Nigeria in Crisis (London: Penguin

Publishers, 2000), 252.

52 . Sulaiman, “Islam in Nigeria,” New Nigerian , March 27, 1988.

Quoted in Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change

in Northern Nigeria , 367. The words in brackets are mine.

NOT ES 237

Seven Prevalence of Exclusivist Theology in Postcolonial Northern Nigeria and Its Challenges to Effective

Muslim-Christian Dialogue

1 . Hildmann, “Faith and Reason—Requirements for an Interreligious

Dialogue Between Christians and Muslims,” in Studies & Comments

12—Religious Pluralism: Modern Concepts for Interfaith Dialogue ,

ed., Richard Asbeck (Munich: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung e.V., 2010), 9.

2 . Ibid., 9.

3 . Assmann, Of God and Gods: Egypt, Israel, and the Rise of Monotheism

(Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008), 107.

4 . Ibid., 110. Assmann argues that violence in the name of God or

religious violence “occurs only in monotheistic religions.” And he

goes on to argue that Judaism provided only a rudimentary form of

this kind of violence. Therefore, that Christianity and Islam have

advanced and intensified religiously motivated violence across the

globe. See Assmann, Of God and Gods, 144.

5 . Ibid., 109f.

6 . Ibid., 109.

7 . Hume, The Natural History of Religion (originally published in

1757). Now in public domain (Alex Catalogue), Chapter 9 and

Assmann, Of God and Gods, 109.

8 . Assmann, Of God and Gods, 112.

9 . Ibid., 118–123.

10 . Ibid., 113.

11 . Ibid., 114.

12 . Othmar Keel, “Monotheismus—ein g ö ttlicher Makel? Ü ber eine allzu

bequeme Anklage.” Neue Z ü rcher Zeitung (October 30–31, 2004),

68; Othmar, Kanan—Israel—Christentum: Pl ä doyer f ü r eine “ver-

tikale” Ö kumene (M ü nster: Institutum Judaicum Delitzschianum,

2002) and Assmann, Of God and Gods, 114.

13 . Assmann, Of God and Gods, 114.

14 . Assmann, however, argues that the negative and intolerant lan-

guage and conduct toward different religions was mostly toward

those Israelites who had adopted or were attracted to the religions

of their neighbors. Therefore, references to Canaanite religion were

actually to such practices within the cities of Israel among Israelites.

This argument is consistent with the view he has held, namely, that

violence and intolerance of biblical monotheism is much more in

reference to the internal problem among the Israelites than against

external religions or non-Israelite nations. See Assmann, Of God

and Gods, 111–118.

15 . Ibid., 119f.

16 . Ibid., 122.

17 . Ibid., 122.

18 . Assmann argues this point further saying, “The Hebrew term

for martyrdom is qiddush ha-shem (hallowing the name), which

NOT ES238

corresponds to the very first request in the Christian Lord’s Prayer:

‘Hallowed be thy name.’ The ideal form of dying for God or for the

Law is to die with a scriptural quotation on one’s lips” See Assmann,

Of God and Gods, 122.

19 . Ibid., 126.

20 . Ibid., 110.

21 . Ibid., 145. Assmann adduces five forms of violence, distinguishing

between ritual violence and religious violence. The latter is the most

evident in most societies today, as ritual violence has ceased to exist

in the world of the Abrahamic religions of today. There, however,

exists, in a limited degree, some sort of ritual sacrifice in Islam with

the symbolic sacrifice of a ram during the feast of Ed-el Fitr. See

Assmann, Of God and Gods, 142–145.

22 . Marinus Iwuchukwu , Media Ecology and Religious Pluralism , and

Papal Encyclicals Online , “The Syllabus of Errors Condemned by

Pius IX” (1864), accessed September 27, 2012, http://www.papalen

cyclicals.net/Pius09/p9syll.htm

23 . “The Syllabus of Errors Condemned by Pius IX,” #15–18.

24 . Ibid., #77.

25 . Gavin D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism (Oxford, UK:

Basil Blackwell, 1986), 8.

26 . D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism , 9.

27 . While affirming the exclusivist position of Kraemer, Alan Race also

hints that the most extreme form of exclusivist theory is held by

Karl Barth in his Church Dogmatics, vol. 1/2. For more on Barth’s

exclusivist views as understood by Race, see Race, Christians and

Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian Theology of Religions

(London: SCM Press, 1983), 11ff.

28 . This is a reflection of the reputed diversity and broad scope of the

Qur’an.

29 . Gade, The Qur’an: An Introduction (Oxford, UK: Oneworld

Publications, 2010), 29.

30 . Ibid., 33.

31 . This diversity or rather complexity of opinion or schools in

Islam is confirmed by Azhar Ibrahim’s listing of f ive schools

of thought in Islam, some of which are advocates of exclusivist

view. See Ibrahim, “Contemporary Islamic Thought: A Critical

Perspective,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 23, no. 3

(July 2012): 279–294.

32 . Moussalli, The Islamic Quest for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human

Rights (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2001), 88.

33 . Ibrahim, “Contemporary Islamic Thought,” 280.

34 . Irfan A. Omar, ed., A Muslim View of Christianity: Essays on

Dialogue by Mahmoud Ayoub (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007),

190–199. Ayoub provides a summary analysis of the exclusivist

supersessionism taught and defended by these renowned scholars

NOT ES 239

and Muslims leaders across the Islamic world on the basis of the two

Quranic texts; 2:62 and 5:69. 2:62.

35 . This is a quote of Sayyid Qutb’s work by Mahmoud Ayoub. See

Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 191.

36 . Said Hawwa, Asas al-tafsir , 11 vols (Cairo: Dar al-Salam,

1405/1985), 1:153. Also quoted by Ayoub, See Omar, ed., A

Muslim View of Christianity , 196.

37 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 196.

38 . This is quoted from the text of Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity

in Postcolonial Nigeria , 125.

39 . Theologically and historically, Wahhabis have a very thin skin of

tolerance for Sufi Muslims and have not hidden their disregard for

Sufis whom they often identify as Kufr (unbelievers) and accuse

them of practicing shirk . See “Wahhabiyya,” The Encyclopaedia of

Islam (New Edition), vol. 11, eds., P. J. Bearman, T. H. Bianquis,

C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs (Leiden:

Koninklijke Brill Publishers, 2002), 39–47.

40 . The name of the organization suggests it is ab initio a rival organi-

zation principally established in opposition to prevalent Sufi activi-

ties among northern Nigerian Muslims.

41 . See a translation of the constitution of the organization from

Hausa to English, #2a in Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and

Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern

University Press, 1997), 351–366.

42 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change , 366.

43 . As already explained in earlier chapters, most Hausa–Fulani and

Kanuri people in northern Nigeria self-identify as Muslims while

most non-Hausa–Fulani or Kanuri people in northern Nigeria self-

identify as Christians.

44 . The prophetic movement is credited for standardizing what theolo-

gians classify as theoretical monotheism (Is. 40:21–28; 43:10f; 44:8;

45:5f, 14, 21f; 46:9, etc.). For more on this, see Karl Rahner, ed.,

Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi (London:

Burns & Oates, 1975), 979–981.

45 . Assmann, Of God and Gods, 126.

46 . Secretariat for Non-Christians, “The Church and Other Religions:

Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission,” The Pope

Speaks: The Church Documents Quarterly 29, no. 1 (1984): 253.

47 . Secretariat for Non-Christians, “Dialogue and Mission,” 260.

48 . Marinus Iwuchukwu, “Engaging the Media as Effective Tools for

Inter-Religious Dialogue in Multi-Religious Societies: A Catholic

Evaluation” Journal of Interreligious Dialogue, no. 3 (March 12, 2010):

66, accessed September 29, 2012, http://irdialogue.org/journal

/issue03/engaging-the-media-as-effective-tools-for-inter-religious

-dialogue-in-multi-religious-societies-a-catholic-evaluation-by

-marinus-iwuchukwu/ .

NOT ES240

49 . Benedict XVI, “Meeting with Representatives of Other Religions,”

Washington, D.C., Thursday, 17, April 2008, Apostolic Journey

to the United States of America and Visit to the United Nations

Organizations Headquarters, accessed September 29, 2012, http://

www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2008/april

/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20080417_other-religions_en

.html .

50 . Secretariat for Non-Christians, “The Church and other Religions:

Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission.” The Pope

Speaks: The Church Documents Quarterly 29, no. 3 (1984): 253.

51 . DP is a document jointly published by the Pontifical Council for

Interreligious Dialogue (PCID) and Congregation for the Evange-

lization of People in 1991. This document is a testament to the

significance attached to the perceived responsibility for effective

interreligious dialogue with all world religions by the Catholic

Church.

52 . These four forms of dialogue are extensively considered in the docu-

ment “Dialogue and Proclamation” (DP). See the English version

of DP in William Burrows, ed., Redemption and Dialogue: Reading

Redemptoris Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books, 1993), 93–118.

53 . Ibid., 104.

54 . Ibid.

55 . Ibid.

56 . Ibid.

57 . Fitzgerald and Borelli explain each of the forms of dialogue with

illustrations of how each are pragmatically realistic. See Fitzgerald

and Borelli, Interfaith Dialogue , 28–34.

58 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 67–68.

59 . Michael Fitzgerald and John Borelli, while adopting the four forms

of dialogue proposed by the Vatican document Dialogue and

Mission , make it clear that this typology is not exhaustive; there-

fore, they are open to tweaking and expansion. See Fitzgerald and

Borelli, Interfaith Dialogue: A Catholic View (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis

Books, 2006), 28.

60 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity, 68.

61 . Ibid.

62 . Ibid.

63 . Ibid.

64 . D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism , 8f.

65 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 69.

66 . Fitzgerald and Borelli, Interfaith Dialogue , 90–91.

67 . William R. Burrows, Redemption and Dialogue: Reading Redemptoris

Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis

Books, 1993), 106.

68 . Assmann, Of God and Gods, 123.

NOT ES 241

Eight The Necessity for Inclusive Religious Pluralism: New Trajectories in Muslim-Christian

Dialogue in Northern Nigeria

1 . Jacques Dupuis, Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation to

Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001), Marinus Iwuchukwu,

Media Ecology and Religious Pluralism (Koln, Germany: Lambert

Academic Publishing, 2010), and Gerald O’Collins, Salvation For All

God’s Other People (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008).

2 . Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission

(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991), 483.

3 . Paul L. Heck, Common Ground: Islam, Christianity and Religious

Pluralism (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2009),

2. Emphasis in bold letters of the word “far” is mine.

4 . Alan Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the

Christian Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 1983) and

Gavin D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism (Oxford and New

York: Basil Blackwell, 1986).

5 . Some of the renowned religious pluralists include: John Hick,

Hans Kung, Paul F. Knitter, Peter Phan, Leonard Swidler, Raimon

Panikkar, Diana Eck, Aloysius Piers, Farid Esack, Fetullah Gulen,

and Mahmoud Ayoub. These scholars have often varied in their inter-

pretation and understanding of religious pluralism. When he said

“there are many varieties of pluralism,” Muhammad Legenhausen

was simply affirming the truism of the different understanding and

interpretation of religious pluralisms. See Legenhausen, “A Muslim’s

Non-Reductive Religious Pluralism,” in Islam and Global Dialogue:

Religious Pluralism and the Pursuit of Peace (Abingdon, Oxon, Great

Britain: Ashgate Publishing Group, 2005), 51 and 53–56.

6 . Diana Eck, “Is Our God Listening? Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and

Pluralism,” in Islam and Global Dialogue: Religious Pluralism

and the Pursuit of Peace , ed., Roger Boase (England; Burlington

Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2005), 41.

7 . Eck, “Is Our God Listening? Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Pluralism,”

41–47.

8 . John Borelli, “Religious Pluralism in the USA today: A Catholic

Perspective,” in Interfaith Dialogue: A Catholic View , eds., Michael

L. Fitzgerald and John Borelli (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2006),

46–47.

9 . John B. Cobb, and Ward M. McAfee, eds., The Dialogue Comes

of Age: Christina Encounters with Other Traditions (Minneapolis,

MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 2010), 21.

10 . Cobb and McAfee, The Dialogue Comes of Age, 22–24.

11 . Ibid., 24.

12 . Paul F. Knitter, “Between the Rock and a Hard Place: Pluralistic

Theology Faces the Ecclesial and Academic Communities,” Journal

of Theology , Summer 1997, 80.

NOT ES242

13 . Alan Race appropriately tags the process and exercise of dialogue

to be constituent of “equal rights” and “epistemological modesty.”

This paradigm requires a “giving and taking” from all faith tradi-

tions involved in dialogue. For more on this, see Race, Interfaith

Encounter: The Twin Tracks of Theology and Dialogue (London:

SCM Press, 2001), 109f.

14 . Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism (London: SCM Press,

1983), 38.

15 . Except in the cases especially of northern Nigeria and the Sudan in

sub-Saharan African, Islam in most parts of the region was quite

accommodating of religious differences, insofar as such traditional

religions did not obstruct the practice and development of Islam.

16 . Moussalli, Islamic Quest for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human

Rights (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2003), 86.

17 . See also Q. 5:44–46; 5:69; and 29:46.

18 . Erdal Toprakyaran “The Changeability of Islamic Principles using

the Example of Pluralism,” in Studies & Comments 12—Religious

Pluralism: Modern Concepts for Interfaith Dialogue , ed., Richard

Asbeck (Munich: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung e.V., 2010), 19.

19 . See Toprakyaran “The Changeability of Islamic Principle,” 19–24.

20 . Toprakyaran “The Changeability of Islamic Principles,” 23.

21 . M. A. Abdu-Raheem, “Islamic Concept of Tolerance and the Task

before the Nigerian Muslim,” in Religion and Peace in Multi-Faith

Nigeria , ed., Jacob K. Olupona (Ile-Ife, Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo

University Press, 1992), 74.

22 . Farid Esack, Qur’an, Liberation & Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective

of Interreligious Solidarity against Oppression (Oxford: One World

Publications, 1998), 175.

23 . Esack, Qur’an, Liberation & Pluralism , 175.

24 . Mohammed is known to have extended the principle of ahl

al-dhimma to the Magi in Bahrain and the rightly guided caliphs, in

keeping with the prophetic tradition, applied the principle of jiyza

tax to religious minorities. See Ahmad S. Moussalli, The Islamic

Quest for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human Rights (Gainesville,

FL: University Press of Florida, 2003), 131f.

25 . Esack, Qur’an, Liberation & Pluralism , 159. Other Qur’anic refer-

ences to religious pluralism include: 2:136; 2:285; and 3:84.

26 . Esack, Qur’an, Liberation & Pluralism , 161.

27 . These fathers of the faith were almost arrogantly promoting the

superiority and exclusivity of Christianity as the only true religion

that they had no energy or critical objectivity left to appreciate the

divine origin and authenticity of the other religions of the world.

28 . In his book Salvation for All God’s Other Peoples , Gerald O’Collins

demonstrates with evidences from the Old and New Testaments

both the universality of God’s salvation and the salvific imperatives

NOT ES 243

of other faith traditions. See O’Collins, Salvation for All God’s

Other Peoples (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008).

29 . Aleida Assmann, “The Curse and Blessing of Babel; or, Looking Back

on Universalisms,” in The Translatability of Cultures: Figuration of

the Space Between , eds., Sanford Budick and Wolfgang Iser (Stanford,

CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 86.

30 . Cobb and McAfee, The Dialogue Comes of Age, 14–15.

31 . This is a translation of the New Revised Standard Version . The

translation of previous quotes from John chapter 4 is from The New

Jerusalem Bible .

32 . Assmann, “The Curse and Blessing of Babel,” 86.

33 . Jacques Dupuis, Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation

to Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001), 254.

34 . Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism , 39ff. That idea fits into

the anonymous-Christian concept of Karl Rahner. Race goes on to

argue that the Evangelist Luke has a particularly inclusivist approach

and outlook.

35 . Jacques Dupuis, Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation

to Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001).

36 . Ibid., 52–54 and 87–97.

37 . Ibid., 88.

38 . Dupuis crystallizes his theology of inclusive pluralism in Christianity

and the Religions: From Confrontation to Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY:

Orbis Books, 2001).

39 . William R. Burrows, Jacques Dupuis Faces the Inquisition (Eugene,

OR: Pickwick Publications, 2012), 20.

40 . Dupuis, Christianity ad the Religions , 95.

41 . K. P. Aleaz, “Pluralism Calls for Pluralistic Inclusivism: An Indian

Christian Experience,” in The Myth of Religious Superiority: A

Multifaith Exploration , ed., Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis

Books, 2005), 171.

42 . Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, Dialogue and

Proclamation (DP) , no. 15 or Gaudium et Spes, no. 22.

43 . DP, no. 35.

44 . Aleida Assmann, “The Curse and Blessing of Babel; or, Looking

Back on Universalisms,” in eds., The Translatability of Cultures:

Figuration of the Space Between , Sanford Budick and Wolfgang Iser

(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 93ff.

45 . Historically, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa was more tolerant of the

normative religious pluralism in African societies. Lamin Sanneh

affirms this fact as he writes, “In most places . . . Muslims embraced

local versions of pluralism and tolerance rather than committing

themselves and others to inflexible compliance with the religious

code.” See Lamin Sanneh, Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians

in West Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 2.

NOT ES244

46 . Martien E. Brinkman, Non-Western Jesus: Jesus as Bodhisattva,

Avatara, Guru, Prophet, Ancestor, or Healer? (London: Equinox

Publishing Ltd, 2009), 210ff. Brinkman, while affirming the “func-

tionalist approach” to religion of African Traditional Religions,

goes on to argue that even though African Traditional Religions

significantly emphasize an immanent God, they do not deny the

transcendence of God. He makes the case that African Traditional

Religions hold both views in harmony as composite understanding

of God and life. Therefore, African Traditional Religions do not

deny the existence of life after life, but requires a balance of focus

on both the life now and the life here after. Uzukwu confirms this

fundamental philosophy and religious view of life. See Elochukwu

E. Uzukwu, “Missiology Today . . .,” 151–152.

47 . Elochukwu E. Uzukwu, “Missiology Today: The African Situation,”

in Religion and African Culture: Inculturation—A Nigerian

Perspective , ed., Elochukwu E. Uzukwu (Enugu, Nigeria: SNAAP

Press, 1988), 146.

48 . Uzukwu underscores the preeminent values of hospitality obtain-

able in different African cultural social milieu. See Uzukwu,

“Missiology Today . . .,” 158ff.

49 . Ibid., 158.

50 . This discussion is indeed not limited to African theologians or to

those who have missionary interest in Africa. It has become a global or

a rather non-Western world’s theological interest. This is arising from

the fact that the burden of a Euro-centric Christianity has weighed

unbearably on many non-Western cultures and peoples, that there is

a robust and constructive search and desire to incarnate Christianity

in the different non-Western cultures it has made home today. For

more on this discussion, see Peter Phan, In Our Own Tongues:

Perspectives from Asia on Mission and Inculturation (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books, 2003) and Peter Phan and Diana Hayes, eds.,

Many Faces One Church: Cultural Diversity and American Catholic

Experience (Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).

51 . Gregory Olikenyi, African Hospitality: A Model for the Communica -

tion of the Gospel in the African Cultural Context (Enugu, Nigeria:

Snaap Press, 2001), 49–53. Also Uzukwu provides a brief review of

the pendulum-like swing in the use of concepts such as implantation

of the Church and adaptation of Christianity in the African milieu.

See Uzukwu, “Missiology Today . . . ,” 152ff.

52 . Olikenyi, African Hospitality , 50. Interestingly, Olikenyi prefers to

interpret the concept of incarnation within the context of incultura-

tion. Therefore, in his perception, incarnation cannot stand alone as

a theological framework, but has to be subsumed into inculturation

as the standard model. My position is to embrace incarnation as the

most respectful, organic, and theologically sound model for mission

and evangelization, not only in African but across the globe.

NOT ES 245

53 . Uzukwu, “Missiology Today . . .,” 154.

54 . Platvoet, “The Religions of Africa in their Historical Order,” in

The Study of Religions in Africa Past, Present and Prospects , eds.,

Jan Platvoet, James Cox, and Jacob Olupona (Cambridge, UK:

Roots and Branches, 1996), 52. Many other scholars also make

the argument that the African inclusive pluralistic worldview is

the reason many world religions have found themselves comfort-

able in their adopted homes in Africa—a phenomenon that has led

to some scholars such as Jan G. Platvoet to describe the religious

landscape in Africa as “Africa’s rainbow of religions.” See Platvoet,

“The Religions of Africa in Their Historical Order,” 46–102. Or for

other scholars such as Jacob Olupona conceding to the authenticity

of nomenclatures such as “African Independent Churches,” “African

Pentecostal,” and “African Islam” in his article “Thinking Globally

about African Religion.” See Olupona, “Thinking Globally about

African Religion,” in Global Religions , ed., Mark Juergensmeyer

(Oxford, UK and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006),

527–535. Using the illustration of Ifa divination among his native

Yoruba religious culture and theology, Olupona underscores the

inclusive pluralistic paradigm obtainable in African religious world-

view. See Olupona, “Religious Pluralism in Africa: Insights from Ifa

Divination Poetry,” in Ethics that Matters: African, Caribbean, and

African American Sources , eds., Marcia Y. Riggs and James Samuel

Logan (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2012), 51–58.

55 . Platvoet, “The Religions of Africa in their Historical Order,” 52f.

Laurenti Magesa argues however that the essence and fundamental

beliefs among Africans is identical, albeit with different rituals and

practices. He is therefore of the opinion that the religion of Africans

should be considered in the same vein as Christianity or Islam, both

of which encompass a certain level of diversity in the same religion.

See Magesa, African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant

Life (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1997), 15–18.

56 . Newell S. Booth, “An Approach to African Religion,” in African

Religions: A Symposium , ed., Newell S. Booth (New York: NOK

Publishers, 1977), 3.

57 . The content of the appropriate communiqu é is sampled as an appen-

dix. See Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in

Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press,

1997), 343.

58 . Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern

Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 345.

59 . William E. Shepard , Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation

and Critical Analysis of Social Justice in Islam (Leiden, New York,

and Koln: E.J. Brill, 1996), 1.

60 . Affirming this truism, L. R. Holme writes, “It will seem that

the Church perished because it was the Church, not of the native

NOT ES246

population, but of the alien conquerors. If it took root it was not

amongst the indigenous peoples of N.-W. Africa, but amongst

the foreign immigrants and Roman officials.” See Holme, The

Extinction of the Christian Churches in North Africa (New York:

Burt Franklin, 1969), 3f.

61 . The Church that existed in most parts of North Africa in the early

Church strongly echoed either the Latin or the Greek liturgy and

the theological stance. See Martien E. Brinkman, Non-Western Jesus:

Jesus as Bodhisattva, Avatara, Guru, Prophet, Ancestor, or Healer?

(London: Equinox Publishing Ltd, 2009), 204ff. Elochukwu

Uzukwu appropriately characterized the missionary evangeliza-

tion of Africans and establishment of Christianity in Africa as “the

transplanting of a prefabricated alien theology, liturgy, moral, etc.”

See Uzukwu, “Missiology Today: . . . .,” 153.

62 . Eck, “Is Our God Listening? Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Pluralism,”

in Islam and Global Dialogue: Religious Pluralism and the Pursuit

of Peace , ed., Roger Boase (England; Burlington Vermont: Ashgate

Publishing Company, 2005), 21–49.

Nine Building New Bridges of Relationships in Postcolonial Northern Nigeria and the Evolution of a New Northern Nigeria

1 . Going by Ayoub’s categorization, these two as earlier stated are

merged into one, namely, dialogue of life.

2 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 68.

3 . World Council of Churches, “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious

World: Recommendations for Conduct.” June 28, 2011, accessed

January 2, 2013, http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/docu

ments/wcc-programmes/interreligious-dialogue-and-cooperation

/christian-identity-in-pluralistic-societies/christian-witness-in-a

-multi-religious-world.html .

4 . Henri Teissier, “Christians and Moslems in Africa: Challenges

and Chances for a Genuine Relationship,” in The African Synod:

Documents, Reflections, Perspectives , ed., Maura Browne (Maryknoll,

NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 157.

5 . This author was privileged to have a one-on-one informal meeting

with Mr. Wiess during his visit to Duquesne University in 2009.

He shared with me the remarkable progress Catholic Relief Services

has made in Algeria in collaboration with community leaders, the

government, and Muslim organizations in a dominantly Muslim

country. According to him, the Catholic Relief Services has earned

the respect of the people and Muslim organizations, hence their

openness to collaborate with the organization toward many com-

mon good projects and services in the Algerian society.

6 . For more information about the activities of this organization, visit

its website. Inter-faith Activities & Partnership for Peace (IFAPP),

NOT ES 247

its home page is: http://interfaithnigeria.org/index.php . Its head-

quarters is in the nation’s capital, Abuja. Although it is a national

organization, it promotes regional activities toward peaceful coexis-

tence between people of different religious affiliations.

7 . While Rev. Wuye lost one arm resulting from injuries he suf-

fered during one of the violent conf licts, Imam Ashafa has lost

very close friends and relatives who were killed during some of

the conf licts. An award-winning documentary f ilm has origi-

nated from their project of collaboration and dialogic activi-

ties. See “The Imam & the Pastor” in Building Trust Across the

World’s Divide , accessed November 19, 2012, http://www.iofc

.org/imam-pastor . The success of Muslim-Christian Interfaith

Mediation Center comes from the inspiring testimony of two

religious leaders from two conf licting religions, coming together

to set up an organization, which, by overseeing Muslims and

Christians working together under the same umbrella, have pro-

moted a process toward effective and enduring dialogue between

the same Christians and Muslims of a city that has witnessed

some of the horrendous incidents of Muslim-Christian violent

conf licts in northern Nigeria.

8 . Asghar Ali Engineer. “The Concept of Compassion in Islam,” The

Milli Gazette , accessed June 1, 2011, http://www.milligazette.com

/Archives/15122001/1512200144.htm .

9 . Ibid.

10 . Norlain bint Muhammad Dindang, “Ways and Virtues of Giving

Sadaqah ,” accessed June 1, 2011, http://www.wefound.org/sadaqah

-byNorlain.htm .

11 . The idea of sabon gari is a euphemism for “city of infidels.” This

is because, as a norm, the sabon garis are the places you can have

bars, hotels, brothels, gambling, and churches and other Christian

symbols. Therefore, literally Muslims consider sabon garis as the

suburbs of sin and home of infidels.

12 . Cletus Tanimu Gotan, “Nigeria’s Religious Conflicts: A Call for

a Dialogue of Life” in Religion, Violence, And Conflict Resolution

in Nigeria , ed., Cyril Obanure (Makurdi, Abuja, Ibadan: Aboki

Publishers, 2008), 102.

13 . Ibid.

14 . Focolare Communications Office, “Focolare Pays Tribute to Imam

Warith Deen Mohammed,” Focolare Movement , accessed March 5,

2013, http://www.focolare.us/es/regions/197-press-release/110

-focolare-pays-tribute-to-imam-warith-deen-mohammed .

15 . William Neu shares his experience of the exuberance and friendly

disposition of Deen Mohammed and his commitment to promote

ongoing dialogue of life between Muslims and Christians. See Neu,

“W.D. Mohammed and Chiara Lubich: What Friendship Can Do,”

Paulist Fathers—Giving The Word A Voice, accessed March 5, 2013,

NOT ES248

http://www.paulist.org/ecumenism/wd-mohammed-and-chiara

-lubich-what-friendship-can-do , 2013.

16 . World Council of Churches, “Declaration on Religious Liberty.”

Adopted at the First Assembly of the World Council of Churches in

Amsterdam in August 1948, accessed December 7, 2012, http://

www.religlaw.org/content/religlaw/documents/wccdecreliglib

1948.htm .

17 . World Council of Churches, “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious

World: Recommendations for Conduct.” June 28, 2011, accessed

January 2, 2013, http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/docu

ments/wcc-programmes/interreligious-dialogue-and-cooperation

/christian-identity-in-pluralistic-societies/christian-witness-in-a

-multi-religious-world.html .

18 . Irfan A. Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity: Essays on Dialogue by

Mahmoud Ayoub (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007), 29.

19 . Ibid., 29.

20 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity, 29.

21 . Ahmad S. Moussalli, The Islamic Quest for Democracy, Pluralism,

and Human Rights (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida,

2003), 130.

22 . Ahmad S. Moussalli highlights the fact that an average Sufi Muslim

unites “himself with all religions, and recognized God in every belief

system.” See Moussalli, The Islamic Quest for Democracy , 91. A long-

standing advocate for better Muslim-Christian relations in northern

Nigeria, Bishop Matthew H. Kukah, is quoted to have highlighted

examples of Muslims in northern Nigeria who have made demon-

strable and honest overtures of peace to Christian communities. See

Sheila Musaji, “Sectarian Violence in Nigeria is Spinning Out of

Control,” The American Muslim , 2, accessed October 30, 2012.

http://theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/print/sectarian

-violence-in-nigeria .

23 . In a signed news release by Rev. Fr. George Ehusani and Malam

Nurudeen Lemu. the organization strongly condemned the act as

the handiwork of criminals who should be apprehended and pros-

ecuted as prescribed by the law of the country. See News Agency of

Nigeria (Abuja), “Kaduna church bombing fundamentally crimi-

nal—clerics,” October 31, 2012. See also Bertram Nwannekanma,

Saxone Akhaine, Joke Falaju, and John Okeke, “Inter-Faith Group

Flays Terror Attack on Church,” The Guardian, Nigeria , 5,

Thursday, November 1, 2012, accessed November 2, 2012, http://

www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content

&view=article&id=103491:inter-faith-group-f lays-terror-attack

-on-church-&catid=1:national&Itemid=559 ).

24 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria—The

Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 12.

NOT ES 249

Conclusion

1 . Philipp W. Hildmann, “Faith and Reason—Requirements for

an Interreligious Dialogue between Christians and Muslims,” in

Studies & Comments 12—Religious Pluralism: Modern Concepts for

Interfaith Dialogue , ed., Richard Asbeck (Munich: Hanns-Seidel-

Stiftung e.V., 2010), 10.

2 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria—The

Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 15.

3 . Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, “The Future of Shari’ah and the

Debate in Northern Nigeria,” in Comparative Perspectives on

Shari’ah in Nigeria , eds., Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir, and Franz

Kogelmann (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books, 2005), 339.

4 . Ibid., 341.

5 . Jacob K. Olupona, “The Dynamics of Religion and Interfaith

Dialogue in Nigeria,” in Religion and Peace in Multi-Faith Nigeria ,

ed., Jacob K. Olupona (Ile-Ife, Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo

University Press, 1992), 3.

6 . Achebe, There Was A Country , 78. Chinua Achebe’s critic however is

primarily his remonstration against the injustice perpetuated by the

federal character policy against the Igbo ethnic group. He sums up

his grievance in these words, “In most other nations the success of

an ethnic group as industrious as the Igbo would stimulate healthy

competition and a renaissance of learning and achievement . . . The

denial of merit is a form of social injustice that can hurt not only

the individuals directly concerned but ultimately the entire society.

The motive for the original denial may be the tribal discrimination,

but it may also come from sexism, from political, religious, or some

other partisan consideration, or from corruption and bribery.” See

Achebe, There Was A Country , 78.

7 . Daniel Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” in Transition

without end: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society under Babangida,

eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran,

333–350 (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1990), 339.

8 . Olakunle Odumosu, “Social Implications of the 1999 Constitution,”

in Issues in the Review of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic

of Nigeria , eds., Olu Ajakaiye and Solomon Akhere Benjamin

(Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research

(NISER), 1999), 100.

9 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria—The

Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 10.

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Aba, x

Abacha, 75, 84, 108

see also Sani Abacha

Abdulkadir, see emir of Zaria

Abdullahi, 8–9, 12

see also emir of Gwandu

Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, 92,

95–6, 189, 223, 249

Abdurrahaman, see sultan of Sokoto

Abdulsalam Mohammed, 55

Abiola, see Moshood Abiola

Abrahamic religions, 158, 238

ABU, 76, 97

see also Ahmadu Bello University

Abu Rannar, 59

see also Justice Abu Rannar Panel

Abubakar El Nafaty, 47

Abubakar Garba, 17

see also Shehu of Bornu

Abubakar Gumi, see Sheikh Mahmud

Abubakar Gumi

Abubakar Shekau, 113

see also Boko Haram

Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, 49, 50, 53,

59–60, 206, 216

see also Balewa and Prime Minister

Abubakar Shekau, 113

see also Boko Haram

Abuja, 87, 111, 113, 114, 124, 229,

247

academy, 165

Achebe, 191–2, 206, 249

ACRA, see Advisory Council on

Religious Affairs

activism, see social activism

activists, 178, 191, 212, 214, 235

Adamawa, 13, 33, 42, 203

adherents, 42, 45, 63, 65, 71, 78, 87,

104, 125, 135–7, 159, 160, 168,

170, 178, 185

Advisory Council on Religious

Affairs, 89, 222

AECAWA, see Association of the

Episcopal Conference of

Anglophone West Africa

Afghanistan, 112–13

Afizere, 102, 104, 106, 225

Africa, 7, 20, 26–7, 65, 70, 168–71,

178, 205, 226, 243, 244, 245,

246

African, 7, 9, 10, 15, 21–3, 26,

28–30, 32, 34–6, 40–1, 82,

96, 102, 104, 120, 124–5, 158,

166–71, 178, 182, 188–9, 193,

195–7, 199, 202–6, 208, 215–

17, 219–20, 233, 242–6

African inclusivity, 168, 171, 245

African Mail, 28

Africanization, 7

Africans, 7, 15, 26, 30, 104, 168–70,

199, 234, 245–6, 262

Agades, 8–9, 12, 233

Aguiyi Ironsi, 49, 50, 52

see also Ironsi

Ahmad S. Moussalli, 144, 158, 184,

238, 242, 248

Ahmad Salkida, 114–15, 231

Ahmadiyya Movement, 36, 54, 205

Ahmadu Bello University, 48, 71, 75,

76, 133

Index

INDEX266

Ahmadu Bello (Sir), 13, 39, 43–50,

66, 85, 127–9, 131, 207, 210,

216, 235

see also Sardauna of Sokoto

Ahl al- Kitab, 158

Ahmed Chanchangi, 134

Ahmed Sani Yerima (Governor), 91, 92

see also Yerima

Akbar the Great, 160

Akilu, see emir of Kano

Al-Kanemi, 2–4, 8, 196

al-Maghali, 6, 127

see also Muhammad al-Maghali

Al-Masjid al-Haram, 74

Al-Qaeda, 113

Aladura, 120, 125

Alan Race, 157, 164, 238, 241,

242, 243

Aleida Assmann, 161, 163, 166, 243

Algeria, 127, 178–9, 234, 246

Algerian, 246

Ali Akilu, 47

Ali Ghaji, 2

“Ali must go”, 215

Aliyu, 18

alkali, 6, 35

Allah, 145, 146, 147, 148, 158,

159, 181

Aloysius Piers, 241

aman, 96

amana, 225

America, 120–2, 124, 233, 240

American, 21, 32, 41, 69–70, 182,

195, 215, 222, 224, 244–5,

248, 254, 258–60

Aminu d-Din Abubakar, 76, 131–2

Aminu Kano, 62, 216

Amir al-Mumini, 9, 48

Anaguta, 102, 104, 106, 225

ancestors, 66, 109, 227

ancestral, 102–3, 108–10, 116–17,

174

ancestry, 10, 36, 111, 125, 196

Andalucia, 184

Andrew F. Barnes, 15, 198–9, 201,

203, 204

Andrew Dornan, 201

Angas, 11, 225

Anglican, 24, 43, 51, 206–7

Anglicans, 32, 36–7, 71, 120–1

Anglophone, 83, 186, 189

animists, 87

annex, 3

annexation, 2

annexed, 10

annulment, 85

Ansar Ud-Deen Society, 36

Ansarul Islam Society, 35

Anthony Aniagolu (Chief Justice), 78,

86–7, 110, 218, 221, 229

anthropological, 166, 169–70

anti-Christian, 51, 52

antidialogic, 151

antipraxis, 112

antiprogressive, 111

apartheid, 111

apocalyptic, 142

apolitical, 67

apostasy, 96

Apostolic, 125, 240

application, ix, 11, 25, 58, 59, 60, 61,

88, 95, 96, 107, 110, 111, 115,

117, 173, 175, 176, 183–4, 185,

189, 190, 191, 200, 202, 212,

222, 228

appreciated, x, xi, 157, 166, 172

approach, x, 16, 21, 63, 67, 95, 126,

127, 128, 143, 161, 164, 167,

168, 171, 179, 187, 219, 232,

243, 245

aqïda, 144

Arab, 68, 119, 155, 171, 198, 210

Arabic, 36–7, 66, 111, 131, 176, 208

Arabs, 1, 160, 234

Archdiocese of Kaduna, 201, 207,

211, 259

archeological, 102

Areopagites, 164

Arewa, 209, 252, 258

argument, x, xi, 15, 52, 90, 91, 95,

110, 135, 136, 162, 188, 198,

199, 205, 207, 214, 218, 227,

237, 245

aristocracy, 10, 13, 33

aristocratic, 10, 198

aristocrats, 10, 25, 34, 198

INDEX 267

Armageddon, 230, 256

arms, 53, 86

army, 2, 11, 33, 52, 55, 78, 94,

113, 236

arson, 98

arsonists, 98

artists, 191

Asia, 65, 244, 260

Asians, 104

Askia Muhammad Turé, 126

assassination, 48–50, 60

assembly, 62, 83, 87, 121, 186, 189

Association of the Episcopal

Conference of Anglophone West

Africa, 83, 186, 189

Association, 225–6, 261

association, 54, 60, 82, 142, 183,

193, 210, 214

Association of the Removal of

Innovation, 47

assumptions, x, xii, xiii, xiv, 146, 151

see also theological assumptions

Assyrian, 140

atheistic, 136

atheists, 148

Athenians, 164

Athens, 164, 198

attacks, xi, 68, 74, 77, 78, 81, 91, 98,

102, 105, 106, 113–14, 148,

178, 218, 225, 229

attributes, ix, 65, 219

Atyap, 99

Augustine of Hippo, 16

autochthonous constitution, 82, 220

autocracy, 30

autonomous, 60, 123

Awka, 99

Awolowo, 242, 249, 259

Ayatollah Khomeini, 65, 74, 76

see also Khomeini

Babangida, see Ibrahim Babangida

Babel, 161, 163, 243

background, x, 92, 211, 222, 227

backseat, 49, 59, 60

Baghdad, 4, 128, 229, 233

Baha’i, 95

Bahrain, 160, 242

Bajju, 193

Balewa, 49–50, 53, 59–60, 98, 100,

101, 206, 216

see also Abubakar Tafawa Balewa

and Prime Minister

banza Bakwai, 5, 13, 167, 196

Baptism, 123

Baptist, 21, 32, 70, 80, 120, 122

Baptists, 120–1

Baraden Sokoto, 47

Bart Moore-Gilbert, x, 195, 258

Bashir Tofa (Alhaji), 85

Bauchi, 11, 34, 75, 94, 97–8, 102–3,

111–13, 133, 203–4, 225, 229,

252

Bautshi (Bauchi), 94

Bawo, 4

Bayajida, 4

Bayero University Kano, v, xvii, 76,

97, 114, 129, 132–3

see also BUK

BBC report/news, 227, 230, 231, 232

Bebeji, 18

Bedde tribes, 3

Belgian, 20

Belgium, 64

belief, 8, 51, 71, 84, 96, 121, 146–7,

152, 160, 233, 234, 248

beliefs, 7, 10, 12, 46, 75, 87, 96,

123–4, 146, 150, 160, 170–1,

178, 180, 185, 229, 245

believer, 180, 233

believers, 9, 152, 159, 170

Bello, see Muhammad Bello, or

Ahmadu Bello

Benedict XVI (Pope), 149, 240

Benin, 20–1

Benue, 53–4, 61, 203

Berbers, 1

Berlin Conference, 17, 20

Berner Ulrich, 218

Berom, 102–4, 106, 193, 225

Biafra, 50, 206

Biafran, 51–2

bias, 50, 85, 144, 185

biases, 60

Bible, 22, 69, 70, 123, 158, 233, 243

biblical, 69, 140–3, 148, 153, 237

INDEX268

Bibliography, 252–64

bida, 68

Bida, 24

bigotry, 9, 39, 62, 64, 69–70, 72,

118, 138, 152

bigots, 171

binary, 141, 174

Bini, 30

Biram, 5

Birom, 103

Bishop Tugwell, 22

Bishops, 46, 83, 88, 192, 209, 218,

220, 222, 248–9, 253, 261

bishops, 83, 99, 169, 189

bitter, 40, 50, 117

bitterness, 47, 147, 170

black, 21

Boko Haram, xiii, 68, 76, 77, 101–2,

105, 107, 109, 111–15, 118, 130,

133, 186, 229, 230, 231, 232, 236

Abubakar Shekau, 113

Buji Foi, 113, 225

Ibn Taymiyyah, 112, 114, 214, 229

Ibn Taymiyyah Mosque, 112, 114

Kabiru Atiku, 113

Mohammed Yusuf (Ustaz), 112–15

Sanni Umaru, 113, 229

Bolaji Akinyemi, 89

suicide bomber, 113, 114, 141–2

bombing, 133, 186, 229, 248, 259

Bonnke riots, 79, 98, 124

see also Rheinhard Bonnke

Borno, 1–2, 9, 34, 47, 51, 58, 102,

111–13, 195, 207, 209, 211,

229–30, 233

Bornu, 1–5, 8, 16–17, 20, 22, 103,

174, 195–7, 203

Brethren, 24, 122

bribery, 249

bridges, 170, 173, 191

Britain, 17, 20, 26, 29, 64, 197, 203,

206, 241, 257, 262

British, 2, 4, 9, 15–23, 25–6, 28–30,

33–5, 39–40, 48, 58–9, 73, 93,

104, 128, 196–7, 200, 202–7,

209, 215, 234

British Colonial Administration,

15–16, 19, 22–4, 40, 205

brotherhood, 13, 66, 67–68, 125,

127, 208, 233

brotherhoods, 36, 47–9, 67, 75,

127–8, 212

Bruce, Lawrence, 69, 213, 215

Buddhism, 160, 161, 181

Buddhist, 178, 193

building, xiii, 3, 66, 67, 80, 98, 122,

124, 129, 131, 173, 179, 183,

210, 227, 234, 236, 247

BUK, 97, 132

bureaucracy, 62

bureaucratic, 55

bureaucrats, 33, 55

business, 1–2, 16, 20, 22, 57, 65,

98–9, 113, 130, 137, 182, 191,

198, 222, 227

businesses, 22, 65, 98

cabinet, 85, 89

Calabar, 20

Caliph, 234

caliph, 59

Caliphas, 13

caliphate, xiii, 1, 2–5, 8–13, 16–20,

22, 33, 48, 53, 58–59, 63, 66,

90, 93–5, 103, 128, 167, 174,

196, 197, 198, 199

caliphs, 242

Cameroon, 9, 115, 130

Cameroonian, 129

Cameroons, 85

Cameroun, 4

camp, 45, 112–13, 196

campaign, 8, 10, 43, 46, 71, 89, 91,

113, 123, 215

campaigns, 44, 66, 68, 129, 219, 222

camping, 126

camps, 38, 45, 63, 80, 104, 135, 141,

171, 174

campus, 71, 75, 97, 114

campuses, 71, 97

CAN, 46–7, 54, 79–81, 84, 91, 211

see also Christian Association of

Nigeria

Canon Robinson, 22

capital, 3, 9, 27, 55, 59, 138, 168,

171, 247

INDEX 269

Capitalism, 258

Captain Moloney, 200

caritas, 180, 185

categories, 23, 45, 59, 119, 123, 125,

174, 191, 212, 213, 233

categorization, 120, 151, 176, 246

category, ix, 120, 122, 124, 201, 228

Catholic Bishops Conference of

Nigeria, 46, 88, 192, 209, 222

see also CBCN

Catholic, 22, 36–7, 41–3, 51, 63,

78–9, 81, 83, 120–1, 142–3,

165–6, 178, 182–3, 186, 189,

206, 208, 215–16, 218, 220,

224, 239–41, 244, 246, 248–9

Catholic Secretariat, 79, 218, 222

Catholicism, 46

Catholics, 10, 32, 36–7, 43, 45–6,

71, 78–9, 84, 119–21, 126, 143,

165, 188, 206

Catholic Relief Services, 178–9, 246

see also CRS

CBCN, 46, 51–2, 63, 78, 82–3, 99,

192, 218

C.C. Ifemesia, 2, 3, 5, 12, 195, 196,

197, 198

CDC, 60

see also Constitution Drafting

Committee

census, 42, 45, 206, 208, 209, 259

Central Sahara, 103

centuries, 6, 8, 13, 27, 37, 67, 69–70,

78, 102–3, 126, 184, 225, 233

century, 2–3, 5–7, 9, 13, 16, 39,

64–7, 76, 90, 93–4, 110–11,

121, 123–4, 140, 143, 160, 165,

173–4, 179, 193, 196, 197, 200,

209, 210, 211, 211, 212, 213,

215, 225, 227, 233, 234

ceremonies, 80, 182–3

Chad, 1–2, 4, 113, 115, 130

challenges, xiii, 134, 155, 200, 246

Chamba, 11, 193

charismatic, 80–1, 119, 123–5, 219

charitable, 126, 180–1

charity, 6, 169, 180–1, 202

Charles L. Temple, 25, 28

Cherubim and Seraphim, 120, 125

Chiara Lubich, 182, 247–8

see also Lubich

chiefs, 4, 18, 26, 42, 94

Chinedu Uba, 58–9, 211, 212

Chinua Achebe, 206, 249

Chris Okotie, 81

Christ, 42, 69, 77, 80, 122–3, 126,

135, 143–4, 157–8, 162, 164–6,

169, 180

Christian, x, xi, xiii, xv, 9, 15–16,

21–7, 30–3, 35–43, 45–6,

49–54, 56–7, 60–3, 65,

69–74, 77–82, 84–6, 88–9,

91, 96–102, 105–6, 118–25,

129–31, 136, 138–45, 147–9,

151, 155, 157–8, 161, 163–7,

169–72, 174–5, 177–80, 182–3,

185–8, 192–3, 197, 199, 201–2,

209, 211–21, 223–4, 226–7,

232, 237–8, 241, 243, 246–8

Christian Association of Nigeria, 39,

46–7, 54, 79, 219

see also CAN

Christian Reformed Church, 32

see also CRC

Christianity, xi, xiii, 15–16, 21–3,

26–7, 31–2, 36–7, 40–3, 45,

65, 69–71, 77–81, 100, 112,

119–20, 122–3, 126, 135,

138–9, 142, 146, 155, 158,

161, 164–5, 167–71, 178, 184,

187–9, 198–9, 201–2, 204–5,

207, 209, 211, 213, 218, 225,

237–42, 244–6, 248

Christianized, 199

Christians, ix, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv,

12, 16, 21–3, 25, 31, 33, 37,

39–42, 45–7, 50–2, 54, 56–7,

60–4, 67–72, 74–5, 77–85,

87–92, 97–100, 104–6, 113–15,

119–26, 130, 135–6, 138–9,

142–3, 147–53, 155, 157–61,

164–9, 171–82, 184–91, 193,

197, 201, 204, 207, 209, 217–19,

223–4, 226, 237, 239–40, 243,

246–7, 249

Christmas, 106, 182

Christology, 165

INDEX270

Church, 21, 30, 32, 37, 42, 51–2,

61, 63, 81, 120–5, 143, 161,

165–6, 179, 183, 204, 208, 232,

238–40, 244–6, 248

church, 32, 43, 52, 70, 82, 98, 120,

124–5, 163, 186, 203, 248

Church Fathers, 161

Churches, 30, 32, 42–3, 46, 119–26,

161, 164, 177, 183, 188, 232–3,

236, 245–6, 248

churches, 3, 30, 32–3, 36–7, 41, 43,

51–2, 68, 70–1, 80, 114, 119–26,

137, 144, 164, 201, 204, 233,

247

Church Missionary Society, 21

see also CMS

Chyrstostom, 161

citizen, 84, 95, 107–9, 117, 189, 228

citizenry, 57

citizens, x, xii, 7, 57, 63, 68, 80,

83–4, 91–2, 105, 113, 116–18,

150, 175, 178, 181, 183, 190,

192, 228, 230, 232

citizenship, 12, 95, 109, 115–16, 192

civic, 82

Civil, 30, 50, 217, 219, 221, 224,

228, 249

civil, 21, 23–5, 30, 39, 43–4, 47, 49–52,

55, 59–60, 62, 64, 74, 88, 96, 105,

107, 109, 115–16, 125, 157, 164,

174, 189–90, 209, 222

civil service, 23, 24, 25, 30, 105, 107,

115, 116, 125, 222, 228

civil war, 107, 190, 209

civilian, 49, 62, 73, 87, 90–1

Civilization, 209, 261

civilization, 6, 15, 26, 69, 201

civilized, 26

cleric, 2

clerical, 29

Clerics, 259

clerics, 8, 248

Cletus T. Gotan, 182, 224, 247

climate, 16, 41, 60

CMS, 21, 23–4, 36, 201

see also Church Missionary Society

Cobb, 162, 241, 243

see also John Cobb

COCIN, 43, 122

collaborate, 17, 84, 86, 124, 150,

178, 184–5, 190, 246

collaboration, 30–31, 38, 40, 73,

85, 130, 132, 173, 177–8,

246, 247

collaborations, 85, 177–8

collaborative, 150, 179, 181, 185

collaborators, 45, 130

college, 21, 71, 97, 134, 216

collegial, 166

colonial, x, 2, 4, 13, 15–21, 22–31,

29, 33–7, 39–41, 59–60, 65, 81,

90, 102–3, 128, 174, 181, 187,

197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 204–7,

209, 215, 223, 227, 234

colonialism, xi, 19, 26, 59, 168, 205,

207, 211, 220, 234

colonialists, 65, 93, 170

colonies, 23, 206–7

Colonization, 26, 65, 213, 209

colonized, 65

Colony, 20

commerce, 1, 25, 199

commercial, 29, 182

Commission, 108, 227

commissioner, 16, 113, 231, 260

commitment, 2, 15, 45, 111, 131,

146, 152, 156, 166, 177, 207,

247

Committee, 44, 60–2, 76, 89, 170–1,

217, 223

committee, 61, 88–9, 92

common, 9, 13, 33, 40, 46–7, 49, 56,

64, 69, 79, 83, 92, 95, 117, 135,

149–50, 152–3, 157, 159, 167,

171, 174–9, 181, 183, 185, 189,

219, 225, 246

commoners, 10–11, 19, 107, 118, 215

communal, 101, 103

communally, 103

Communication, 33, 259

communication, 36, 67, 126, 198,

226

Communications, 247, 255

Communion, 206

communiqué, 82, 83, 99, 170, 186,

189, 245

INDEX 271

communities, xvi, 1, 13, 35, 38,

43, 53, 66, 71, 82, 97–8, 101,

103, 115–16, 122, 132, 134,

149, 160–1, 171, 178, 185–6,

204–5, 215, 228, 241, 248

community, 26, 35, 40, 65–6, 84,

108–9, 157, 160, 175, 177, 183,

185, 191, 209, 228, 246

companies, 33

companion, 140

Company, 17, 20, 201, 203, 211, 217,

241, 246, 254–5, 257–8

company, 20, 145

Compass, 198–9, 204, 252

compass, 57, 94

compassion, 168–9, 180–1, 185

competition, 74, 106, 115, 128, 139,

188, 249

compliance, 9, 184, 243

compromise, 57, 62, 82, 86, 157

compromised, 10, 56

compulsion, 183

concept, 53, 70, 140, 142, 148, 155,

161, 165, 169, 243–4

concepts, 175, 180, 244

condemnation, 70–1, 148

condemnations, 88

condemned, 28, 51, 75, 143, 160,

186, 222, 248

confederated, 28

confederation, 9

Conference, 20, 46, 78–9, 88, 192,

209, 222

conference, 17, 48, 149

Conferences, 83, 186, 189

confession, 2, 121

confessional, 32, 46

conflict, xii, 2, 36–7, 49, 52, 62–3,

90–1, 97, 99–100, 105–6, 110,

127, 129, 159, 170, 187, 192,

212, 217, 219, 221–2, 224, 226,

230, 247

conflicting, 20, 52, 88, 105, 179

conflicts, x, xi, xii, xiii, 9, 20, 37, 39,

46, 48–9, 52, 57, 63, 69, 71–5,

77, 79, 84, 91, 97–101, 105,

110, 113, 115, 119, 127, 130–2,

141–2, 147, 157–8, 167, 170–1,

174, 179, 182, 187–8, 191, 198,

212, 216, 217, 222–7, 247

confrontation, 87, 105, 157

confrontations, 75, 229

Congregation, 166, 240

congregations, 37, 43

Congress, 31, 36, 41–2, 49, 68, 85,

127

conquest, 18, 29, 103, 200

conscience, 83, 166, 189

conservative, 12, 81–3, 132, 135,

145, 219, 233

consolidate, 179

Consolidating, 52

consolidation, 2, 102

constituencies, 64, 191

constituency, 152

Constituent Assembly, 61–2, 74, 78,

84, 86–7, 89, 91, 97, 110, 221,

232, 248

constitution, 60–1, 60, 79, 82–4,

86–7, 96, 107–9, 115–16, 129,

146, 183, 192, 218, 220–1,

228–9, 239

Constitution Drafting Committee, 60

see also CDC

constitutional, 62, 78, 81, 84, 107,

117, 183

constitutions, 91, 158

constructive, ix, 149, 155–6, 164,

173, 244

contemporary, 58, 112, 173, 189, 213

contest, 132

contested, 42, 80–1

context, 13, 35–6, 78, 115, 126, 140,

157, 159, 169, 180, 244

continent, 94, 193

contingent, 16, 59, 88, 95, 101, 151,

180–1, 188, 192

contradictions, 152, 215

contradictory, 31, 37, 135, 215

contrast, 29, 163

contributions, x, xiii, 48, 76, 119–20,

126, 129–30, 182, 203

control, 3, 6, 15–16, 20, 28, 30, 35,

40, 47, 54, 58, 62, 64, 70, 102,

105, 115, 120, 127, 130, 140,

201, 203, 222

INDEX272

controversial, 44, 58, 86, 132, 142

controversies, 53

controversy, 87–8, 97, 221

Convention, 70, 85, 120, 122

conversion, 11, 21, 35, 39, 43–4, 46,

63, 103, 123, 129, 144, 180,

185, 202, 225

convert, 21, 32, 43, 71, 207

converted, 12, 23, 32, 184, 226

converting, 1, 7, 11, 22

converts, 1, 23, 32, 37, 41, 43, 70,

201–2

convictions, 128, 185, 188

cooperation, 21, 34, 177, 246, 248

coordinated, 46, 48

Copernican, 164

Cornelius, 163, 166

corrupt, 68, 171, 191, 235

corrupting, 112, 215

corruption, 67–8, 93–4, 111, 249

cosmopolitan, 104, 151, 171

Council, 31, 44, 46, 54, 79, 85, 87, 89,

121–2, 142–3, 149–50, 164–6,

169, 177, 183, 206, 209–10, 222,

232, 240, 243, 246, 248

council, 6, 47, 121, 204, 232, 261

countries, xi, 4–5, 23, 28, 40,

43–4, 65–6, 77, 88, 92, 95,

111, 127–30, 132, 135, 178,

189, 210, 213, 231, 234

country, 3–5, 18, 27–8, 30, 33,

38–41, 43–7, 49–50, 54–8,

61–3, 71–4, 76–7, 79–81,

84–5, 87–91, 93, 96, 98–9,

102–4, 106–12, 115–18, 126,

129, 133, 137–8, 147, 175, 179,

183, 185–6, 190, 192–3, 212,

215, 216, 221, 222, 229, 231,

246, 248

coup, 49–50, 52, 55, 60, 73, 88, 132

coup d’état, 50

coups, 87

court, 3, 8, 52–3, 60–2, 78, 86–7,

97, 106

courts, 40, 53, 59–61, 86–7, 211, 212

covenant, 140, 158

CRC, 32

see also Christian Reformed Church

creation, 9, 46, 53, 68, 86, 122, 183,

226, 228

creator, 167, 174

creed, 121

Cretans, 163

crime, 57, 61, 112, 175, 190, 202,

232, 259

crimes, 93, 118, 164

criminal, 61, 68, 99, 115, 118, 248,

259

criminals, ix, xii, 118, 248

crises, 69, 97–8, 101–2, 106, 115,

117, 131, 191, 224, 226, 230

crisis, 215

critical, ix, 28, 38, 59, 70–1, 77,

92, 100, 109, 117, 136, 139,

151–2, 155, 162, 166, 170,

242

criticism, x, xvi, 65, 70, 88, 195

criticized, 74, 84, 89, 111, 221

critics, 34

cronies, 10, 65, 90

cross, 4, 125, 144

CRS, 178–9

see also Catholic Relief Services

crusade, 124

crusaderism, 77

crusades, 78, 124, 126

cuius region, eius religio, 10

cultural, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 5, 11,

17, 28, 30, 33, 36–7, 39, 66–7,

73–4, 77, 79, 93, 100–101, 103,

105, 110–11, 117, 133, 147, 156,

158, 167–9, 171, 173–4, 177,

188, 215, 244

culturally, 12, 92

cultural pluralism, xi, xii, xiii, xiv,

169

culture, 16, 30, 36–7, 65, 68, 80,

102–4, 122, 125, 150–1,

167–9, 174, 177, 193, 201,

216, 220, 245

cultures, x, xvi, 36, 39, 102, 165, 167,

193, 244

custody, 113, 230–1

customs, 11, 19, 27

Cyprian of Carthage, 143

Cyril, 224, 247, 255

INDEX 273

Dahiru Bauchi (Sheikh), 75, 133

dan Fodio, 1, 3–10, 12–13, 18–19,

33–4, 43–4, 48, 58–9, 63–4,

66–8, 90, 94, 103, 127, 167,

196, 197, 198, 199, 233, 234

see also Shehu Usuman dan Fodio,

Usuman dan Fodio and Uthman

dan Fodio

Dan Masin Kano, 222

see also Maitama Sule

Dan Suleiman, 117

dancing girls, 6

Danish Sudan United Mission, 32

see also DSUM

Daniel N. Wambutda, 103, 225, 263

Danny McCain, 82, 220

Daura, 2–5

David Hume, 140, 237

Dawa group, 76, 132, 235

debates, 9, 39, 47, 86–8

decadence, 93–4, 215

Declaration of Religious Liberty, 121

declaration, 2, 18, 166

de facto, 81, 93, 113, 149, 156, 161,

166, 229

deities, 148

deity, 147–8

de jure, 81, 155, 156, 160, 161, 163,

164, 166

delegates, 62

delegations, 43–4

Delta, 20, 21

delta regions, 17

democracy, 71, 83, 114, 206, 224,

238, 242, 248

democratic, 60, 85, 90, 112, 206, 213

demographic, x, 45, 56, 74, 188

demographics, 117, 123, 125, 226

demons, 80

demonstrate, 22, 42–4, 61, 67, 81,

101, 127, 134, 141, 178, 182,

186

denationalized, 15, 199

denomination, 63, 123

denominations, 37, 42, 46, 68,

79–80, 98, 100, 125, 167

depopulated, 94

deprivation, 67–8, 101

descendants, 9, 66

destabilization, 39, 168

destruction, 72, 97–8, 105–6, 187,

190, 229

destructions, 77, 218, 223

dethroned, 11, 49

deuteronomic, 140–1

development, 2, 4–7, 9, 20, 29–33,

35–6, 41, 44–5, 49–51, 53–5,

59–60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 71, 73–4,

77, 80, 84, 88, 89, 91, 100, 102,

107, 116, 121–2, 126, 129–31,

134, 141, 147, 150, 161, 164,

169, 173, 175, 181–2, 184, 190–1,

197, 203, 204, 205, 207, 213,

214, 222, 225, 226, 231, 232,

234, 242

developments, 27, 31, 33, 38, 47, 50,

65, 81, 88, 100, 115–16, 118,

132, 187

devotees, 58

devotions, 82

devout, 234

dhimmah, 96

dhimmi, 11

dialogic, 150, 157, 179, 187–8, 190,

247

dialogical, 173

dialogue, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 45–6, 139,

149–52, 155, 157, 162, 172–3,

175–9, 181–91, 209, 223, 224,

226, 237, 239, 240, 242, 246,

247, 248, 249

dialogues, 177, 185–6, 189, 191

Dialogue and Proclamation, 150,

166, 240, 243

Diana Eck, 156, 241

dictator, 85

dictatorial, 133

dictators, 84

dictatorship, 49

Dignitatis Humanis, 165

dignity, 19, 33, 52, 70, 121–2, 149,

151, 174, 183, 189

Dilimi, 98

diplomacy, 17

diplomatic, 132

disenfranchised, 68

INDEX274

disharmony, 187, 193

disillusionment, 71, 88

disincentive, 192

disingenuously, 40

disintegration, 187, 190

disparity, 97, 107

dispensation, 19, 33, 60, 103, 145

disposition, 25, 29, 85, 151, 157,

247

dissatisfaction, 92

dissatisfied, 45, 60, 124, 161

dissent, 7

distribution, 62, 100, 215

distributive justice, 192

disturbance, 99

diversity, 81, 95, 100, 104, 144, 156,

158, 170, 193, 238, 244, 245

divination, 225, 245

divine, 146, 156, 161–2, 166, 184,

193, 242

division, 16, 44, 60, 87, 102, 176, 187

divisions, 47

divisive, 86, 221

DM, 149–50, 176

see also Dialogue and Mission

doctrinaire, 162

doctrinal, 70, 141, 148–9

doctrine, 27, 46, 120, 144, 167

doctrines, 70, 123, 125, 233

domestic, 44, 178

dominance, 9, 17, 22, 30, 34, 52, 63,

65, 69, 73, 89

dominant, 2, 36–7, 41, 48, 69, 85,

105, 110, 120, 127, 155, 167,

176, 183

domination, 34, 79, 103, 110, 115,

135, 206

donations, 122, 134, 136–8, 235

donor, 130

donors, 76, 121, 126, 129, 135, 138,

233, 236

Dosumo, 20

DP, 150–1, 166, 176, 240, 243

see also Dialogue and Proclamation

drugs, 80, 177

DSUM, 32

see also Danish Sudan United

Mission

Duquesne, 179, 246

Dutch, 32, 144

dynasty, 4, 9, 94, 229

E. A. Ayandele, 21, 25, 30, 31, 199,

201, 202, 203, 204, 207

east, 2–3, 32, 94, 102, 193, 199

East Africa, 32

Eastern, 20, 43, 129, 184, 203, 207

eastern, 1, 4, 9, 17, 20, 43, 48–50,

52, 129, 184, 198, 203, 207

Ebitu Ukiwe, 89

Eboo Patel, 178

ecclesial, 32, 121, 124, 241

ECCN, 122

see also Evangelical Church of

Christ in Nigeria

ecology, 238, 241, 256

economic, x, xi, 10–11, 19–21, 25–8,

40, 47, 53–4, 56, 58, 64, 67–9,

71, 73–4, 79, 97, 101, 105–6,

115–17, 134–5, 137–8, 147, 172,

175–7, 187, 190, 220, 236, 249

economics, 75, 126

economy, 57, 62, 67, 138, 168, 220

ECWA, 32, 42–3, 122

see also Evangelical Church of

West Africa

edict, 53, 60, 160

edicts, 52

E. D. Morel, 28, 197, 203

see also Morel

Edo, 104

Eduard Vogel, 16, 200

Eduard R. Flegel, 16, 200

educated, 23–4, 30, 32–3, 36, 65, 75,

104, 135–6, 170

education, 8, 13, 23–7, 31–3, 35–6,

38, 42, 48, 54, 65, 67, 77, 86, 97,

107, 109, 112, 114, 121, 126, 131,

173, 175–6, 178, 191, 199, 201,

202, 205, 214

educational, 205, 207–8, 210, 213,

219, 234, 252, 262–3

Edward O’Connor, 41, 51, 197, 201,

207

Edward Wilmot Blyden, 21

eeman, 181

INDEX 275

efficacy, 128, 166, 234

Efik, 193

egalitarian, 90

egalitarianism, 166

Egba, 203

egocentricism, 56

Egypt, 12–13, 40, 43, 65–6, 68, 129,

145, 153, 171, 237, 252

Egyptian, 12–13

Egyptologist, 139

EKAN, 43

EKAS, 32

see also Ekkesiyar Kristi A Sudan

Ekkesiyar Kristi A Sudan, 32

see also EKAS

Ekklesiyar, 32, 122

Ekklesiyar Yan’uwa a Nigeria, 122

see also EYN

Ekklesiyoyin, 122

election, 39, 62, 80, 89–90, 206, 221

elections, 81, 85, 90, 105, 206, 219

elements, 35–6, 45, 49, 80, 93, 123,

128, 133, 152, 186, 207, 220

Elijah Muhammad, 182

elites, 1, 5, 11, 33, 36, 41–2, 47, 52,

55, 107, 127, 228

Elochukwu Uzukwu, 168, 244, 246

emancipation, 25, 30, 63, 68, 72

emergence, ix, 7, 33, 62, 64, 74, 80,

236

emigration, 13

Emir, 16, 17–19, 22, 23, 25, 42, 58,

60, 103, 128, 201, 202

emir of Gwandu, Abdullahi, 58

emir of Kano, Akilu, 22

emir of Kano, Aliyu, 18

emir of Zaria, Abdulkadir, 128

emirate, 11, 58, 76, 81, 95, 102, 203

emirates, 9, 17, 29, 94, 103, 197, 198,

200

emirs, 17–19, 24–5, 30, 35, 47,

52–3, 59, 60, 112, 134, 196,

200, 228

empire, 1–2, 5, 8–9, 16–17, 18, 22,

29, 33, 58, 64, 103, 136, 140,

142, 138, 160, 167, 174, 195,

200, 203, 206, 229

empires, 64, 126

empirical, x, xi, xii, xiii, 81, 93, 101,

109, 144, 155, 168, 178, 180,

189, 192, 212

employed, 127, 169, 202

employees, 35

employment, 33, 106, 109, 178

employments, 111

empowering, 117

emulate, 162, 179

emulated, 91

encounter, 126, 144, 152, 163–4

encounters, 113, 241

encroachment, 44–5

enculturation, 169

encyclical, 143, 183

Encyclicals, 238, 260

enemies, 51, 171, 197

enemy, 49, 132

energized, 108

energy, 27, 175–6, 207, 242

enforce, 95–6, 225

enforced, 35, 94, 61, 96

enforcement, 61, 96

enforcing, 189

engage, 29, 65, 77, 88, 100, 129,

157–8, 181, 183, 192, 202

engaged, 20, 32, 49, 57, 79, 132, 149,

151, 156

engagement, 156

engagements, 65

England, 203, 241, 246

English, 20, 33, 122, 239, 240

Enlightenment, 64, 214

enlightenment, 44

enrichment, 149, 151, 172

enrichments, 138

enslaving, 3, 18, 198

Enterprise, 252

Enterprises, 218, 220, 222–3, 248–9,

253

enthronement, 69, 176

entitlement, 111

entrepreneurship, 222

Enugu, 244, 259, 263

Episcopal, 83, 186, 189

Episcopalians, 36

epistemic, 166

epistemology, ix, 12, 151, 176

INDEX276

eponymous, 5

equality, 90, 96, 149, 157, 160, 174

era, x, xiii, 2, 16, 20, 33–5, 37,

39–41, 47, 58, 103, 118, 127,

148, 174, 187, 192, 204

Erdal Toprakyaran, 159, 242

Eritrea, 171

errors, 143, 238

eschatological, 147

establish, 21, 24, 28, 32, 66, 124–5,

127, 177–9, 185, 216

established, 3, 5, 13, 15, 17, 20–1,

24–5, 31, 33, 35, 44, 48–9, 55,

65–6, 75, 77, 79, 81, 103–4,

120, 123, 127, 131–2, 137, 146,

160, 177, 179, 192, 201, 209,

233, 234, 239

establishment, 2, 4, 23–4, 31, 41–2,

47, 53, 55, 79, 82, 87, 115,

132–3, 168, 188, 225, 226,

246

establishments, 53, 60, 230

eternal, 143

eternity, 180

ethical, 91, 96, 192, 197

Ethics, 245

Ethiopia, 171

Ethiopianism, 31, 203

ethnic, xi, xiv, 7–9, 11, 17, 19,

25–6, 32–3, 35–6, 39–40,

45, 50–1, 79, 90, 100–103,

105–7, 110–11, 115, 117–18,

147, 171, 177, 187, 190–2,

198, 204, 211, 221, 222,

227, 228, 229, 249

ethnicities, xiii, xiv, 10–11, 19, 25–6,

32, 35, 40–2, 52–3, 63, 68–9,

74, 79, 90, 94, 101–2, 104–7,

110, 116, 118, 147, 167, 177,

188, 191, 193, 195, 198, 201,

207, 216, 225

ethnicity, 2, 5, 9, 50, 52, 193, 201,

225, 228, 231, 249

ethos, 156, 199

euphemism, 111, 216, 247

Euro-centric, 26, 244

Europe, 26, 65, 77–8, 120–2, 124,

189, 206, 231, 233

European, xi, 16, 23–4, 27, 30–3,

36–7, 41, 64–5, 119, 122, 125,

168, 200, 213–14, 231

Europeans, 26, 104

evaluation, 28, 69, 151–2, 156, 162,

164, 166, 239

Evangelical, 32, 36–7, 41, 80, 119,

122, 144, 177, 183, 233

Evangelical Church of Christ in

Nigeria, 122

see also ECCN

Evangelical Church of West Africa,

32, 122

see also ECWA

evangelicalism, 69, 215

Evangelicals, 32, 36–7, 123, 125–6,

143

evangelism, 100

evangelist, 124, 180, 243

evangelists, 80, 135, 204

evangelization, 1, 21, 24, 37–8, 41,

53, 122, 126, 166, 169, 202,

204, 240, 244, 246

evangelize, 23, 52, 70, 151, 207

evangelized, 21, 23, 198

evangelizer, 144

evangelizing, 21, 80, 207

event, 50, 78, 140, 161, 163, 165,

186, 229

events, 2, 16, 27, 46, 62, 81, 87, 118,

124, 177, 182–3, 191, 195, 211

evil, 57, 79, 112, 136, 158

evils, 164

evolution, 69, 114, 120, 173, 214, 246

evolve, 31, 187, 231

evolved, 4, 66, 81, 99, 173

evolving, 59, 148, 155

exclusive, 68–9, 71, 100, 125, 138–41,

151, 164, 166–7, 171, 174, 218

exclusively, 5, 125, 215

exclusiveness, 10

exclusivism, 63, 69, 139, 144–8, 149,

151, 165, 170, 188, 241, 246

exclusivist, xiii, 72, 135, 139, 141–8,

151, 171, 237, 238

exclusivistic, 70, 161

exclusivists, 80, 141, 144, 147, 151–2

exclusivity, 140, 142, 147–8, 242

INDEX 277

executive, 6, 53, 80, 86, 179

executives, 91

exegesis, 140, 161

exegetical, 162

exempt, 138

exempted, 31

existence, 17, 54, 77–8, 81, 112,

127, 156, 171, 193, 211, 213,

244

existing, 15, 19, 22, 42, 46, 52, 59,

63, 65, 67, 71, 75, 84, 86, 88,

91, 93, 95, 139, 147, 156, 177,

215–16, 219

Exodus, 140

exodus, 50

expansion, 2–3, 41, 64, 120, 198,

199, 204, 240

expansionism, 1

expansionist, 19

expediency, 19, 29, 85

expedient, 23, 28, 143

expedition, 17, 22, 201

expeditions, 21

experience, x, xii, 13, 16, 19, 21–2,

110, 116–17, 150, 165, 189–90,

243, 244, 247

experienced, ix, 17, 37–8, 42–3, 64,

72, 77, 97, 99, 131, 137, 201

experiences, 33, 75, 168, 181, 184,

200, 231

exploitation, 95, 116, 137

exploiting, 56

exploration, 199, 243

explore, 119, 152, 172–3, 186, 191

explored, 192

explorers, 16, 22, 199, 200

exploring, 102

explosion, 39, 43

explosive, 176

explosives, 113

extensive, x, 8, 40, 48, 99, 130, 176,

178, 190, 192, 201, 204, 218,

240

extensiveness, 166

extortion, 94

extortionate, 95

extrajudicial, 98

extra ecclesiam nulla salus, 143

extreme, 8, 25, 61, 75, 82, 84, 94,

130, 142, 151–2, 190, 219, 238

extremism, 187

EYN, 122

see also Ekklesiyar Yan’uwa a

Nigeria

failed, 3, 20, 22, 24, 28, 92, 113,

118, 175–6, 191

failure, 29, 37, 58, 107, 133, 146,

166, 207, 220

faith, 1–2, 8, 13, 32, 46–7, 56, 71, 78,

82, 112, 121, 123–4, 126, 129,

136–7, 141–2, 145–6, 149–52,

155, 157, 160, 164, 166, 170,

172, 175–6, 178, 179, 181–2,

184–6, 193, 215, 216, 233, 237,

242, 243, 246, 248, 249

faiths, 119, 121, 144, 149, 155, 157

families, 136–7

family, 44, 59, 99, 109, 131, 176–7,

193

fanatic, 141

fanaticism, ix, 72, 139

Farid Esack, 160–1, 241, 242

fashion, 5, 19, 76, 190

fasting, 2, 3

Father, 143, 162, 163, 202

father, 8, 44, 148, 184, 240

Father Zappa, 202

fatwa, 11, 128, 207

favor, 22, 39, 49, 52–3, 55, 83–5, 95,

144–5, 160, 162, 168, 191, 201,

206, 223

favored, 15, 41, 87, 89, 151, 197

favorites, 3, 164, 166

FCC, 108

see also Federal Character

Commission

FCS, 71

see also Fellowship of Christian

Students

fear, 19, 50, 90, 114, 145, 159, 161,

185

fears, 87–8, 164

feature, 6, 31, 77, 135, 233

features, 36, 100, 102, 121, 123, 147,

174, 204, 220, 248

INDEX278

federal, ix, xii, 44, 46, 47, 50, 53–6,

60–2, 82–9, 91, 95, 102, 105–11,

113, 115–18, 174, 191–2, 206,

220, 222, 227, 228, 229, 231, 249

Federal Capital Territory, 102, 113,

229

Federal Character Commission, 108

see also FCC

Federalism, 208, 228, 231, 249, 252

Federal Shari’a Court of Appeal, 60,

61, 86

federation, 51, 55, 60, 62, 82, 86,

100, 107, 111, 190, 209, 227

Fellowship, 42, 71, 124

Fellowship of Christian Students, 71

see also FCS

ferocious, 101

Fetullah Gulen, 241

feudal, 13, 29, 91

feudalistic, 90–1

feuding, 3, 129, 132, 170, 173

Fez, 127

fidelity, 178

field, 80, 170

fields, 191

fight, 18, 44, 55, 128, 159

fighting, 3, 51, 159

Filippo Fiorentini, 201

finance, 125, 137, 222

financed, 124

financial, 19, 21, 24, 28, 48, 57, 66, 88,

119–22, 124–5, 128–31, 133–4,

136–8, 203, 210, 222, 233

financing, 125, 131–2

Fire, 124, 147

first-century, 183

fiscal, 176

Fitr, 238

Fitzgerald, 151, 240, 241

see also Michael Fitzegerald

flag bearers, 197

Focolare Movement, 182, 247, 255

focus, ix, x, xiii, 1, 159, 162, 168,

176, 179, 180, 181, 202, 212,

223, 224, 233, 244

followers, 7–8, 12–13, 27, 40, 69, 78,

126, 136–7, 159–60, 162–4,

199, 233, 234

followership, 8

foreign, 20, 65, 76, 89, 119–21,

126–30, 132, 134–5, 141,

158, 168, 170, 220, 233,

234, 236, 246

foreigners, 109, 133

forgiveness, 77, 168

fornication, 59, 93

foundation, x, xiii, 7, 121, 144, 146

foundational, xv, 10, 155, 158

foundations, 20, 69, 86

founded, 30, 47–8, 114, 119,

123–4, 127, 178–9, 186,

204, 233

founder, 75, 112, 115, 127–8, 182,

206, 234

founders, 5, 41, 112, 124

France, 64

fraternity, 189

Frederick Lugard (Sir), 15, 17, 27–8,

94, 197, 205–6, 223

see also Lord Lugard and Lugard

free, 3, 18, 26, 52, 61, 96, 141, 143,

160, 181, 188, 221

freedom, 61, 84, 90, 122, 143, 151,

164–5, 173–4, 183–5, 189–90,

227

freedoms, 42

Freeman, 20

French, 4, 17, 20, 58

friend, 114, 177

friendly, 182, 247

friends, xv, xvi, 1, 48, 99, 140, 176,

182, 206, 247

friendship, 27, 177, 182–3, 185, 189,

247, 248

frontiers, 67, 198

frustration, 190, 192

FSCA, 86

see also Federal Shari’a Court of

Appeal

fugitives, 94

Fulani, 2–5, 7–12, 15–19, 22, 26, 29,

33, 35–7, 42, 52–3, 63, 68–70,

72–4, 79, 89–90, 94, 101–6,

116, 118, 167, 188, 191, 196–8,

200–201, 207, 222, 225, 233,

239, 253–4

INDEX 279

Fulanis, 10, 22, 90, 104–6, 110, 117,

226

fulfillment, 162–3

functional, 53, 151

functionalist approach, 168, 244

functionality, 89

fund, 53, 131, 134, 236

fundamental, 57–8, 64, 87–8, 91–2,

95, 100, 123, 144, 146, 156,

169, 180, 184–5, 187, 192, 202,

220, 233, 244, 245

fundamentalism, 63, 64, 66–72, 74,

77, 126, 128–9, 131, 137–8,

187, 214, 215, 216

fundamentalist, 49, 66, 70–1, 75,

80–3, 97, 123, 130–1, 135,

137–8, 141, 144, 171, 213

fundamentalists, 69–71, 74–5, 77–9,

97, 135, 141, 143, 147, 213

fundamentally, 26, 87, 95, 134–5,

158, 174, 219, 248

funded, 31, 122, 129, 131–2, 235

funding, 24, 54, 57, 66–7, 76, 108,

121, 122, 124–6, 129, 131,

134–5, 233, 235

funds, 56–7, 83, 123, 126, 138, 235,

236

funeral, 80

funerals, 183

Funtua, 43, 97

furnishes, 152, 162

Futa Toro, 8

future, 29, 33, 118, 136, 179, 190–1,

223, 249

garrison, 17

Gashua, 43

Gaudium et Spes, 165, 166, 243

gehena, 147

generation, 33, 58, 109, 124

generational, 108

generations, 64, 104, 110, 199, 229

generosity, 130

generous, 48, 120, 128, 131

generously, 132, 181

Genesis, 123, 161, 163, 183

genetic, 100, 228

genuine, 29–30, 168, 177, 182, 193

genuinely, 28, 29, 64, 179

geographical, 3, 5, 16, 73, 101–3,

109, 111, 207

geometric, 166

geopolitical, ix, x, xii, 17, 27–8, 102,

190, 201

George Goldie, 20

George V (King), 33

George Ehusani (Rev. Fr.), 248

Gerald O’Collins, 241, 242

German, 4, 20, 124, 199, 200

Germany, 10, 64, 227, 235, 241

Ghana, 13, 126, 199

Gimi, 26

global, 64, 111, 113, 173, 179, 189,

199, 216, 218, 241, 244, 246

Globalization, 218, 252

globally, 69, 132, 141, 245

globe, 143, 145, 158, 164, 170, 183,

237, 244

GNPP, 216

see also Great Nigerian People’s

Party

Gobir, 3, 5–9, 17

God, 3, 18, 33–4, 51, 70, 121–2,

124, 136, 139, 141–8, 150–2,

155–6, 158–66, 168, 172,

178–80, 183–4, 189, 193,

213, 215, 229, 233, 237–44,

246, 248

god, 111, 139–41, 144, 148

god-fatherism, 111

God-fearing, 229

Gods, 18, 237–40

gods, 139, 142

Gongola, 51, 61, 207, 209, 211, 255

gospel, 123, 244

government, 8, 16, 19, 25, 28–9, 31,

44, 46–7, 49, 52–8, 60, 61, 62,

68, 73, 75–6, 79–80, 82, 83–9,

91–2, 98, 105–8, 112–13, 115,

118, 131, 133, 138, 184, 190,

192, 200, 202, 212, 217, 219,

222, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230,

232, 246

governments, ix, 39, 52, 53, 56, 84,

96, 107–8, 113, 116, 118, 129,

134, 176, 209, 228

INDEX280

governor, 18, 20, 25, 28, 33–4, 55,

59, 80, 91, 112, 114, 117, 226

governor general, 28, 33, 59

governors, 26, 91

Gowon, 49–50, 52–6, 60, 216

see also Yakubu Gowon (General)

grace, 19, 45

Grand Khadi, 44, 47, 61, 74

Grand Khadis, 61

Grand Mosque, 216

grassroots, 186

Great Debate, 87, 221

Great Nigerian People’s Party, 216 see

also GNPP

Greeks, 167

Gregorian, 210, 234, 257

grievances, ix, 115

groundbreaking, 121, 165

group, 5, 8, 12–13, 21, 23, 26, 49, 51,

54–5, 69–71, 74–7, 81, 84, 90,

95, 97, 110–15, 128–9, 131–5,

141, 144, 149, 160, 178–9, 183,

195, 200, 203, 209, 210, 217,

222, 227, 229, 230, 233, 235,

241, 248, 249

groups, ix, 1, 7, 12, 26, 46–7, 49, 57,

63, 64, 79, 81–2, 87, 99, 102–3,

106–7, 109, 115, 117, 125, 128,

133–4, 137–8, 150, 159, 174,

177, 179, 185, 188, 191, 208,

213, 222, 235

Gudu, 13

guerrilla, 102, 112, 113, 230

guidelines, 107

Gulf, 134, 135

gullibility, 136, 137

gullible, 135

Gumi, 44, 47, 49, 53, 74–5, 127,

131, 133, 210, 217, 235

see also Sheikh Mahmud

Abubakar Gumi

gun, 113

gunmen, 114, 230, 231

guns, 113, 114, 176

Guru, 244, 246, 253

Gwandu, 9, 16–18, 58

Gwari, 5, 11

gypsies, 231

Habe, 17, 22

Haddiyar Ekklesiyar Kristi a Nigeria,

122

see also HEKAN

Hadith, 7, 181

hajj, 53

half-Christians, 21

Hans Kung, 241

Haram, 68, 74, 76–7, 101–2, 111–15,

118, 130, 133, 186, 224, 229,

230, 231, 232, 236

harems, 94

harmony, 83, 93, 152, 163, 175, 177,

187, 191, 244

Harry A. Gailey, 28–9, 203

Harvest, 204, 262

Hasketh, 25

Hassan, 55, 199, 209–10, 219, 257

Hatch (John), 29, 203, 255

see also John Hatch

hate, 137, 141, 159, 174, 185

hatemongering, 231

hatred, 78, 100, 106, 188

Hausa, 1–13, 17, 19, 22–3, 26, 32–3,

35–7, 41–2, 52–3, 63, 68–70,

72–5, 79, 89–90, 99, 101–6,

110, 115–18, 122, 126, 167,

188, 191, 193, 196, 197, 198,

200, 201, 207, 215, 216, 222,

225, 226, 239

Hausa Association, 22

Hausa Bakwai, 4–5, 13, 167

Hausa-Fulani, 30, 42, 79, 106–7

Hausa-Fulanis, 101

Hausaland, 5, 7–8, 10, 25, 58, 233,

252

Hausas, 2, 10, 17, 26, 99, 104, 106,

110, 167, 222, 226–7

havoc, 75, 129, 218

headquarters, 49, 112–14, 131, 208,

229, 240, 247

heal, 91, 188

Healer, 244, 246, 253

healing, 123, 137, 174, 187

health, 38, 57, 67, 121, 126, 188, 202

healthcare, 31, 135

healthy, 40, 170, 172, 173, 176, 181,

249

INDEX 281

heathenism, 2–3

heaven, 136, 143, 158, 168, 179–80

Hebrew, 158, 164, 237

hegemony, 4, 5, 16, 40, 44–5, 52,

73, 127

Heinrich Barth, 16, 94, 144, 238

HEKAN, 122

see also Haddiyar Ekklesiyar Kristi

a Nigeria

hell, 80, 147

Hellenization, 167

henotheism, 148

Hendrik Kraemer, 144, 238

Henri Teissier (archbishop), 178, 246

Henry Stanhope Freeman, 20

Herbert Macaulay, 30

hereditary, 46

heresies, 13

heresy, 146

heretic, 235

heretical, 54

heritage, 30, 37, 93, 153, 167, 171

heritages, 93, 150

hermeneutically, 166

hermeneutics, 164–5

heroism, 4

heterodoxy, 75

heterogeneity, 169

hiccups, 2

hierarchy, 55

high commissioner, 16, 17, 18, 25

hijra, 13

Hindu, 166, 178, 193

Hinduism, 160–1

hinterlands, 20

Hisba, 76, 217

Hiskett, 199, 233, 234, 235

historic, 58

historical, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, 2, 12, 28,

40, 69–70, 78, 93–5, 97, 100,

115, 140, 159, 162, 166, 170,

184, 187, 190, 192, 196, 197,

198, 205, 207, 210, 211, 213,

217, 219, 222, 233, 225, 227,

245

historically, 1, 5–6, 9, 42, 57–8, 78,

85, 102, 123, 158, 161, 184,

239, 243

historiography, 5

history, 2, 5, 7, 11, 16, 19, 27, 34, 41,

58, 64–5, 69, 74, 102–3, 127,

139–40, 147–8, 187–8, 190,

195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200,

201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206,

208, 209, 213, 215, 225, 226,

237, 251–2, 254–7, 259, 261–3

holy, 54, 56, 66, 123, 163, 166, 178,

206, 240

Homegrown, 13, 199

homeland, 102

homelands, 67, 110, 118

homes, x, 93, 98–9, 110, 113–14,

116, 174, 186, 188, 245

homogeneity, 93

homogenize, 167

Hong Kong, 27, 28

honor, 84, 121, 123, 158, 165, 171,

178

hope, 143

hopeless, 30

hospitable, 168

hospitality, 149, 168–9, 244

hostage, 216

hostile, 29, 71, 141

hostilities, 98, 187

hostility, 3, 37, 46, 63, 100, 159, 179,

188, 217

Hugh Clapperton, 16, 226

human, x, xvi, 70, 75, 79, 90,

97–8, 105, 106, 115, 120–2,

126, 135, 143, 149–52, 156,

158, 160, 163–5, 167–70,

173–4, 176, 180, 183–4,

189–90, 193, 197, 218, 222,

224, 226, 229, 238, 242, 248

humanism, 166

humanity, 149, 153, 159, 164, 166

humankind, 148, 152–3, 160, 165

humans, 161, 193

Hume, 140, 237

Hutsi, 78

hypothetical, x, xii

Ibadan, x, 46, 71

Ibibio, 30

Ibibios, 106

INDEX282

Ibn al-Arabi, 67, 214

Ibn Taymiyyah, 112, 114, 214, 229

see also Boko Haram

Ibo, 30, 51

Iboland, 21

Ibrahim al-Zakzaky, 75–6, 129,

133–4

Ibrahim Ansa, 26

Ibrahim Babangida (General), 84–5,

87–9, 134, 217, 221, 224, 228,

249

Ibrahim Dasuki (Alhaji), 47, 53

Ibrahim Nagwammatse, 17

Ibrahim Niass, 47, 128

Ibrahim Salih, 134

Idah, 42

IDB, 88, 221, 222

see also Islamic Development Bank

Iddrisu, 13, 199

ideal, 15, 28, 93, 142, 229, 238

identify, 66, 79, 94, 104, 120, 138,

196, 213, 214, 225, 230, 239

identities, 163, 190

identity, 10, 12, 13, 36, 40, 43,

65, 88–9, 103, 110–11, 151,

162–3, 167, 180, 199, 235,

246, 248

ideological, ix, x, 19, 66, 120, 130,

174, 177

ideologically, 92, 134

ideologies, 65–6, 119, 131, 135, 166,

219, 236

ideologue, 171

ideology, 55, 111–12, 114, 134, 156,

166, 174, 213

Idiagbon, 84

idiosyncrasies, 70

idolatry, 11, 160, 170

Idoma, 11, 13

Idomas, 106

Idris Alooma, 2, 58

IED, 176

see also improvised explosive device

Ifa, 245

IFAPP, 179, 186, 246

see also Inter-faith Activities &

Partnership for Peace

Igala, 11, 13

Igbo, 43, 50–1, 104, 116, 193, 222,

249

Igboland, 21

Igbos, 43, 49–51, 74, 106–7, 207,

222

Ignatius Kaigama (archbishop), 182

ignorance, 78, 151, 152, 171

Ikara, 99

Ikhwan, 76, 129

ilhad, 146

Ilorin, 5, 9, 13, 17, 20–1, 24, 35, 42,

46, 200, 203

image, 19, 122, 128, 132, 135, 179,

183

imam, 8, 11, 179, 182, 247, 255

imams, 135, 137–8

IMAN, 48

see also Islamic Missionary

Association of Nigeria

immoral, 56

impact, 6, 25, 29, 31, 46, 51, 63,

67, 69, 74, 109, 120, 138,

173, 175, 199, 201, 202,

203, 204, 220

impacts, 35, 39, 48, 50, 74, 118, 119,

127, 136, 175, 191, 232

imperial, 11, 19, 58, 70, 220

imperialism, 101

imperialist, 30

implantation, 244

implementation, 26, 59, 90–6, 108,

112, 117, 173, 184, 211, 214,

217, 222, 223

implemented, 93, 108, 173, 175, 177,

185

improvised explosive device, 176

see also IED

impoverished, 138

impunity, 185, 224

impure, 2, 68

inalienable right, 165

inauguration, 18, 61

incarnate, 244

incarnation, 169, 171, 244

incidents, 11, 16, 63, 75, 77–9, 86,

98–9, 105–6, 141–2, 181, 185,

212, 218, 223, 224, 247

inclusion, 79, 101

INDEX 283

Inclusive, 156, 158, 161, 167, 171, 174

inclusive, ix, xiii, xv, 143, 148, 152,

156, 158, 160, 161, 162–9,

171–2, 174, 188–9, 192, 243,

245

Inclusive Religious Pluralism, ix, xiii,

xv, 155, 158–61, 163–5, 167,

169, 173–4, 183–4, 189, 191,

241

inclusiveness, 163

inclusivism, 144, 157, 165, 241, 243,

246

inclusivist, 161–2, 164, 243

inclusivity, 156, 158, 160–1, 165

inculturation, 169, 244

incumbent, 18, 148, 193

independence, 12, 16, 30, 33, 36–7,

39–41, 46–47, 49, 55, 58, 60,

68, 71, 74, 81, 99, 102, 104,

110, 115, 125, 129, 187, 190,

203, 205–8, 209, 210, 213,

221, 234

independent, 7, 30, 32, 38, 50, 53,

70, 80, 94–5, 119, 120, 124–6,

122, 188, 221, 231, 233, 245

India, 19, 64–5

Indian, 243

Indiana, 235, 263

Indianapolis, 235, 263

indifference, 189

indigene, xi, 104–6, 108–11, 115–17,

174, 192, 225, 228, 231

indigene certificate, 104–5, 108, 110

indigene rights, 110, 117

indigeneity, 109, 228, 231, 249

indigenes, 80, 101, 104–6, 109–11,

116–17, 191, 207, 225, 227–8,

231, 253

indigenization, 107, 191–2

indigenizing, 32

indigenous, 15–16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 51,

59, 99, 105, 108–9, 111, 119, 122,

125, 169, 225, 228, 233, 246

Indirect Rule, 15, 19, 21, 25–6, 34,

39–40, 41, 103, 200, 202

indispensability, 35, 80

indispensable, 92, 130, 150, 152, 157,

175, 179–80, 185–6, 188–9

individual, 35, 41–2, 53, 105, 111,

122–3, 126, 144, 174, 184, 190,

193, 207, 209

individualism, 168

individuals, 45, 53, 92, 98–9, 111,

116–17, 119, 125, 131–3, 149,

178–9, 188, 193, 230, 249

inequalities, 109

inequality, 30, 97

inequity, 87, 91, 94

inerrancy, 69, 233

inferior, 149, 193

infidel, 214, 235

infidelity, 3

infidels, 170–1, 229, 247

influence, xvi, 2, 5, 12–13, 16, 47,

66, 76, 83, 123, 127–8, 130,

134, 138, 150, 176, 199, 205,

206, 208, 214, 215, 216, 217,

220, 225

influences, 12, 27, 35, 77, 119, 126,

127, 130–2, 220, 232

information, 16, 33–4, 42, 58, 102,

187, 196, 200–202, 204–5,

209–11, 214–15, 217–18, 226–7,

231–2, 234, 246

injunction, 77, 126, 140, 146, 183–4

injunctions, 56, 123, 144

injustice, 9, 94, 116–17, 160, 175,

249

innocent, 68, 78, 98, 105, 113, 230,

232

innovation, 11, 47, 49, 146, 210, 213,

219, 222, 257

Innovations, 74

Inquisition, 78, 243, 253

insecurity, 90, 95, 118

inspiration, 67, 75, 112, 134, 144–5

inspired, 12, 193

interest, x, xv, 6, 7, 10, 12, 20, 21, 22,

24, 26, 31, 40, 44, 49, 52, 55,

56, 58, 66, 75, 81, 86, 88, 96,

119, 130, 135, 140, 170, 170,

188, 193, 209, 244

Institute, 45, 210, 220, 221, 227,

229, 249, 259

institution, 162, 180, 203, 222,

227, 229

INDEX284

institutions, 5–6, 24–5, 29, 33, 37–8,

48, 54, 61, 63, 67, 71, 86, 92,

97, 107, 109, 111–12, 118, 122,

125, 170, 191, 215

instruments, 16, 22, 31, 40, 184

insurance, 96, 99

insurgency, 216

insurgent, 115

insurgents, 113, 118, 133, 216

insurrection, 21

integrity, 57, 190

intellectual, 5, 8, 12, 171, 186, 205,

207, 214, 234

intellectuals, 55, 76–7

intercede, 233

intercession, 145

Intercultural Dialogue, 169, 171

interethnic, 69, 104

Interfaith, 179, 237, 240, 242, 247,

249, 253, 256, 259, 263

Inter-faith Activities & Partnership

for Peace, 179, 246

see also IFAPP

interlocutor, 152

interlocutors, 151, 157

intermediary, 233

international, xiii, 17, 43, 48, 88,

118–20, 123–4, 128–9, 208,

227, 229, 230, 232

interpretation, 71, 78, 81, 90, 95,

108, 111, 143, 146, 156, 163,

165, 170, 223, 230, 241

interpretations, 70, 89, 95

interpreted, 18, 50, 82, 108

interreligious, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 63,

72–4, 104, 132, 138, 149, 169,

171, 176, 177, 179, 182, 191,

193, 242, 246, 248

Interreligious Dialogue, xiii, xv, 45,

89, 122, 149–52, 156–7, 166,

168, 175, 177–8, 183, 186, 188,

237, 239–40, 243, 249, 256

intervention, 2, 22, 60, 87, 178

intolerance, 9, 63–4, 71, 139–40,

185, 195, 237

intra-Muslim, 49, 84, 97, 99, 130–1,

141, 142, 158, 185, 193, 212

intrareligious, 63, 73, 100

intra-Christian, 141, 142, 185, 193,

212

Iran, 65, 74, 76, 95, 130, 133–5, 145,

236

Iranian, 68, 74–6, 133–4

Iranians, 130, 133–4

Iraq, 113, 127, 133

Iraqi, 112

Ireland, 78

Ironsi, 49–50, 52

see also Aguiyi Ironsi

irreligiosity, 215

irreligious, 8, 160

Isaac, 159

Isaiah, 148

Ishmael, 159

Islam, xi, xiii, 1–3, 5–13, 15–16, 24,

26, 33–5, 37, 39–40, 42, 44–9,

58, 61, 63–8, 71, 74–6, 84–5,

87, 90, 93, 96, 100, 103, 112,

115, 119, 126–7, 129–32, 135,

138–9, 144–6, 155, 158–60,

167–70, 178, 180–2, 187–9,

195–9, 204–20, 225–7, 229–30,

233–9, 241–3, 245–7, 252–9,

261–3

Islamic, xv, 1–2, 4–13, 22, 34–7,

39–40, 43–9, 52–4, 58–9,

61–72, 74–7, 79, 83–4, 86,

88–9, 92–5, 102, 112, 115,

126–35, 137–8, 144–6, 158–60,

167, 169–71, 173, 175–6,

179–81, 183–4, 186, 190, 193,

197, 199, 207–10, 212–14, 216,

220–2, 224–5, 229, 233, 235–6,

238–9, 242, 245, 248, 251, 254,

256–8, 261–3

Islamic Missionary Association of

Nigeria, 48

see also IMAN

Islamist, 64, 66–7, 72, 74, 111, 113,

129, 134, 212–14

Islamists, 63, 65–6, 68, 78, 113,

132, 134, 137, 145, 147–8, 171,

212–13, 216, 219–20, 257

Islamiya, 132

Islamization, 5, 15, 39, 43–5, 66,

77–8, 85, 90, 209

INDEX 285

Islamize, 46–7, 78

Islamized, 12, 167, 198

Islamizing, 43, 46, 49, 61, 84, 87,

89, 129

Ismaila Idris, 47, 49

Israel, 139–40, 148, 153, 237, 252,

260

Israelite, 140–1, 148, 237

Israelites, 140–1, 148, 237

Istifanus Audu, 32

Italy, 65

Ivor Wilks, 11, 198

Iwuchukwu Marinus, 223, 224, 226,

238, 239, 241, 256

see also Marinus Iwuchukwu

Izala, 49, 74–7, 129–34, 145–6, 170,

210, 213, 216, 217, 219, 235

see also Jama’atul Izalatul Bid’ah

Wa’ikhamatul Sunnah and

Yan Izala

J. A. Atanda, 63–4, 81, 205, 207–8,

210, 212–13, 219, 234

Jaba, 41

Jacob, 159

Jacob A. Olupona, 191, 242, 245, 249

Jacques Dupuis, 164–6, 241, 243,

253–4, 256

jahiliyyah, 93

Jainism, 160

Jalingo, 44, 98, 100–101

Jam’iyat ad-Da’aw al-Islamiya,

132–3

Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati

wal-Jihad, 111

Jama’atul Izalatul Bid’ah

Wa’ikhamatul Sunnah, 49, 74

see also Izala and Yan Izala

Jama’atu Nasir Islam, 39, 44, 46, 210

see also JNI

James Robertson (Sir), 206

James Wuye (Rev), 179–80

Jan Assmann, 139–42, 148, 152,

237–8, 239

Jan Boer, 15, 26, 31, 199, 202, 203,

204, 207

Jan G. Platvoet, 169–70, 245

jangali, 6

Jasawa, 225, 226, 227

Jasawa Development Association,

226

J. D. Fage, 8, 195, 197

jealousy, 141, 142

Jema’a, 102, 103

Jeremiah, 148

Jerry Gana, 80

Jerusalem, 57, 162–3, 243

Jesuit, 169

Jesus, 57, 135, 158–9, 162–6, 180,

244, 246, 253

Jew, 145, 166

Jewish, 140–1, 148, 178, 193

Jews, 78, 121, 140, 147, 158–60,

163, 184, 231

jihad, 1–2, 5–13, 16, 19, 34, 48,

58–9, 63–4, 66, 68, 77, 85, 93,

103, 111–12, 167, 197, 198, 199,

225, 230

jihadist, 8, 10, 103, 111

jihadists, 2–3, 6, 10–11, 35, 102–3,

128, 167, 196, 225

jihads, 7, 9–10, 103

J. Isawa Elaigwu, 44, 208

jiyza, 6, 10, 11, 19, 242

JNI, 44, 47–8, 53–4, 127, 131, 208,

209, 210

see also Jama’atu Nasir Islam

Job, 159

job, 137

jobs, 23, 125, 134

Johannine, 162

John, 143, 161, 162, 180, 243

John XXIII, 165, 183

John Borelli, 156, 240, 241

John Cobb, 156, 241

see also Cobb

John Chrysostom, 161

John Hatch, 28

John Hick, 241

John O. Voll, 66, 67, 213, 214

John Paden, 209, 210

John Paul II (pope), 84, 182

Johnson (Dr), 30

Jolly Nyame (Rev.), 80–1

Jolly Tanko Yusufu (Mallam), 41

Jonah Jang, 226, 227

INDEX286

Jos, xiii, 37, 42, 49, 71, 75, 98,

100–106, 110, 115–17, 181,

183, 198, 204, 208, 209,

215, 218, 224, 225, 226,

227, 229

Joseph Kony, 78

Joseph Masson, 169

journalist, 114, 231

journalists, 218

Judah, 148

Judaism, 142, 146, 158, 213, 237

Judas, 141

judge, 6, 34

judgment, 2, 83, 152, 202

judicial, 1, 5–6, 59, 93, 118, 197,

212, 232

judicious, 96, 222

Jukun, 5, 11, 13, 102–4, 116

juridical, 95

jurisdiction, 87

jurisdictions, 91

jurisprudence, 11, 59, 92, 184

jurists, 95

jus sanguinis, 108–10

Justice Abu Rannar Panel, 59–60

Justice, 78, 220, 245, 261

justice, 7, 10, 27, 30, 34, 53–4, 57,

60, 78, 92, 94, 107, 115, 160,

168–9, 176–7, 185, 192

justification, x, 8, 107, 138, 147, 180,

191, 206

justified, 53, 78–9

justify, 2, 16, 144, 164, 188, 207

Kaba, 235

Kabiru Atiku, 113

Kabwir, 26

Kaduna, 37, 42, 44, 49–51, 75–6,

78–80, 96–9, 102, 114, 131,

179, 181, 183, 186, 201, 207,

209–12, 218, 222, 224, 232,

248, 251–2, 259, 262–3

Kaduna Mafia, 55–6

Kaduna Nzeogwu, 50

see also Nzeogwu

Kafanchan, 98, 218

kafir, 22

Kagoro, 41

Kaje, 41

Kanamma, 112

Kanem-Bornu, xiii, 2–5, 9, 17, 174,

195, 196

Kano, xv, 2–3, 5–7, 17–18, 22–6,

37, 45, 49–51, 58, 62, 75–6,

79, 97–8, 111, 114, 118, 124,

128–9, 131–3, 181, 183, 201,

203, 209–10, 216, 218, 222,

224, 226, 229, 253, 260, 262

Kanuri, 2, 4, 12, 17, 19, 21, 36, 42,

63, 68–9, 79, 103, 167, 193, 216,

225, 239

Karl Barth, 144

Karl Kumm, 204, 238

Karl Maier, 137

Karl Rahner, 239, 243

Katab, 41

Katsina, 2–3, 5–7, 12, 17–18, 24, 43,

55, 58, 76, 97–8, 111, 118, 183,

203, 217

Kebbi, 5, 17, 92–3, 223

Keffi, 200

kharaj, 6

Khartoum, 223

Khomeini, 65, 74, 76

see also Ayatollah Khomeini

killings, 98, 118, 223, 224, 232

king, 3, 6, 8, 10, 20, 33, 149, 196

kingdom, xiii, 1–2, 4, 8, 162, 166,

178–80, 225

kingdoms, 1–3, 13, 102

kings, 2, 6–7, 11, 18, 75

knowledge, xii, 3, 16, 24, 29, 145–6,

151–2, 176, 201–2

Kontagora, 17, 24, 200, 203

Koran, 115

see also Qur’an

koranic, 234

kudin arashi, 59

kurdin kasa, 6

kufir, 148

Kukah, 46, 69, 207, 208, 209, 210,

211, 215, 219, 248

see also Matthew Hassan Kukah

(Bishop)

Kutumbawa, 12

Kuwait, 43, 48, 76, 129

INDEX 287

Kwara, 48, 53

Kwararafa, 2, 5

Lagos, x, 20, 48, 55, 83, 170, 186,

204–5, 210, 218, 220–2, 227,

231, 233, 248–9, 252–3, 259–60

Lamido Sanusi, 220

Lamin Sanneh, 9, 197, 243, 261

land, 6, 10, 15, 17, 19, 44, 99, 103,

140, 184, 225–7

language, 2, 22–3, 32, 36–7, 78, 104,

110, 122, 140, 148, 161–3, 167,

206, 226, 237

languages, 102–3, 122, 163, 195

law, 2, 6, 11, 17–18, 21, 35, 40, 53,

58–9, 61–2, 79, 83, 86, 90–1,

95–6, 106, 107–8, 110, 115–16,

118, 141, 174–5, 189, 217, 220,

221, 223, 224, 227, 228, 248,

254, 262, 264

lawful, 34, 186

laws, 18, 34, 59, 117–18, 138, 171,

191, 222

lawyers, 24, 191

leader, 3, 26, 50, 56, 75, 84, 112–13,

128–9, 132–3, 179, 210, 229

leaders, ix, xiv, 1, 7, 9–10, 15, 17, 21,

25, 32–4, 36, 40–1, 45–7, 49–52,

55–6, 58, 60, 63, 65, 67–8, 75–6,

78, 80, 90, 113, 125–7, 129, 132,

137–8, 144–5, 147, 149, 159,

162, 167, 169–71, 176, 182, 185,

189, 191, 197, 200, 208, 210,

212, 214, 216, 239, 246, 247

leadership, 2, 4, 7–10, 16–20, 22, 25,

27, 35, 57–8, 67, 70–1, 75–6,

80, 90, 103, 112, 114–15, 122,

128, 132, 184, 198, 201, 205,

207, 210, 217, 225

leaderships, 19, 121, 125, 134

Lebanese, 23

Lebanon, 91, 113

legacy, 76, 118, 197, 215

Legal, 76, 82, 92, 212

legal, 5–6, 35, 53, 59, 76, 82, 83, 86,

91–3, 95–6, 116, 118, 174, 176,

184, 189, 220, 222, 231–2

legalistic, 206

legalization, 107

legalized, 191

legendary, 4, 196

legendry, 44

legends, 4

legislation, 59–60, 91, 97

legislative, 17, 31, 86, 204

legislators, 91

legislature, 86, 96

legitimacy, 6, 79, 158, 160, 195

legitimate, 4–5, 31, 112, 161, 231

Leonard Swidler, 241

Levtzion, 66–7, 213, 198, 213–14, 257

see also Nehemiah Levtzion

liberate, 53, 137

liberation, 53, 137, 150, 153, 199, 235

liberties, 157, 164, 189–90

liberty, 121, 143, 174, 189, 232, 248

Libya, 43, 76, 129–30, 132–3, 135,

210, 236

Libyan, 129, 133

Libyans, 130, 132–3

lieutenant, 28, 34, 49, 50, 52

lifestyle, 36–7, 199

limited, 5, 16, 23–4, 53, 55, 70, 83,

116, 119–20, 134, 201, 203,

207, 209, 210, 211, 213, 214,

218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223,

229, 232, 233, 236, 238, 244

lingua franca, 167

Lissi Rasmussen, 7, 34, 43, 103, 196,

207, 226, 261

see also Rasmussen

literacy, 33

literalist, 230

literalists, 69, 147

literally, 57, 126, 175, 247

literarily, 71, 233

literary, 212

liturgical, 36, 120, 125

liturgy, 121, 246

Lk, 179–80

Local, 225–6

local, 1, 9–10, 18, 32, 36–7, 42,

65, 70, 80, 91, 96, 105–8, 113,

115, 122–3, 128, 130, 132–4,

200, 201, 204, 219, 225, 226,

228, 243

INDEX288

locality, 32

locally, 36, 113, 120, 122, 125, 206

locals, 21, 32, 65, 112

logical, 9, 67, 77, 90, 135, 139, 142,

152, 165–6

logos, 162

Loimeier, 55, 59, 77, 99, 106, 128, 129,

135, 208, 210–12, 216–19, 224,

227, 230, 234, 235, 236, 239, 245

Lokoja, 17, 22, 42, 200, 201

London, 28, 111, 195–7, 199, 201,

203–5, 207, 210, 217, 219, 220,

224, 226, 227, 230, 233, 234,

235, 236, 238, 239, 241, 242,

244, 246, 251, 252, 253, 254,

255, 256, 257, 258

looting, 68, 98

lootings, 105

Lord, 78, 141, 144, 146, 159, 165,

181, 184, 238, 258

Lord Lugard, 48

lords, 19

Louis Brenner, 196, 235

love, 3, 46, 77, 151, 159, 168–9, 171,

174, 179–80, 189

loyalists, 10

loyalty, 21, 36, 45, 67, 76, 107, 127,

133, 140, 180, 220

Lubich, 182, 247, 248

see also Chiara Lubich

Lugard, 15–30, 33, 36, 48, 59, 94,

200, 223

see also Lord Lugard and

Frederick Lugard

Luke, 243

Luminosa Award, 182

Lutheran, 32

Lutherans, 120, 122

M. A. Abdu-Raheem, 159, 242

Macaulay, 30

see also Herbert Macaulay

Maccabees, 141

Macpherson Constitution, 129

Madagascar, 169

Madaki, 217

Mafia, 55–6

see also Kaduna Mafia

Magaji of Keffi, 200

Maghreb, 1, 127

Magi, 160, 242

Magian, 145

Maguzawa, 11–12, 25–6, 193

Maguzawas, 202

Mahdi, 8, 13, 35, 39, 66, 128, 207

Mahdist, 26

Mahdists, 35

Mahmoud Ayoub, 145, 150–1,

176–7, 184, 199, 238, 239,

241, 248

Mai of Bornu, 3–4, 196

Mai Umme Jilmi, 196

Maiduguri, 17, 37, 42, 97, 111–14

Maier, 137, 258

see also Karl Maier

Mainasara, 211

Maitama Sule, 90, 222

see also Dan Masin Kano

Maitatsine, 75, 84, 97–8, 129, 255

Makurdi, 42, 207–8, 224, 247, 255

Malam, 76, 248

Malamai, 44

Mali, 5, 126–7, 133, 198

Maliki, 11

Mallam, 41, 49, 113, 216, 229

Mallam Jibril ibn Umar, 8, 12, 127

mallamai, 5, 6

mallams, 135, 210

Mambila, 122

Manchester, 21

mandate, 26

Manifest, 178

manipulation, 119, 226, 232, 236

Mansa Musa, 126

marginal, 192

marginalization, 101

marginalize, 80

marginalized, 9–10, 25, 35, 70, 74,

78, 107, 116

Marinus Iwuchukwu, 223, 224, 226,

239, 241

see also Iwuchukwu

marriage, 4, 125, 228

marriages, 182–3

martyrdom, 141, 237

Marxist, 62, 77, 82–3, 136

INDEX 289

Mansa Musa, 126

Mass, 206

mass conversion, 39, 46, 129

Mass Mobilization for Self-Reliance,

89

mass riots, ix, 133

mass violence, 50, 190

massacre, 78, 99, 113, 218

masses, 5, 7, 74, 95, 137, 175

material, 27, 48, 75, 98, 120, 130,

136, 138, 181, 190

materialistic, 46

matrimony, 87

Matt, 162

matter, 12, 42, 51, 54, 58, 61, 86, 96,

114, 126, 177

matters, 6, 19, 46, 52–4, 58–9, 81,

83, 87, 89, 130, 176, 210, 221,

245

Matthew Hassan Kukah (Bishop), 46,

69, 209–10, 219, 248, 257

see also Kukah

Matthews Ojo, 213, 216, 218

Mauritania, 113

Mawlana Mawdudi, 65, 214

mayhem, 97, 229

Mayor of the palace, 3

McKoskry, 20

MCPN, 62

see also Muslim Committee for a

Progressive Nigeria, 61–2

Mecca, 2, 13, 56–7, 67, 74, 90, 93,

131, 133, 159–60, 196, 198–9,

216

media, 179, 226, 229, 238, 239, 241

Mediation, 179, 247

medical, 24, 32, 47

Medina, 13, 57, 67, 90, 131, 160,

198, 199, 229, 230

mediocrity, 191, 192

Mediterranean, 37, 65

Mennonite, 24

merchants, 5, 8, 22, 126, 198, 201

meritocracy, 110, 191

meritoriously, 56

messiah, 8, 206

Methodists, 120, 121

metropolis, 104

Micah, 148

Michael Crowder, 12, 196, 197, 207

Michael Fitzgerald, 240

see also Fitzgerald

Middle-Belt, 32, 42, 42, 52, 54,

61, 68, 88, 101–3, 125,

203–4, 257

Mid-Western, 202

migrants, 43

migrated, 8, 23, 37, 116, 233

migration, 102–3, 125

militancy, 77, 79, 81, 102

militant, 64, 66–7, 71, 77–8, 95, 113,

138, 185, 218

militants, 74, 130

military, 3, 8, 17–18, 22, 30, 39, 47,

49–52, 55–8, 60, 62, 73, 75,

84–5, 87–90, 98, 107, 112–13,

115, 117, 132–4, 199, 201, 210,

211, 212, 217, 232, 234

Millenarian, 215

millenarianists, 69

Miller, 22, 23

see also Walter Miller

mini-ayatollahs, 76

see also Yan Shia or Shiawa

minimalization, 70

Minna, 37, 42

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, 206

missiology, 120, 169, 244, 245,

246

mission, 15, 21–6, 29–31, 32, 33,

37, 43, 54, 66, 70, 138, 142,

149–50, 169, 178, 199, 201,

202, 204, 207, 210, 234, 239,

240, 241, 244

missionaries, 1, 15–16, 21–7, 30–2,

34–7, 41, 52, 54, 119, 122, 168,

170, 187, 201–2

missionary, 1, 21–2, 24, 30, 31–3,

35, 37, 39–43, 48, 70, 100, 122,

125, 144, 168, 199, 201, 202,

203, 204, 214, 244, 246

missionary differentiation, 202

missions, 27, 30–2, 37, 41, 45, 53–4,

63, 71, 120, 200, 201, 202, 205,

206, 208

mixed, 114, 177

INDEX290

modern, x, 20–1, 24–5, 33, 35, 42,

53, 57, 64–5, 74, 78, 84, 90, 93,

96–7, 101, 109–10, 118, 122,

126, 133, 137, 142–3, 158, 168,

174–5, 183, 199, 201, 202, 203,

204, 206, 209, 213, 220, 233,

236, 237, 242, 249

Modernism, 69, 214, 258

modernism, 69

modernist, 70, 82, 143

modernists, 65, 69

modernity, 69–70, 210, 213, 214,

219, 222, 224, 239

modernization, 65

modernizing, 55

modus operandi, 60, 118, 123, 137,

192

Mohammed Bello, 234

Mohammed Marwa, 129

Mohammed Sani Umar, 64

Mohammed Yusuf (Ustaz), 112, 113,

114, 115

Mohammedan, 18–19

Warith Deen Mohammed (Imam),

182, 247, 248

Mongols, 229

monolatry, 148

monotheism, 139–42, 146, 148,

152–3, 169, 237, 239

monotheistic, 140, 237

monotheists, 145

Moore Gilbert, 195

moral, 56–7, 79, 93–4, 150, 162,

176, 202, 215, 245, 246

morale, 128

morality, 57, 80, 91, 176, 189

morals, 138

morass, 135

Morel, 28, 197, 203

see also E. D. Morel

Moroa, 41

Morocco, 127, 179, 233

morphology, 193

Moses, 158, 159

Moshood Abiola, 85, 89–90

Moslem, 12–13, 21

mosque, 74, 112, 114, 131, 216, 230

mosques, 3, 18, 66, 129, 131, 210, 234

mother church, 32, 120, 233

motherland, 50

movement, 8, 12, 30, 36, 49, 63–4,

66–8, 74, 75–7, 123–4, 128,

145, 182, 205, 206, 213, 214,

215, 216, 217, 235, 239, 247

movements, 13, 31, 64, 66–7, 72, 76,

112, 125, 142, 144, 213, 216,

218, 219, 236, 239, 247

Mpun, 104

MSS, 47, 75, 132, 235

see also Muslim Students Society

MSSN, 48

see also Muslim Students Society of

Nigeria

Muammar Qaddafi, 129, 132

see also Qaddafi

Mughal, 64, 160

Muhammad Ahmad ibn Said, 13

Muhammad al-Maghali, 6, 127

see also al-Maghali

Muhammadan, 145

Muhammad Ashafa (Imam), 179,

209, 247

Muhammad Bello, 2–3, 8, 9, 58, 234

Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab,

12–13, 66, 199

Muhammad Khalid Masud, 65, 214,

258

Muhammadu Korau, 58

Muhammad Rumfa, 6, 58

Muhammad Sayyid Tantawi, 145

Muhammad S. Umar, 34, 35, 40, 44,

60, 64, 67, 205, 206, 207, 208,

209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214,

215, 234, 235

Mujähidün, 11

Mukhtar U. Bunza, 34, 36, 43, 200,

201, 202, 205, 206, 208

multi-cultural, 155, 171

multi-faith, 243

multi-ideological, 155

multi-religious, 171

Muniyo, 3

Muri, 199, 204

Murray Last, 197, 198, 199

Murtala Mohammed, 60, 73, 212, 227

Musa Yar’ Adua, 55

INDEX 291

Muslim, x, xi, xiii, 3, 5, 7–13,

15–16, 21–2, 25–6, 31–41,

43–52, 54, 56–63, 65, 68–70,

72–5, 77–81, 84–7, 89–91,

95–9, 101–2, 105, 107, 118–19,

126, 129–33, 135–6, 138–9,

141–2, 144, 146, 148–9, 151,

155, 166, 170–2, 174–5, 177–9,

182, 184–90, 192–3, 196, 197,

198, 199, 201, 202, 205, 206,

207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212,

213, 214, 216, 218, 219, 220,

221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 232,

235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241,

242, 246, 247, 248, 249

Muslim-Christian, x, xiii, xv, 91, 142,

179, 188, 224

Muslim Committee for a Progressive

Nigeria, 61–2

Muslim-dominated, 10, 16, 129, 176,

213

Muslims, ix, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 4,

6–7, 9–12, 15–16, 19, 21–7, 31,

34–5, 37, 39–40, 43–51, 53–9,

61–5, 67, 69, 71–2, 74–7, 99–100,

104–6, 110, 113–15, 118–19,

121, 124, 126–8, 130–6, 138–9,

144–53, 155, 157–61, 167–79,

181–2, 184–91, 193, 197–202,

205–8, 213–14, 217–20, 223–4,

226, 229, 231, 233–4, 236–7,

239, 243, 247–9

Muslim Students Society, 47, 75, 132,

235

see also MSS

Muslim Students Society of Nigeria,

48

see also MSSN

Mussulmans, 18

Naraguta, 104

Nasir Makarim al-Shrazi, 145

Nasiru Kabara, 75, 128–30, 132, 210

see also Sheikh Nasiru Kabara

Nassarawa, 24, 102

nation, 29, 39, 54, 66, 82, 107, 110,

182, 190, 205, 208, 213, 234,

236, 247

national, 20, 29, 36, 42, 45–6, 53–4,

65, 67, 73, 77, 81, 85, 86, 89, 91,

100, 106–8, 116–17, 127, 175,

191, 193, 216, 229, 231, 233,

236, 247, 248

National African Company, 20

National Council of Nigeria and the

Cameroons, 85

see also NCNC

National People’s Congress, 127

see also NPC

National Party of Nigeria, 73, 85, 216

see also NPN

Nigerian People’s Party, 73, 85

see also NPP

Nigerian Political Science Association,

85

see also NAPSA

National Republican Convention, 85

see also NRC

National Youth Service Corp, 216 see

also NYSC

Nationalism, 30

nationalism, 30–1, 65, 203

nationalist, 30–1, 65

nationality, 8, 129, 164, 180

nations, 7, 43, 65, 148, 237, 240, 249

native, 16, 23, 25–6, 35, 40, 59, 167,

202, 228, 245

natives, 25, 32, 42, 104, 202, 226

naturalization, 109, 192

nature, 67, 81, 86, 95, 120, 143, 157,

169, 190

Nazareth, 57

NCA, 46, 54, 209

see also Northern Christian

Association

NCNC, 85

see also National Council of Nigeria

and the Cameroons

negativity, 26, 30, 40, 144, 147

negotiation, 118, 225

negotiations, 65

Negro, 253

Nehemiah Levtzion, 198, 213–14, 257

see also Levtzion

neighbor, 114, 177, 179–80

neighborhood, 149

INDEX292

neighborhoods, 183

neighborliness, 151, 185

neighbors, 36, 42, 57, 130, 140–1,

150, 156, 168, 175–6, 182, 185,

201, 218, 237

Neo-colonialism, 220

nepotism, 93–4, 111

NEPU, 36, 49, 127

see also Northern Elements

Progressive Union

Netherlands, 65, 199, 202, 204–5,

211, 253

network, 33, 55, 66, 113, 124, 255

networks, 66

New Testament, 143, 158, 161,

163–4, 242

Newell Booth, 170, 245

Ngas, 104, 193, 225, 254

NGOs, 191, 218

Nguru, 43

Niger, 4, 9, 17, 20–2, 112, 115, 127,

130, 201, 203, 207, 211, 259

Nigeria, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, 1, 4, 9, 13,

15–17, 19–28, 30–60, 62–4,

66–93, 95, 97, 99–104, 106–7,

109–13, 115–39, 141–2, 145,

147, 151–3, 155, 157–8, 167–77,

179, 183–93, 195–237, 239,

241–2, 244–9

Nigerian, x, xi, xii, 12, 16, 24,

27, 30, 33–4, 36, 39–41,

46–7, 49, 51–2, 55–7, 59–60,

63–4, 66–8, 70, 73–4, 76–9,

81–2, 84–5, 88–90, 92, 95–6,

99, 101–3, 106–7, 109–13,

115, 117–18, 121, 125, 128–30,

133–5, 144, 167, 170–2, 174–5,

182, 185–7, 189, 191–2, 198,

204, 208–9, 214–18, 220–2,

224, 228, 230, 235–6, 239,

242, 244, 249, 251–2, 254–6,

259–60, 262–3

Nigerians, x, xi, xii, xiii, 27, 30–3, 37,

49, 56, 62, 68, 72, 81–2, 84–6,

96–8, 104–6, 109–10, 116–17,

119, 124–5, 128, 137, 171,

174–5, 177, 185, 190, 192,

206, 216, 220–1

Nigerian Political Science Association,

192

Ningi, 102–3

NKST, 32, 122

see also Nongo U Kristu ken Sudan

hen Tiv

NNPC, 89

see also Nigerian National

Petroleum Corporations

Noah, 159

Nok, 102, 198, 245, 253, 259

nomadic, 8

nomenclature, 122, 170

non-believers, 70

non-Christians, 122

non-denominational, 32, 204

non-dialogical, 151

non-Fulani, 94

Nongo U Kristu ken Sudan hen Tiv,

32, 122

see also NKST

non-Hausa, 42

non-indigenes, x, xi, 117, 191

non-indigenous, 23

nonintervention, 20

nonmainline, 32

nonmembers, 48, 70–1

non-Muslims, 10, 58

nonnegotiable, 121, 174, 185

non-religious, 82

North Africa, 1, 12, 127–8, 171, 178,

198, 233, 246

north, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 5, 15–17,

21–6, 28–33, 36–7, 39–40,

42–56, 59–60, 62, 64, 68–9,

72–3, 75–7, 81, 85–6, 88–9,

91, 94, 97–8, 102–3, 107, 110,

112, 115, 118, 124–6, 129, 134,

170, 175, 183, 186–8, 191, 201,

202, 207, 209, 210, 216, 217,

219, 234

North Central, 54, 102

northeast, 42, 51, 80, 102, 204, 216,

232

northeastern, 1, 4

northern, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 2, 4, 9,

13, 15–17, 19–26, 27–55, 58–60,

62–4, 66–86, 89–93, 95, 97,

INDEX 293

99–104, 106–7, 110–13, 115–39,

141–2, 144–5, 147, 151–3, 155,

157–8, 167–77, 179, 181–93,

198–200, 202–3, 205–12, 214,

216, 218, 222, 228, 231, 233,

236, 239, 242, 247–8

Northern Christian Association,

41, 46

see also NCA

Northern Elements Progressive

Union, 36, 49

see also NEPU

northerners, 36, 38, 44–6, 52, 55,

73, 115, 201

northwest, 102

northwestern, 9, 208, 210–12, 235,

239, 245, 251, 257

Nostra Aetate, 121, 165, 232, 261

notoriety, 124

notorious, 75, 134

NPC, 36, 40–1, 49, 85, 127, 216

see also National People’s Congress

NPN, 73, 85, 216

see also National Party of Nigeria

NPP, 73, 85

see also Nigerian People’s Party

NAPSA, 85 see Nigerian Political

Science Association

NRC, 85

see also National Republican

Convention

Nsukka, 207

Nupe, 5, 11–13, 17, 193, 200

NYSC, 216

see also National Youth Service

Corp

Nzeogwu, 50

see also Kaduna Nzeogwu

oath, 33–4, 205

Obafemi Awolowo, 242, 249, 259

Obasanjo, 56, 60, 73, 91

see also Olusegun Obasanjo

(President)

obligation, 64, 121, 123, 198

obligations, 57, 188

obligatory, 11, 61, 121, 158, 180

obsessed, 90, 171

obsession, 59, 70, 76, 108, 216

obsessive, 21, 168

obstacles, 139, 151, 188, 201

occupation, 103–4

Odumosu, 83, 192, 220, 249, 259

see also Olakunle Odumosu

Ogbomosho, 227, 251

Ogbu Kalu, 215, 259

OIC, 88, 221

see also Organization of

Islamic Countries

oikoumene, 232, 246, 248, 253, 264

oil, 108

Olakunle Odumosu, 192, 220, 249,

259

see also Odumosu

Old Testament, 125, 161, 242

oligarchic, 13, 90, 228

oligarchy, 9–11, 19, 33, 47, 52–3,

69–70, 90–1, 102, 107, 198,

200–201

Olupona, 191, 242, 245, 249, 259,

261

see also Jacob Olupona

Olusegun Obasanjo (President), 56,

60, 73, 91

see also Obasanjo

Olympiads, 111

Olympics, 111

Omar Farouk Ibrahim, 217, 221, 224

omniscience, 135

Omo Omoruyi, 192

oneness, 63, 144, 148, 152, 160–1,

163

Onitsha, x

Online, 195, 230, 238, 253, 257, 260

ontologically, 158, 193

openness, 33, 151–2, 168, 246

operation, 28, 53, 93, 107, 138,

211–12, 220, 231, 234, 262

operations, 30, 77, 102

opinion, 15–16, 28, 57, 63, 83, 95,

176, 221, 236, 238, 245

opponents, 31, 60, 65, 87

opportunities, 23, 55, 108–9, 115–16,

132, 152, 228

opportunity, 27, 83, 104, 107, 116,

151, 162, 216

INDEX294

opposition, 10, 12, 21, 28, 45, 61, 88,

110, 117, 143, 201, 239

oppression, 2, 94, 242

oppressive, 153

optimism, 42

optimum, 190

option, 83, 210, 217, 218, 219, 224,

227, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236,

248

opulence, 134

oracle, 87

oral, 102

ordained, 32, 48

order, 8, 11, 33, 35, 48, 62, 64–5,

75, 95, 145, 157, 160, 164–5,

170, 181, 186, 190, 197, 198,

231, 233, 245

orders, 7, 20, 35, 49

ordinance, 59, 226

ordination, 32

organic, 169, 244

Organization of Islamic Countries,

88, 221

see also OIC

organization, 44, 46–8, 54, 76–7,

79, 88, 113, 121–2, 127, 132–4,

137–8, 146, 179, 182, 186, 209,

212, 229, 239, 246–8

organizational, 33

organizations, 7, 35, 41–3, 46, 48–9,

54, 66–7, 70–1, 74, 76, 79–80,

83, 88, 113, 117–18, 122–4,

129, 131–2, 134–5, 137–8, 147,

178–9, 183, 185, 191–2, 205,

208, 235, 240, 246

organized, 6, 33, 35, 45–6, 50–1, 79,

177, 218

orgy, 72, 79, 105

Orientalism, 212, 257

orientation, 93

Orientations, 239–40, 261

oriented, 129, 175, 185, 215

origin, x, 4, 40, 42, 50, 55, 62, 80,

93, 102, 105, 108, 116, 146,

163, 167, 196, 204, 208–9, 211,

215, 217, 228, 242

original, xi, xiv, 4, 13, 69, 104, 106,

110, 135, 167, 198, 200, 225, 249

Origins, 197, 254, 257

orthodox, 7, 78, 120

orthodoxy, 7, 213

Otherness, 161

others, 9, 16, 30, 34, 56, 78, 82–4, 91,

93, 98, 111–13, 134, 143, 145–6,

150, 157, 160, 165–6, 174, 180,

182, 191, 193, 228, 243

Othmar Keel, 141, 237

Ottoman, 64

Oturkpo, 42, 207–8

Ousmane Kane, 210, 213, 219, 222,

224, 239, 257

ousted, 17, 60

outbreak, 74

outburst, ix, 79

outcasts, 57

outlawed, 59

outsiders, 116

outspoken, 134

outstanding, 5, 144, 207

over, 6–9, 16, 18, 20, 22, 29, 35, 40–1,

49, 53, 59, 62, 65, 71, 73, 79, 81,

88–9, 97–9, 101, 105–6, 110–13,

177, 128, 130, 132–3, 144, 146,

162, 190, 216, 229

overarching, 114, 129, 135

overcentralization, 108

overcome, 142, 147

overdependence, 228

overheated, 142

overlap, 83, 100, 150–1, 212

overlapping, 212

overlords, 140

overseas, 124, 233

overthrow, 60

overthrown, 22

overtures, 22, 129, 248

Owerri, 210

ownership, 103, 110, 198, 255, 226

oxymoron, 78, 220

Pacem in Terris, 165, 183

pacification, 104

pagan, 3, 27, 37, 75, 94, 204

paganism, 8

Pakistan, 43, 95, 129, 210

pandering, 84, 88

INDEX 295

panel, 59–60, 211

parable, 180

paradigm, 41, 121, 141, 149, 158,

167, 242, 245

paradise, 103, 136, 168

paradox, 69, 81, 135

Paradoxes, 212, 219, 252

paradoxical, 37, 142

parallel, 42, 66, 132

Paralympics, 111

paralyzed, 95

parameters, 111

paramount, 77, 157

paranoia, 90

paranoid, 135

parents, 108–9, 111, 193, 211, 228

parliament, 39

parliamentary, 73

partiality, 34

participants, 157, 191

particular, 36, 44, 54, 63, 82, 84–6,

88, 109, 115, 162, 166, 169,

192, 205, 230

parties, 36, 49, 73, 85, 89, 105, 127,

170, 216

partisan, 249

partners, 130, 157, 166, 176, 179,

189, 198

Partnership, 246

party, 24, 31, 41–2, 73, 81, 85–6,

127, 158, 170, 203, 216

passage, 25, 68, 146, 159, 184

passed, 91, 94

pastor, 80, 81, 179, 247

pastoral, 45, 46, 63, 149, 261

pastors, 36, 135, 137–8

pasture, 104

Pategi, 24

paternalistic, 34

path, 129, 148, 162

pathetic, 81

patience, 123

patriotic, 57

patronage, 77

Patrons, 230

patrons, 47

pattern, 5, 105, 135, 236

Patterns, 238, 241, 261

patterns, 67

Paul, 51, 84, 164, 182, 257–8

Paul Knitter, 157, 241, 243, 257

Paulist, 247, 258

pawns, 45

PCID, 122, 149–50, 177, 240

see also Pontifical Council for

Interreligious Dialogue

PDP, 85

see also People’s Democratic Party

peace, 51, 64, 71, 75, 77, 93, 101,

111, 152, 159, 168–70, 173, 177,

179, 182, 185, 188, 193, 210,

221, 227, 229, 241, 242, 246,

248, 249

Peace of Augsburg, 10

peaceful, 17, 34, 64, 94, 151, 159,

168, 170, 173–5, 185–6, 193,

247

peacefully, 104, 149, 151, 201

Pebbles, 254

peculiar, 32, 71, 87, 116

Pedro Arupe, 169

Pentecostal, 80–1, 119, 123–4, 126,

137–8, 144, 213, 215–16, 218–19,

233, 236, 245

Pentecostalism, 70, 123, 137, 215–16,

219, 236, 254, 259

Pentecostalizing, 80, 219

Pentecostals, 71, 123–6, 143, 219

people, x, xvi, 1–2, 4–6, 8, 11–12,

15–16, 18–19, 21–7, 30, 32, 34,

36–7, 41–2, 44, 50–1, 53, 55–7,

60, 63, 66–8, 70, 80, 82, 92–5,

98–9, 102–11, 113–18, 121,

123, 125, 133, 135–8, 140–1,

143–4, 147–53, 155–6, 158,

161–7, 173–8, 181–2, 184, 188,

190, 193, 196, 198, 204, 208–9,

218, 225–7, 229–30, 232, 236,

239, 246–7, 259

peoples, x, 7, 17, 23, 29, 31, 39, 102,

149, 167, 170, 177, 185, 192,

204, 225, 242, 243, 244, 246

People’s Democratic Party, 85

see also PDP

People’s Redemption Party, 216

see also PRP

INDEX296

percent, 6, 42, 55, 125

percentage, 34, 55, 57, 104, 204

Percy Girouard, 25

perennial, 72, 98, 176, 223, 224, 226

permit, 183, 229

perpetrators, 98, 174, 191

persecution, 8, 13, 142

person, 25, 28, 32, 108, 111, 114,

121–2, 165, 170, 171, 181, 183,

189, 193

personalities, 89, 111

personnel, 26, 57, 120, 128, 130–1,

133, 192, 211

Peter, 163, 166

Peter Clark, 197, 209

Peter Phan, 241, 244

Peter Schineller, 209, 211, 212, 225,

261

petrol, 113, 176

petroleum, 89

Pew Forum, 232, 252

Pharaonic, 153

Pharisees, 162

phenomena, x, 64, 99, 100

phenomenon, x, xi, 30, 37, 51, 67, 72,

80, 98, 111, 118, 137, 169, 176,

193, 201, 202, 213, 225, 245

philanthropic, 26

philanthropy, 27

Philip Ostien, 94, 211, 214, 220, 222,

223, 226, 227, 249, 258

Philipp W. Hildmann, 139, 149, 188,

189, 237, 249

philosophical, ix, 12, 112, 155,

167–9, 212

philosophy, 63–5, 72, 112, 155, 168,

189, 202, 214, 220, 244

physical, 119, 124, 126, 148, 179,

230

PIDAN, 225, 226

see also Plateau Indigenous

Development Association

Network

Pierre Charles, 169

piety, 144

pilgrim, 56, 84

pilgrimage, 13, 53, 56–7, 84, 128,

131, 159, 196, 199, 216

pilgrimages, 2, 57, 233

pilgrims, 54, 57, 61, 67, 133, 170, 216

Pius IX, 143, 238

places, 7, 9, 18, 24, 26, 31, 41, 48,

58, 64, 70, 98–9, 101, 113–16,

121, 181, 184, 186, 207, 243,

247

Plateau, 48, 53–4, 61, 79, 98,

100–106, 110, 116–18,

203–4, 218, 224–7, 252,

261–3

plateau, 102

Plateau Indigenous Development

Association Network, 225

see also PIDAN

platform, 47, 68, 73, 81

plenary, 83, 99, 186

plights, 135

ploughed, 66

pluralism, 9, 90, 144, 152, 156–8,

160–7, 169, 171, 174, 238, 241,

242, 243, 246, 248

pluralist, 56, 83, 156, 160–1, 163, 193

pluralistic, x, xvi, 64, 71, 83, 88, 90,

92–3, 95, 144, 158, 165–6, 168,

172, 174, 188–9, 213, 241, 243,

245, 246, 248

pluralists, 157, 241

plurality, 117, 156, 165, 169, 193

pneumatically, 163

pogrom, 50–1, 74

pointers, ix, xii, 161, 164

polarities, 64, 142

polarity, 45, 58

polarization, 88

polarized, 28, 62, 83, 87, 123, 128,

187

polarizing, 88, 130

polemics, 132, 151

police, 98, 113–14, 217, 229, 231

policemen, 48, 113

policies, 31, 35, 65, 84, 89, 111, 117,

133, 187, 191, 192, 231

policy, 19–20, 30, 34, 40, 54–6,

59, 82, 89, 95–6, 104, 106–10,

115–17, 135, 175, 191–2,

202, 249

politic, 110

INDEX 297

political, ix, x, xiii, xiv, 1–2, 4–11,

13, 15–17, 19–20, 23, 25–8,

30–6, 39–47, 49–51, 53–6,

58, 60–9, 71–4, 76–7, 79–82,

84–6, 89, 91–2, 100–106, 112–13,

115–16, 118–19, 126–8, 132,

134–6, 140, 142, 147, 153,

167, 172, 176–8, 184–7,

189–92, 195, 196, 197, 199,

206–12, 216, 217, 222, 224,

225, 231, 234, 235, 236, 239,

245, 249

politically, 3, 5, 7, 10, 42, 50, 52–3,

68, 77, 81, 103, 115

politicians, 55, 60, 85–6, 90, 113–15,

171, 176, 219, 228

politicization, 142

politicizing, 88, 140

politicking, 52, 54

politics, xiii, 13, 15, 33, 40, 44, 49,

52, 58–60, 63, 73, 76, 80–1,

91, 107, 114, 126, 168, 195,

198, 199, 204, 205, 207, 208,

209, 210, 211, 215, 217, 219,

220, 221, 223, 224, 228, 233,

236, 249

polity, 29, 215

polls, 85

polygamy, 125

polytheism, 145, 160

polytheistic, 159

polytheists, 159, 229

pontiff, 165

Pontifical Council for Interreligious

Dialogue, 122, 149, 150, 166,

177, 183, 240, 243

see also PCID

poor, 56–7, 92, 114, 130, 135, 137,

235

Pope, 51, 84, 120, 143, 149, 182,

239–40, 261

popular, x, 4, 76, 123–4, 127, 167,

169, 176, 190

population, 11, 22, 26, 34, 37–8,

42–3, 56, 70, 73, 96, 101, 138,

176, 185, 202, 207, 246

populations, 16, 52, 101

Port Harcourt, x

position, 25, 27–8, 33, 44, 55, 62,

75–6, 80, 81, 82, 83, 88, 143,

144, 145, 147, 151, 152, 160,

163, 166, 188, 192, 214, 236,

238, 244

positions, 9–10, 22, 31, 42, 55, 62,

65, 76, 85, 89–90, 106–7, 109,

111, 145, 221–2, 228

positive, 16, 96, 149, 150, 152, 157,

164, 173, 175, 178, 182, 189,

214

possibility, 52, 95, 166, 188

possible, 26, 35, 40, 45, 57, 62, 64,

89, 95, 117, 127–9, 149, 152,

164, 178, 188, 207, 225

post, 26, 41, 47, 61, 63, 94, 164,

209

post-amalgamation, 27

post-colonial, 74, 95, 101, 119,

139, 173, 197, 210, 213, 219,

222, 224, 232, 237, 239, 246,

253, 257

postcolonial, ix, x, xiii, 13, 93, 102,

131, 187, 191–2, 195, 213

post-independence, 25, 40, 41,

43, 59, 69, 91, 115, 127,

147, 192

post-independent, 41, 43, 47, 48, 58

postmodern, x, xii, 90, 155, 193

post-plenary, 189

posturing, 47, 80–1

poverty, 74, 171, 175, 176

power, 2–4, 6, 9, 13, 18–21, 25,

41–2, 49, 58–9, 62, 73, 84–5,

90, 95, 132, 134, 138, 153, 197,

198, 199, 207, 208, 209, 210,

211, 215, 221, 228, 243

powerbrokers, 56

powerful, 55, 123

powerhouse, 17

powers, 6, 25, 31, 41, 77

practical, 168, 186, 189

practice, 10–11, 55–6, 58–9, 65,

82–4, 92, 95, 103, 109, 121,

122, 127, 137, 140, 145, 148,

160, 183, 192, 211, 213, 227,

233, 242

practiced, 2, 5, 59, 93, 148–9, 214

INDEX298

practices, 10, 35–6, 54, 56, 68, 75,

103, 119, 122–3, 125, 140, 141,

146, 158, 160, 164, 170, 171,

172, 184, 195, 237, 245

pragmatic, 66, 175, 178, 183

pragmatically, 74, 164, 240

prayer, 3, 18, 123, 145, 150, 163, 238

pre-Christian, 158, 169

pre-colonial, x, xiii, 1, 35, 90, 93–5,

131, 187, 195

pre-independence, 60, 65, 127, 147,

206

pre-Islamic, 169, 158

pre-jihad, 58

preach, 48, 148, 162

preachers, 5, 12, 34–5, 119, 126,

136–7

pre-amalgamation, 16

precursors, 100–101, 190

Prefecture, 207

premier, 39, 44, 49, 50, 66, 118, 129,

174

Presbyterians, 70, 120–2

presidency, 84–5, 91, 221

President, 56, 84, 91, 134, 228

president, 41, 43, 56, 62, 73, 84, 85,

90, 91, 134, 179, 221, 222, 228

President Shehu Shagari (Alhaji), 84

see also Shagari

presidential, 73, 80–1, 85, 89–90,

221, 222

pressure, 53, 55, 103, 133, 176, 202,

208

presumptive, 89, 104

prevalence, xi, xiii, 40, 92, 97, 127,

139, 171, 183, 184, 185, 226,

237

prevalent, 29, 34, 63, 65, 91, 100,

160, 170, 187, 193, 231, 239

priest, 103

priestly, 163

priests, 22, 206

primaries, 80

prime, 5, 9, 39, 59

Prime Minister, 39, 50, 59, 60, 206

primitive, 13, 30

privileged, 10, 33, 70, 91, 95, 133,

228, 246

privileges, 20, 56, 74, 106, 108, 110,

116, 175, 203

pro-Islamic, 89, 197

pro-Shari’a, 62, 84, 85, 87

Proclamation, 40, 150, 166, 240,

243, 253

productivity, 111, 192

products, 26, 29, 104, 124, 206

profess, 3, 122, 143, 145, 183

professed, 123, 134

professing, 2

profession, 94, 137

program, 31, 65, 129, 216, 232

programmed, 141, 158

programs, 84, 121, 124, 126, 131,

179, 185, 191, 221

progress, 26, 37, 110–11, 129, 155,

170, 188, 192, 201, 246

progressive, 36, 49, 61, 82, 127, 155,

160, 169, 172–5, 186, 188–9,

220, 223

prohibition, 15, 83, 96, 198, 199,

201, 203, 204

project, 53, 149, 188, 216, 247

projection, 22

projects, 24, 66–7, 83, 122, 131–2,

134–5, 157, 175, 178–9, 190,

222, 236, 246

promulgation, 52

propaganda, 51–2, 226

propagate, 84, 122, 144, 183

propagation, 26, 48, 111

propagators, 198

properties, 50–1, 68, 71, 73, 79,

97–8, 105–6, 129

property, 6, 57, 91, 93, 98, 118, 168,

181, 187, 223, 226

prophecy, 123

prophet, 13, 44, 56, 112, 145, 184,

206, 230, 233, 244, 246, 253

Prophet Mohammed, 90, 158, 160, 242

prophetic, 239, 242

prophets, 137, 148, 158, 159

proponent, 25

proponents, 90, 92, 93, 144

proposal, 28, 86, 189, 226

prosecute, 84, 118

prosecution, 231

INDEX 299

proselytes, 163

proselytization, 15, 24, 25, 31, 32,

48, 63, 122, 124, 126, 148, 180,

185, 202

proselytize, 25, 49

protected, 6, 11, 31, 84, 174, 184

protection, 15, 34, 61, 136, 189–90

protectionist, 34

Protectorate, 2, 4, 13, 16–17, 19–20,

24–5, 27–9, 200

Protectorates, 20, 27–8, 110

protest, 51, 62, 68, 89

Protestant, 32, 41, 70–1, 78, 120–2,

142, 144, 232, 251

Protestantism, 143

Protestants, 10, 32, 36–7, 46, 78,

119–20, 126, 143, 188

protracted, 58, 62

Province, 24, 33, 34, 41, 200, 201,

202, 203, 205, 208, 226, 253

provinces, 17, 20, 28, 203

provincial, 59

PRP, 216

see also People’s Redemption Party

Psalm, 162

psyche, 67, 118, 229

psychological, 135, 141, 187

public, 53, 56, 75, 82–4, 93, 95,

98–9, 106, 109, 112, 126, 136,

177, 179, 191, 206, 213, 216,

218, 219, 222, 227, 232, 237

publication, 149, 223, 226, 236

publications, 97, 99, 218, 222, 236

publicized, 133

publicly, 12, 31, 43, 44, 45, 75, 76,

89, 122, 182, 183

published, 122, 143, 186, 236, 237,

240

punishment, 59, 146, 147

purificationist, 7

puritan, 7, 10, 49, 58–9, 67–8, 215

puritanical, 10–12, 199, 229

puritanist, 214

purity, 10

Qadariyya, 48–9, 63

Qaddafi, 129–30, 132–3, 235

see also Muammar Qaddafi

Qadir, 127, 145, 233–4

Qadiriyya, 7–8, 44, 67, 75, 127–30,

132, 210, 216, 233–4

Qadiriyyah, 36

Qadiriyya-Nasiriyya, 130

qarar, 96

Qayrawan, 11

qualification, 33, 107, 110–11, 180,

192

queen, 4

questions, ix, 29–30, 65, 87, 96, 99,

140, 145

quota regulation, 55, 108

quota system, 107–8

Qur’an, 24–5, 130, 144–7, 158–61,

183, 230, 238, 242

Qur’anic, 24, 25, 67, 144, 146, 147,

158, 159, 160, 161, 183, 184,

210, 242

Quranic, 48, 239

Rabbinic, 142

R.A.B. Dikko (Dr), 31, 41

Rabeh, 4, 17, 58

race, 50, 121, 157, 164, 180, 238,

241, 242, 243

races, 26, 29, 159

racism, 30

radical, 8, 12, 25, 67, 68, 72, 74–7,

127–30, 132–5, 137, 148, 159,

217, 229, 235

radicalizing, 40

radicals, 159

Rafiu A. Akindele, 87, 221, 251

rahmah, 181

rahman, 180, 185

Rahner, 239, 243, 261

raided, 198

raiders, 94

raiding, 68, 94, 103

railway, 24

Raimon Panikkar, 241

Ramadan, 3

Randall L Pouwels, 198

Randle (Dr), 30

Rank and file, 25, 68

ranks, 7, 10, 66, 69, 107, 134

Rano, 5

INDEX300

Rasmussen, 7, 34, 37, 43, 62, 71, 103,

196, 197, 198, 205, 206, 207, 208,

209, 210, 211, 212, 216, 226, 261

see also Lissi Rasmussen

rational, 68, 70, 77, 92, 95

rationality, 69–70, 189

Raymond Hickey, 51, 207, 208, 209,

211

RCCG, 124

see also Redeemed Christian

Church of God

reactionary, 65

reactions, 34, 68, 92, 100

rearticulation, 168

rebellion, 35

rebuffed, 225

recognition, 59, 84, 86, 124, 128,

130, 161, 179, 182

recommendation, 60, 122, 169

recommendations, 59–60, 110, 179,

186, 232, 246, 248

recommended, 6, 60, 86, 92, 146,

165, 188, 190, 228

reconciliation, 51, 75, 182

reconnoiter, 16

reconquista, 78

record, 45, 46, 79, 184, 224, 230

recorded, 6, 26, 37, 45, 97, 145, 218,

222

records, 75, 97–8, 223, 227

recruitment, 55, 107

redeem, 153

Redeemed Christian Church of God,

124

see also RCCG

Redemption, 216, 240, 253

referred, 1, 4, 32, 69, 168, 181, 228,

236

reflect, 63, 67, 76, 92, 107, 110, 122,

164, 167, 174, 220

reflected, 36, 67, 82, 141, 199

reflection, 54, 56, 157, 238

reflective, 126, 226

reflects, 17, 34, 104, 112, 131, 142,

148, 167, 198

reform, 7–8, 12, 59, 64–7, 75, 91,

208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214,

216, 217, 235, 236, 239, 245

Reformation, 78

reformer, 8, 76, 112

reformers, 47, 128

reformist, 10, 12, 133–4, 138, 145

reformists, 133–5, 213, 236

reforms, 59, 133

regime, 26, 54, 60, 84, 130, 235

regimes, 84

region, 4–5, 15–16, 20, 33, 40–2, 44,

48, 49, 50, 58, 83, 86, 102, 108,

129, 174, 184, 186, 189, 198,

203, 212, 242

regional, 40, 44, 49–50, 73, 86, 107,

115, 129, 193, 201, 216, 247

regionalize, 228

regions, 17, 196, 216, 247, 255

registered, 88, 121

registration, 88, 109, 192

regulation, 10, 26, 55, 108, 203

reign, 162, 190

reigned, 9, 13, 91

reigning, 11

reigns, 4, 58, 191

reincarnation, 216

Reinhard Bonnke (Rev), 124

see also Bonnke riots

reinstatement, 95, 210, 213, 219,

222, 257

reject, 51, 69, 71, 85, 90, 92, 143–5,

148, 165, 184

rejection, 27, 31, 67, 86–7, 141, 143

rejuvenate, 168

rejuvenated, 43

relation, 41, 77, 82, 143, 148, 160,

164–6, 179–81, 216, 225, 232

Relations, xiii, 1, 17, 15, 58, 84, 118,

119, 120, 128, 138, 147, 149,

157, 168, 174, 177, 185, 187,

189, 196, 197, 198, 199, 205,

206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212,

213, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220,

222, 224, 227, 230, 232, 234,

238, 248, 249

relationship, x, xi, xiii, xv, xvi, 3, 12,

15–16, 23, 27, 36, 38–9, 45, 50,

66, 69, 72, 74, 80–1, 83, 91, 99,

102, 109, 111, 119, 122, 130,

132, 139, 147, 155, 156, 161,

INDEX 301

166, 168, 173, 176, 182, 185,

187, 202, 223, 235, 236, 242

relationships, 40, 173, 176, 186, 199,

246

relatives, 95, 201, 247

relativism, 156–7

relevance, ix, 32, 46, 100, 176, 229

reliable, 98, 133

relieved, 20, 28, 53

religion, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xv, 3, 5,

7, 11–12, 15, 18–19, 23, 31,

34, 39, 45, 48, 52, 58, 60–4,

71–3, 76, 78, 81–6, 88–91, 95,

99, 101, 104, 114, 119, 121–2,

136–7, 139–43, 145, 148, 152,

158, 160, 162, 164–5, 167–70,

174, 176–7, 183–5, 190–1, 193,

195, 198, 199, 204, 205, 207,

208, 209, 211, 212, 215, 217,

218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223,

244, 226, 227, 231, 232, 233,

234, 236, 237, 242, 244, 245,

247, 249

Religionists, 126

religions, x, xv, xv, xvi, 39–40, 57, 63,

69, 87, 89, 96, 126, 136, 139–

42, 144–6, 149, 152, 155–61,

164–5, 168, 170, 176–9, 182,

185, 188, 193, 213, 216, 217,

218, 219, 221, 232, 237, 238,

239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244,

245, 247–8

religious, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 3–4,

7–12, 19, 23, 35, 39, 40, 42,

44–6, 49–58, 60, 62–3, 64, 66,

69–72, 75, 78–9, 81–90, 93–4,

97, 99–101, 105–6, 111, 113–15,

117–18, 121–2, 123–5, 127, 130,

132, 135–41, 143, 145, 147,

149–51, 156–8, 159, 160–71,

173–8, 180–5, 187–92, 197,

204, 210, 215, 217, 218, 219,

221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227,

230, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236,

237, 238, 239, 241, 242, 243,

244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249

Religious Pluralism, xi, xv, 88, 155–67,

169, 171, 173–4, 183–5, 189, 191,

237, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243,

245, 246, 249

religiously, 19, 53, 83, 88, 92, 140,

156, 179, 237

religious-political, 88

relinquished, 27, 128

relocate, 116, 118

relocated, 8, 23

remonstration, 249

removal, 47, 210, 213, 219, 222,

257

renaissance, 214, 249

renewal, 64, 213, 214

renounced, 76, 88

renowned, 6, 127–8, 132, 182, 222,

238, 241

reorientation, 91

repeal, 191

repealed, 117

repercussions, 64

replace, 46, 86

replaced, 11, 22, 25, 59, 192

replacement, 89

replicate, 66, 68, 129

replications, 102

report, 16, 59, 92, 94, 109, 200,

211, 223, 225, 226, 227, 229,

230, 231, 232, 252

reported, 6, 10–11, 31, 37, 51,

55, 97, 98, 106, 112, 113,

129, 206, 221, 229, 230,

232

reporter, 114, 232

reports, 16, 30–1, 42, 63, 98, 105,

197, 200, 204, 218, 223, 229,

230, 231

representation, 144, 166, 190

representations, 228

representative, 33, 144

representatives, 4, 16, 61, 170, 240

represented, 55, 79–80, 82, 120,

153, 191

representing, 32, 62, 86, 111

repression, 77–8

reprimanded, 20

reprisal, 91, 98

reprobate, 70

reproduction, 200

INDEX302

republic, 1, 4, 9, 39, 62, 73, 85, 89,

112, 115, 116, 127, 190, 220,

249, 251, 254–5, 257, 259

republican, 85

requirement, 10, 61, 105, 123, 140,

180–1, 185

requirements, 60, 179, 237, 249

research, 13, 40, 63, 94, 99, 106, 149,

220, 227, 249

researchers, 98

researches, 99

resent, 115, 118, 158

resented, 11, 49, 201, 235

resentment, 22, 85–6, 117, 191

reserved, 57, 105, 109, 116, 161, 168

resettling, 225

residence, 49, 116, 181–2, 228

residences, 181

resident, 18, 23, 29, 34, 74, 101, 106,

114, 117, 189, 200

residential, 182

residents, x, xi, 99, 104, 105, 112,

114, 118, 175, 183, 191, 193,

232

residing, 101, 106

resign, ix, 109

resignation, 24

resigned, 25, 30

resistance, 2, 8, 17–18, 22, 35, 37, 69,

78, 88, 206

resisted, 21, 103, 204

resolution, 224, 247

resolve, 3, 17, 170, 186, 223, 224

resolved, 62, 229

resource, 78, 228

resources, 23–4, 27, 53, 56, 57, 108,

109, 118, 120, 126, 129, 134,

184, 246, 248

respect, 3, 12, 18, 29, 33, 67, 82,

121, 123, 149, 151, 156, 157,

158, 160, 161, 165, 167, 170,

171, 174, 177, 181, 185,

193, 246

respectable, 75, 92

respected, 3, 8, 59, 78, 92, 125, 167,

169, 174, 183, 189, 192

responsibility, 20, 45, 48, 57, 61, 138,

180, 184, 217, 218, 240

responsible, ix, 1, 7, 27, 45, 50, 56,

86, 90, 100, 111, 118, 121–2,

127, 133, 168, 171, 190

restricted, 24, 25, 35, 181, 209

restriction, 32, 40, 128, 202

restrictions, 23, 25, 26, 30

restructure, 21

restructuring, 174

result, 5, 20, 31, 43, 49, 55, 64, 65,

67, 72, 98, 99, 107, 108, 113,

133, 142, 193, 230, 232

resulted, 39, 41, 48, 51, 59, 65, 66,

69, 97–9, 105, 124, 128, 129,

132, 190

Retribution, 146

return, 13, 20, 27, 43, 60, 90, 135–6,

141, 152, 168, 215

returned, 8, 32

revealed, 139, 146, 159–60, 184

revelation, 139, 148, 184, 189

revelations, 159, 162

revenge, 115, 218, 224, 226, 262

revenue, 6, 108, 134, 228

reverberations, 87

revere, 233

revered, 199, 229

reverence, 158

review, 45, 60, 62, 69, 76, 82,

99–100, 117, 171, 210, 220, 227,

234, 244, 249

reviews, 101, 224

revised, 197, 243

revision, 258

revisiting, 223, 224, 226, 230, 256

revival, 92, 208, 213

revivalism, 39, 63–8, 72, 74, 213, 214

revivalist, 65, 112, 212, 214

revivalists, 212

revolt, 16, 141, 213

revolts, 35

revolution, 12, 19, 27, 68, 74, 75, 76,

77, 133, 134

revolutionary, 7, 213

revolve, 106, 215

reward, 107, 158, 159, 181

rewards, 11

rhetoric, x, 30, 40, 49, 60, 150, 187

riba, 96

INDEX 303

richer, 28, 136

riddah, 96

rif les, 113

rigged, 206

rigging, 39

right, 18, 64, 67–8, 78, 84, 87, 90–2,

103, 121, 122, 126, 164, 165,

167, 174, 183, 190, 228

righteous acts, 159

righteous majority, 193

rights, x, xi, 64, 84, 87, 90, 93, 98,

106, 109, 110, 115, 116, 117,

118, 121, 127, 157, 174, 183,

189, 192, 220, 222, 224, 226,

229, 238, 242, 248

Rijk A. van Dijk, 70, 219, 254

riot, 97, 112–13, 124

rioters, 50, 68

rioting, 43

riots, 69, 75, 79, 84, 86, 97–100,

133, 218, 224

risalah, 180

rise, 55, 64, 65, 73, 74, 77–8, 128,

187, 213, 219, 237

rites, 3, 36, 206

rituals, 11, 35–6, 80, 162, 245

rival, 29, 44, 63, 239

rivalries, 99, 115

rivalry, 48, 63, 100, 130, 147, 151,

172

rivals, 40, 49, 133, 141, 158

robbed, 85

robbers, 171

robbery, 93, 206

Roman, 163, 165, 167, 246

Roman Catholics, 120–1

Roman Empire, 142, 167

Roman Loimeier, 55, 106, 128, 129,

208, 210, 212, 216, 217, 219,

227, 230, 235, 236, 239, 245

Rome, 57, 120–1, 178

Ron, 104

root, x, 63, 66, 71, 106, 157, 191, 246

roots, x, 66, 70, 122, 215, 245

Rotimi Suberu, 88, 221, 227, 229,

262

royal, 6, 17, 20, 131, 203

Royal Niger Company, 17, 20

rule, 9, 15, 18–19, 21, 25, 26, 31, 34,

38–41, 68, 72, 80, 90, 100, 103,

115, 118, 129, 200, 202, 205,

207, 209, 234

ruler, 6, 11, 63

rulers, 5–6, 29–30, 47, 58, 95, 112,

134, 190

rules, 96

ruling, 5–6, 9, 11, 19, 42, 85

ruptured, 72, 167, 187

rural, 41, 121, 207

Rwanda, 78

Sabaean, 145

Sabaeans, 159, 160

sabon gari, 25, 181, 247

sacrifice, 238

sacrifices, 2

sacrosanct, 111

sadaqah (sadakah), 136, 181, 247

safe, 60, 94–6, 161, 166, 206

Sahara, 1, 103, 170, 201, 207, 211,

233, 259

Saharan, 1, 11, 70, 198, 215–17, 219,

235, 242–3, 254, 262–3

Sahel, 210, 234

Said Hawwa, 145, 239

Saifawa, 3–4

saints, 145, 233

Salafi, 199

Salafis, 199, 229

Salafist, 111

Salafiyya, 12, 66, 68, 128

Salam, 11, 239, 255

Sallah, 182

salvation, 44, 69, 139, 143, 145, 161,

164–5, 169, 172, 242

salvific, 242

Samaritan, 162, 180

Samuel Ajayi Crowther (Bishop), 21

sanctified, 165

sanctioned, 78

Sango, 87

sanguine, 21

Sani Abacha, 75, 84, 108

sanitizing, 92, 214, 223, 260

Sanni Umaru, 113, 229

see also Boko Haram

INDEX304

sarakuna, 6, 11

Sardauna of Sokoto, 13, 39, 43–4,

46–7, 50, 60, 66, 209, 216

sarki, 6

Saudi Arabia, 12–13, 40, 43, 48,

66–8, 76, 93, 128, 129, 130,

131–3, 135, 145, 199, 207,

210, 235

Saudi Arabian, 1, 12, 66–7, 128, 131,

155

Saudi Arabians, 130, 163

Saudis, 131–2, 135, 235, 236

saved, 70, 103, 143, 166

Sayyid Qutb, 65, 145, 171, 220, 239,

245

scheme, 24, 25, 28, 147, 192, 202

schisms, 36

scholar, 6, 8, 44, 112, 128, 134, 145,

170

scholarly, 6, 165

scholars, ix, xiv, xv, xvi, 2, 6, 12,

28, 34–5, 47–8, 65–7, 127–8,

144–5, 147, 149, 155, 159, 164,

169–71, 190, 192, 198–9, 207,

213, 238, 241, 245

scholarship, 69

scholarships, 106

school, 24–5, 82–83, 106, 131, 144,

182, 220, 223

schools, 24–5, 29, 31, 33, 47–8, 54,

67, 81–2, 98, 106, 109, 114, 129,

131, 177, 186, 202, 204, 210,

213, 234, 238

SCIA, 54

see also Supreme Council for

Islamic Affairs, 54, 209

Science, 192

sciences, 158

scientists, 191

scribes, 162

scriptural, 96, 238

scripture, 71, 143, 158, 164, 233

scriptures, 146, 152, 161

SDP, 85

see also Social Democratic Party

seal, 44, 53, 140, 234

seat, 9, 18, 74, 208

secede, 49

secession, 50, 190

secessionists, 51

second-class, x, 95, 96, 175

secret, 63, 95, 128, 130

secretariat, 79, 149–50, 218, 220, 222,

224, 239, 248–9, 253, 261

sect, 111, 113, 229, 230

sectarian, 36, 142, 248

sectional, 107

sections, 16, 108

sects, 47, 59, 130, 134

secular, 65, 81–3, 189–90, 214, 215,

217, 219, 223, 236

secularism, 81–3, 212, 214, 219, 220,

233, 236

secularist, 143

secularity, 68, 81–3, 87

secularization, 82, 219

secularized, 189

security, 57, 71, 75, 77, 81, 93, 98,

112–14, 118, 136, 168, 185,

187, 191, 199, 212, 216,

229–30, 232

segregated, 104

segregation, 231

Segun Osoba, 192

self, 26, 29, 41, 68, 72, 79, 89, 104,

120, 123–5, 129, 140, 206, 225,

228, 239

self-defense, 79

selfish, 56, 136, 151

self-rule, 38, 63, 68, 72, 129

self-supporting, 123

Senegal, 8, 128

Senegalese, 128

senior, 52, 55, 109

senseless, 50, 99

sensitive, 89, 92, 189

sensitize, 80

sentiments, 79, 118

separate, 2, 61, 70, 113, 148, 181

separation, 6, 81–2

separatist, 40

Serbian Orthodox, 78

serfdom, 153

service, 27, 171, 185

services, 10, 24, 32, 38, 48, 99,

178–9, 192, 198, 202, 246

INDEX 305

servitude, 160

session, 87, 97

sessions, 62, 86, 123

setback, 35

setting, 9, 20, 37, 149, 181, 192, 201

settled, 18, 26, 103, 104, 116, 225,

226

settlement, 25, 116

settlements, 204

settler, 104, 174

settlers, 102, 105, 116–17, 225

sex, 177

sexism, 249

Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, 65, 214, 258

Shagari, 56, 62, 73, 84, 85, 221

see also President Shehu Shagari

(Alhaji)

Shahs, 74

Shaikh Umar, 4

Shaikh, 4, 8

shareholders, 88

Shari’a, 7, 87, 35, 39, 40, 52–3,

58–62, 66, 74, 78–9, 82–8,

90–8, 112, 115, 176, 189–90,

211, 212, 214, 217, 220, 222,

223, 224, 249

Shaykh Muhammad Mutwalli

Sha’rawi, 145

Shehu Usuman dan Fodio, 33

see also dan Fodio, Usuman dan

Fodio and Uthman dan Fodio

Shehu, 2, 8, 16–18, 47, 56, 62, 73,

84–5, 94, 103, 199, 221, 234,

256

Shehu of Bornu, 17, 47

Abubakar Garba, 17

Shehu Muhammad al-Kanemi, 2

Shehu of Sokoto, 16

Sheikh, 43, 44, 47, 49, 53, 233, 234

Sheikh Abd al-Qadir al-Jaylani, 127,

233

Sheikh Ahmad Tijani, 127, 234

Sheikh Mahmud Abubakar Gumi, 44,

47, 49, 53, 74–5, 127, 131, 133,

210, 216, 217, 235

Sheikh Nasiru Kabara, 75, 128–30,

132, 210

see also Nasiru Kabara

shekir, 11

Shi, 76, 130, 133–4, 145

Shi’ite, 76, 130, 133–4, 145

Shiawa, 76

see also mini-ayatollahs or Yan Shia

shield, 140

Shielding, 230

shirk, 145, 160, 239

sidelining, 107

sides, 51, 99, 151

Sierra Leone, 24

sifting, 155

Sikhism, 160–1

SIM, 32

see also Sudan Interior Mission

similarities, 66, 152

sin, 247

singled, 68, 185

sister, 120, 121, 122

sisters, 186

situation, 11, 42, 68, 100, 115, 118,

142, 159, 169, 191, 231, 244

situations, ix, 58, 77, 150, 191

skeptics, 188

skilled, 23, 24, 45, 125, 134

skills, 24, 33, 42, 201

skimming, 81, 135

skirmishes, 7, 97

slave, 94, 103, 198

slavery, 17, 21, 59, 167, 198

slaves, x, 4, 6, 10, 18, 61, 94, 198,

200

SMA, 22, 201

see also Society of African Mission

social activism, 7

Social, 5, 85, 97, 176, 197, 199, 201,

220, 223–4, 235, 245, 249, 252,

259, 261, 263

social, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 9–10, 16,

19, 24–6, 30–3, 35–9, 42,

44–6, 53–4, 57–8, 63–4, 71,

73–5, 77–9, 82, 91–4, 100, 107,

115–18, 124, 127–8, 133, 135–8,

142, 147, 150, 152, 155–6, 160,

162, 164, 170–8, 180–1, 183,

185–9, 191–3, 202, 231, 236,

244, 249

socioeconomic, 11, 71, 192

INDEX306

Social Democratic Party, 85

see also SDP

social justice, 7, 10, 30, 53–4, 57, 107,

115, 176–7, 192, 220, 245

sociopolitical, xii, 6, 46, 76, 84, 112,

188, 192, 207, 229

social-religious, 161

social services, 38, 178, 202

societies, 9, 29, 36–7, 64, 93, 95, 97,

102, 155, 158, 167, 169, 175,

178–9, 189, 193, 214, 238–9,

243, 246, 248

society, x, xii, xv, 5, 13, 21–5, 27,

29–30, 33, 35–6, 42, 47–9, 53,

56–7, 62, 64, 66–8, 70–1, 75,

78, 83–4, 86, 88, 90–5, 101–2,

105, 113, 118, 128, 134–6, 138,

143, 149–50, 152, 155–7, 167,

169–75, 177–9, 181–2, 184,

189–93, 197, 198, 202, 205,

210, 213, 214, 217, 219, 220,

221, 222, 223, 224, 227, 228,

229, 230, 234, 235, 246, 249

Society of African Mission, 22, 202

see also, SMA

socio-cultural, 155, 169, 192

socio-economic, 11, 71, 192

sociological, 91, 192

sociology, 158

socio-political, 6, 46, 76, 84, 112,

188, 192, 207, 229

socio-religious, 161

Sokoto, xiii, 1–5, 8–9, 11–13, 15–20,

22, 33, 39, 42–4, 46–8, 50, 58,

60, 62–3, 66, 73, 75–6, 93–4,

103, 113, 128, 133, 174, 181,

183, 195–203, 205, 208–10,

216, 234, 253, 260, 263

soldiers, 18, 49, 51, 55, 60, 113, 130

solidarity, 150, 177, 242

solution, 191, 192, 212, 219

solutions, 135, 215

Songhai, 126

soteriology, 69, 165

soul, 139

souls, 126, 180, 202

source, 79, 92, 126, 134, 166, 200,

214, 222, 251

sources, 70, 94, 108, 123, 125, 130,

134, 137, 138, 144, 245

south, x, 1–2, 9, 13, 21, 24, 28–33,

36–7, 45, 51–2, 54–6, 60–2, 65,

77, 86, 88–9, 91, 102–3, 107,

115, 118, 124–5, 170, 198, 202,

208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 216,

221, 225, 227, 229, 233

southeast, 51, 65, 73, 85, 216

southeastern, 85

southern, x, 1, 20, 21, 23–4, 27–30,

35, 37, 41, 44–5, 47, 48, 49, 55,

61, 79, 89–91, 101, 104, 110,

117–18, 124–5, 175, 190, 199,

201, 203, 204

southerners, 36–7, 50, 90, 124

southwest, 54, 73, 85, 216

sovereign, 19

speaking in tongues, 123

Spain, 78, 184

Spirit, 123, 162, 163, 166, 178

spirit, 29, 67, 149–50, 158, 162–3,

168, 180, 191

spiritual, 8–10, 12, 17, 45, 53, 57, 67,

94, 112, 124–5, 127–9, 134–6,

144, 150, 152, 162–3, 171, 176,

199, 202, 215, 223, 236

spiritual paths, 127

spirituality, 127, 132, 161

split, 28, 36, 49, 127, 190

splits, 120

spokesman, 144

sponsor, 53, 81, 120–1, 134

sponsors, 76, 113, 120, 133

sponsorship, 21, 53, 56–7

sports, 111

S. S. Salifu, 80

stability, 16, 20, 187

stakeholders, 178

standard, 66, 91, 95, 107, 110–11, 156,

163–4, 166, 192, 243, 244

standardizing, 239

standards, 6, 8, 27, 184

state, ix, xii, xiii, 2, 6–7, 10, 13, 18,

29, 33, 48, 54, 57–8, 61–6, 71,

73, 76, 80–4, 86, 88, 91–3,

95–7, 100–104, 105–6, 108–10,

112–13, 116–18, 129, 135, 143,

INDEX 307

174–5, 186, 189–90, 199, 203,

207, 209, 210, 211, 215, 217,

218, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225,

227, 228, 229, 230, 234

state decree, 117

statement, 51, 80, 113, 144, 153,

183, 222, 229

statements, 52, 159

states, x, xii, 1–11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 26,

29, 33, 52–4, 60, 62, 66, 68, 74,

77, 79, 82–3, 85–6, 91–3, 95,

98–9, 107–9, 111–12, 115–18,

123, 126, 135, 146, 149, 157–9,

166–7, 176, 178, 179, 182, 183,

190, 192, 195, 196, 197, 198,

206, 209, 210, 212, 214, 216,

218, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226,

227, 228, 229, 240

statesman, 78

statistical, 34, 37, 42, 45, 95, 98

status, 33, 59–60, 96, 109–10, 112,

138, 162, 228–9

stewardship, 15

stigma, 178

stories, 181, 183

story, 4, 21, 58, 101, 125, 161, 201,

203, 207, 211

stranger, 168

strangers, 228

strategically, 45, 207

strategize, 137

strategy, 26, 34, 37, 39, 40, 151

structural, 119

structure, 4, 13, 15, 19, 28, 36, 42,

112, 121, 167, 174, 181, 197,

201, 228, 230

structures, 9, 37, 39, 42, 90–1, 126,

129, 175, 191, 230

struggle, 45, 62, 78, 102, 130, 135

struggles, 9, 100–101

students, 47, 48, 71, 75, 86, 97, 132–3,

156, 191, 195, 196, 205, 235

studies, 40, 67, 70, 76, 102, 131,

168–9, 191, 212, 215, 219, 249

study, x, xiv, 22, 44, 63–4, 91–2, 99,

101, 114, 120, 126–7, 130, 133,

140, 151, 155, 164, 169, 187,

188, 192, 197, 199, 202, 204,

209, 210, 212, 213, 218, 219,

222, 227, 232, 245

style, 36, 74, 112, 126, 128

sub-region, 83, 186, 189

subaltern, 220

sub-Saharan, 11, 70, 215, 216, 217,

219, 235, 242, 243

subjects, 3, 6, 21, 23, 114, 149

subjugate, 7

subjugated, 19, 103

subjugation, 70

submission, 229

subordinate, 11, 29

subordination, 33–4

subscribe, 104, 121, 123, 137, 145–6,

223, 233

subsidize, 203

subsidizing, 28

subsidy, 28

substandard, 192

substantial, 46, 55, 66–7, 99, 102,

104, 108, 162

suburb, 181

suburbs, 182, 247

subversive, 35

Sudan, 1, 4, 8, 11–13, 17, 21,

24, 31–2, 40, 42–3, 66, 91,

95, 122, 128–9, 190, 195–9,

202, 204, 210, 242, 253,

256

Sudan Interior Mission, 32

see also SIM

Sudan United Mission, 24, 31–2, 199,

202, 204

see also SUM

Sudanese, 2, 58, 223

Sufi, 8, 35–6, 49, 67, 76, 77,

127–8, 132, 185, 214,

233–4, 239, 248

Sufis, 146, 233, 239

Sufism, 233, 235, 263

suicidal, 183

suicide, 113, 114, 133, 141–2, 186

Suleiman Kumo, 58, 211

sultan, 3, 9, 15, 17–18, 20, 22, 33,

47, 59, 75, 128, 134, 200,

205, 210

Sultanate, 9

INDEX308

Sultan of Sokoto

Abdurrahaman, 17–18, 22, 200

Muhammad Attahiru II, 18, 33,

205

Shehu Attahiru Ahmadu, 18

Sultans, 17

SUM, 24, 31–2

see also Sudan United Mission

Sunna, 49, 74, 111, 145, 230

Sunni, 9, 12, 130, 134, 145, 185,

233

superior, 11, 139, 149, 161, 165–7,

174, 193

superiority, 7, 18–19, 29, 45, 74, 127,

144, 146, 157, 164, 188, 242,

243

superseded, 76, 145

supersessionism, 145–6, 188, 238

supporters, 8, 9, 12, 76, 136, 212

supremacy, 90, 128

supreme, 47, 54, 58, 61, 69, 87, 91,

147, 169, 209

Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs,

54, 209

see also SCIA

surrender, 3, 17, 37, 144, 222

surrendered, 20, 80

surveillance, 75

Survey, 197, 232, 251, 256

survival, 173

suzerainty, 5

swear, 33

sword, 133, 199, 234, 256

sworn, 33

sycophancy, 111

Syllabus Errorum, 143

Sylvester Ugo, 85

symbiotic, 169

symbol, 166, 165, 238, 247

sympathetic, 34

sympathizers, 134

sympathy, 52, 234

symptomatic, 9

synagogues, 3

synchronous, 5, 36, 152, 164

syncretism, 7–8, 156

Synod, 178, 246, 262

Syria, 145

system, 15, 19, 21, 24–6, 28–9, 33,

35, 39, 52–3, 59, 68, 73, 81, 83,

85–6, 91, 92, 93–6, 102, 103,

107, 109, 112, 118, 160, 167, 176,

190, 196, 202, 215, 222, 248

systematic, 61, 83, 231

systems, 87, 153, 171, 212

Tafawa Balewa (city), 98, 100, 101

tafsir, 130, 239, 255

takeover, 54, 133

talakawa, 10, 11, 19, 22, 107, 118

talents, 111

Taliban, 230

Tanzania, 196, 261

Taraba, 80, 102

Tarayyar Ekklesiyan Kristi A Sudan, 32

see also TEKAS

Tarayyar Ekklesiyoyin Kristi A

Nigeria, 122

see also TEKAN

tariqa, 7, 35, 44, 63, 76, 127, 128,

129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 170,

208, 216, 219, 233, 234

Tarok, 193

tawhid, 144, 160, 180

tax, 6, 10–11, 19, 94, 138, 201, 242

taxes, 6, 11, 18, 94, 109, 116

taxonomy, 213

taxpayers, 53, 56–7, 61, 83

teachers, 1, 12, 48, 61, 195, 196

teaching, 22, 79, 84, 114, 122,

127–8, 144–6, 157, 162, 169,

180, 233

teachings, 71, 77, 112, 123, 135–6,

144, 147, 157, 180

technocratic, 55

technocrats, 122, 222

technological, 24, 175

technology, 25, 65, 126, 168

TEKAN, 122

see also Tarayyar Ekklesiyoyin Kristi

A Nigeria

TEKAS, 32

see also Tarayyar Ekklesiyan Kristi

A Sudan

Temple, 3, 25, 28, 142

tenets, 64, 134, 138, 143, 219

INDEX 309

tension, 46, 49, 72, 87–8, 106, 115,

162, 172, 187–8

territorial, 127

territories, ix, 3–4, 11, 16–17, 20,

22, 28, 34–5, 65, 93, 102, 135,

204, 207

territory, 2, 58, 102, 203, 113, 229

terror, 77, 102, 248

Terrorism, xiii, 101, 224, 232, 259

terrorist, 74, 77, 99, 113, 118, 138,

178, 229

tertiary, 48, 191

testimony, 247

Testing, 224, 262

text, 82, 140, 143, 144, 146, 147,

158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164,

166, 170, 200, 223, 229, 239

Thailand, 232

theatricals, 123, 219

theocratic, 44

theologians, 144, 148–9, 156, 164,

169, 239, 244

theological, 12, 22, 70, 71, 120, 123,

138, 141, 144, 145, 147, 149,

150, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157,

158, 161, 163, 164, 165, 167,

169, 175, 189, 192, 244, 246

theological assumptions, 71, 100, 167

theology, xiii, xv, 69, 82, 125, 139,

142, 152, 156, 158, 161, 163,

165, 179–80, 189, 237, 238,

239, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246

Theophilius Danjuman, 55

theory, x, 10, 69, 121, 158, 192, 195,

238

Thomas Hodgkin, 12–13, 196–7,

254, 256

threat, 39, 47, 147, 229

threatened, 10, 62, 86–7, 109, 187,

217

throne, 3, 124

Tijaniyya, 7, 36, 44, 47–9, 63, 67, 75,

127–9, 133–4, 210, 216, 233–4

Timbuktu, 5–6, 127

time, 5, 7, 9, 12–13, 17, 18, 24, 25,

27, 41, 42, 44, 52, 55, 58, 62,

70, 71, 73, 81, 83, 85, 90, 91,

93, 94, 104, 105, 114, 133, 137,

138, 142, 147, 160, 163, 164,

172, 175, 214, 230, 231

times, 18, 35, 58, 76, 78, 135, 142,

148, 159, 170, 181, 199, 210,

220–1, 234

tithes, 136

title, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 87, 208

Tiv, 11, 13, 32, 48, 69, 104, 106,

116, 122, 193

T. J. Bowen, 21

tobacco, 6

Bashri Tofa, 85

tolerance, 9, 23, 141, 159–60, 164,

239, 242, 243

tombs, 145

tongues, 123, 244

tool, ix, 32, 38, 39, 53, 69–70, 91,

148, 174, 176, 189, 204, 239

topic, 83, 86, 87, 92, 101, 155, 195,

226

Torodbe, 7

Toronto, 24, 233, 234, 236

Totalizing, 63

totalizing, 63–4, 71, 141, 153, 161,

174

towns, x, xi, 51, 93, 116, 198

Toyin Falola, 132, 195, 217, 219, 223,

236

see also Falola

trade, 1, 6, 17, 21, 94, 95, 198,

200–201

trademarks, 199

traders, 1, 5, 26, 170

tradition, 41, 44, 96, 102, 112, 131,

135, 151–2, 157, 160, 162–3,

166, 185, 210, 213, 219, 222,

233, 242

traditional, 3, 5, 7, 10–11, 22, 30,

36, 47, 65, 76, 80, 96, 104, 112,

113, 126, 128, 130, 134, 158,

160, 168, 169, 170, 188, 199,

208, 210, 242, 244

traditionalist, 15, 21, 23, 26, 29, 166,

193, 204

traditions, 32, 123, 134, 141, 149,

150, 155, 157, 160, 164, 165,

166, 175, 178, 182, 185, 193,

197, 241, 242, 243, 245

INDEX310

transcendence, 244

transformation, 152, 209, 211, 252,

263

transformed, 210, 217, 227, 230,

234, 257

transition, 2, 7, 166, 169, 208, 217,

221, 224, 229

translation, 17, 162, 200, 220, 239,

243, 245

transparent, 137

transplanting, 246

trauma, 187

traumatic, 229

traumatized, 98

travellers, 200

travels, 4, 199

treachery, 34

treasures, 180

Treasury, 203

treaties, 17

treaty, 21

tribal, 44–5, 231, 249

tribalism, 93

tribes, 102, 159

tribesmen, 10

tribute, 4, 11, 44, 61, 193, 247

trillions, 54

Trinitarian, 169

Trinity, 165

Tripoli, 2

troop, 17, 18

tropical, 203

trust, 114, 124, 177, 225, 247

truth, 31, 116, 137, 139, 141, 142,

143, 144, 146, 148, 150, 152,

157, 162, 165, 166, 184, 188,

199, 212, 233, 234

Tuareg, 8

Turkey, 64

turuq, 44, 48, 49, 63, 214

Tutsi, 78

typology, 163, 240

ubiquitous, 130, 141

Uganda, 78

Ugo, 85

ulama, 138, 190, 234

ultraconservative, 10, 112

Umar Danfulani, 103, 225

Umar Tal, 128

UMBC, 42, 68

see also United Middle Belt Congress

umbrella, 47, 54, 79, 122–4, 183, 247

umma, 66

Umma movement, 76–7, 235

UN, 114, 229

see also United Nations

un-Islamic, 65, 68, 75, 112

un-Islamized, 198

unbelief, 145, 146, 170

unbelievers, 10, 11, 18, 22, 96, 148,

239

uncharitable, 56, 57

unchristian, 57

uncompromising, 139, 141

unconquered, 103

uncorrupted, 70

uncritical, 136

unemployed, 112

unemployment, 171

unethical, 95, 206

unfavorable, 22, 42, 89

unfriendly, 22, 130

unhealthy, 40, 49, 91, 130, 183

unholy, 229, 230

uniformity, 66, 121

unifying, 43

union, 32, 36, 71, 127, 190, 193, 200

united, 20, 24, 31, 32, 42, 44, 45, 46,

49, 51, 54, 55, 60, 68, 73, 74, 77,

123, 127, 149, 163, 178, 179, 182,

191, 199, 202, 204, 210, 221,

223, 224, 226, 227, 229, 240

United African Company, 20

United Middle Belt Congress, 42, 68

see also UMBC

United Nations, 240

see also UN

United States Commission on

International Religious

Freedom, 227

see also USCIRF

United States of America, xvi, 74, 77,

123, 149, 178–9, 182, 223, 224,

226, 227, 240

see also the US and USA

INDEX 311

unity, 3, 52, 73, 75, 77, 101, 107, 111,

121, 163, 170, 180, 182, 193

Unity Party of Nigeria, 73

see also UPN

universal, 57, 121, 165–6, 183

universality, 242

universally, 156

universities, 61, 71, 86, 215

University, xvi, 5, 13, 22, 24, 48, 71,

75, 76, 97, 112, 113, 114, 129,

132, 133, 134, 135, 179, 195,

196, 197, 198, 199, 208–19,

223, 224, 227, 234–9, 241, 242,

243, 245, 246, 248, 249

unpatriotic, 56

unwelcomed, 117

unwillingness, 151

UPN, 73

see also Unity Party of Nigeria

uprising, 26, 35, 39–40, 69, 132, 203

urban, 43

Urhobo, 106, 116, 227

US, 70, 82, 178

see also United States of America

and USA

USA, 24, 132, 241

see also US and United States of

America

USCIRF, 227, 229

see also United States Commission

on International Religious

Freedom

Usman dan Fodio University, 133

Usmaniyya, 44, 127, 216

Ustaz Mohammed Yusuf, 112

see also Boko Haram

Usuman dan Fodio, 1, 4–8, 10,

12–13, 18–19, 33, 44, 48, 58,

63–4, 66, 90, 127, 167, 233

see also dan Fodio, Shehu Usuman

dan Fodio, and Uthman dan

Fodio

Uthman, 44, 197

see also dan Fodio, Usuman dan

Fodio, and Shehu Usuman dan

Fodio

Uzukwu, 168–9, 244, 246, 263

see also Elochukwu Uzukwu

vassal, 4, 8, 10, 19

vassals, 3, 140

Vatican, 121, 143, 150, 165, 169,

183, 206, 232, 240, 261

viability, 188, 228

viable, 83, 175, 210, 217, 218, 219,

224, 227, 230, 234–6, 257

vices, 78, 92–3

victims, 43, 68, 89, 94, 98, 105, 146,

178, 191, 218

Victor Chukwulozie (Rev. Fr.), 45,

197, 209, 253

victory, 10, 47, 74, 85

vigilante, 79, 81

village, 26, 51, 94, 98, 111–12

violation, 58, 93

violence, ix, x, xi, xiii, 42, 45, 50,

62–4, 67–9, 72, 75–9, 98–101,

104–6, 111–13, 117, 137–40,

142, 148, 153, 159, 173–5, 178,

181, 187, 190–1, 195, 217, 218,

219, 223, 224, 226, 227, 236,

237, 238, 247, 248

violent, 49, 62, 64, 68–9, 75–9, 84,

97–9, 101, 105, 112–13, 130,

140–2, 148, 158, 176, 179, 187,

218, 223, 232, 247

virtues, 168, 176, 178, 185, 247

vision, 66

vociferous, 88, 95

voice, 47, 54, 57, 127, 209, 211, 212,

227, 247

voiceless, 209, 211–12, 261

volatile, 147

volatility, x, 36

vote, 85, 206

voting, 90

Wadai, 2

Wahba al-Zuhayli, 145

Wahhabi, 12, 67, 68, 128, 130–1,

145–6, 214, 216, 233

Wahhabis, 145, 239

Wahhabism, 12–13, 66, 67, 129, 131,

145–6, 199

Wahhabiyya, 66, 67, 214, 239

wali, 234

walkout, 62

INDEX312

Walter Ofonagoro, 221, 259

Walter Miller (Dr), 22–3

war, 3, 11, 18, 22, 32–3, 39, 43, 47,

49–52, 55, 62, 70, 74, 78, 96,

102, 107, 117, 133–4, 141, 164,

190, 209, 211, 215

warfare, 141

warlike, 159

warriors, 198

Wase, 24, 204

Waziri Ibrahim (Alhaji), 216

WCC, 46, 121–2, 177, 183

see also World Council of Churches

WEA, 122, 177

see also World Evangelical Alliance

wealth, 8, 95, 134, 136, 138, 147, 181

wealthy, 136

weapon, 62, 152, 176

welfare, 10, 57, 61, 95, 121, 178, 181,

185, 202

WESJOMO, 209

see also Western State Joint Muslim

Organization

Wesleyans, 21, 32

West, 2–3, 5, 102, 164, 186, 189,

193, 195–7, 203, 210, 214, 217,

220, 227, 230, 233–4, 243, 251,

253–4, 256–7, 261, 263

West Africa, 1, 7, 9, 20, 23, 24, 115,

186

Western, 16, 23–5, 27, 32–3, 35–6,

38, 42, 48, 54, 65–9, 74, 77–8,

82, 93, 104, 112, 119, 133, 142,

155, 164, 171, 173, 175, 189,

199, 201–3, 205, 209, 214, 220,

244, 246, 253

Western Nigeria, 9, 35, 36, 40, 202,

205

Western State Joint Muslim

Organization, 209

see also WESJOMO

Western Sudan, 8, 11, 12, 13, 198,

199

Westport, 195, 255–6

white, 16, 23, 30

white paper report, 92, 223

William R. Burrows, 165, 240, 243

Wilson Sabiya, 61, 212

win, 73, 90, 126, 128, 145, 206

wisdom, 92, 166

witness, 122, 150, 177, 184, 191,

232, 246, 248

witnessed, 72, 79, 84, 99, 117, 247

witnessing, 121, 150

women, 57, 107, 111, 138, 150, 168

won, 31, 75, 85, 111, 130, 157

workers, 24, 117, 150, 176

world, 12–13, 16, 27, 32, 33, 35,

43, 46, 62, 66–7, 70, 78, 90–2,

94–5, 121, 122, 133, 140, 142,

144, 148, 152, 157, 163–8, 170,

175, 177, 182–3, 193, 200, 201,

202, 205, 208, 209, 213, 216,

218, 224, 227, 231–6, 238–40,

242, 244–8

World Council of Churches, 46, 121–2,

164, 177, 183, 232, 246, 248

see also WCC

World Evangelical Alliance, 122, 177,

183

see also WEA

worldview, 90, 135, 141, 146, 151–2,

158, 160, 164, 167–9, 171–4,

175, 184, 188–9, 214, 245

worldviews, 155, 158, 175

worldwide, 171

worship, 11, 18, 84, 99, 114–15,

122–3, 143, 145–6, 148, 160,

162, 183–4, 219

worshippers, 87, 162

worshipping, 114, 164, 172

Wukari, 204

Wusasa, 23

xenophobia, 100

xenophobic, 100

Yahweh, 148

Yakubu Gowon (General), 49–50,

52–6, 60, 216

Yakubu Yahaya, 76, 129, 133, 134, 217

Yan Izala, 145, 146, 170, 213, 217

see also Izala and Jama’atul Izalatul

Bid’ah Wa’ikhamatul Sunnah

Yan Shia, 76

see also mini-ayatollahs or Shiawa

INDEX 313

Yaqub, 6

Ya’qub of Bauchi, 11

Yauri, 5

Yazbeck, 255

Yelwa, 181, 183, 218

Yerima, 91

see also Ahmed Sani Yerima

Yobe, 111–12, 229

Yohana Madaki (Colonel), 217

Yola, 37, 42, 94, 97, 200

Yoruba, 5, 17, 30, 46, 104, 116, 193,

227, 245

Yorubaland, 20–1

Yorubas, 106, 222

Young Muslim Association of

Nigeria, 47

young, 49–50, 52, 55, 75, 114, 132,

214, 216

youth, 71, 124, 136, 178, 216

youths, 79, 81, 112, 124, 218

Yunfa, 8, 13

Yusufu Bala Usman, 62, 119, 136,

192, 232, 263

Yusufu Turaki, 68, 197, 198, 215

zakat, 6, 136, 181

Zamfara, 5, 17, 62, 66, 91

Zango Kataf, 98, 99, 100, 101, 224

Zaria, 2, 5–7, 23–5, 31, 37, 41–2,

45, 48, 51, 71, 75–6, 97, 99,

102–3, 118, 128, 133, 181,

183, 203, 211, 232, 236,

258, 263

Zazzau, 5

zeal, 4, 141–2

zealotism, 141

zealotry, 142

zealous, 2, 46

zina, 59

Zionist, 119

zoning, 182, 228

Zoroastrianism, 95, 161