notes - springer978-1-4039-8134-9/1.pdf · on the bhima which are especially precious (durlabh); he...

Notes

Introduction

Notes to Pages 1–5

1. Adele Fiske, a scholar of Greek and Latin Classics and a Professor of Religion atManhattanville College, had done postdoctoral studies in Sanskrit andBuddhism at Columbia University. In the course of these studies, she had spenta year in India learning about modern forms of Buddhism there. In the summerof 1970, when she was returning to India to learn about popular Hinduism, sheinvited me to travel with her.

2. The train is probably more immediately named for Pune (Poona), whichin British times was called the “Queen of the Deccan” (Frank Conlon, personalcommunication).

3. The southern border of Maharashtra corresponds roughly to a change from theheavy, black cotton soil called “Deccan trap” to the looser, reddish soil of the for-mer Mysore State. See Chen 1996:122 and Spate and Learmonth 1967:98–99.

4. According to some, Khandec is named for Krsga or Kanha, the god of theAbhiras (R. C. Dhere, personal communication, 2001); according to others, itis named for the Yadava king Kanherdev (BSK, Volume 2, p. 635), or its namederives from Seugadeca, a name of the Yadava kingdom (ibid.). Another ety-mology would derive its name from the Persian honorific title “Khan,” reminis-cent of the area’s Muslim rulers.

5. According to BSK, Volume 8, p. 687–88, present-day usage restricts the term“Varhat” to Akola, Amravati, Yavatmal, and Buldhana Districts, and applies thename “Vidarbha” to the area covered by these districts plus Vardha, Nagpur,Canda (Candrapur), and Bhandara Districts.

6. Aurangabad, Jalna, Parbhani, Nanded, Bid, Latur, and Usmanabad Districts.7. For a fuller description of my fieldwork techniques, see Feldhaus 1995:9–15 and

Feldhaus 2000:47–63.8. Such a region is what Burton Stein (1977) called a “cognitive” or “formal”

region, what Bernard Cohn (1967) called a “historical” region, and whatothers call a “naively given,” “experienced,” or “subjective” region (Lodrick1994:3–4, quoting Schwartzberg 1967:89–90).

9. For an excellent survey of this literature, see Feld and Basso 1996b. Culturalgeographers interested in place have had to extract themselves from a notion of

social science as exclusively concerned with scientific rationality. See, e.g.,Entrikin 1989:40–41.

10. Casey 1996b:39, citing Bachelard and Heidegger; cf. Bourdieu 1971.11. Entrikin 1989:30, e.g., uses “the terms ‘place’ and ‘region’ such that, except for

the differences in geographical scale, their meanings are essentially equivalent.”Agnew 1993:263, pointing out that “the sense of place need not be restrictedto the scale of the locality,” identifies “place” as “discrete if ‘elastic’ areas inwhich . . . social relations are located and with which people can identify.” Ifplace is “elastic,” whole regions can be places.

12. They do, however, also know and speak of these directional terms (and havespecial terms not only for the cardinal directions, but for the intermediate ones,for which people in Kansas are left simply with the hybrids of the cardinaldirections, “southwest,” “northwest,” and the others). People in Maharashtrause the cardinal and intermediate directions in architecture as well. For exam-ple, when possible, homes and temples are oriented to the east, and the VastuPurusa (see Kramrisch 1976) is installed in the (or a) southeast corner of manyhomes—even in flats in large apartment buildings. Although some people saythat Muslims build mosques oriented to the west (the general direction ofMecca), mosques are in fact oriented to Mecca itself (an angle of 280 degreesfrom India. Catherine Asher, personal communication), rather than to the west.For the importance of the cardinal directions to the compilers of a medievalMarathi religious-geographical text, the SthCnpothI, see chapter 6.

13. Lee Schlesinger first made me aware of this linguistic phenomenon during themid-1970s, when he was doing field work in a village in Satara District,Maharashtra.

14. Feldhaus 1995:24–25; cf. the section of chapter 5 titled “The MaharashtrianGafga.”

15. See Berdoulay 1989:125 on the connotations of the term “lieu” in Frenchgeography.

16. See, e.g., Keith and Pile 1993.17. I am grateful to Eleanor Zelliot for her help in formulating the information

presented here. For modern definitions of Maharashtra before 1960, seeFeldhaus 1986:536, n.8.

18. Quite apart from recent immigration to European countries, the situation iscomplicated by the fact that Belgium and Switzerland were founded as multi-lingual nation-states, as well as by the fact that several European languages arespoken in more than one nation-state: German, e.g., in Austria and Switzerlandas well as in Germany. See Karna 2000:81.

19. See Karna 2000:84 for three “patterns of language diversity” in formerly colo-nized countries.

20. Kolte 1982a:92; ASM I.133–34. See chapter 6.21. For further arguments in support of this statement, see the section

“Maharashtra’s Southern Identity” at the end of chapter 5.22. Sontheimer 1991; Feldhaus 1995:98–101. There are also stories about the

MahCbhCrata heroes spending their period of exile in Maharashtra. See, e.g.,the story of the origin of the Karha river, at the beginning of chapter 1.

224 Notes to Pages 5–11

23. Paracurambhakta n.d.:17; cf. Mate 1962:111.24. For further explanations of the Citpavans’ connection with Ambejogai, see the

section “The Goddess as Bride: Jogai” in chapter 3.

1 Rivers and Regional Consciousness

1. Some of the villages along this river have names that connect them with thisstory. The place where the sage ran out of bel leaves for worshiping divalifgasis called Belsar (“sar” comes from the verb “saraGe,” “to give out,” “to beexpended”). The village just upstream from Pagtecvar is at the spot whereArjun and Nakul heard their eldest brother, Yudhisvhir, calling out impatiently,“Arjun! Where are you?”—“I’m nearby (javaL)!” Arjun replied. And thus theplace that Arjun had reached is now called Javalarjun.

2. Cf. Jackson 1994 on roads.3. These texts are listed in the abbreviations at the end of the bibliography as NM,

TM, PM, GM.Mar., BM, KM.Mar., GM.Skt., and KM.Skt., respectively. Fullbibliographical information is given there.

4. KM.Mar. 60.21–22; KM.Skt. 60.23–25.5. durlabh. TM 75.53. Cf. TM 78.51.6. KM.Skt. 58.37–38; KM.Mar. 58.29.7. PM 27.39–40 and PM 39.51 give the same list; PM 22.100–01, a partially

different list.8. Lele (1885:131) quotes a Sanskrit verse from “the Puragas” naming four places

on the Bhima which are especially precious (durlabh); he also (1885:160) liststhe five most important confluences (saFgams) and the five most importantholy places (kSetras) along the Krsga. For the Sijhastha, see chapter 5 in thisbook.

9. See also Kagalkar 1969:30–31.10. T. Nilakagvh Kavicvar dastri gives a strikingly similar interpretation of an anal-

ogous image of the Krsga. The image is found in a verse of a poem by wembeSvami entitled “Krsgalahari”: “Your mouth is at the base of the Sahyadris; / Youhave Narahari’s compassionate heart; / Your navel is in a town in Andhra; / Yourtwo feet are in the east.” Although the verse does not name specific tIrthas orkSetras, T. N. K. dastri and other interpreters (Joci 1950:13; oral informationfrom a priest at Narsobaci Vati) identify Wai as the Krsga’s mouth or face(mukha), Narsobaci Vati as its heart, and Kurugatti or Kuravapor in AndhraPradesh as its navel, with the feet being the two mouths by which the Krsgareaches the ocean. dastri explains that Wai is called the mouth of the Krsgabecause many Brahmags live in Wai, and Brahmags are the mouth of Visgu(whom dastri identifies with the Vedic Purusa). Since “the scriptures” identifyVisgu with the Krsga river (dastri 1982:122), this river too is ultimately onewith the Purusa of the Purusasokta.

11. The mouth of the Sarasvati river is understood to be at Prabhas, now calledSomnath, in Saurasvra (Bhardwaj 1973:46–47).

Notes to Pages 12–22 225

12. In some accounts, the moon emerged from the ocean, which is thus its father.The story of the origin of the Porga or Payosgi river (see later) shows it to bethe daughter of the moon. This makes the river the granddaughter of the ocean.

13. See Feldhaus 1995 for more on gender imagery used in relation to rivers.14. See Eck 1982:40–41, 320–21, 351–53.15. For instance, Ujjain, Tryambakecvar, Ojkar Mandhata (Kagalkar 1969:9),

Karat (Gupte 1927:6), and qddhipur (chapter 6 in this book).16. KM.Mar. 54.11; 60.23; KM.Skt. 54.15; 60.26.17. PM 1.49–6.90; cf. Feldhaus 1995:108–09.18. I am not sure where either Belkugt or Varamtir is. It may be that Belkugt is

the place that the Census of India 1991 District Census Handbook for AmravatiDistrict (1995) lists as Belkheda, near Vishroli. Vishroli lies on the east bank ofthe Porga river in Candor Bajar Taluka.

19. More precisely, Brahma accomplished the sacrifice despite the obstructionscaused by his wives. See Feldhaus 1995:41–42, 78; cf. Malik 1993.

20. A Marathi-speaking pandit in Dharmapuri used a play on words to linkDharmapuri not only with Basar, but also with Kalecvaram, another holy placeon the Godavari in Andhra Pradesh: VCsar (� Basar), he explained, is upstream(var), and if one goes there one gets knowledge (vidya, the gift of Sarasvati, whois the goddess of learning); KClecvaram is downstream (khCli); if one goes there,one is spared an untimely death (akCla mrtyu); while in Dharmapuri one getsdharma—religious, morally correct behavior.

21. In the GodCvarI MChCtmya, the demon’s head is said to have fallen on Mt. Meru(GM.Skt. 36.39), or on the Sahyadri mountains (GM.Mar. 15.29).

22. The places the man named are Mahuli, Vatkhet, Limb, Marth, and Dhavatci. For more on Agastya (and Paracuram), see the introduction to thisbook.

23. Some other texts do use marital imagery with respect to other rivers. SeeFeldhaus 1995:43.

24. Eck 1982:213, 1996:138. The Sanskrit GodCvarI MChCtmya names two sets ofsix rivers, one in North India and one in South India (GM.Skt. 1.23–24; cf.GM.Mar. 1.31–33).

25. In some versions of the story of the descent of the Gafga (e.g., in NM. 40),when the water from Brahma’s waterpot flows down from Visgu’s toes, it goesfirst to the Pole Star and from there to the constellation of the Seven Sages,before falling to the peak of Mt. Meru. If we remember that the Godavari isthe Gafga (see chapter 5 in this book, and Feldhaus 1995:24–25), we can seethe association of the Godavari delta with the Seven Sages as complementaryto the river’s passing through the constellation of the Seven Sages before com-ing to earth. The symmetry thus produced also suggests a cycle in whichthe river goes from sky to earth and back, as water does in the cycle of rain. Thereplication on earth of a constellation in the sky is, further, reminiscent of thevery old notion of the Milky Way as a river in the sky. See Witzel 1984:213–79.In Marathi this river is called “Akacgafga,” “the Gafga (or river) in the sky.”However, the materials I have found about the Godavari delta express no directconnection to the Seven Sages constellation. Dasagagu’s Marathi GodCvarI


MChCtmya (GM.Mar. 29.34–39 etc.) makes use of an entirely different set ofmeanings of the Seven Sages: their identity as Brahmags living lives of piety,learning, and asceticism in the forest.

26. To perform a complete circumambulation of a holy place, pilgrims travelaround the outer limits of its pañcakroxI.

27. Dagtekar also wrote a nonfiction, albeit meditative and impressionistic,account of the Narmada and of his own travels to and along it (Dagtekar1949). The influence of the Narmada parikrama may perhaps also be seen inthe NarmadC MChCtmya. This text, rather than following the source-to-mouthorder of the other river Mahatmyas I have examined, treats first the places onthe north bank of the Narmada river, from source to mouth, and then theplaces on the south bank, from mouth to source. This order, however, is theopposite of the order one should follow in performing pradakSiGC: if one goesdownstream on the north bank of the Narmada and upstream on the southbank, the river stays on one’s left instead of one’s right.

28. Using this method, of course, means that one has the river on one’s right onlyhalf the time.

29. I am not sure what this means for pilgrims who want to visit the island templeof Ojkar Mandhata in the course of their parikrama of the Narmada.

30. So that all performing the parikrama will be equal, Kagalkar explains.31. Kagalkar (1969:21–25) gives a vivid description of the difficulties of perform-

ing the parikrama.32. This is especially the case for pilgrims who do the parikrama only a bit at a

time, returning each time to take up the circumambulation at the place wherethey left off the last time. For instance, driraj Sant Maharaj of Gujarat per-formed the parikrama in 108 days, living the whole time on nothing but jag-gery water (Kagalkar 1969:24)—but that included only the days on which hewas actually walking and not the days of rest in between (Kagalkar 1969:44).

33. SSG, Eknath, no. 363.3.34. Oral information, Raksasbhuvan; Kagalkar (1969:17). GM.Mar. 31.81 recom-

mends performing pradakSiGC of the Godavari during the Sijhastha period.For more on the Sijhastha and its significance for the Godavari, see chapter 5in this book.

35. Kagalkar 1969:17; oral information in Dhanora, Raksasbhovan, and Paivhag.36. Where the enormous Jayakvati dam provides a new barrier to further travel.37. Oral information, Dharmapuri.38. This is probably the one named Gautami, the name otherwise given to the river

as a whole.39. Oral information, Paivhag.40. Oral information, Raksasbhuvan.41. The “bright half ” of a month is the fortnight during which the moon is wax-

ing. The fortnight of the waning moon is called the “dark half.”42. See Deleury 1960, Karve 1962, and Mokashi 1987, as well as the conclusion

of the present book.43. Phirafgai from Kurkumbh, Ambikamata from Khorvati, and dirsai from

dirsuphal.


44. Bhairavnath or Navkhagtinath from Jiregav; Bhairavnath from Malad,Pagtharevati, and Mirgalvati; Biroba or Mhasnoba from Mhasnarvati; Birobafrom Yetevati; Mhasoba from Malvati; Mhaskoba from Gopalvati; and Nathfrom Girim.

45. The group that had brought the palanquin of the god Bhairavnath fromPagtharevati.

46. For more on huIk or bhCganOk, see Sontheimer 1989a:214n., 228.47. Unless we asked them specifically about her connection with their god. Then

they would say either that there is no connection, or that Krsgabai is their god’s“sister”—a categorical term that people often use in answering this sort ofquestion.

48. I am grateful to Lee Schlesinger for attending the Safgam Mahuli festival andto Sudhir Waghmare for attending the Karat festival in 1987, and to both ofthem for writing lengthy descriptions of what they saw.

49. I have described such rituals in Feldhaus 1995:29–36. There I presented anumber of interpretations of the rituals, emphasizing the one most pertinent tothe gender imagery on which that book focuses. Here I am interested in a dif-ferent interpretation of the water-carrying rituals.

50. I owe this insight to Günther Sontheimer, for whom—from his shepherd-centered point of view—rivers’ role as obstacles was primary.

51. One man in Wai, on the Krsga river, described the Godavari rather than theNarmada as the dividing line between North and South India. This statement,although somewhat idiosyncratic, is nevertheless interesting in that it revealsthe importance of the Godavari in the geographical thinking of people all overMaharashtra.

52. The Paingafga, e.g., which was once a border between the Nizam’s territory andthat of the British in Vidarbha (Kandharkar 1909:188), still separates theVidarbha division of Maharashtra from Maravhvata. The Vardha river separatesVardha and Candrapur Districts, east of the river, from Amravati and YavatmalDistricts, to the west. The Godavari river separates Aurangabad, Jalna, andParbhani Districts, to the north, from Ahmadnagar and Bid Districts, to thesouth, while the Nira river separates Pune District from Satara District.

53. Young 1980; Eck 1982:34–35. The corresponding imagery is used quite widelyin Marathi devotional (bhakti) literature. The seventeenth-century poet-saintTukaram, for instance, rejoices, “The obstacle that the river of existence posedhas disappeared. It has dried up; I can walk right through” (SSG, Tukaram1833.1). More elaborately, Namdev, in the fourteenth century, makesPagtharpor a ferry boat and Vivhoba the ferryman who gets people across(Namdev 1970, no. 400; cf. Namdev 440.1). See also Tukaram 1973, no.1549, in which the name of God is the boat, and the poet is the porter whocarries its treasures. I am grateful to Dr. S. G. Tulpule for finding these poemsfor me and reading them with me.

54. Sontheimer 1989a:37, 77–83; Sontheimer 1982:119.55. Sontheimer 1989a:207–38 and passim. The version narrated here is summa-

rized from an oral account given to me by a Gurav (non-Brahmag) priest at thetemple in Vir.


56. This is a common motif in the stories of the travels of gods and goddesses. Seechapter 3, note 2, in this book.

57. There is also a Ghote Udan near Kambalecvar, where the goddess Bhivai’sbrother Dhuloba jumped over a small river on his horse; another at Jejuri,where Khagtoba jumped over the Karha river on his horse; and yet others atplaces where other pastoral gods crossed rivers in this way—generally more suc-cessfully and gracefully than in the story from Vir (cf. Sontheimer 1989a:76,98, 197 on Ghote Udan).

58. I am grateful to Thakur Raja Ram Singh, who not only accompanied me to thisplace and to several others along the Godavari in Andhra Pradesh but also con-ducted interviews for me, and who dictated to me his translation of this ver-sion of the story.

59. John Abbott (1932:161–62) reports a number of these, including a prohibitionin the ViSGusmRti (63.44) against crossing a river unnecessarily. The GBP 1883(Nasik):527 mentions that pilgrims to Nasik used to avoid crossing the riverthere until they had completed their pilgrimage: “Before the opening of therailway . . . [pilgrims] always approached Nâsik from the east or from the west;and were careful to keep the rule against crossing the river until all pilgrim riteswere over . . . .”

60. Some of these rules are listed in a Dhangar shepherds’ epic (ovI) that Sontheimerhas translated (Sontheimer 1989a:82): “Before you get into the boat / Take offyour sandals / Make a salutation / Then step into the boat / Do not let amenstruating woman / Sit in the boat / Unless you are not told about it.” Myconversations with ferrymen in a number of different places in Maharashtra andKarnataka indicate that they still adhere more or less closely to rules like these.

61. 75,000, according to the 1961 census volume Fairs and Festivals inMaharashtra (1969: 379).

62. For a photograph of this procession, with the village headman who representsKhagtoba crossing the river enveloped in a cloud of turmeric powder, seatedon an elephant, and surrounded by parasols made of marigolds, see the jacketof Sontheimer 1997.

63. A footnote explains: “The local belief is that the non-observance of this fight-ing custom is followed by a failure of rain or if rain falls it produces a rat plague.A stone fight duly waged is followed by a plentiful rainfall.” GBP 1884(Ahmadnagar):722–23. The Gazetteer’s source of this information is given as“Mr. Sinclair in Ind. Ant. V. 5.”

64. Candekar 1984:6. Although the article was written by A. Mo. Candekar, thestory was collected by Surec Joci, executive trustee of the historical museum ofAhmadnagar District, from one or several aged resident(s) of degti.

65. The third of the four world-ages (yugas), the one preceding the present age.66. This ritual gesture, called oVI bharaGeJ, is performed to married or marriageable

women to express good wishes for their fertility and prosperity. In “filling the lap”of a woman, one puts a coconut, a piece of cloth for a sari blouse, some grain, red(kuFkuJ) powder, yellow (turmeric) powder, and perhaps a dried date or aknobbed turmeric root into the part of the woman’s sari that covers her midriff.

67. Despite the statements of some pilgrims quoted toward the end of that chapter.


2 The Pilgrimage to Sin.gn. a

–pu–r

1. For a photograph of the mountain, see Feldhaus 1995, after page 64.2. The temple also has a Sanskrit name, Amrtecvar (“Lord of Nectar”).3. uhere (1992a:13) gives a tantalizing series of quotations from poems of Varkari

saints who refer to kCvaTs, difggapor, and the worship of diva in various com-binations. The collection of poems (gCthC) by Tukaram, the seventeenth-centurypoet who is the most popular of the Varkari saints, includes a series of fiveabhaFgas about carrying a kCvaT. The eighteenth-century hagiographerMahipati (1715–1790) builds these poems into a story about Tukaram going onpilgrimage to difggapor during the month of Caitra. The story, which appearsin Mahipati’s BhaktalIlCmRt (37.72–93), does not, however, explicitly state thatTukaram or any of his companions carried a kCvaT to difggapor.

4. “yaFkarCcI piGT” is the term I used, and the woman accepted its use.5. Clearly there is a story here, one that seemed to involve some tension between

the woman and her in-laws. But we did not pry too deeply into what seemed aprivate matter.

6. BratI is a ritual in which one person waves a tray of lighted oil lamps or burningcamphor in a circular motion in front of someone or something while othersclap in rhythm to a song that the whole group sings. The ritual is performed inorder to honor the person or thing to whom or which it is done, as well as toward off evil.

7. The longer beams are called CTvat or dCGTI and the crossbars piTI.8. On the significance and use of this “sail,” see later. It may be because the cloth

is seen as a sail that the pole it hangs from is called “xIT,” a term that means “sail”in Marathi. For a photograph that gives a side view of one of the large kCvaTsbeing carried to difggapor, see Feldhaus 1995, after page 64.

9. The principal kCvaTs also have some distinctive, relatively permanent decora-tions. The front of the Pañcakroci kCvaT, e.g., is covered with brass, with animage of diva and Parvati in relief on its right side and a relief of Bhutoji Teli onits left side. Bhutoji Teli is portrayed wearing three strands of rudrCkSa beadsaround his neck and holding a fourth strand in his left hand; his right hand israised in a gesture of blessing. Beneath the image of diva and Parvati is aninscription that reads, “Oj Homage [to] diva [and] Parvati / dikhar difggapor /Caitra du. 1 dake 1912 / 27-3-1990,” indicating the date (March 27, 1990)when this kCvaT was first put into use. Beneath the image of Bhutoji Teli is aninscription identifying him and naming and locating the five villages that coop-erate in conveying this kCvaT to difggapor: “Sant Bhutoji Maharaj (Teli)Pañcakroci Kavat / Khalad, Ekhatpor, Muñjavati, Khanavati, Kumbhar Valag,Purandhar Taluka, Puge District.” On the front crossbar of the kCvaT are somemore images in brass: a double piGT (divalifga), a Nandi, a tortoise, and awoman prostrating herself. On the back of the kCvaT are more, shallower brassreliefs with inscriptions identifying them as dri Sopandev Maharaj (a Varkarisaint whose samCdhi is in Sasvat) and the advaita philosopher and daiva gurudrimad Adya dafkaracarya.


The Sasvat kCvaT, which is older than the one from the Pañcakroci villages,has inscriptions on both its water pots. Each of the pots bears the name of a kingof Satara, Abasaheb Maharaj (d. 1848?), who donated them; a number indicat-ing the weight of the pot (in each case this is 66—standing for 66 seers, orapproximately 66 kilograms); and another number (22-1/2 on one of the pots,23-1/4 on the other) that no one was able to explain to me. The Sasvat kCvaTis decorated in silver, and in 1995 it had a new silver image of Nandi, diva’sbull, that had been installed on its crossbar just in time for the pilgrimage.

10. The retinue of the Sasvat kCvaT includes horn players as well.11. These two parts are sometimes distinguished as Malvag and Phalvag.12. Although the Pañcakroci kCvaT goes to the right, and the Sasvat kCvaT to the

left, in relation to the movement of the procession, the people explaining theritual to me as I watched it in Phalvag called the Pañcakroci kCvaT’s position“left” (TCvaJ) and the Sasvat kCvaT ’s position “right” (ujvaJ)—taking thepoint of view of someone (Mahadev, perhaps, at difggapor? Or themselves, asthey stood with me on the far side of the river bed) watching the processionapproach. The two principal kCvaTs perform the ujvI-TCvI rite at least oncemore on the way to difggapor.

13. My companions and I have gathered different, conflicting views about the mean-ing and etymology of this name. One story we have heard recounts that thisplace, whose name means something like “Battle (raG) Cairn (khiLC),” was the siteof a battle between proponents of rival kCvaTs. Another suggestion is that thename means “hard road” and refers to the difficulty of the unpaved, rocky cross-country road that cuts through from Barat to Kothale/Androt via the place calledRagkhila.

14. According to its printed program, the Sasvat kCvaT “meets” three other kCvaTs:that of Decmane Teli from Jinti Khanavave, that of the Candgutes fromMhasobaci Vati, and finally that of Dhogtiba Sahebrav Kavate (who is alsofrom Mhasobaci Vati). According to the Pañcakroci villages’ printed program,their kCvaT “meets” others from “davphal Gatej,” dirsophal (dirsuphal),Sagsar, Malegav, “and so on.” Such a meeting is called “bheV.”

15. Men describing this to me before I had seen it called it too “Right-and-Left”(ujvI-TCvI): a “Right-and-Left Meeting.” Some men also called it “Ramming”(Vakkar). Later, when my companions and I were discussing the pilgrimage fes-tival with members of the Athav families of Gugavare, the “guides” of the twoprincipal kCvaTs, these men interpreted these meetings as simply “play” (kheL).

16. See the story about the epiphany at this place, under “Devotion to diva,” later.For the cambO, see figure 2.2.

17. The men who described this method to me called it “puThcI mCL,” “the chainof the one in front.”

18. According to some men I spoke with in the Grampañcayat office at difggaporduring the festival in 1994, 25% of the pilgrims at the festival come from“Maravhvata and Vidarbha.” According to another man, a former headman(Sarpañc) of difggapor, more than 80% of the festival pilgrims come fromMaravhvata. I have not yet figured out how to reconcile these vastly differentestimates, nor do I have a firm basis for choosing between them.


19. The Marathi term “dhaj” may be derived from (Sanskrit and Marathi) dhvaj,flag. In 2002, the year I observed the dhaj-raising ceremony, the dhaj consistedof four strands of cloth that were wrapped around one another as the dhajmade its way from the top of the upper temple to the top of Bali’s temple. Thedhaj weaver explained that only one of the strands was the one he weaves; oth-ers had been offered by other people in fulfilment of navas vows.

20. The pole is called a kCVhI (the more usual term for such a ritual object) or amCnCcC patCka, an “honorary flag.”

21. Usmanabad District is generally classified as belonging to the Maravhvata divi-sion of Maharashtra rather than to Vidarbha. However, there is a tendencyamong people involved in the difggapor festival to identify the dhaj, and alsothe Bhatafgali pole (which also comes from Usmanabad District), as comingfrom “Vidarbha.”

22. The person making this statement used the term “anna.” This word, whichrefers to most vegetables, lentils, rice, wheat bread, and millet bread, might bestbe translated “proper meals.” During a fast, although one does not eat anna,one can still have many kinds of food, including certain root vegetables andfruits. Cf. note 52, later.

23. As a turban for the bridegroom diva, the dhaj-carrier explained when I talkedwith him in Caitra 2002. See later, under “diva’s Wedding.”

24. When my companions and I met and interviewed Kal Gavta in 1999, he toldus that he now wears tennis shoes, although the previous practice was to wearleather footwear into the temple.

25. Men in Bhatafgali explained that they count their pilgrimage by solar days, notlunar days (tithIs), starting with the first day of Caitra, Guthi Patva. Theyleave difggapor on the twelfth day after Guthi Patva, whether or not that dayis Caitra Baras.

26. In addition to the one from Bhatafgali, my companions and I met or learnedof kCVhIs that come to difggapor from Ausa (Latur District), uhavali (ValvaTaluka, Sangli District), Dhayri-Vatgav (Haveli Taluka, Pune District),“Lator” (probably some particular place in Latur District), Phursufgi (HaveliTaluka, Pune District), Talegav uhamthere (dirur Taluka, Pune District),Dharkhet (Gafgakhet Taluka, Parbhani District), Sagaruli (Ausa Taluka,Latur District), and possibly also Yenegur (Umarga Taluka, UsmanabadDistrict) and Porle (Panhala Taluka, Kolhapur District), as well as places namedAmboli, Jagji, Jivali, and divati (taluka and district not identified). There arealso probably several more. In the cases where my notes describe these kCVhIs,each has a brass image affixed to it. Dharkhet’s has an image of dafkar (diva)and his bull, Nandi, toward the bottom, while Dhayri-Vatgav’s has images ofdafkar and Nandi at its top. On top of the Phursufgi kCVhI is what the peopletraveling with it called a “vCgh,” a tiger. The group who carry this kCVhI todifggapor are Buddhists, former Untouchables who have followed B. R.Ambedkar in converting to Buddhism; in 1995 they identified themselves asfollowers of Ambedkar by carrying bright blue flags in front of their kCVhI. Thisparticular blue is the color associated with the Ambedkar Buddhists and withthe political party Ambedkar founded.


27. This is the interpretation of the men who carry the pole to Natepute anddifggapor. In the view of Brahmag priests (Batves) whom my companions andI spoke with in Natepute, the pole is diva’s sister (his karavalI), rather than hiswife. The roles of bride and groom in the wedding that these priests performat Natepute are played by two men: the headmen (Pavils) of Natepute and theneighboring town of Malciras, respectively. See note 37 in this chapter.

28. Compare the Navakalevara ceremony in the cult of Jagannath (Tripathi 1978;Marglin 1985:263–64; cf. Eschmann 1978).

29. One man in Bhatafgali estimated that the total weight of the silver ornamentson the kCVhI is 15 kilograms; another suggested it could be four times as much.A priest in difggapor estimated the total weight of the pole, including its orna-ments, at 50 kilograms. The men in Bhatafgali told us that each of the silverbands affixed to the pole costs 100–150 rupees or more.

30. These mCnkarIs include a torch-bearer (Macali), who is a Cambhar(Leatherworker) by caste, and three musicians: a difgya, who plays a horn(xiFg); a Halkya, who plays a kind of tambourine (a halkI or halgI); and aVajantri, who plays an oboe-like wind instrument, the xanCI.

31. The bull is called a kaVClyC, a vaLavOn, or a Nandi bull.32. One of these kCvaTs belongs to Bhatafgali’s police Pavil, another to the other

(administrative) Pavil, who is a Mali (Gardener) by caste, and the third to the“Pavars.” These last are, presumably, the Untouchables of the village. All threekCvaTs travel all the way to difggapor, but the two Pavils’ kCvaTs have their pri-mary ritual function along the road: throughout the heat of the day, fromabout ten in the morning to four in the afternoon, men are supposed to pourwater from them continually over the Nandi on the pole’s crossbar.

33. “An especially important thing . . . is that the bamboo is 40 feet tall. It has tobe carried upright, by one man. Carry it any distance, carry it one kilometer,carry it half a kilometer, it has to be carried upright.”

34. Three of the stopping places on the pole’s route are temples: that of the goddessBhavani in Tuljapor, that of Narasijha at Nira Narasifgpor, and a temple inDhamangav (or Dhamaggav). In each place, the men circumambulate the tem-ple and cause the pole to “meet” it—this presumably means that they touch thepole to the top of the temple doorway, the way the men carrying a large kCvaTdo with the kCvaT’s xIT-pole.

35. Again, by touching the top of its doorway.36. Molesworth (1857:697) defines “rukhvat” as “The ceremony, in weddings, of

the father and friends of the bride taking refreshments to the abode of thebridegroom, for him to make a repast previously to their conducting him to thehouse where the nuptials are to be celebrated,” or “The articles of refreshmentso taken: also the repast so made.” Thus, in its normal usage this term refers togifts made by the bride’s party to the groom’s party, ones that would thus bemore appropriate for the men accompanying the bride from Bhatafgali to herwedding to give than to receive. Priests in Natepute see the kCVhI not as the bridebut rather as the groom’s sister, his karavalI, and hence as a member of his wed-ding party (see note 27, earlier). On this interpretation, the use of the term“rukhvat” makes more sense.


37. In 1999, Sudhir and Pushpa Waghmare and Sakharam Lakade observed thiswedding for me. I was able to see it for myself in 2002. In both years, the wed-ding was performed as stated in note 27, earlier. The headmen of Natepute andMalciras, who play the roles of Parvati and diva, respectively, wore weddingcrowns, clean pants, and clean, white shirts. Two other men held up a marriagecurtain (CntarpCV) between them and the crowd of onlookers periodicallytossed grains of rice over the couple, while a priest recited the wedding verses(maFgaLCStaka). In 2002, the pole from Bhatafgali arrived late, but before thiswedding ceremony took place. By the time the wedding was over, the men whohad come with the pole were sound asleep. Despite the fact that I could meetand talk with these men again after they reached difggapor in 2002, anddespite asking many other people in Natepute and difggapor, I have not yetbeen able to determine if the Bhatafgali kCVhI is involved in a particular ritualthat the men who accompany it see as its wedding.

In addition to the wedding (or weddings) at Natepute, diva and Parvati’swedding is also performed on Caitra Asvami elsewhere in the vicinity, includ-ing inside the small, crowded sanctuary of the main temple at difggapor.

38. They lower the pole, they said, only to pass through the arched gateways alongthe steps and at the entrance to the temple courtyard.

39. Pagtharpor is the center of the better-known of the two major medieval bhaktimovements of Maharashtra, the Varkaris’ cult of the god Vivhoba. It is the goalof the Varkaris’ pilgrimage in honor of Vivhoba. For more on the Varkaris andtheir pilgrimage, see the conclusion of this book. difggapor lies less than100 kilometers west-northwest of Pagtharpor, and is visible for a long stretch ofthe route of the largest group of Varkari pilgrims, those who accompany the palan-quin of the saint Jñanecvar from his tomb (samCdhi) in Alandi to Pagtharpor.Many Varkaris visit difggapor on the twelfth day of the “bright” fortnight ofAsath (June–July), following the climax of the Pagtharpor pilgrimage on theeleventh day (Ekadaci) of that fortnight. The Brahmag priests of difggapor havethe surname Batve, as do the most numerous and important group of Brahmagsin Pagtharpor. Mahadev Kolis are also quite prominent in both difggapor andPagtharpor. Finally, as uhere (1992a:22) points out, just as the Varkari saintsinsist that their god, Vivhoba (whom they also identify as ‘Kanata,’ coming fromKarnataka), is Krsga, and thus came from Dvarka, in Saurasvra, so they repeat-edly affirm that Mahadev of difggapor likewise came from Saurasvra.

40. See Sontheimer 1989a:131–50 and Sontheimer 1975. One of the two princi-pal Dhangar vCTCs that Sontheimer describes lies within sight of difggapor, ata distance of 17 kilometers by road.

41. For the Mahanubhavs and their literature, see chapter 6 in this book.42. Although Cakradhar tells this story in connection with a “Vandev” temple in

Hivarali, Jalna District, uhere argues (convincingly, I think) that this Vandev,as well as three others mentioned in the LILCcaritra, are replicas (upakSetras) ofdifggapor. See uhere 1992c:18–19.

43. Tulpule 1979:373. See also uhere 1977:98–115.44. For example, three temples in Racin (Karjat Taluka, Ahmadnagar District)

were built eight generations ago by a Lifgayat (Jafgam) named Akappa


(or Akhoba) deve, whose family still has an important role in the goddessYamai’s annual festival at Racin.

45. The wood used in making the kCvaTs is wood from the umbar or audumbar, atree especially connected with the god Datta or Dattatreya, rather than diva.But, as a man who was telling us about the Belsar kCvaT explained when I askedhim why it is so important that “no wood except that of the umbar tree getsused for a kCvaT”: “They say it’s a divine (daivI) tree . . . the audumbar, whereGuru Datta’s place (VhikCG) used to be, Datta’s original (mOL) place. Datta’s ori-gin is diva. The original god in the tradition (paramparC) of Datta is diva. TheNavnath came from diva, Datta came from the Navnath, and therefore this treeis important. And its root is diva.”

46. The story as the present Kal Gavda told it is an excellent example of the sort ofstory discussed at the beginning of chapter 3 in this book.

47. In fact, most samCdhis—grave markers or memorial monuments—are quitenaturally found in or near current or former cremation grounds.

48. Although this statement was true when I first wrote it, it is no longer so. Whenmy companions and I visited Ekhatpor in August 1999, the remains of the“Burning House” were being bulldozed to make way for a temple on the site.The oil mill was still standing, in the middle of the leveled plot of land.

49. That is, on the ninth lunar day of the month of Caitra. The two principalkCvaTs each have a “setting-out” (prasthCn) ceremony on the eighth day (theAsvami), but really leave home on the ninth.

50. Another man, citing the “ancestors” (pOrvIcI lokaJ), told of a miraculous phe-nomenon that further confirms Bhutoji Buva’s “tathya”—and that also adds tothe daiva imagery in the festival: the sand in Bhutoji’s kCvaT turned into fivepiGTs (lumps, divalifgas) that can still be seen near Bali’s temple.

51. There is also, generally, a “Buva” who travels with the divari kCvaT. This posi-tion, however, is not hereditary, but is given to a local person who is chosen forhis devotion and his interest in serving. In August 1995, when we visited divariand asked about the kCvaT from there, we were told that the last Buva, BajiravKamavhe, had died two years before and had not yet been replaced. He was aperformer of kIrtans and had served as “Buva” for 35 or 40 years.

52. As is generally the case with Hindu fasts, the Buvas’ fast permits them to eat“snacks” (pharCLC), including milk, fruits, nuts, potatoes, and some other rootvegetables, but not wheat, rice, or most vegetables. See note 22, earlier.

53. Both the current Buvas are relatively new at their positions, having inheritedthem from their fathers in the early or mid-1990s. It is perhaps for this reasonthat they are not yet quite as tough as their founding ancestor is reputed to havebeen.

54. My companions and I have spent many hours trying to trace the water in thekCvaTs and seeking to understand how much of it actually comes from rivers.In fact, very little of the water that gets poured in the temples at difggapor isriver water; and, indeed, very little of it actually comes from pilgrims’ home vil-lages. The small kCvaTs that people bring by bus must be stowed as luggage onthe top of the bus. There the kCvaTs lie on their sides, and so, because they haveno lids (or because any lids they do have are not watertight), they cannot hold


water. The large kCvaTs likewise generally arrive at difggapor empty. They aresimply too heavy to carry full for great distances; moreover, at the last stage ofthe journey, as they go up the steepest part of Mufgi Ghav, it is impossible tokeep them upright. The small kCvaTs that people bring to difggapor on footor by bicycle do, in many cases, have water in them; but the water often comesfrom a well or a faucet, rather than a river. The vast majority of kCvaTs, itseems, get filled at Maloji’s tank at difggapor. In 1995, when there was adrought, some people filled their kCvaTs, as well as their own drinking-watercontainers, from tankers sent by the government.

There are, however, some important exceptions to all of this, cases in whichthe water that people bring to difggapor is in fact water from home, even waterfrom a river at home. Men in Pisarve, the home village of the young man whoseshrine is in Mufgi Ghav, insisted that they carry their rather large kCvaT full ofwater all the way from home, and that they then refill it once they have reacheddifggapor. Men from the Pañcakroci villages told us that their kCvaT gets filledat the Karha river on the Guthi Patva day, when they wash it before setting itup in the village. When they are about to leave for difggapor, before they goto circumambulate Bhutoji’s samCdhi temple, they pour out almost all of thewater, allowing only a couple of inches of Karha water to remain at the bottomof the kCvaT’s pots. In addition, the men who travel with the Sasvat, thePañcakroci, and some of the other large kCvaTs bring along with them a small,closed container of water that they call a “cambO” or “ghaTavC” (see figure 2.2).The men from Sasvat and the Pañcakroci villages fill their cambOs with waterfrom the Karha river, then carry them with elaborate care and respect all theway to the temple at difggapor.

In any case, whether or not the kCvaTs in fact arrive at difggapor filled withwater brought from home, bringing water from home is clearly the idea behindthe kCvaT festival. In discussing the fact that their kCvaT nowadays goes emptyto difggapor, men in divari explained that this was not the case in the past. Informer times, these men told us, not only did the kCvaT go to difggapor full ofwater, people used to carry it the whole way themselves, on their heads, insteadof putting it into a bullock cart for much of the journey, as they do now. Peopleare not what they used to be, these men told us—a sentiment frequentlyimplied or expressed in reminiscences about the festival’s former glory. A for-mer Sarpañc of difggapor, noticing my disappointment that most kCvaTs arrivethere empty these days, explained that, in the past, more people would come tothe festival on foot, and that later they began to come in bullock carts andfinally by State Transport bus. In the old days, the man implied, when peopletraveled on foot or by bullock cart, they could bring their kCvaTs filled withwater from home. Finally, even when it arrives empty and is filled at the tankat difggapor, a kCvaT is basically an implement for carrying water. Thus, theimplication of bringing a water pot from home is that one is bringing waterfrom home to pour on the god in the temple. A statement in the printed pro-gram of the Pañcakroci kCvaT from 1995 makes this idea explicit: “kCvaTs cometo difggapor from all over Maharashtra, bringing the water of holy rivers topour on the god.”

236 Notes to Page 67

55. According to the Hindu calendar, a lunar day (a tithI) starts at sunrise, and con-tinues until sunrise the next day. Thus, midnight on the Asvami is midnight ofthe night following the Asvami day. The turmeric (haLdI) ceremony preceding thewedding is performed on the Pañcami (the fifth lunar day) of Caitra in the tem-ple at difggapor. This is the day on which the BhCratiya SaJskritikox says thatParvati and diva were reunited at difggapor.

56. See note 36, earlier.57. But within its kSetra, its holy area.58. The flyer says “dvaj” (“flag”), not “dhaj.” For a fuller translation of the flyer’s

statement, see note 90, later.59. The narrator could not at the moment remember the names of any more

places. When he repeated this part of the story, later, he named Natepute andreferred to Umbarecvar.

60. There is also a tradition that there are eight holy places (aSVatIrtha) in andaround difggapor. People naming the eight give differing lists of eight temples.

61. The hair atop the kCvaT’s pole, these men explained, comes from the tail of avangCy (a wild cow), and is extremely expensive and hard to obtain. (It is soldby weight, using the same measures as for gold, and can be bought—or boughtat a reasonable price—only in Bombay. The clump on the divari kCvaT cost3,000 rupees, the men said.) When I asked why no other kind of hair woulddo, the men said that it’s silky, that “nothing [else] has hair like that.” RamdasAtkar clarified this, explaining that the hair is extremely soft. “Like a woman’s,”I suggested, and one of the men said, “The hair is even finer (bhCrI or bCrik)than a woman’s.”

62. “Tai” means “Elder Sister.” It is a polite yet affectionate term of address for awoman.

63. This is the road from Sasvat to Jejuri, the old Puge–Satara (Mumbai–Bangalore)road.

64. This is clearly a highly idealized statement. For example, it does not tell us ifthis obligation falls on all households of the village, even those of Dalits(Untouchables), nor does it indicate what sanctions are imposed (and bywhom) on someone who does not pay.

65. Similarly, a man we talked to in Khamasvati about the weaver who makes the dhajthat comes to difggapor said that the man does so as a servant (nokar) of the vil-lage of Khamasvati, and that the village pays him for his work. Although theweaver is the one who gets to carry the dhaj to difggapor on his head, the hon-orary right of the dhaj belongs to “all the citizens of the village of Khamasvati.”With only one exception that I am sure of, the offerings made to each of the largekCvaTs and kCVhIs become the property of the whole village from which it comes.The exception is the Sasvat kCvaT, which is the private property of its Buva.

66. And was intended, I think, as a contribution to the festival as a whole, not justto the Pañcakroci kCvaT ’s pilgrimage.

67. I put the word “whole” in quotation marks because generally, in my conversa-tions with these men, I accepted such statements at face value, without press-ing the men to reveal whether or not their kCvaT or kCVhI actually goes to theDalit neighborhood (the former Maharvata) of the village, whether it travels


to outlying hamlets (this seems not to be the case), and so on. The point thatis important here is that the men describing such a procession thought of it asgoing throughout what they thought of as their whole village. See Feldhaus1995:156. The Buva of the Sasvat kCvaT explained that it gets carried aroundthree different parts of the town of Sasvat on three different days: the night ofthe “setting out” (prasthCn) ceremony; the next day, as it actually leaves town;and the day of its return.

68. For oVI bharaG or oVI bharaGeJ, see chapter 1, note 66.69. Although the man who told us about this did not say so, “everybody” quite

likely means “everybody but Harijans” or “everybody but Harijans and Vagis.”For my suspicions about the inclusiveness of terms like “everybody” and “every-where,” see note 67.

70. I am not sure what the man was referring to. I doubt that he meant the (largelyBrahmagical) sandhyC rite, in which a man offers water to the sun whilereciting the Gayatri mantra. Possibly he was using “snCn-sandhyC,” “bath andsandhyC,” as a fancy term for “ritually important bath.”

71. That is, they clap and sing in unison a rhythmic song of praise, while one per-son waves a tray of lighted oil lamps or camphor in a circular motion.

72. In the 1981 Census of India (1986), this village’s population is given as 2,405,while none of the other villages has more than 1,000 people: Kumbharvalag,961; Khanavati, 732; Ekhatpor, 609; and Muñjavati, 295. According to the1991 Census of India (1995), Khalad’s population was 2,532, Kumbharvalag’s1,154, Khanavati’s 865, Ekhatpor’s 643, and Muñjavati’s 299.

73. On the 1981 census map, these two villages appear to have been formed bysplitting what was once a single village. The 1991 census map places them(mistakenly, I believe) on opposite sides of the river.

74. These men also pointed out connections and parallels between Ekhatpor andother famous places and historical figures. Ekhatpor’s name, the men said,derives from “Vikhatpor” (“Purchase-ville”), and provides a rather unusual linkto Kaci (Banaras, Varagasi; for other sorts of links, see chapter 5). At some timein the past, Ekhatpor was a center for the slave trade, and so—according tothese men—was Kaci. Slaves that did not sell at Kaci’s twice-yearly bazaarwould be sent to Ekhatpor to be sold, and vice-versa. “They used to bring atleast 400 or 500 people,” one man said. And another added: “They’d bring theleft-over children and sell them here.” “Yes,” said the first man, “children,women, men, whatever you need.”

75. “Sopan Kaka” (“Uncle Sopan”), said the other man; both men were referringto the Varkari saint Sopan or Sopandev, the brother of Jñanecvar whosesamCdhi is at Sasvat. See note 9, earlier, for the inscription on the EkhatporkCvaT that refers to Sopan.

76. A similar story, but with a happier ending, accounts for Belsar’s having a kCvaTnow. According to a man in Belsar, some Bhutoji Teli (whether in Sasvat orEkhatpor is not clear, nor is it clear when these events are supposed to havetaken place) pawned his kCvaT to Belsar because he had financial difficulties.A decade or two later, he paid back the loan and redeemed the kCvaT. Thepeople of Belsar had come to like having the kCvaT, so they started their own.


77. In essence, the argument was that if the man in Sasvat to whom the widow ofBhutya Teli gave the kCvaT had been her husband’s legitimate heir, there wouldhave been no need for the people of the Pañcakroci villages to adopt a Teli fromSatara in recent times. See later.

78. I am not sure if he meant the notebook I was writing in, or the book I had saidI was hoping to write.

79. See note 9.80. I did not ask to see these inscriptions or documents, because the matter seemed

to be such a contentious one, and besides nobody seemed to know exactlywhere they were. For my purposes, the fact that the men claim to have suchevidence is what is important, not whether it really exists or what the inscrip-tions and documents actually say.

81. A Marathi inscription on the outer wall of the samCdhi temple gives the details.82. A man in Androt gave a good illustration of the combination of devotion and

personal friendship that can cause such a stop to be added:

My father . . . used to be a very devoted (gahire) bhakta of dambho Mahadev. And by[Mahadev’s] mercy, the worship of dambho Mahadev’s kCvaT takes place here. Andbecause my father was a bhakta . . . . Because the kCvaT’s Buva and my father werefriends, [the Buva] began to bring the kCvaT here . . . to our . . . house in the village ofAndrot. Previously the kCvaT did not come here, but from the time that our fatherand the Buva became friends, it has come to our house.

83. Besides such coordination of various government officials and pilgrim leaders,which takes place on the local and taluka level, the state government also pro-vides direct financial support for the festival arrangements. For example, I wastold that, in 1994, the government of Maharashtra gave a grant of 300,000rupees for the festival.

84. The man said “Nagar” here, but he clearly meant “Sasvat” and not“(Ahmad)nagar.”

85. Another man who was present suggested that the reason has to do with crowdcontrol and public health concerns: “An enormous crowd comes, and besidesthe fact that lots of people come, it’s the hot season. And there’s a disturbancein the water [supply]. Diseases increase. So when this group has left, that groupcomes.”

86. Strictly speaking, Mufgi Ghav is on the northern face of the difggapor moun-tain. However, the prominent kCvaTs that climb this Ghav come from thenorthwest.

87. And like the two opposed areas of Vidarbha and the Godavari valley in the OldMarathi period (chapter 6). For the story and ritual at degti and Pokharti, seethe end of chapter 1.

88. The northernmost places from which my companions and I found kCvaTs tohave come were in diror Taluka of Pune District and Deglor Taluka of NandedDistrict. We also found at least one kCvaT that had come from a village in BasavKalyan Taluka, Bidar District, in Karnataka.

89. When I asked this man if he also meant to include the kCvaTs that come fromthe south and from Vidarbha and Maravhvata, to the east and northeast, hesaid that he did: “All of them come into that village, through it, and then they


climb up. Because the stipulation (saFket) is that that is the ghCV that one hasto climb up by, through Kothale.”

90. The flyer’s statement is as follows: “dikhar difggapor in Maharashtra, thebeginninglessly perfect and puranically famous, historical, living temple ofLord dafkar, the family god of Maharashtra, the family god of drimantChatrapati divaraya, is known as the Kailas of southern India. The pilgrimagefestival of this dambhu Mahadev takes place every year, beginning on the firstday of the bright half of Caitra. This pilgrimage festival celebrates the weddingof diva and Parvati. The turmeric ceremony is on the 5th, the flag-raising is onthe 8th, and the wedding takes place that evening. Afterwards, on the bright12th of Caitra, kCvaTs come to difggapor from all over Maharashtra, bringingthe water of holy rivers to pour on the god. Hundreds of thousands of devo-tees come to have a sight of the god.” (“dri Ksetra difggapor Yatra,” flyer dis-tributed by the Pañcakroci Ekhatpor, Khalad, Khanavati, Muñjavati,Kumbharvalag pilgrimage festival committee, 1995.)

91. May 29, 1994, p. 6.92. As far south as the Tufgabhadra river and as far north as the Narmada. See later.

3 Traveling Goddesses

1. Sometimes, but relatively infrequently, the devotee is a woman.2. The goddess Sakalai, whose complicated route is detailed in note 36, followed

a devotee at least the last part of the way to the site of her present temple; whenthe devotee looked back, the goddess disappeared at the spot where her templenow stands. This “Orpheus” motif is quite common in these stories.

3. In this form, the “old bhakta” story is an intra-regional form of a kind of replica-tion we will examine in chapter 5: “God G has followed devotee D from Y to X.”

4. The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (Khândesh 1880, 437n.) reports a storyof this sort in which it is not a god but the Ganges river (Gafga) that followsa faithful devotee to Maharashtra. For more examples of this kind of replica-tion, see the section of chapter 5 entitled “Other Physical ConnectionsBetween Holy Places.”

5. See note 2.6. It would be interesting and informative to map the replicas of each of the three-

and-a-half goddesses. However, such maps would not represent conceptualregions of the kind that this book is concerned with. Rather, the maps wouldshow the spheres of influence of the four goddesses, the areas throughout whicheach goddess is the most important one, the one most worth replicating. Suchareas would be regions in an “objective” sense, a matter of facts and statisticsrather than of regional conceptions in any devotees’ minds. For the devotees,the important connection in each case is the dyadic one between their goddess’slocal temple and her more distant, more famous one. The author of the MaLCIMChCtmya (see the section of this chapter entitled “Malai Kills the Demon”),


who has compiled a list of temples of Malai that he views as replicas inten-tionally created by other devotees, is, as far as I can tell, quite exceptional.

For a study of six replicas of the goddess Vindhyavasini in Banaras, seeHumes 1993. Humes reports a phenomenon that I have not found to be thecase with the Maharashtrian goddesses: fear on the part of the goddess’s prieststhat her powers in her principal temple may become weakened if she followstoo many devotees to their various homes (Humes 1993:183).

7. See the introduction for a story that a schoolteacher in Jejuri told. This storyshows Jagai to be a form of Parvati. If she is Parvati, she cannot be a sister ofKhagtoba, who is widely (if not universally) understood to be an incarnationof diva, Parvati’s husband.

8. People who have made the trip by road estimated the distance at “sixty or sev-enty” or “100 or 125” kilometers rather than the 20 that one can see on a map.

9. In addition, the goddess came from Salve to Navkhag because she would bewell guarded by the 12 Bhairis (fierce forms of diva) in the village land sur-rounding her temple at Navkhag.

10. I have combined parts of two different tellings of the story here.11. The house is called “Megthke Vata.” The Megthke Vata is named after its

former residents, who were Dhangar shepherds. Probably Megthke was theirsurname, although it is also the honorific plural of “meGThkC,” “shepherd.” ThevCTC (here a term for a large house with an inner courtyard) is now the resi-dence of some of Jejuri’s many priests.

12. For a description of lejhIm, see the discussion of the Daugt festival in chapter 1.13. The first food offering is of vegetables and flat millet bread (bhCkrI); the sec-

ond is of sweet, stuffed, flat wheat bread (poLI or puraG-poLI); the mutton mealis the third and final offering.

14. Gondhalis are small troupes of musicians, singers, and actors of a particular tra-ditional type who perform in honor of goddesses. Their performance is calleda Gondhal. See uhere 1988.

15. Also sometimes called kCniyC, this is a dish made by boiling whole grains.16. See chapter 1, note 66.17. In 1995, about 100 or 150 people were served.18. At one point while Mrs. Jhagate was possessed, an old woman with leuco-

derma asked about her son, who lived in Bombay; later this woman herselfbecame possessed, and one of the drummers asked her about another woman,who had been missing for ten years. Later, a drummer asked yet another pos-sessed woman—who happened to be his wife—about what he had done tooffend the goddess; the conversation went on for a long time and brought in anumber of other people, including another drummer and Mrs. Jhagate.

19. As far as I could tell. I am not sure whether the “everyone” invited to the mealwould have included Dalits and Muslims. It did not, of course, includeBrahmags or other vegetarians. Cf. chapter 2, note 67.

20. This name, which means “Mother,” is often used as a name of daiva goddesses.21. The brief version of this story in the MaLCI MChCtmya (7.64–66) suggests that

the prospective bridegroom was a Muslim ruler, a “Badcah.”


22. The monastery of Bharati Buva in Tuljapor has a room where the goddess isstill understood to come and play parcheesi with the head of the monasteryevery day (Jansen 1995:31–32).

23. When I interviewed high-ranking members of the Tilvan Teli Samaj inGhotegav in November 1995, the Sutar who had most recently been respon-sible for making the bedstead, Tatya Katari, had just died. Already, when hehad become old and weak, paternal relatives of his in Pune had made the piecesof the bedstead, and Tatya Katari had assembled them in Ghotegav.

24. The Telis I talked with explained that the bedstead leaves on the day afterGagapati or Gagec is installed for his ten-day festival in August–September,unless that next day falls on a Tuesday (a day of the week especially importantfor goddesses). In that case, the Telis insist on keeping the bedstead inGhotegav until the following day, a Wednesday.

25. That is, Bhavani of Tuljapor.26. The (admittedly far-fetched) impression I received is that he makes himself

look pregnant.27. As prasCd, food that has been offered to a god and is then consumed by the

worshippers.28. They are also invited to Tuljapor, where multiple prestations are made on the

Dasara day. The carpenter and the blacksmith used to attend the festival there,but they no longer do so, as the honorarium they would receive would nolonger suffice to cover the cost of the trip.

29. The story that motivates the pilgrimage, however, connects only Tuljapor andBurhagnagar: the goddess of Tuljapor comes to Burhagnagar, and after shedisappears Jankoji travels from Burhagnagar to Tuljapor, where he finds heragain.

30. In the mid-1990s, Bhagat was still living in Ciñcoli, one of the principal placesof Malai, where he granted me an extensive interview and sang a number of hisown compositions.

31. MM 2.43. The same verse includes another explanation of the name as well:“There was dhuHdhuHkCr (hissing) on all sides, so they called him Dhomraksa.”I do not find in the text any attempt to explain the rest of Dhomraksa’s name,but the word “akSa” means “eye.” Thus, the whole name means “Smoke Eyes.”

32. diva came as an ascetic, carrying a begging bag, a conch shell, and a TamarOdrum; he settled in the cremation ground. Brahma came in the guise of anastrologer, a Brahmag. He wore a sacred thread and looked up people’s fortunesin an almanac. Kubera, the god of wealth, became a poor potter (a Kumbhar);he took a mule through the streets and collected dung from the road. Agnibecame a washerman, and Indra became a barber.

33. The text specifies many of these places in an extraordinarily extensive list thattakes in a large geographical swath and jumps around with no apparent order.The list includes numerous places in India, along with places in Pakistan,Bangla Desh, Nepal, Tibet, and Sri Lanka.

34. At this point, the narrative goes into a series of long excurses, telling of numer-ous goddesses in Maharashtra and beyond, giving etymologies of somegoddess- and place-names, narrating stories about the goddesses, and including


such other materials as the author’s comments on radio and television, all underthe general rubric of the battle with the demons. Finally the narrative returnsto the Dhomraksa story.

35. The same place where the palanquin and bedstead meet on their way toTuljapor. See earlier.

36. Malai seems, in some respects, to be another example of the “seven sisters” tobe discussed later in this chapter. A related set of goddesses, Sakalai, sometimesnumbers 14, or perhaps even 28. Sakalai’s devotees connect her to Malai,although she does not seem to be included in Malai’s festival. Sakalai’s princi-pal pilgrimage place is on a hilltop near Koregav in drigonda Taluka,Ahmadnagar District. Both a Gurav priest at the temple and a prominentpriest-devotee (bhakta) of Sakalai in Ahmadnagar said that there are 14 god-desses in all, each with a different name, who are collectively referred to asSakalai. According to the Gurav, “Sakalai” is a “nickname” for all the goddessestogether. One of the goddesses in the set that is Sakalai is named Malai, and allof them together came to Sakalai’s present location from other places promi-nent in Malai’s cult: Ciñcoli, Nighoj, and the Kugt.

Sakalai’s bhakta in Ahmadnagar knows of a quite complex route by which thegoddesses traveled: they started in Kaci (Banaras), came from there to the Kofkag,and from the Kofkag onto the Deccan Plateau. On the Deccan, they went first toCiñcoli, then to Nighoj, then to the Kugt in the Kukati river, and from there toSakalai’s hill, called Maigto uofgar. There seven of them remained on the high-est peak of the hill, where they are worshipped in the form of a set of stones outin the open, while the others came down to a slightly lower level, where they areworshipped in a temple. Thus, although more elaborate, Sakalai’s route follows thebasic core of Malai’s: from Kaci, to Ciñcoli, to Nighoj, to the Kugt.

37. These include Ahmadnagar, Babholvati (Parner Taluka), Bamburi (RahuriTaluka), Belapor, Bhifgar, uholvat, Khamgav, Khandli, Nevase, Parner,Pimpalvandi (Junnar Taluka), Pimpari, degti (Ahmadnagar District),drigonda, Umbar (Rahuri Taluka), and Umbraj. The MaLCI MChCtmya’s list ofplaces from where people came for the goddess’s (apparently aborted) weddingon the seventh day of the dark half of Caitra may indicate places where poles(kCVhIs) come from now (MM 8.69–71).

38. When my companions and I attended the festival at Ciñcoli in 1995, we didnot see the palanquin from Nevase, but at the festival in Nighoj in 1994, whenwe interviewed people who had come with the palanquin from Nevase, theysaid that they had come to Nighoj via Ciñcoli. However, they had set out fromNevase by truck (“tempo”) on the eight day of the fortnight, thus reachingCiñcoli after the festival (including the parade) on the seventh day of thefortnight there was over.

39. In a gentle version of gCTI-bagCT, “hook-swinging.” At Nighoj (and, as far as Iknow, everywhere else where the bagCT is still used), rope slings at the ends ofa pivoting wooden beam substitute for the hooks from which devotees werehung in earlier times.

40. This last element of the festival, which has been the focus of a good deal of out-side attention in recent years on the part of “uprooters of superstition” and


journalists, is not particularly important for my analysis. It seems to parallel theMahatmya’s account of the goddess emerging from the water with a pot of nec-tar in her hands. A step-well is a well with steps inside that can be used to walkdown to the level of the water.

41. For lejhIm, see the description of the Daugt festival in chapter 1.42. Or Neharabad-Araggav.43. One version of this story (Kalegajvkar 1987:30–33) connects it with the story

of Parvati’s testing of Ram in the Dagtakaragya (see the introduction), andmakes both stories part of the ongoing, tense relationship between diva and hiswife. This version explains Yogecvari’s reluctance to marry Parali Vaidyanath onthe grounds of the other episode, and at the same time provides an explanationfor an old cave temple filled with monumental sculptures at Ambejogai.

44. There are other goddesses too who travel from the Kofkag to the Dec. Vajrai(see Feldhaus 1995:59 and passim) came from the Kofkag to her place on theNira river near Akloj. Sakalai, whose complex wanderings are discussed in note36, moved from the Kofkag to the Dec in the course of her travels. Finally, aDhangar shepherd claimed that the goddess Bhivai, whose principal pilgrimageplace is on the Nira river near Phalvag (Feldhaus 1995), originally came froma place at the eastern edge of the Kofkag, near the Ghavs; she traveled up,against the stream of waterfalls in the Ghavs, to the headwaters of the Nira onthe eastern side of the mountains.

45. Whitehead 1921:29, 32, 39; Elmore 1913:12. The seven sisters discussed byWhitehead and Elmore appear to be the kind that are found together (seelater), whereas those Erndl discusses are geographically dispersed, like the setson which the present discussion will concentrate.

46. Often with a male figure, who represents their “brother.” See Feldhaus1995:48, 55, and the illustrations after page 64.

47. The three-and-a-half dakti Pivh goddesses of Maharashtra also includeAmbabai or Mahalaksmi of Kolhapor. See chapter 4.

48. That is, Maharashtra’s three-and-a-half dakti Pivh goddesses. See chapter 4.49. For another etymology, see the story about Ram in the introduction.50. For CratI, see chapter 2, note 6.51. It is possible that people would tell the story of various local goddesses’ iden-

tity with Parvati (the story of Ram, Sita, and Parvati narrated in the introduc-tion) and at the same time assert that the goddesses are one another’s sisters.However, I do not remember anyone doing this.

52. This is the case even when, as most often happens, the goddesses in the variouslocations are not married to any husbands in particular.

53. By “us,” the woman could have meant humans or women; she addressed thisremark to me, and used the inclusive form of the first-person-plural pronoun,the form that includes the person being spoken to in a group to which thespeaker also belongs.

54. For a subtle analysis of women’s uses of the imagery of the parental home andthe in-laws’ house, see Raheja and Gold 1996:73–148.

55. The kind of connection between places that the bonds of married sisterhoodimply is different from the connection between “diva’s side” and “dakti’s side”


in the wedding imagery at difggapor. Whereas diva and dakti are complemen-tary opposites that do get united, the longing of married sisters for one anotheris predicated on their very separation.

4 The Arithmetic of Place: Numbered Sets of Places

1. Or, in a variant list, Gaya.2. Or, in another variant list, Prayag (Allahabad). According to Bharati

(1970:97–98), “only the most learned” authorities, especially South IndianBrahmags, would name Kañcipuram (Kañci) rather than Prayag among theseven holiest cities.

3. The exact list varies. A widely known Maharashtrian version includesTryambakecvar near Nasik, Bhimacafkar at the source of the Bhima river,Ghrsgecvar at Ellora (Verol), Vaidyanath in Parali, Nagnath in Augthe (all,according to this version, located in Maharashtra), Kedarnath in theHimalayas, Somnath in Saurasvra, Mahakal in Ujjain, Omkarecvar atMandhata on the Narmada, Ramecvaram at the beginning of the string ofislands leading to Sri Lanka, Mallikarjun at dricailam, and Vicvanath inVaragasi. With the exception of Vaidyanath, which is shown in its more gen-erally recognized location at a Parali in eastern India, these are the places shownon map 4.1.

4. The conjoined liFga and yoni are at one and the same time male and femalegenitals and the stone shaft and pedestal of the normal, aniconic representationof diva in shrines and temples.

5. Why the number of the Jyotirlifga places is 12 is not clear. The numbers moreoften associated with diva are five (e.g., his five forms or five faces) and 11 (thenumber of the Rudras, an old form of diva). Some scholars suggest that theJyotirlifgas stand for the 12 Adityas (BSK 3:686), and others point to a list of12 elements that the TaittirIya UpaniSad identifies as Jyotirlifgas (ibid.).

6. The Mela is held at Haridvar when the sun is in Aries and Jupiter is inAquarius. It is held at Allahabad (Prayag) when the sun is in Capricorn andJupiter is in Taurus, at Ujjain when both the sun and Jupiter are in Scorpio,and at Nasik and Tryambakecvar when both the sun and Jupiter are in Leo(Bhujafg n.d.:19–20).

7. The text has “Haridvar,” the Vaisgava version of the daiva name “Hardvar.”8. The Matsya, Skanda, Padma, and DevIbhCgavata PurCGas place the number at

108, while other (mostly Tantric) sources, including the late-seventeenth- orearly-eighteenth-century Bengali Sanskrit text that Sircar (1948, 1973) edits,give the number as 51. Sircar (1948:11–31) mentions traditions of 3, 4, 7, 8,9, 10, 18, 42, and 50, as well as 51 and 108 dakti Pivhs.

9. The three worlds are heaven, earth, and underworld, or earth, atmosphere, and sky.

10. Prabhudesai 1967–1968:Volume 1, pp. 280–82; Sircar 1948, 1973. Accordingto Prabhudesai (1967–1968:Volume 1, p. 290), the places where parts of the


goddess’s body above her heart fell are right-handed Tantric places, andthose where parts of her body below her heart fell are left-handed Tantricplaces.

11. The majority of the places listed in the textual traditions are found far to thenortheast of Maharashtra, in Bengal, Assam, and Orissa. Prabhudesai1967–1968:Volume 1, p. 290.

12. According to Govagte (1981:3), there are three principal dakti Pivhs. In addi-tion to Kamakhya, these include Amarnath in Kashmir, where the goddess’sneck fell to earth, and Kañci in Tamil Nadu, where her bones fell.

13. A variant list of pilgrimage places names eight Dhams. According to Bhagtari(1992:104), “These eight Dhams are Trijugi Narayag in the Himalayas,Muktinath in Nepal, Badrinath, Jagannath-Puri, Rafganath, Gaya,Pagtharpor, and Tirupati.”

14. These four are located at Jyotirmavh in the Himalayas (not far from Badrinathand Kedarnath) and at Dvarka, Puri, and drfgeri (BSK, Volume 9, p. 187). Theonly significant difference of this list from that of the four Dhams, then, is inthe south, where the dafkaracarya Pivh is at drfgeri (in Karnataka) and theDham at Ramecvaram (in Tamil Nadu).

15. It is not clear whose “deliberate” intention Sopher thought it was that chose toconsider places on the edges of India holy.

16. Maps in Bhardwaj (1976:62, 66) show all four of the places included amongthe tIrthas listed in the GaruTa and Matsya PurCGas, but only Dvarka amongthose listed in the tIrthayCtrC section of the MahCbhCrata (1976:44). How oldthe four Dhams are as a set I have not yet discovered.

17. McKean is quoting here from the English guidebook distributed at the temple:Bharat Mata Mandir: A Candid Appraisal, p. 13.

18. Setubandha is the chain of islands running from Ramecvaram to Sri Lanka.19. In his Hindutva, e.g., Savarkar (cited in de Bary 1958:333) addresses Jains and

Sikhs, among others, as Hindus, urging them to reinforce their organic unitywith (other) Hindus.

20. See, e.g., Damrel (forthcoming) and Ernst 1995.21. Earth at Kañci, wind at Kalahasti (in Andhra Pradesh), water at

Tiruvanaikkaval. Ramesan does not name the locations of the liFgas of fire andether.

22. At Kolanupaka, in Andhra Pradesh, I was told a slightly different list of theViracaiva places, one that included Kolanupaka and did not include Balehalli.

23. And referred to in Kulkargi 1971:52.24. jCxI PrayCgI prCtaHsnCn / PCñcClexvarI karI anuSVhCn / KarvIrpurImCjI karI

bhIkSCVan mCdhyCnhIJ / mCdhyCnh astamCnCvarI SahyCdrI xikharI MCtCpurI /xayan karI DattarCj mCuLI. Cendavagkar (1964a:32) explains that almsgiving isespecially important in Kolhapor because Datta comes here regularly to beg.For a partially different set of Datta places, see Pain (n.d.:8), citing the textDatta Prabodh 50.223–26.

25. Hagamante (1964:54), Date and Karve (1942:Volume 1, p. 216), andCendavagkar (1964a:9) list the three as Bhavani of Tuljapor, Reguka ofMatapor/Mahor, and Yogecvari of Ambejogai, while the half place, according


to them, is that of Laksmi of Kolhapor. Mate (1962:27) gives the standard listof four, but states that people disagree as to whether it is Saptacrfga or Kolhaporthat is to be considered the half place. For Ambejogai, see chapter 3.

26. Numerous physical evidences of the goddess’s fight are to be seen at Saptacrfga.The head of the Buffalo Demon appears at the foot of the 475 steps leading upto Saptacrfgi’s mountain-peak shrine. A hole in a mountain visible off to thenorth of Saptacrfgi’s mountain was cut out when a (different?) demon’s bodypassed through it. The goddess killed the Buffalo Demon, according to local tra-ditions here, at Cagtikapor, to the north of the mountain with the hole in it.

27. As Ramvaradayini, the one who gave a boon to Ram.28. See the section of the introduction entitled “Geographical Stories” for the story

of Ram giving Parvati the name Tukai (among others) when she appeared tohim in the form of Sita.

29. Govagte 1981:10–11; Kulkargi 1971:50–51.30. According to Kulkargi (1971:51), pilgrims to Tirupati understand their pil-

grimage there to be complete only after they have also traveled to Kolhapor. Inother contexts, Mahalaksmi of Kolhapor is only rarely the wife of Visgu. Asdakti, she is more likely to be implicitly diva’s wife than Visgu’s, but in mostcontexts she appears as an independent goddess, also called Ambabai,“Mother.”

31. The word derives from Sanskrit ardhacaturtha, “half [less than]four,” analogousto German halbvier. Date et al. 1932–1938:499.

32. MuhOrtas. Hagamante 1964:54; Sontheimer 1989a:133, n.4.33. Date and Karve (1942:Volume 1, p. 216) list two proverbs using the term

“three-and-a-half ghaVakCs” to indicate a brief period of time. A ghaVakC(Sanskrit, ghaVikC) is a period of 24 minutes. Date and Karve also quote a verseby the bhakti poet Tukaram to the effect that all one needs when one is dead isthree-and-a-half arms’ lengths of space, so it is pointless to exert oneself to getmore: auV hCt tujhC jCgC, yer siGasI vCügC.

34. But see note 25.35. Tuljapor has a megalith that may indicate that the place was a prehistoric cult

site (Jansen 1995:68–84), and thus perhaps older than Kolhapor. However, inthe thirteenth century, Tuljapor was apparently not sufficiently prominent forCakradhar to prohibit his followers from visiting it too, along with Mahor andKolhapor (see note 42). In terms of another kind of time-reckoning, of course,Tukai/Bhavani’s connection with Ram and Sita carries Tuljapor back to theTreta Age.

36. Kolhapor is also the only one of the four to appear in a list of the 12 mostimportant dakti Pivhs in the TripurCrahasya MChCtmyakhaGT 48:71–75(quoted in Desai 1969:2–3 and Govagte 1981:4). In addition, Kolhapor is theonly one of the four places about which people make a clear and detailed claimthat it is the “southern Kaci” (Banaras). See chapter 5.

37. In such contexts, Kolhapor is most often called Karvir.38. Desai (1975:111) repeats this scheme in all its details, but in the opposite

order.39. A reference to the goddess Tulja in Nepal.


40. “The half Pivh, Saptacrfga, is considered better than the three places [goddesses]Mahalaksmi of Kolhapor, Mahasarasvati of Tuljapor, and Mahakali of Mahor.Here the seat of dharma, the feminine form of Brahman itself composed of thethree guGas Mahakali, Mahalaksmi, and Mahasarasvati, is established in theform of the syllable Om . . . . The goddess Saptacrfg[i] is Mahalaksmi, and sheis also Mahakali and Mahasarasvati” (Nerkar 1977:2). Nerkar ascribes hisscheme of correspondences in part to the DevIbhCgavata PurCGa. Writing aboutAmbejogai, Kalegavkar (1987:12) finds a way to show Ambejogai’s superiorityto all four of the three-and-a-half places: “Although in Maharashtra there are theprincipal pIVhs of the goddess—Kolhapor, Tuljapor, Mahor, and Saptacrfgi—aswell as many subsidiary pIVhs, Ambejogai is the one and only dakti Pivh inexistence that is known by the name of the Mother (Amba).”

41. See the introduction.42. Although I have not heard or read any statements by contemporary

Maharashtrians ascribing such a function to the goddesses of Kolhapor,Tuljapor, and Mahor, the thirteenth-century Mahanubhav text SOtrapCVh jux-taposes some of the commands of the Mahanubhavs’ founder, Cakradhar, in away that I find suggestive. Just after the commands to avoid the “Kannadaland” and the “Telugu land” and to “stay in Maharashtra” (see chapter 6), thetext records another command of Cakradhar’s: “Do not go to Matapor[Mahor] or to Kolhapor.” The sOtra expressing this command does not, how-ever, support the view that the places are declared off limits because they aresomehow on the edge of the “Kannada land” or the “Telugu land.” Moreover,although this sOtra links Mahor and Kolhapor, it is important to note that nei-ther the sOtra nor any of the commentaries I have examined indicates a view ofthese two places as belonging to a set of three-and-a-half goddess places.

Mention in the GCthC of Jñanecvar (P. N. Joci 1969, abhaFg 488) of “CüVpIVhIJcI duraguLI,” “Durga of the three-and-a-half pIVhs,” could be read as refer-ring to the dakti Pivhs of Maharashtra, even though this is not the way thatTulpule interprets “CüVpIVh” in this passage (Tulpule and Feldhaus 1999:s.v.). Ifthe passage in the GCthC does indeed date from the time of Jñanecvar, and if itdoes refer to the Maharashtrian dakti Pivhs, this would enable us to trace therecognition of a set of three-and-a-half goddesses to the Yadava period.

43. L. Preston 1980; 1989:16, 92–121; see also Courtright 1985:211–16.44. Preston 1980:108, citing the GBP, Poona 1885:438.45. For example, Ahilyabai built the large temple sanctuary at Siddhavek (Govagte

1995:26).46. Wolpert 1962:67–70; Barnouw 1954; Courtright 1985:226–47; 1988. Tilak’s

revival of this festival is a clear example of what would now be called an“invented tradition” (Hobsbawm and Ranger 1983).

47. L. Preston 1980:108, citing Ghurye 1962: 71, 91; contra Courtright 1985:4.48. A navas is a promise made to a god in asking for a favor. When one has received

what one asked for, one must fulfil the vow. Generally this involves making aparticular offering or performing a particular ritual.

49. An exception to this is the Magh Caturthi festival (Magh duddha 4) at Mahat,which was said in 1980 to attract 10,000 pilgrims each year (Govagte 1995:62).


People believe that receiving a coconut as prasCd here on this day guarantees thebirth of a son (ibid.: 63).

50. On the question of the order in which to visit the places, see later.51. Ballalecvar at Pali, Varadavinayak at Mahat, Girijatmaja at Legyadri,

Vighnecvar at Ojhar, Mahagagapati at Rañjaggav, Cintamagi at Theor,Siddhivinayak at Siddhavek, and Morecvar (or Mayorecvar) at Morgav.

52. Govagte 1995:3–5, 16–18, 24–26, 35–37, 42–44, 50, 57–60, 66–69.53. One notable exception is a narrative connection between Legyadri

and Morgav: according to the story Govagte narrates about Legyadri, Parvatipracticed asceticism there for 12 years in order to get Gagec as her son. He was “born” to her at Legyadri, had his thread ceremony performed there, andlived the first 15 years of his life there. But people also say, according to Govagte, that “it was in this same area that Gagec’s descent to earth (avatCr) as Mayorecvar took place” (Govagte 1995:50). Mayorecvar is the name under which Gagapati killed the demon Kamalasur and the evil king Sindho at Morgav (Govagte 1995:3–5). In other words, the god spent his childhood at Legyadri first, and then moved on to Morgav to kill thedemon.

54. Guravs are a caste of non-Brahmag priests who generally serve in temples ofdiva or goddesses. See Bapat 2001.

55. Presumably they are related by various ties of marriage and consanguinity, likeother temple priests of any one caste. In addition, as Irina Glushkova haspointed out to me (in June 2001), Morgav serves as “a kind of headquarters”for the other seven places.

56. One of the temples (Legyadri, the former Buddhist cave) even faces toward theinauspicious south. However, the Gagec image inside faces north into themoutainside, his back to his worshippers.

57. Or, more appropriately, guardians of Ciñcvat, the home of Moroba Gosavi andthe Devs.

58. Gutschow (1977:310), discussing the eight goddesses who often serve as direc-tional guardians of towns in Nepal, finds a similar tension between geometryand topography: “The ideal symmetrical pattern (which we find expressed in amaGTala) is in reality modified by the two factors of topography and of history:that [is,] by the structure of the terrain, and by a tendency to reuse the shrinesof older gods and goddesses which have become reinterpreted and newly con-secrated, to fit into the new system.”

59. The exception is Theor, which lies directly between Siddhavek and Pune.60. Two major exceptions are the pairs of places near Junnar (Legyadri and

Ojhar) and in the Kofkag (Mahat and Pali). Each of these places is more easilyaccessible from its close neighbor than from Pune or any of the otherAsvavinayak places. In addition, the route from Pune to Siddhavek passes closeto Theor.

61. The same seemed to be true of the Asvavinayak Gagec images that were paintedinside the dome of the central hall of the temple at Ojhar when I visited therein 1997. The positions of the Gagec images do not correspond to thegeographical locations of the eight temples.


62. On the everyday character, and therefore importance, of Hanuman/Maruti, seethe forthcoming Ph.D. dissertation by Jeffrey Brackett (University of Pittsburgh).

63. But see Sontheimer 1991 and Feldhaus 1995:98–101.64. For an important exception—a village without a Maruti—see Sontheimer

1991:122–27.65. Another exception is Jarandecvar, near Satara. See the forthcoming work by

Brackett.66. rCjkIya khalavata. Harse 1983:47; cf. Gokhale 1973:141. According to Gordon

(1993:81), citing Pawar 1971, “recent research has shown that Shivaji did notmeet or know Ramdas until late in his life.”

67. Harse 1983:44–45; cf. Merusvami, RCmsohaLC 1.8.36–58, pp. 40–41.68. The temple was renovated in 1972.69. On connections between political power and pilgrimage places in another

region of India, Orissa, cf. Kulke 1978 and Kulke 1978–1979.70. The Marathi here is strange: CdilxChIcyC dhoraGCce vCremCp gheGCrI.71. BSK, Volume 10, p. 261. Maruti’s name is a patronymic derived from the

Maruts, another set of Vedic deities (wind gods), who generally number sevenor 49, but not 11.

72. Harse 1983:34–36.73. Describing the Maruti temple at Majgav, e.g., Harse (1983:44) writes:

The temple has a tiled roof. The temple is made of mud and bricks. No flag fliesover the temple. The floor is not paved. The temple does not have a proper door.It has not been painted, it is not clean. There is electricity, but sometimes theelectricity has been cut off because the bill has not been paid. There is not evenenough oil to keep a lamp burning before the god. There must not be enoughred-lead (xendOr) either.

That is, the god’s image is not sufficiently covered with red-lead, and so theremust not have been enough red-lead to coat it properly.

5 The Algebra of Place: Replication of North Indian Religious Geography in Maharashtra

1. In discussing Nancy Munn’s The Fame of Gawa (1986), e.g., Casey (1996b:42)writes: “An important aspect of being in a place or region is that one is not lim-ited altogether by determinate borders (i.e., legal limits) or perimiters (i.e.,those established by geography) . . . . Distinct and impenetrable borders maybelong to sites as legally and geographically controlled entities, and hence ulti-mately to ‘space,’ but they need not (and often do not) play a significant rolein the experience and knowledge of places and regions.”

2. The context is a discussion of the purification requirements for someone whohas a relative die in “a different country.” The text is quoting an earlier legalauthority, Brhaspati.


3. Because I gathered most of the examples in this chapter in the course of mystudy of religious meanings of the rivers of the Deccan, many of the examplesrefer to rivers or to holy places on the banks of rivers. As the major rivers thatflow through Maharashtra also flow beyond its borders, a few of the examplesare of places outside of Maharashtra.

4. In an article to be published separately, I will discuss the heightened paradoxesinvolved in the Varkari poet-saints’ use of such forms of praise for their princi-pal holy place, Pagtharpor.

5. There are many other examples of the replication of the three-and-a-half majorgoddesses of Maharashtra, including the replica of Tuljapor at Burhagnagardiscussed in chapter 3 and several replicas of Reguka of Mahor discussed inStark-Wild 1997.

6. This must be the same place as Bahe, or Bahe-Borgav, the site of one of theEleven Marutis discussed in chapter 4. See that chapter for the story of Raminstalling and worshipping a divalifga at Bahe-Borgav, something he did atRamecvaram as well.

7. KM.Skt. 18.4, 27; KM.Mar. 18.5. The Kali Yuga is the present, degenerate ageof the world.

8. As I mentioned in the introduction, the name “Deccan” comes from “dakSiG,”“southern.”

9. My sources for these examples are as follows: for Alampor, oral information; forDhom, oral information; for Karat, Gupte 1927:1, 6; for Kolhapor, Lele1885:157; for Nandikecvar, GBP, Bijapur, 1884:665; and for Nevase, Paivhag,and Wai, oral information.

10. Oral information.11. Phatke provides an elaborate explanation of this last identification:

The confluence of the Bhogavati (Gafga) and the Kasari (Yamuna) is about three mileswest of Karvir [Kolhapor]; the place is also called Prayag. The Gafga has the name Gafgain heaven. In the world of mortals its name is Bhagirathi (because it was brought byBhagiratha), and in the underworld it has the name Bhogavati. Because the holy area ofKarvir is in the south (in the underworld), the name that [the Gafga here] has gotten isBhogavati. The Kasari has gotten the name Kasari because it flows through very difficultterrain, and is as tough (kaVhIn) as Yamuna, the sister of Yama [the god of death. A Kasariis a brass-maker woman or a woman who sells glass bangles; the implication is that such awoman is likely to be a shrew]. That is, just as in the north there is the Prayag of the Gafgaand the Yamuna, so this is the Prayag of the Gafga and Yamuna of southern Kaci.

Complex though this explanation is, it in fact finds North Indian equiva-lents for only two of the five (pañca) rivers (gaFgC) that form the Pañcagafga.The other three rivers are the Tulci, the Kumbhi, and the Brahmagi.

12. For example, at KM.Mar. 23.16; cf. KM.Skt. 23.23.13. Krsgabai is the Krsga river, personified as “Lady Krsga.” See note 75.14. In chapters 3, 47, and 72.15. For Wai and its Brahmags, see Feldhaus 1995:146–72.16. For the versions of these places in (northern) Varagasi, see Eck 1982.17. See chapter 4, note 3.18. KM.Skt. 53.66–68; cf. KM.Mar. 53.51–52.


19. Cf. Sontheimer 1989:225–30.20. KM.Mar. 56.51; KM.Skt. 56.66.21. Udas 1891:48, quoting the KSetravarGan.22. For instance, the PayoSGI MChCtmya claims that one gets liberation at Kovi

tIrtha, Ram tIrtha, Krtacauca tIrtha, and dukla tIrtha on the Porga river just asone does at Varagasi (PM 22.102), and that Vicala tIrtha, also on the Porga,gives the reward of “Karat and Kolhapor” (PM 13.15).

23. This story is an interesting cross between two stories that are otherwise distinct:the story of Bhairav with the skull, and the story of Indra’s brahminicide.

24. Such is the claim the TCpI MChCtmya makes when it states that by just thedarxan of divayoga at Guptecvar tIrtha one gets the reward of ten pilgrimagesto Kedar (TM 53.7). This is also the claim that the BhImC MChCtmya makeswhen it states that at Bhima tIrtha one gets a hundred times as much merit asone does at Setubandha (Ramecvaram) and a crore of times as much as onedoes at Varagasi (BM 20.70).

25. For instance, after asserting that Guptecvar tIrtha gives one the reward of tenpilgrimages to Kedar, the TCpI MChCtmya claims, seven verses later, that justgoing to that same Guptecvar tIrtha without performing almsgiving or practic-ing asceticism there gives one the benefit of having bathed in the Gafga atKedar—presumably only once (TM 53.14). Claims of the form “going to X �n(doing ritual R at Y)” must also certainly be made; however, I omit this pos-sibility here, as I have not noted any examples of it.

26. The merit one gets at the Godavari during the Sijhastha period, e.g., can beobtained at Prakac kSetra on the Tapi at any time (TM 46.29). For a discussionof the astrological juncture called Sijhastha and its significance inMaharashtrian religious geography, see later, under “Containing Other Places.”At the confluence of the Payosgi and the Tapi, one gets a hundred times thebenefits to be obtained at Kuruksetra during an eclipse of the sun (PM 39.31).

27. Mahadevcastri Joci (1950:10) cites a statement from the SkandapurCGa thatmakes a claim of this sort with respect to the Godavari (or Goda) river: “Oneshould practice asceticism on the bank of the Reva [Narmada], one should laydown one’s body [that is, die] on the bank of the Gafga, and one should givealms at Kuruksetra: such is the fame of these kSetras. But by doing all of thesethings on the bank of just the Goda, one is rewarded with the same amount ofmerit.”

28. Such is the assertion of the KRSGC MChCtmya when it states that baths in theBhagirathi, the Gomati, the Godavari, the Bhima (KM.Skt. 25.16–17), and theNarmada (KM.Mar. 25.16) are limited in their rewards, while a bath at theconfluence of the Pañcagafga and the Krsga is unlimited (in its rewards?Cf. Lele 1885:159).

29. Examples of the first of these two equations include the GodCvarI MChCtmya’sclaim that one bath in the Godavari—and the KRSGC MChCtmya’s that one bathin the Krsga during the Kanyagat period—is equivalent to 60,000 years ofbathing in the Bhagirathi (the Ganges river of North India. GM.Mar. 4.33;30.60; cf. GM.Skt. 7.30;105.84; KM.Skt. 54.17; KM.Mar. 54.14.), and theTCpI MChCtmya’s assertion that making piGTa offerings once at Dharmacila


tIrtha on the Tapi is equivalent to making piGTa offerings at Gaya for 60,000years. A relatively modest example of the second equation is the Gurucaritra’sclaim that bathing at Cakratirtha, one of the eight tIrthas (Asvatirtha) ofGaggapor (a pilgrimage place of the god Dattatreya on the Bhima river), givesfour times the merit of bathing at Dvaravati (Dvarka; Pujari 1935:11, citingGurucaritra 49); a more pretentious example is the BhImC MChCtmya’s claimthat by bathing at Dharmaksetra on the Bhima one gets ten million times (onecrore) the merit to be obtained by bathing at Kuruksetra during an eclipse ofthe sun (BM 12.14).

30. See Kane 1973:604–09. In the south, dricailam is known for this—as the TCpIMChCtmya story of King Gajadhvaja (TM 53.54–61), cited earlier, illustrates.

31. Lele (1885:115, n.3) reports a tradition that the Godavari gets its name becausea bath in this river gives the rewards of donating (dC) thousands of cows (go),properly adorned and accompanied by their calves, at Prayag to worthy recipi-ents during a solar or lunar eclipse.

32. Examples of both these formulas are found in the TCpI MChCtmya. In one pas-sage, Hanuman tells some pious Brahmags at the Gafga that one gets eighttimes as much merit by thinking of the Tapi as one gets by lifelong service ofthe Gafga (TM 60.62). In another passage, the Mahatmya declares, in its ownvoice, that by listening to it one gets a crore of times the merit one gets by wor-shipping all the Jyotirlifgas and bathing in all tIrthas (TM 78.55; cf. TM 1.60).

33. For the four Dhams, see chapter 4. For this man, the four Dhams also includedthe Seven Cities (Saptapuri) and the 12 Jyotirlifgas, as well as a number ofother places.

34. In this latter case, although the claim takes the form, “going to X completes apilgrimage to Y,” the reason given for saying that going to Guptecvar completesa pilgrimage to Kedar is that [the god of ] Kedar is himself at Guptecvar. Thisreason, then, takes the form, “God G of place Y is at X”—a formula we will seein several of its variants in the next section of this chapter.

35. The Krsga, in whose Mahatmya this passage is found, is the river about whichpeople most often stress that it is a mahCnadI, a river that reaches the ocean. Seechapter 1.

36. Cf. Mani 1975. The KRSGC MChCtmya makes a similar claim, not particularlyclear in either the Marathi or the Sanskrit version of the text (KM.Skt.60.33–34; KM.Mar. 60.31–32), that whereas the Sarasvati causes purificationor sanctification in three days, the Yamuna in seven, the Bhagirathi immedi-ately, and the Narmada by the sight (darxan) of it, the Krsga is even more pow-erful than these; this passage also mentions the Bhimarathi (Bhima) and theGodavari, but it is hard to tell how they are supposed to fit into the table ofequivalences.

37. It is not clear whether this means 100 tIrthas and liFgas or 100 tIrthas that areliFgas.

38. Oral information.39. GM.Mar. 4.40; 31.15; GM.Skt. 7.34.40. Oral information.41. Oral information.


42. Mani 1975, citing PadmapurCGa 13.43. Oral information, in both cases.44. Oral information; Kulkargi 1988:18–19.45. Oral information.46. PM 39.57–79. The exact arrangement of gods and tIrthas at this place is hard

to decipher, but it is clear that the intention is to assign them to the cardinaland intermediate directions.

47. See Gutschow 1977; Levy 1990:153–56, 228–31; Eck 1982:294–96; Feldhaus1987; and chapter 6 of this book.

48. See Feldhaus 1995:23.49. Eliade 1969:219–45; Varenne 1976:155–56; Kramrisch 1976:67–97; Beck

1976; White 1996:218–62; Bouillier and Tarabout 2002.50. PM 13.16; cf. PM 22.99, PM 24.3, and PM 36.15.51. KM.Skt. 58.39; KM.Mar. 58.31.52. Oral information from a Pagtharpor Koli. This man recited a Marathi verse

that names the Gomati, the Godavari, the Narmada, the Sarasvati, theTufgabhadra, and the Bhagirathi (� Gafga), and states that they join theCandrabhaga at noon (madhyChnakClIJ). See Namdev 399. The Koli inter-preted the verse to mean that all rivers come to the Candrabhaga, and that theydo so at midnight rather than noon.

53. The author who quotes this verse takes it to mean that all tIrthas and all deitieslive in the Godavari during the Sijhastha period.

54. A specific form of the claim that a distant, famous river or place (Y) comes to,or comes to meet, a nearby river or place (X) is the claim that

Y bathes at X.

Such, e.g., is the claim that the Gafga and all other rivers bathe in the Tapiduring the month of Asath (TM 70.25), the claim that the Gafga bathes inthe Narmada once a year (Imperial Gazetteer 1909:177), or the claim thatPrayag, Naimisa, Gaya, Varagasi, Kuruksetra, Prabhas, and GokargaMamalecvar always bathe at Kovitirtha on the Payosgi (PM 23.55, 57).

55. The numerous confluences where the Sarasvati river reappears from under-ground could also be included here. I have already discussed them under theformula “X is the hidden Y.”

56. See earlier, under “X has what Y has.”57. See Feldhaus 1995:41–42.58. See chapter 1 and Feldhaus 1995:29–36.59. Udas 1891:45–46; Phatke 1931:225. The astrological juncture at which this is

said to happen is the Kapila S. asvhi Yog.60. Ratnagiri District. Phatke 1931:120–24; Enthoven 1924:102; oral information.61. Phatke 1931:120, based on information given by Rajvate about the annual

income of the place, estimates that “this Gafga must have been known aboutfor two or three hundred years.”

62. For connections among rivers, women, cows, and milk, see Feldhaus 1995.63. Yellow turmeric and red kuFkOJ are the two powders that are used on the

forehead of an auspicious (married or marriageable, unwidowed) woman. For thefemininity of rivers and their auspiciousness in Maharashtra, see Feldhaus 1995.


64. The man told me this story twice, once in 1985 and again in 1988. Here I givethe 1988 version.

65. At Narsobaci Vati, e.g., when the Kanyagat period is about to start, men carrya festival image from the main temple to dukla tIrtha, some distance upstream,and give it a bath. After this bath, the Gafga is understood to have come intothe Krsga, to remain in it for a year.

66. For a description of this festival, see Feldhaus 1995:146–72.67. Oral information.68. Contrast the equality of the Krsga and Koyna at their “love confluence” in

Karat (chapter 3).69. And the underworld river Bhogavati (see Feldhaus 1991).70. The TCpI MChCtmya gives another example of this motif: to edify a doubting

Brahmag, diva himself throws his own staff and water pot into the confluenceof the Sarasvati and the ocean at Prabhas; they come up at the confluence ofthe Tapi and the ocean at Ulkecvar (TM 67.88–101).

71. Usmanabad District. Sontheimer 1989a:210–14.72. The pamphlets I have consulted (Buragte 1987, Joci 1979, Ruikar 1982, and

Lade 1983) tell of Jyotiba’s coming to Ratnagiri in order to kill a demon. Heis born to the RSi Paugagta and his wife, Vimalambuja, after they have prayedto Kedarnath for a child. This does not, however, seem to be a version of the“old devotee” story discussed in chapter 3 (Ruikar 1982:5).

73. Probably this is the Ramtirtha near Athni in Belgaum District (Karnatak),described in the GBP, Belgaum 1884:598–99.

74. I say “doing ritual R at Y” here rather than “doing ritual R� at Y” because “giv-ing piGTas” and “doing xrCddha” refer to the same ritual.

75. Krsgabai, “Lady Krsga,” is a name used in some contexts to refer to the Krsgariver. It is also the name of the goddess who embodies the river, and whose fes-tival is celebrated in late winter in Wai and other towns along the river. SeeFeldhaus 1995:50–53, 146–72.

76. For a description and discussion of this temple, see Feldhaus 1995:21.77. A more detailed version of the story can be found in Feldhaus 1995:24–25.78. Joci (1950:10) reports a popular tradition that the Godavari is linked with the

Gafga through an underground passage. This tradition, which differs from theMahatmya’s account (according to which the connection is more properlycelestial than subterranean), follows the praise formula, “Y is connected with Xby an underground passage,” discussed earlier.

79. GM.Skt. 8.1–2; GM.Mar. 5.36; 31.119–21, 133. In addition, according toGM.Mar. 31.121, the Narmada is the Gafga of Vaicyas, and the Kaveri is theGafga of dodras.

80. A man from another village who was listening to this corrected the speaker: theriver is called “Godavari” at Nasik too, at the river’s source, this other manobjected; but he did not challenge the statement that the Gafga-Godavari isalso the Candrabhaga at Pagtharpor.

81. Except, of course, in the NarmadC MChCtmya, where places on the Narmadaare the nearby, not the distant ones.

82. The information was obtained by making notecards with statements of thissort on them, then listing the places used as standards of comparison in the


statements, and counting the numbers of times each place occurs. The mate-rial so indexed is not complete, nor could it be, nor is it completely indexed,nor is it a “scientifically” valid sample, nor has it been checked for accuracy.Nonetheless, I think it does support the sort of rough conclusions I have drawnfrom it. In order to avoid a deceptive appearance of precision, I have inten-tionally refrained from mentioning any exact numbers. To indicate the generalrange of numbers involved: I have counted between 20 and 25 occurrenceseach of Kaci, Kuruksetra, and Prayag as standards of comparison in the riverMahatmyas that I have used, and about four dozen occurrences of Kaci in oralsources (including modern texts based primarily on oral sources).

83. For a major exception, see Cakradhar’s command to his followers to stay out ofthe “Kannada and Telugu lands” (chapter 6). Cakradhar was a Gujarati, andhence a North Indian.

84. Ramecvaram and dricailam are sometimes standards of comparison forMaharashtrian places.

85. I am grateful to Christian Novetzke for a lively discussion of the views I pre-sent here, and for reminding me of aspects of Maharashtrian culture that relateit more closely to the North than to the South of India. For instance, the scriptused for writing Marathi is the North Indian, devanCgarI script rather than anyof the South Indian scripts; Marathi is classified as a North Indian, Indo-European, rather than a South Indian, Dravidian, language; and the kind ofclassical music that is prevalent in Maharashtra is North Indian, Hindustanimusic rather than South Indian, Carnatic music. On the other hand, Marathivocabulary owes a great deal to its southern neighbor-language, Kannada(Lokapur 1994), and many of the most prominent Hindustani musicians inMaharashtra have come from Karnataka. For additional evidence, see the sec-tion of the introduction entitled “Geographical Stories.”

86. See the writings of Günther Sontheimer, including Sontheimer 1989b.

6 Pilgrimage and Remembrance: Biography andGeography in the Maha–nubha–v Tradition

1. For the literature, see Raeside 1960. For the codes, see Raeside 1970.2. The LILCcaritra (Kolte 1982b).3. QddhipurlILC or Qddhipurcaritra (Kolte 1972), translated in Feldhaus, translator

1984.4. In addition to Cakradhar and Gugtam Raül, these are Cafgdev Raül,

Dattatreya, and Krsga. See Feldhaus 1983b.5. SmRtisthaL (Decpagte 1961), translated in Feldhaus and Tulpule, translators

1992.6. For bhakti disdain for special places, see, e.g., Ramanujan 1973:26. For ascetic

renunciation, see, e.g., Olivelle 1977 and 1995.7. The numbering of sOtras follows that in Feldhaus 1983a. On the notion of

attachment (sambandh), see Feldhaus 1994.


8. This last place is probably Puri, in Orissa. Mahor and Kolhapor are two ofMaharashtra’s principal 3-1/2 goddess places, discussed in chapter 4.

9. Nipagikar (1980) argues that the names “Kanatdec” and “Telafgadec” in thissOtra refer to particular villages with goddess temples rather than to regions.Tulpule (1981) argues, convincingly, for the more traditional interpretationadopted here.

10. The young man had died and was being carried to the cremation ground justas a previous incarnation, Cafgdev Raül, left his body. Cafgdev Raül was anascetic who was being harrassed by a lascivious woman (LC, “Porvardha”16–17).

11. te marhCVI tar anCvara bolati. LC, “Uttarardha”13.12. The text does not use the names “Gujarat” and “Maharashtra” at this point.13. Tulpule 1972, chapter 7: to desu pCrkC. tetha jCoJ nai e.14. Kolte 1982b, “Porvardha” 20. Cakradhar’s father also objects on the grounds

that his family are “rCje”—Ksatriyas, perhaps—and hence should send aBrahmag on the pilgrimage in their stead. If, as S. G. Tulpule suggested to mein conversation, “rCje” refers to Brahmags engaged in royal service, then per-haps Cakradhar’s father wants to send on the pilgrimage another kind ofBrahmag, one engaged in religious rather than governmental work.

15. Perhaps the strong physical boundaries on Maharashtra’s northern border—theVindhya and Satputa mountains and the Narmada and Tapi rivers—make itunnecessary to articulate the sort of prohibition the SOtrapCVh expresses withrespect to the south. See the introduction. See also the section of chapter 5 enti-tled “Maharashtra’s Southern Identity.”

16. Kolte 1982a:92; BcCr SthaL MahCbhCSya (Pañjabi n.d.b) Volume 1, 133–34.17. VI.5.29, cited in Sircar 1971a:94.18. Another Mahanubhav text that explicitly defines Maharashtra is Krsgamuni

Kavi uimbh’s Qddhipur MChCtmya (Krsgamuni 1967). This early-seventeenth-century (Raeside 1960:494) text gives two quite different definitions ofMaharashtra. In one passage (verse 306), Krsgamuni identifies Maharashtra asthe area “from Tryambak to Kalecvar at Mathani, and from the Krtamala to theTabrapargi.” The mention of Tryambak, at the source of the Godavari river,and of “Kalecvar at Mathani”—probably the Kalecvar at the confluence of theGodavari and the Praghita, near modern Manthani (Karimnagar District,Andhra Pradesh), at the farthest eastern border of modern Maharashtra withmodern Andhra Pradesh—makes the upper Godavari valley the northern limitof Maharashtra. But the rest of the definition extends Maharashtra far to thesouth. The Krtamala (now Vaigai) and Tabrapargi (Tamrapargi) rivers bothflow well to the south of the Kannada and Telugu lands that the SOtrapCVhexplicitly distinguishes from Maharashtra.

By Krsgamuni’s other definition (verses 103–04), Maharashtra extends lessfar south, but farther north. By this definition, Maharashtra is the region southof the Vindhya mountains, north of the Krsga river, and west of the “jhCTImaGTaL” to the Kofkag. The “jhCTI maGTaL” is, literally, the “treeful region,”the forested region comprising the present-day districts of Canda (orCandrapur) and Bhandara (Date et al. 1932–1938, Volume 3:1353). By this


definition, then, too, Maharashtra extends a good bit beyond the Godavari val-ley, though not into any territory that the SOtrapCVh explicitly excludes. Again,though, this definition does not give firm evidence about the SOtrapCVh’s use ofthe term “Maharashtra,” since the SOtrapCVh was composed a full three cen-turies earlier than Krsgamuni’s text.

19. M. S. Mate (1975:79) identifies these as the two “nuclear areas” of Marathi culture.

20. Mahanubhav teachings hold that Cakradhar did not die but “left for the north”(uttarCpanthe).

21. Kolte 1972; Feldhaus, translator 1984 (slightly revised), chapter 88; cf. LC,“Porvardha” 585. For Gugtam Raül as mad, see Feldhaus 1982 and Feldhaus,translator 1984.

22. That is, in the Godavari valley. For “Gafga” as a name of the Godavari, seechapter 5.

23. Kolte 1972; Feldhaus, translator 1984, chapter 102.24. This is equivalent to sIvanadex, or Seunadec, another name for the Yadava king-

dom, the kingdom of King Seunacandra. Altekar 1960:516.25. Kolte 1972; Feldhaus, translator 1984, chapter 235.26. Deshpande 1961:203; Pañjabi 1968:184; VMM 206. VMM gives two other

interpretations in addition to the one cited here. See also LC, “Ajñat Lila” 148.27. Deshpande 1960; Feldhaus and Tulpule, translators 1992, chapter 246.28. Dr. S. G. Tulpule suggested (personal communication) that the reason for the

Mahanubhavs’ pleasant associations with Vidarbha and their unpleasant associ-ations with the Godavari valley is that Cakradhar met his guru, Gugtam Raül,in Vidarbha, and was killed in the Godavari valley. Cf. MP, verses 268–84.

29. These are Sanskrit pronouns.30. Deshpande 1960; Feldhaus and Tulpule, translators 1992, chapter 66.31. yeGeJ mCjhiyC mhCJtCrIyC nCgavatil. Ibid., chapter 15.32. Kolte 1982a:82–84; ASM I, 126–29. Other commentaries—NiruktaxeS (Decpagte

1961:4), PrakaraGvax (Pañjabi 1968:17), and VicCr BcCr PrakaraGCcC VacanSambandha Artha (Pañjabi n.d.d:73)—do not explain the command.

33. The sub-commentary ASM gives Marwar as an example.34. That is, they have large populations? Or does this mean that the people who

live in these countries are tall? ASM gives as examples Gujarat and Panjab.35. Aixvarya. ASM gives “Arabasthan” (Arabia) as an example.36. Here ASM’s example is the Kofkag.37. ASM gives “Gaut Bengal” as an example of a land great in witchcraft

(kauValya), and the Kannada and Telugu countries as examples of lands great in lust.

38. The three guGas—rajas, tamas, and sattva—are explained later.39. SOtrapCVh XII.20, 57, 67; XIII.40, 41, 43, 81, 131, 132, 188, and 189.40. Deshpande 1960; Feldhaus and Tulpule, translators 1992, chapter 115.41. Niruddex, SOtrapCVh XIII.40.42. This section appears in the second edition (1976), but not the first (undated),

of Kolte’s edition of the work. Another undated edition, prepared by MadhavrajPañjabi (n.d.c), includes a section entitled “Atha Ruddhipor Sthane.”


43. Kolte 1982b. Kolte has included at various places in his edition passages froma number of texts that he believes to have originally belonged to the LILCcaritra,even though the texts are generally not found in LILCcaritra manuscripts. Seenote 46 and Kolte’s introduction to his edition, p. 84 f.

44. In Kolte’s edition, “Ekafka” does not form a separate section of the LILCcaritra,but its chapters are included in “Porvardha.” For Kolte’s reasons for consider-ing “Ekafka” as part of “Porvardha” rather than a separate section, see hisintroduction, 1982b:62–63.

45. This interpretation also makes sense of the fact that the section of theSthCnpothI entitled “qddhipur Sthanej” includes many places outside the vil-lage of qddhipor. Although these places are not found in qddhipor, they are,by and large, found in the Qddhipurcaritra.

46. The LILCcaritra, in the course of narrating episodes of Cakradhar’s life, severaltimes makes statements like, “Then the Gosavi [Cakradhar] taught ‘x,’ ” nam-ing a section of the SOtrapCVh; or “Then the Gosavi taught the ‘y’ dRSVCnta,”naming one of the parables in the DRSVCntapCVh. In preparing his edition of theLILCcaritra, Kolte has added the appropriate sOtras and dRSVCntas at these points,providing a crutch for those readers who do not share early Mahanubhavs’ready knowledge of the sOtras and dRSVCntas. In the DRSVCntapCVh, each of theparables is joined with a SOtrapCVh sOtra that it is supposed to illustrate, as wellas with a moral (a dCRSVCntika) that relates the dRSVCnta to the sOtra. TheSOtrapCVh does not make explicit references to episodes of the LILCcaritra, andyet it does state that its sOtras must be interpreted in terms of their context(prakaraGa; see SOtrapCVh XII.148 and XI.135). By prakaraGa is meant not pri-marily the SOtrapCVh context of a sOtra, its relationship to the sOtras that pre-cede and follow it, but its context in Cakradhar’s life: to whom he spoke thesOtra and on what occasion or in answer to what question. This informationcan be found not only in the LILCcaritra, but also in two distinctive SOtrapCVhcommentaries: PrakaraGvax (Pañjabi 1968) and NiruktaxeS (Decpagte 1961).

47. More precisely, “The Garland of Verses about Holy Places.”48. For a photograph of a Mahanubhav oVC, see Feldhaus 1988:273.49. See Feldhaus, translator 1984.50. Mahant Gopiraj Mahanubhav, qddhipor, July 1, 1983.51. Personal communication, June 28–29, 1982. In Maharashtrian villages,

Buddhist neighborhoods are the neighborhoods of formerly UntouchableMahars who have converted to Buddhism. In converting, they are followingthe lead of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, who was formally initiated as a Buddhistshortly before his death in 1956.

52. People frequently use the term “sCmCrthya” as a synonym for “xakti” in thissense.

53. One informant stated that mCyC xakti has the more “pragmatic” effects and kRpCxakti the more “transcendent” ones. For a thorough discussion of Mahanubhavxakti theory, see Kolte 1975:71, 122–26 and Kolte 1973:312–17.

54. Mahant Pac Raüt Baba Mahanubhav, qddhipor, June 26, 1983.55. Madhavraj Pañjabi, Amravati, July 7, 1982.56. The Collector is a high administrative official, the head of a district.


57. This title is borrowed from that of an article by James Foard (1995).58. Like much of the rest of early Mahanubhav literature, the text of the SthCnpothI

includes within itself a number of variants. Some of these variants come fromdiffering recollections of early Mahanubhavs who had memorized an originalversion of the text. This version was lost (see the next note), and a number ofthese disciples together reconstructed the text from memory. (See Decpagte1932; Nene 1936, 1939; Feldhaus 1983a:10–11, 15; and Feldhaus, translator1984:39–40.) Since the disciples’ recollections did not always agree, the recon-structed text includes a number of different versions. A variant version is intro-duced by the name of the disciple from whom it comes—Hiraïsej,Paracarambas, and so on—or by the words “xodh” or “tathC,” or both. Othervariants introduced by the words “xodh” or “tathC” seem to indicate the workof a subsequent editor.

59. The claim that the writing of the SthCnpothI began with Baïdevobas would meanthat there was an early version of the text in existence before approximately 1309C.E. Y. K. Decpagte states that the SthCnpothI was written in daka 1275 (1353C.E.) by Munivyas Kovhi. This Munivyas is best known for having built theaniconic stone blocks or pedestals (oVCs) that mark the Mahanubhav holy places.(See later.) Kolte finds no evidence to support the claim that Munivyas wrote theSthCnpothI; rather, Kolte suggests, in the course of building (or rebuilding) theoVCs, Munivyas may have revised a version of the SthCnpothI that was already inexistence. Kolte identifies the “Citale” whom he holds responsible for the author-ship of SthCnpothI in its present form (the form of its present manuscript tradi-tion) as a man belonging to the line of disciples of Dayabas Cirate.

Kolte cites no evidence besides SmRtisthaL 115 for the claim that Baïdevobasmade notes on the holy places visited in the course of the pilgrimage describedin that chapter. Thus, the claim seems to rest on an interpretation of“sthCn-nirdexeJ” as meaning that Nagdev instructed Baïdevobas to wander not“according to the sthCns” or “in the direction of the sthCns” but “writing downnotes describing the sthCns as you go along.” This interpretation does not seemwarranted to me, as the text itself says only that Baïdevobas went along “bow-ing” (namaskarItaci) to the sthCns, not writing anything down.

One bit of evidence for the existence of an early, written version of theSthCnpothI, whether it was written by Baïdevobas or by someone else, is the factthat a text called “Itihas,” which gives an account of the loss of severalMahanubhav texts at the time of a raid by the “sultan of Delhi” (probably theraid by Malik Kapor in 1308), lists “sthCnCcI pothI” among the texts that werelost. “Itihas,” an Old Marathi text that was published in 1932 (Decpagte1932:45–57), is undated, however, and the other two extant Mahanubhavaccounts of the loss of the early texts—one in Krsgamuni’s “Anvaymalika”(Nene 1939) and the other in another “Anvaysthal” (Nene 1936)—do notmention the SthCnpothI among the texts that were lost.

The evidence that Munivyas Kovhi wrote or edited a version of theSthCnpothI is almost as weak as the evidence that Baïdevobas wrote one. And,finally, Kolte is unable to discover who precisely the fifteenth-century redactornamed “Citale” was.


60. Further evidence of this can be seen in the large number of major manuscriptvariants included in Kolte’s edition (appendix 1). This suggests that the processof checking the book against the places and emending it accordingly was anongoing one for some time, with different emendations being made by peoplewho took special interest in different places.

61. Kolte 1976:4–7, 24–30; Pavhag 1973:47–57.62. The texts are “Paivhagca Vrddhacar,” published in Pavhag 1973:50–57; and

“Caritra Abab,” quoted in Kolte 1976:6. These texts also say nothing aboutMunivyas’s having written—or even revised—the SthCnpothI.

63. For example, Mahant Gopiraj of qddhipor told me this in June 1983, andMahant Yaksadev of qddhipor said it to me in July 1982.

64. For instance, Mahant Pac Raüt Baba of qddhipor told me this in July 1982, aswell as in the statement quoted later, and Mahant Yaksadev knew of one set ofcases in which the SthCnpothI had been used in deciding where to place oVCs.

65. The Narasijha temple that was Gugtam Raül’s principal residence inqddhipor.

66. Something Gugtam Raül once did, according to Qddhipurcaritra, chapter 72(Kolte 1972; Feldhaus, translator 1984).

67. On the other hand, some MahCnubhCvs have complained to me that theSthCnpothI is in fact difficult to use for finding new sthCns. PurushottamNagpure, e.g., a prominent Mahanubhav layman and author in AmravatiDistrict, told of making repeated efforts to determine the length of the “pCGTC”and other measures used in the text: measuring the distances between severaldifferent pairs of places given in the SthCnpothI failed to produce any uniformvalues for the SthCnpothI’s measures. Such a complaint highlights the belief thatthe SthCnpothI ought to be of help in locating sthCns.

68. See Feldhaus 1980.69. For examples of this process in qddhipor, see Feldhaus 1987:77–80.70. The SthCnpothI gives a survey of the deities who had temples in the Maravhvata

and Vidarbha areas of Maharashtra half a millennium or more ago. It tells usthe directions in which the temples faced and sometimes on what side of atown or village they were found. Frequently it also names the deities whosetemples were clustered together and describes the configurations of the clustersin terms of the directional relationships of the temples to one another.

This is a rich store of information. So far only a few scholars have made useof it, but the kinds of use they have made of it indicate its potential value. Kolte(1976:21) points out that the SthCnpothI mentions no temples ofVivvhal/Pagturafg/Vivhoba, the god of Pagtharpor, who now has numeroustemples all over Maharashtra; Kolte interprets this absence as evidence that thecult of Vivhoba was not particularly widespread when the SthCnpothI was com-posed—or at the time when Cakradhar was wandering around visiting temples.This conclusion is probably correct. It is also possible, though, that Cakradhar’santipathy toward the cult of Vivhoba—as recorded, e.g., in his derogatoryexplanation of the cult in LC, “Uttarardha” 519—would have led him to avoidany Vivhoba temples that he came upon in the course of his travels. Since placeswhere Cakradhar did not go are generally not included in SthCnpothI, its failure


to mention Vivhoba temples does not constitute incontrovertible proof thatthere were no temples of this god in the villages and towns that Cakradhar vis-ited. Kolte also notes the strong predominance of daiva deities among those inwhose temples Cakradhar sat or stayed (Kolte 1976:20–21); this confirms thefundamentally daiva character of Maharashtrian Hinduism, prior to—and stilltoday, in spite of—the Vaisgava-Krsgaite overlay of the Varkari tradition.

The SthCnpothI can also facilitate more detailed kinds of historical research.The historian Setumadhavrav Pagati carried out such research in Paivhag andAurafgabad Talukas of Aurangabad District in the early 1950s (Pagati 1985).He visited a number of places described in the SthCnpothI and compared hisobservations with the SthCnpothI’s descriptions of the places. He found somevery interesting changes. At one place (Porgagav) he found a diva temple onwhat the SthCnpothI describes as the site of a Narayag (Visgu) temple (Pagati1985:4). At three other places (Savkheta, Nagamvhag, and Aval) he found divatemples on what the SthCnpothI describes as the site of Aditya temples (Pagati1985:5, 6, and 7). Although Pagati himself takes the last three cases to meanthat the sun god Aditya is now called diva, to me it seems more likely that thecult of Aditya, like that of Narayag, has waned since the time of the SthCnpothI,while the cult of diva has continued to rise in popularity. And finally, in threefurther villages Pagati found mosques—some of them dilapidated or inruins—on sites that he is reasonably confident the SthCnpothI describes as thoseof Hindu temples: a Narasijha temple at Saralmala (Pagati 1985:5–6), aNarasijha or Saraladevi temple at Badvhaga (Pagati 1985:2), and a cluster ofthree temples—to Mahalaksmi, diva, and Gagapati—at Katevhag (Pagati1985:15–16). All three of the temples had been replaced by mosques at somepoint between the last editing of the SthCnpothI and 1952.

71. See, e.g., Beck 1976, Das 1982, Kramrisch 1976, and Levy 1990.72. Some of the Mahanubhav pilgrimage places are not purely sectarian in their

importance. Besides places like Tryambakecvar and Mahor, which Mahanubhavsshare with non-Mahanubhav Hindus, there are also Mahanubhav pilgrimageplaces that are reputed, within the sect but even more so outside it, to have specialpower to cure ghost possession. See Stanley 1988:36–37.

73. I have taken “CJvaThe nCganCtha amardaka tapovana” in verse 124 to refer toa single place. Kolte identifies “Amardaka” as an older name of Augthe, a vil-lage in Parbhani District, Maharashtra (Kolte 1982b:807). The BhCratIyaSaJskRtikox (Joshi 1962–1979, Volume 3:685) identifies Augthe as the loca-tion of the Darukavan in which the yivapurCGa places Nagnath. For the 12Jyotirlifgas, cf. map 4.1 and chapter 4, note 3.

74. According to one of Krsgamuni’s definitions of Maharashtra (QddhipOrMChCtmya 306; see note 18, earlier), Ramecvar would also be included inMaharashtra, for on that definition Maharashtra extends as far south as theTamrapargi river, in far southern Tamil Nadu.

75. This is identical with “Bhismecvar in uakini” in the previous list.76. This list agrees with the standard one given by Eck (1982:38) and Bharati

(1970:97) and in chapter 4, except that Maya is more usually identified asHardvar than as Gaya. That Krsgamuni identifies it as Gaya can be seen fromverse 145, cited later.


77. “The demon Maya” may refer to Maya, Namuci’s brother, one of the Danavas.Anyone who put his hand on the head of the demon Bhasma was turned toashes. Visgu destroyed Bhasma by getting him to touch his hand to his ownhead (Citrav 1932).

78. On Rukmafgad’s devotion to the Ekadaci vow, see the NCradapurCGa 2.36(Vefkavecvara Press edition). By killing Ravaga, Ram incurred brahmahatyC,the sin of killing a Brahmag, not strIhatyC, the sin of killing a woman. Perhapsthe reference is to Ram’s having Laksmag cut off the nose and ears ofdorpanakha, Ravaga’s sister.

79. According to Gotbole (1928:262), Bhogavati is a name of the Sarasvati river.The GautamI MChCtmya (GM.Skt. 41) tells of the marriage of a PrincessBhogavati to a snake (a creature of the underworld) at Pratisvhan. See Feldhaus1991 for more on the serpents of Paivhag.

80. This story is widely known in qddhipor today. See Feldhaus 1987:76. In liter-ature, the story is found in Krsgamuni’s Qddhipur MChCtmya, verses 639–94,and it forms the basic plot of Mahecvarpagtit’s Qddhipur MChCtmya. Both ofthese are elaborations of a story found in chapter 213 of the biography ofGugtam Raül (Kolte 1972; Feldhaus, translator 1984).

Conclusion

1. I have not seen similar regionalistic consequences of the rivalry between thebedstead- and palanquin-carriers on the pilgrimage to Tuljapor, although thereis regionalistic potential in the fact that the two objects start out from differentplaces: Rahuri and Ghotegav.

2. I have not been able to discover any studies of South Asian Muslim religiousgeography that examine networks of Muslim pilgrimage shrines from this per-spective. Damrel (forthcoming) and Ernst 1995 make a good start at the studyof the Muslim religious geography of India, but they do not reach the regionallevel.

3. I count seven rather than the eight Maharashtrian Jyotirlifgas that Jogalekarclaims his calculations add up to. But, in any case, even seven out of 12 wouldpresent a powerful religious-geographical argument for the superiority ofMaharashtra to other parts of India. For Krsgamuni, see chapter 6. For theJyotirlifgas, see chapter 4.

4. Sattva (“purity”), rajas (“passion”), and tamas (“darkness”) are the three guGasof Safkhya-style Hindu philosophy, frequently used for classifying groups ofthree as, respectively, best, medium, and worst. The Godavari is the holiestriver of Maharashtra in terms of the Brahmagical-Sanskritic religious geogra-phy of India as a whole. See Feldhaus 1995:24–25 and chapter 5 of this book.I do not know why Jogalekar describes the Krsga as tCmasic. I will discuss laterwhy he refrains from describing the Bhima as rCjasic.

5. As we have seen in the introduction, the valley of the Godavari river is identi-fied as the Dagtakaragya, the forest in which Ram and his wife and brotherspent most of their years of exile. See also Feldhaus 1995:98–99.


6. Saptacrfgi, Tuljapor, and Kolhapor are three (or, rather, two-and-a-half ) of thethree-and-a-half dakti Pivhas of Maharashtra, discussed in chapter 4.

7. Nasik, identified here as a dharmakSetra, is one of four sites of the 12-year cycleof the Kumbha Mela (see chapter 4) and a principal place in Maharashtra forperforming xrCddha ceremonies. Satara, here called a vIrakSetra, is still thoughtof as the center of the Maravha military power. Pune, the karmakSetra, was pre-sumably already in Jogalekar’s time beginning its rise as the industrial center itnow is.


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Abbreviations

AMM BcCr MCLikC MahCbhCSya, edited by M. Pañjabi. N.d.Amravati: Baboraj Relkar.

ASM BcCr SthaL MahCbhCSya, edited by M. Pañjabi. N.d. Amravati:Kicor Prakacan.

BM Dattakifkar. 1886. yrI BhImC MChCtmya. Bombay: JagadicvarPress.

BSK BhCratIya SaJskRtikoc, edited by Mahadevcastri Joci.1962–1979. 10 volumes. Puge: Bharatiya SajskrtikocMagtal.

GBP Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency.GM.Mar. Dasagago. 1921 (dake 1843). yrI GautamI MChCtmya.

Nandet: Damodhar Vaman Avhavale.GM.Skt. GautamI MChCtmya. 1906. Printed separately at the end of yrI

BrahmapurCGa. Bombay: Vefkavecvara Press; reprint, Delhi:Nag Publishers, 1985.

KM KRSGC MChCtmya (Sanskrit and/or Marathi).KM.Mar. Vaidya, Gagec Ramkrsga. 1897 (dake 1819). yrI KRSGC

MChCtmya. Bombay: Nirgaysagar Press; reprint, Wai, 1983.KM.Skt. KRSGC MChCtmya. 1885 (dake 1807). Edited by V. S. S.

Gafgadharacastri Abhyafkara. Wai: Viraja Vaibhava Press.LC MhCImbhaV SaFkalit yrIcakradhar LILC Caritra, edited by

V. B. Kolte. 1982. 2nd edition, Mumbai: Maharasvra RajyaSahitya-Sajskrti Magtal.

MM Bhagat, Sakharam Balaji. N.d. yrI MaLCIdevI MChCtmya.Ciñcoli, Parner Taluka, Ahmadnagar District: SakharamBalaji Bhagat.

MP Muni KecirCj Viracit MOrtiprakCc, edited by V. B. Kolte. 1962.Nagpor: Vidarbha Sajcodhan Magtal.

NM Bule, dakuntalabai Narayagrav. N.d. yrInarmadCmChCtmya.Dadar: Narendra Book Depot.

PM Ballal, Tryambak. 1913. PayoSGI MChCtmya. Bombay: dafkarPrinting Press.

SSG GCthCpañcaka arthCt Sakala-Santa-GCthC, edited by TryambakHari Avave. Pugej: Indira Chapkhana, 1924–1927.

TM Solafki, Lukanath. 1905 (dake 1827). yrI TCpI MChCtmya.Puge: Aryavijay Press.

VMM VicCr MCLikC MahCbhCSya, edited by Madhavraj Pañjabi. N.d.Amravati: Baboraj Relkar.

290 Abbreviations

Abbott, John, 229Abhiras/Ahirs, 4, 8, 223BcCr SthaL MahCbhCSya, 224, 257–58BcCrband, 189Athav family, 49, 231Adilcahi centers, 153. See also Bijapor,

Sultanate ofAditya/Adityas, 245, 262. See also SunAgastya, 10–11, 26, 213, 226Agnew, John, 224Agni, 42, 242Agra, 134Ahmadnagar, 101, 102map3.2,

105–06, 108, 111map3.3, 112,114, 142, 189, 239, 243

Sultanate of, 8Ahmadnagar/Nagar District, xii(map),

25map1.2, 83, 105, 110, 123,141–42, 197, 228–29, 234, 243

Ahobalam, 135Ainvati, 11Ajanta, 4, 215Akloj, 244Akola District, xii(map), 223Aksayya Trtiya, 75‘Ala-ud-din Khilji, 4, 8Alampor, 160, 251Alandi, 216, 217map7.1, 220, 234Alcohol, 26, 57, 95Allahabad, 129, 130map4.1, 135–36,

159, 245. See also PrayagAlmanacs, 242. See also Astrology;

CalendarsAlmsgiving, 167, 169, 171, 252Altekar, A. S., 258

AmCnta calendrical system, 183Amarakagvaka, 169Amarnath, 246AmCvCsyC (no-moon day), 183Amba Mata, 121Ambabai, 121, 136, 219, 244, 247Ambedkar, B. R., 215, 232, 259Ambejogai, 12–13, 116, 117map3.4,

119, 225, 244, 246–48Ambika/Ambikamata, 104, 227American landscape, 6Amravati, 207–09, 217map7.1Amravati District, xii(map), 122, 197,

223, 228, 261Amrtecvar (� Bali temple at

difggapor), 49, 230. See also BaliAnalogies between places, 162, 208–09Ancestors, 65, 79, 85–86, 99, 109,

207, 235as founders of pilgrimages,

90–91, 107. See also BhutojiTeli; Jankoji Devkar; Nago Mali

embodiment of, 99identification of descendants with,

99, 107rituals for. See PiGTa offerings

Andhaka, 170Andhra Pradesh, 2map0.1, 3, 24, 29,

39, 86, 118, 135–36, 138, 140,160, 162, 169–71, 183, 208,225–26, 229, 246, 257. See alsoTelugu, Land/country

Androt, 231, 239Antarvedi, 30Ants, 64, 165

Index

Aparanta, 188Apegav, 219Apsarases, 112. See also Water, nymphsArabia, 134, 258Aradhinis, 31Araggav, 111map3.3, 114, 244BratI, 34, 51–52, 65, 74, 81, 97–98,

123, 204, 230, 238, 244definition of, 65, 230, 238

Architecture, Hindu, 205Hematpanti, 47, 142

Arjun, 17, 225Asath (June–July), 172, 234, 254

11th day of bright half/AsathiEkadaci, 31, 33figure1.1, 234

12th day of bright half, 234Asara, Seven. See Sati AsaraAsceticism and ascetics, 17, 23, 57,

59, 63, 110, 129, 132, 154, 156, 165, 172–73, 176, 178,185–86, 191–92, 194, 227, 242, 249, 252, 257

Asher, Catherine, 224Bxrams, 11. See also MonasteriesAssam, 131, 246Asvavinayak, 140–48, 141map4.3,

147figure4.1, 156, 160, 179, 214, 221, 249

coherence as a set, 143–44holy picture of, 146–48, 147figure4.1names of, 249narrative connection among, 249

Astrology and astrologers, 129, 242, 245,252, 254. See also Constellations;Kanyagat; Sijhastha

Acvin (October–November), 106, 108,112, 172

athleticism, 51–52, 56–57, 61, 64–66

Athni, 255Atkar, Ramdas, xiii, 82, 237Attachment (sambandh), 186, 256. See

also DetachmentAudumbar. See Udumbar wood

Augthe/Ajvathe, 130map4.1, 162,207, 245, 262

Aurafgabad, 4, 216Aurangabad District, xii(map), 123,

197, 223, 228, 262Aurafgzeb, 4, 216Auspiciousness, 167, 254Avanti, 177, 208AvatCrs, 70Ayodhya, 128, 130map4.1, 156,

165, 182, 208

Babies, 89, 91, 95, 116, 144Bachelard, Gaston, 224Badami, 122, 160Badrinath, 130map4.1, 132, 135,

207, 246Batves, 234BagCT, 243Bahe/Bahe/Bahe-Borgav/Bayaborgajv,

148, 149map4.4, 150–51, 153,155, 159, 251

Bahiroba, 75Bahmanis, 8Baïdevobas, 194, 203, 260Baleghav/Balaghav, 189, 195map6.1, 218Balehalli, 136, 246Bali, 46–47, 49, 52, 54–55, 57–58,

70, 232, 235. See also AmrtecvarBanaras/Banaras/Benaras, 22, 39, 111,

128, 133, 135, 160, 163, 208,238, 241, 243, 247. See also Kaci;Varagasi

Bands, 50, 54, 114. See also Music,musical instruments, andmusicians

Bangalore, 148, 237Baggafga river, 51Bangla Desh, 242Bangles, 68, 97Bagcafkari, 122Bapat, Jayant B., 249Barat, 51, 231Barbers, 242

292 Index

Barleycorns, 164Barnouw, Victor, 248Basar, 24, 170Basket, gods carried in a, 4, 36, 94Basso, Keith, 223Bathing/baths, 31, 36, 53, 55, 74,

150, 164, 167–68, 172, 179,238, 252–53

of gods, 28, 31–32, 36–38, 170–71, 255

of rivers/tIrthas in anotherriver/tIrtha, 172, 254

Battles, 112, 231, 243, 247. See alsoConflict

Beck, Brenda, 254, 262Beds/bedsteads, 4, 92, 101, 102map3.2,

105–09, 211–12, 214, 242–43Begging bags, 152figure4.2, 242Belapor, 25, 111map3.3, 113–14,

195map6.1, 217map7.1, 243Belgaum, 10Belgaum District, 255Belkugt, 23, 226Belsar, 46map2.1, 49–51, 54, 60, 67,

72, 79, 84–85, 225, 235, 238Bengal, 208, 246. See also Bangla Desh

Bay of, 1, 6Gaut Bengal, 258

Bengali, 9Berar, 217Berdoulay, Vincent, 224Bhadracalam, 162Bhadrapad (September–October), 40,

105–06, 140BhCganOk, 36, 228Bhagat, Arjun Kisan, xiii, 101, 105,

107–08Mrs. Bhagat, 107

Bhagat, Sakharam Balaji, 110, 242Bhagats, 36Bhagiratha, King, 180–81Bhagirathi river (Gafga), 163, 168,

174–75, 179–80, 252–54. Seealso Gafga/Ganges river

Bhairav, 252Bhairavnath, 228Bhairis, twelve, 241BhCkrI. See Millet breadBhaktalIlCmRt, 230Bhaktas, 60, 90, 101, 107–08, 239,

243. See also Devoteesold, stories about, 89–94, 101–02,

108–10, 115, 126, 135, 177,212, 240, 255; two patterns of,91–92

Bhakti, 57–58, 60, 66, 90–91, 93–94,101, 143, 185–86, 209, 228, 247,256. See also Devotion; daivadevotion

disdain for special places, 186, 256movements, 185, 192, 234vCtsalya, 101

Bhama river, 169BhaGTCrC, 48, 73. See also Meals,

communalBhandara District, xii(map), 197,

223, 257Bhandarkar, R. G., 188–89Bharat Mata, 89, 133Bharati, Agehananda, 245, 262Bharati Buva, 104, 242Bharatiya Janata Party, 155BhCratIya SaJskRtikox, 68, 133, 237,

245–46, 262. See also Joci,Mahadevcastri

Bharavas, 197Bhardwaj, Surinder Mohan, 246Bhasma (demon), 208, 263Bhatafgali, 46map2.1, 55–58, 68–69,

73–74, 81, 116, 213, 232–34kCVhI/pole from (MhCtCr KCVhI),

55–57, 89, 116, 213, 232, 234.See also Poles, Old Lady pole

Bhavani, 57, 84, 92, 98, 101, 120–23,126, 136–37, 139, 219, 233, 242,246–47. See also Tulja Bhavani

Bhavani Ghav, 71, 82–83Bhils, 4, 68

Index 293

BhImC MChCtmya, 19, 21, 166, 176,225, 252–53

Bhima river, 2map0.1, 21, 31–33,32map1.3, 33figure1.1, 38, 42,162, 169–72, 174, 180,217map7.1, 218–20, 245,252–53, 263

Bhimacafkar, 130map4.1, 166,171–72, 207, 218, 245

BhimaxaFkar MChCtmya, 218Bhimasthana, 169Bhifgar, 106, 109, 112, 243Bhivai/Bhiubai/Bhivayya, 39, 120–21,

229, 244Bhogavati, Princess, 263Bhogavati river, 208, 251, 255, 263Bhutoji Teli, xiii, 49, 59–63,

64figure2.2, 66, 76–79, 84, 90, 101, 108–09, 230, 235–36,239. See also Buvas

as a political leader, 61–63“Burning House” of, 59–61, 76,

79, 235BhOts, 61. See also GhostsBibika Makbara, 216Bicycles, 48, 236Bid District, xii(map), 109, 116, 197,

223, 228Bidar District, 239Bijapor, Sultanate of, 8, 153Bindumadhava, 162Bifgav wakli, 113. See also wakliBiographies, 14, 196–98, 204–05,

211, 218, 263. See alsoHagiographies; specificbiographical/hagiographical texts

Biroba, 228Blacksmiths, 106, 108, 242Boats, 34, 36, 36figure1.2, 39–40,

104, 228–29Boatsmen, 34–35, 113, 180, 228–29Bodies/body, 34, 90, 99–101, 115,

131–32, 156, 211. See alsoAncestors, embodiment of

as crucial to notion of region, 27–28

as microcosms, 135, 172as models for rivers, 19–21, 30, 225imagery of, as differentiating and

linking places, 131–32, 211of a demon, 247of a goddess, 130–32, 138, 246orientation based on, 6daiva decorations on, 58six cakras of, 135

Bolhai, 122Bombay, 1, 142, 212, 237. See also

MumbaiPresidency, 9

Borderlands, 9–10, 188Borders, 139, 223, 250–51. See also

BoundariesBouillier, Véronique, xiv, 254Boundaries, 3, 9–10, 18, 39, 43, 133,

145, 157, 218–19, 257. See alsoBorders

between North and South India, 183importance of, as a modern

phenomenon, 157–58Bourdieu, Pierre, 224Brackett, Jeffrey, xiii, 250Brahma, 11, 24, 110, 128–29, 138,

164, 173, 178, 180, 206, 226, 242Brahmagiri, 19, 112, 180Brahman (absolute principle), 248Brahmagi river, 251Brahmanical culture, 10Brahmagical rituals, 143, 238Brahmags, 8, 20–21, 23–24, 26,

122–23, 136, 143–44, 149, 155,160–63, 165–66, 171, 174–75,179–80, 201, 207, 209, 218,225, 227, 233–34, 241–42, 245,251, 253, 255, 257

Maharashtrian, 2, 12, 183. See alsoCitpavan KofkagasthaBrahmags; Decastha Brahmags;Kofkagastha Brahmags

murder of (brahminicide), 165, 168,207, 252, 263

South Indian, 245

294 Index

BrahmapurCGa, 67, 180Braj, 194Brass images of gods and goddesses, 4,

34, 47, 120Masks. See MukhavaVCs

Brhaspati (legal authority), 250Brides and bridal imagery, 68–69, 71,

76, 89–90, 115–16, 119, 124,126, 213, 233–34. See alsoIn-laws’ house; MCher; Maritalimagery; Parental home; SCsar;Weddings, imagery of; Wives

Britain and British, 1, 8, 62, 223, 228.See also Colonial period

Brothers, goddesses’, 229, 244. See also Dhuloba; Sisters, andbrothers

Buddhism and Buddhists, 201, 215,223, 232, 259

Buddhist caves, 4, 142, 149Buffalo Demon, 137, 247Buldhana District, xii(map), 122, 223Bullock carts, 48, 50, 80, 103,

114, 126Bulls, 56, 58, 233Burhagnagar, 101–02, 102map3.2,

105–09, 242, 251,Buses, 132, 143, 146, 220. See also

Maharashtra, State Transport bussystem

Butchers. See Khaviks; MaulanisBuvas, 51, 61–63, 72, 77–78, 235,

237–38. See also Bhutoji Teli

Caitra (March–April), 38, 45, 47–51,53–57, 63, 65, 68, 71–72,74–76, 83, 86, 90, 114, 123,230, 232, 235, 240, 243

1st day of bright half. See GuthiPatva

5th day (Pañcami) of bright half,68–69, 237, 240

8th day (Asvami) of bright half, 50,54–56, 68–69, 72, 83, 86,234–35, 237, 240

9th day (Navami) of bright half, 50,56, 60, 83, 235

11th day (Ekadaci) of bright half,51, 55, 83

12th day (Baras) of bright half,48–49, 51, 53–55, 57, 63, 65,72, 76, 83, 232, 240

full-moon day (Purgima), 48, 54,83, 123

8th day (Asvami) of dark half, 71,114, 243

12th day (Baras) of dark half, 75–76Cakradhar, 4, 10, 57–58, 186–89,

191–92, 194–97, 199,200map6.2, 201–06, 210, 213,221, 234, 247–48, 256–59,261–62

Calcutta, 122, 139Calendars, 183, 237. See also

Almanacs; specific months of the Hindu calendar

intercalary month, 176Calukyas, Western, 8Cambhars, 233CambOs, 52, 62–63, 64figure2.2,

231, 236Canada, 7Cagtikapor, 247Cagtis, Nine, 112Candrabhaga, 33, 162, 172, 181,

254–55Candrapor, 122Candrapur District, xii(map), 223,

228, 257Cafgdev (place), 29Cafgdev Raül, 256–57Caphal, 148, 149map4.4, 150,

153, 155Carpenters, 47, 50, 105–06, 108, 242Casey, Edward, 5, 27–28, 157,

224, 250Caturmas, 29, 156Caves. See also Buddhism and

Buddhists, Buddhist cavestemples, 244

Index 295

Celibacy, 154. See also Asceticism andascetics

Cendavagkar, Sadanand, 246Census of India, 226, 238ChabinC, 114, 123Chen Han-Seng, 223Children, 102–03, 107, 124–25

lined up on the ground, 80, 95,96figure3.1

Chinese, 134Chinnapap, 208Christians and Christianity, 131,

194, 215Citale, 203, 260Ciñcli, 122Ciñcoli, 110, 111map3.3, 113–15,

242–43Ciñcvat, 142, 145–46, 249Ciplog, 12Cirate, Dayabas, 260Circulation, 28, 132, 136, 157,

211–12. See also Pilgrimage and pilgrimages

Circumambulation, 28, 49, 51, 54, 57,59, 71, 96, 105, 145, 212, 227

of rivers, 28–30. See also Narmadariver, parikrama of

Cities, 218Citpavan Kofkagastha Brahmags/

Citpavan Brahmans, 12–13, 116, 118, 142, 225. See alsoKofkagastha Brahmags

Clothey, Fred, 135Cobras, 175. See also SnakesCoconuts, 48, 52, 80, 95, 97, 99,

229, 249Cohn, Bernard, 223Colonial period, 158. See also Britain

and BritishComparison of places, 161–69,

177–78. See also Inferiority, senseof; Superiority of one place toanother

standards of, 255–56Competition, 77. See also Rivalry

Conflict, 82. See also BattlesConfluences, 29–30, 34–38,

36figure1.2, 125, 159–63,168–70, 172, 225, 252, 255, 257

middle of, 34–38pilgrimage festival rituals as, 38

Conlon, Frank, xiv, 223Connections between places, 99–101,

158, 173–81, 184, 208, 213, 240.See also Analogies between places;Containment of one place byanother; Correspondences;Equivalences between places;Replicas and replication;Pilgrimage and pilgrimages, asforming regions

mythological 208–09. See alsoStories, as connecting places

Constellations. See also Milky WayBig Dipper/Ursa Major/Saptarsi, 27Leo, 19, 30, 172, 245. See also

SijhasthaVirgo, 174–75. See also Kanyagat

Containment of one place by another,158, 169–73, 184

Contrasts, 14, 157, 183, 212–13. See also Opposition

between Maharashtra and Gujarat,187–88

between regions, 157, 191, 213Corpses, 161

of Citpavans, 13, 116of Sati, 130–32

Correspondences. See also Analogiesbetween places; Replicas andreplication

among goddesses, 248between Maharashtrian places and

places elsewhere in India, 185between sets of places, 208

Cosmic mountain. See Meru, MountCosmology, 6

cosmological images, 21, 135, 220Courtright, Paul, 248Cowherd woman, 177

296 Index

Cowrie shells, necklaces of, 98Cows, 165, 253–54Cremation grounds, 59, 235, 257Crowds, 4, 51–52, 107, 239Cymbals, 4, 114

Dadaji, 23Dahivati, 82uakini, 207Daksa, 130–31Daksayagi, 123DakSiG/DakSiGa (southern), 11, 28, 251Dalits, 74, 237, 241UamarOs, 242Damrel, David, xiv, 246, 263Danavas, 263Dance/dances/dancing, 31, 50–51, 80,

95, 97, 106, 114. See also LejhImof kCvaTs, 52–53, 80

Dagtakaragya, 11–12, 212, 244, 263Dagtekar, Gopal Nilkagvh, 28–29DargCs, 215Darxan, 62, 117, 146, 164, 168, 252–53Das, Veena, 262Dasagago, 19–20, 29, 163, 226Dasara, 92, 101, 105–07, 109, 242

boundary-crossing rite during, 105, 107

Dacarath, 23, 208Date, Y. R., 246–47, 257Datta/Dattatreya, 136, 138, 204,

206–07, 235, 246, 253, 256Datta Prabodh, 246Datta dikhar at Mahor, 136four places of, 136

Daulatabad, 4, 8, 217map7.1Daugt, 31–34, 32map1.3, 37, 174,

241, 244DavanC plant, 85, 99Davage Mala, 97Death, 65, 80, 161, 167, 194, 202,

251–52“departure” of Cakradhar, 189, 194of cattle, 76untimely, 226

Decapitation, 138Deccan Plateau, 1–4, 2map0.1, 6,

11–13, 17, 57, 113, 135, 150,158, 160, 180, 183, 212, 243,251. See also Dec

Defecation, 211Deho, 217map7.1, 219Deleury, G. A., 227Delhi, 134, 159Deltas, 13, 23, 26–27Demons, 14, 24–26, 90, 110–12, 115,

124, 128–29, 137–38, 143, 165,170–71, 208, 212, 243, 247,249, 255, 263. See also specificdemons and types of demons

Dec, 2, 6, 10–11, 85, 116, 118–19,189, 212–13, 216, 244. See alsoDeccan Plateau

“country,” 193dexCcC xevaV (“the end of the land”),

188–89dexCntara (“a different country”),

158Desai, P. S., 247Decastha Brahmags, 2, 142Decpagte, Mahadji Sabaji, 150Decpagte, Y. K., 258, 260Detachment, 60. See also Attachment;

RenunciationDeulgav Devi/Deulgav Ufgale,

121–22Devgiri, 4, 8, 169DevIbhCgavata PurCGa, 245, 248Devotees, 86, 190, 240–41, 243. See

also Bhaktasold, stories of. See Bhaktas, old,

stories aboutDevotion, 57–58, 60, 72, 90, 101,

110, 143, 171, 239. See alsoBhakti; daiva devotion

fierce, 57–59Devs (of Ciñcvat), 142, 145, 249Dhaj, 54–56, 68–69, 82, 232, 237

as diva’s turban, 68Dhamangav/Dhamaggav, 233

Index 297

Dhams, four, 127, 130map4.1, 132,134–35, 139, 168, 246, 253

as outlining all of India, 132–33, 139eight Dhams, 246in Gathval, 135

Dhangars, 2, 36, 45, 57, 61, 177, 229,234, 241, 244. See also Shepherds

Dhanora, 29, 227Dharma, 193, 226, 248Dharmapuri, 20, 20map1.1, 24, 29,

163, 169, 226–27DharmaxCstra, 133. See also Brhaspati;

MitCkSarC; ViSGusmRtiuhere, R. C., xiii, 57, 223, 230,

234, 241UhoLs, 50, 52, 106, 114Dhom, 160, 251Dhule District, xii(map), 122Dhuloba, 91, 177, 229Dhomraksa, 110–12, 242–43uhumya uofgar, 112–15Dice, 45Directional orientation, 144, 196,

205–06, 224, 261of temples in relation to one

another, 261Directions. See also South

cardinal, 6–7, 132, 145, 170, 205,223–24

eight, 170intermediate, 6, 145, 170, 224of rivers’ flow, 161six, 135

Diseases, 120, 193, 239. See also Illnessleprosy, 165skin, 102, 241

Divodas, 177–78Doabs, 11, 13, 23–26Documents, 79, 239uomegram, 195, 195map6.1Donations, 253Doniger O’Flaherty, Wendy, 20Dreams, 103, 150Drought, 72, 236

DRSVCntapCVh, 198, 259Drums, drummers, and drumming, 4,

40, 50–52, 94–95, 98, 106, 114,241. See also UamarOs; UhoLs

changing rhythm to suit possessingdeities, 98

Durga Devi, 121. See alsoMahisasuramardini

Dvapara Age, 41Dvarka/Dvaravati, 22, 128,

130map4.1, 132, 163, 165, 197,208–09, 234, 246, 253

Earth, 245–46Eck, Diana, 133, 226, 228, 251,

254, 262Ekadaci, 33, 208, 263. See also Asath;

CaitraEkhatpor, 46map2.1, 50, 59–61,

66, 73–80, 82, 86, 230, 235,238, 240

parallels with difggapor, 76Eknath, 29, 165, 227Ekvira, 122, 138. See also RegukaElements, five, 135, 162

twelve, 245Elephants, 40, 145, 229

Dig-gajas, 145Eliade, Mircea, 254Ellora, 4, 163, 170, 207–08, 215, 245.

See also VerolElmore, W. T., 244Enthoven, R. E., 254Entrikin, J. Nicholas, 224Epics, 148, 229. See also MahCbhCrata;

RCmCyaGaEquivalences between places, 14, 161

tables of, 253Erndl, Kathleen, 244Ernst, Carl, 246, 263Eschmann, Anncharlott, 233Etymologies/etymology, 64, 137, 179,

231, 242, 244Sanskrit folk, 179

298 Index

Fairs and Festivals in Maharashtra, 37,124

Faith, 60, 72, 79–80, 119Family, joint, 115–16Family deities, 87, 89, 116–17, 119,

122, 143, 148, 180, 183, 214,240. See also Kuldaivats

Fasting, 63, 72, 154, 232, 235Father-daughter relationship, 107Fecundity, 97Feet, 202–03. See also Footwear;

Sandals; WalkingFeld, Steven, 223Feldhaus, Anne, xv, 223–24, 226, 228,

230, 238, 244, 248, 250–51,254–56, 258–61, 263

Femininity, 115Fertility, 229Festivals, xiii, 5, 31, 37, 41, 57, 62,

64, 70, 73, 81–82, 92, 100–01,105, 108, 123. See also JatrCs;Pilgrimage festivals; specificfestivals

interpretations of, 69village, 73, 75

Fire,liFga of, 246sacrificial, 107, 131

Firecrackers, 95Fishermen, 40, 113Fiske, Adele, 223Flags, 4, 31, 36, 50, 69, 232, 237. See

also Dhaj; SavCI-flagsFloods, 151, 175Flyers, 81, 85Foard, James, xiv–xv, 260Folk tales, 70Food, 48, 72. See also Grain; Meals;

PrasCdofferings of, 48, 74, 81, 95–96, 98,

107. See also NaivedyaFootwear, 55, 232. See also SandalsFords, as metaphors, 39Foreigners, 193

Formulas of praise, 159–84Funeral rites, 138

Gathval, 135Gajadhvaja, King, 165, 253Gagapati, 136, 140, 143–46, 148,

179, 242, 249, 262. See alsoAsvavinayak; Gagec; Vinayak

Dhundiraj Gagapati, 145, 162festival, 142–43. See also Gagec,

festivalMeasure-Breaking Gagapati,

200map6.2, 201Gagas and Gandharvas, 111Gandhi, Indira, 123Gagec, 112, 136, 140, 142, 144–47,

160, 201, 214, 242, 249. See alsoAsvavinayak; Gagapati; Vinayak

Gagec Caturthi, 106festival, 106, 242. See also Gagapati,

festivalincarnations of, 142, 145popularity among middle class, 143

Gafga (� Godavari river), 7, 67,159–63, 165, 168, 178–81, 188,191, 207, 226, 240, 258. See alsoGodavari river

as Brahmag Gafga, 181as Vrddha (“Elder”) Gafga, 181

Gafga valley (� Godavari river valley),4, 190, 219. See also Godavarivalley

Gafga/Ganges river, 67, 112, 135–36,161, 163, 174–83, 240, 251–55.See also Bhagirathi river

appearances in Maharashtra, 174–76as Ksatriya Gafga, 181descent of the, 67, 226meanings of “gaFgC,” 178–81

Gangadevi, 124Gaggapor, 170, 180, 253Gafgasagar, 168, 207–08Gafgotri, 135Garibnath, 176

Index 299

GaruTa PurCGa, 246GCthCsaptaxatI, 218Gaurai, 40–41Gauri Saraswati, 124Gautama (Brahmag sage), 180–81GautamI MChCtmya, 180–81, 263.

See also GodCvarI MChCtmyaGautami river, 173, 208, 227. See also

Gafga (� Godavari river);Godavari river

Gavalis/Gaulis, 57–58Gaya, 135, 160, 163, 165, 178, 182–83,

208, 245–46, 253–54, 262Gayatri (goddess), 24, 121Gayatri mantra, 238Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, 40,

229, 240, 248, 251, 255Geography, 5, 13, 18, 228. See also

Religious geographybiography and, 14. See also

Biographies; Hagiographiescorrespondence with chronology, 83physical, 3, 6, 10, 13, 38, 140, 174,

188, 219, 249, 257Geometry, in tension with topography,

249Ghavprabha, 162Ghavsiddhanath, 207Ghote Udan, 39, 229Ghotegav, 102map3.2, 105, 108–09,

242, 263Ghosts, 104, 112. See also BhOtsGhouls, female, 112Ghrsgecvar, 207–08, 245GhugryC, 96Ghurye, G. S., 248Girim, 32map1.3, 228Glushkova, Irina, xiv, 249GodCvarI MChCtmya, 19, 22–23, 27,

29, 163, 169, 225–27, 252–53,255. See also GautamI MChCtmya

Godavari river, 2map0.1, 4, 6–8, 19,23–24, 25map1.2, 26–27, 29–30,38–40, 42–43, 112–13, 171–72,

178–82, 136, 159–60, 162, 163,169–70, 173–74, 178–82, 188,195map6.1, 207–08, 217map7.1,218–20, 226–29, 252–55, 257,263. See also Gafga (� Godavaririver)

as flowing to Pagtharpor, 174, 181as older than the Ganges, 180–81as superior to the Ganges, 180–81circumambulation of, 29–30eight “limbs” of, 19–20, 20map1.1Goda, 180, 252seven mouths of, 27

Godavari valley, 11, 180, 188–92, 194,212–13, 239, 257–58, 263. Seealso Gafga valley (� Godavaririver valley)

Gotbole, R. B., 263Goddesses, 4, 10, 13, 31, 33, 89–126,

143, 212, 240–44, 247, 249,255. See also Three-and-a-halfgoddesses of Maharashtra,principal; specific goddesses

as linking places, 89–126as linking people to places, 89as married women, 124as sisters. See Seven sisters; Sisters,

goddesses asas unmarried/independent, 244,

247. See also Weddings, failingto take place

husbands of, implied, 116, 119, 126

daiva character of, 12traveling, 13, 89–126, 229village, 119, 143water, 120

Godri, 121–22Gokarga Mamalecvar/Gokarga, 164,

254Gokhale, P. P., 153, 250Gold, 167, 237, 244Gollas, 40Gomati river, 22, 110, 252, 254

300 Index

GoGTCs/goGTIs (pompons), 50Gondhalis and Gondhals,

95–98, 241Gonds, 4Gopalpor, 168Gopalvati, 32map1.3, 228Gordon, Stewart, 3, 250Gould, Peter, 211Govagte, drikant, 246–49Gove, 11, 34, 171Government officials, 81, 239. See also

PoliceGovind Prabhu. See Gugtam RaülGovind Singh, 4, 160, 215Grain, 72, 97. See also specific types of

grainGuardians, 98

border/boundary, 112, 140directional, 145, 170, 249doorway, 143, 145village deities as, 89

Guthi Patva, 48, 50, 54–56, 63, 72,74, 83, 232, 236

“Guide” (vCtCTyC) kCvaTs, 49, 51Guidebooks, 196–97, 199, 246Gujarat and Gujaratis, 12, 22, 57,

124, 187–88, 196–97, 215, 227, 256–58

Gujar kingdom/kings, 187–88GuGas, three, 138–39, 193, 218–19,

248, 258, 263Gugavare, 46map2.1, 49, 51, 231Gugtam Raül, 186, 189–90,

194, 196, 199, 200map6.2,201–05, 256, 258, 261, 263

Guñj seeds, 164Guptalifg, 49, 53Gupte, Y. R., 226, 251Guptecvar, 165, 168, 253Guravs, 32, 48, 99, 120, 144, 168,

228, 243, 249Gurucaritra, 253Gutschow, 249, 254

Hagiographies, 186, 189–90, 230. See also Biographies; specifichagiographical texts

Hair, 50, 55, 70, 112, 118, 237as a mark of femininity, 70matted, diva’s, 180–81

Hala, 218Hampi, 164Hampi MChCtmya, 164Hagamante, S. S., 246–47Hanuman, 48, 148, 250, 253. See also

MarutiHanuman Jayanti. See Caitra,

full-moon dayHardvar/Haridvar, 128–29,

130map4.1, 133, 163, 245, 262Hariharecvar, 11, 24Harijans, 74, 238Harmonization, 219Harse, P. V., 150, 153–54, 156, 250Heaven, 180, 245Heidegger, Martin, 224Hematpant/Hemadri, 142. See also

Architecture, Hindu, HematpantiHimalayas, 70, 133, 139, 159, 168,

177, 180–81, 245–46Hindi, 9, 30Hindustan, 163Hindutva, 134, 246Hivare, 159Hobsbawm, E. J., 248Holi, 91–92, 94–95, 100. See also

Phalgun, full-moon day ofHolkar, Ahilyabai, 142, 248Holy lands

Braj as a, 194Christian, 194Maharashtra as a, for Mahanubhavs,

194riverine, 23–27

Holy pictures, 147, 147figure4.1, 150,152. See also Paintings

Home, 5, 7. See also In-laws’ house;MCher; Parental home; SCsar

Index 301

Honoraria, 242Honorary ritual rights, 84, 86, 237.

See also MCnsHook-swinging. See BagCTHorses, 39, 55, 110, 112, 114, 229HuIk, 36, 228Humes, Cynthia, 241Hunting, 58

Iconography, 164daiva, 58

Identificationof Godavari with Ganges, 180–81of one goddess with another, 110,

115, 121, 124of one place with another, 14, 161,

209with a region, 71, 183, 218

Identity, 7collective/common, of goddesses,

124, 139. See also Seven sisters;Sisters, goddesses as

daiva, 58social, of “inferiors,” 183substantial, of other rivers with the

Gafga, 179Illness, 76. See also DiseasesImagery/Images, 38, 221, 228. See also

specific images and imageryorganic, 156. See also Organic unity

Immigrants and immigration, 187,189–90, 224. See alsoMigrations

Imperial Gazetteer of India, 28, 254In-laws, 104, 230In-laws’ house, 69, 115–16, 124, 191,

212–13. See also SCsarInCms, 65, 150Incarnations, 211

Mahanubhav, 186, 194, 196–99,201–03, 205–07, 209, 212,257

of diva, 241Independence, national, 7

of India, 8–9, 158

India. See also South Asiaas a whole, 89, 115, 127–35, 139–40,

144, 162–63, 171, 183, 207–10,216, 221, 242, 263

holy places outlining, 132–33, 246Mother, 133. See also Bharat Matapremodern, 158unity of, 132–34, 140

Indore, 55, 142Indra, 110, 129, 165, 242, 252Indrayagi river, 169Inferiority, sense of, 158, 184Infertility, 144Initiation as a medium, 98Inscriptions, 78–79, 230, 238–39Integrity. See Tathya/tatthyaIslam, 134. See also Muslims

Jackson, John Brinkerhoff, 6, 225Jagannath, 233Jahnavi, 180. See also Bhagirathi river;

Gafga/Ganges riverJains, 4, 215, 246Jalna District, xii(map), 121, 223,

228, 234Jamadagni, 138Jambudvipa, 171Jagai/Jagubai, 11–12, 92–94,

93map3.1, 96, 96figure3.1, 98,100–02, 107–10, 115, 122, 126,214, 241

Janardana, 172. See also VisguJankoji Devkar/Teli, 101–04, 107–09,

242Jansen, Roland, xiii, 242, 247Jagubai. See JagaiJarandecvar, 250JatrCs, 73, 163. See also Festivals;

Pilgrimage festivalsJavalarjun, 225Jayanti river, 118Jejuri, 11, 76, 91–93, 93map3.1,

96figure3.1, 96–97, 99–100, 109,214–15, 229, 237, 241

Jews, 134, 215

302 Index

“JhCTI maGTaL,” 257Jhagate, Mahadu, xiii, 92, 94–100, 102

Mrs. Jhagate, 97–99, 241Jinti Khanavave, 231Jiregav, 32map1.3, 228Jñanecvar, 61, 214, 216, 219–20, 234,

238, 248Jogai/Jogecvari, 12, 115–19, 123,

212–13. See also YogecvariJogalekar, Sadaciv Atmaram, 218,

220–21, 263–64Jogavati, 80Jogecvari. See JogaiJoci, Mahadevcastri, 138–39, 252.

See also BhCratIya SaJskRtikoxJoci, P. N., 248Jungle/jungles, 1, 3, 30, 70Junnar, 105, 189, 217, 249Jupiter, 129, 172, 174–75, 245Jyotiba, 150, 159, 177, 255JyotirliFgas, Twelve, 91, 127–29,

130map4.1, 132–35, 162, 177,206–09, 218, 245, 253, 262–63

Maharashtrian replicas of, 159, 177,206–08, 218, 263

primacy among, 129Jyotirmavh, 246

Kadro river, 164Kagalkar, M. N., 29–30, 225–27Kailas, 45, 68, 240Kal Gavta, 54–55, 58–59, 232, 235Kalacuris, 8Kalahasti, 246Kalbhairav, 39, 162, 164, 177Kale, Kalyag, 6–7, 180Kalegajvkar, L. S., 244Kalecvar/Kalecvaram, 162, 207,

226, 257KalgI-turC, 114Kali, 122. See also MahakaliKali Age/Yuga, 160, 209, 251Kalika/Kalikamata, 123–24Kalubai, 98, 122Kama, 110

Kamakhya, 131, 246Kamalaji, 39, 177Kamalasur, 249KCmasOtra commentaries, 189Kambalecvar, 39, 120, 229Kañci/Kañcipuram, 128, 130map4.1,

208, 245–46Kane, P. V., 133, 253Kannada, 10, 188, 256

Land/country, 187–88, 192,195map6.1, 248, 256–58. See also Karnataka

Kanyagat, 174–76, 252, 255Kanyakumari, 12, 118, 123Kapos, 40Karat, 34, 35map1.4, 36figure1.2,

36–37, 40, 125, 148, 153, 160–61,170, 226, 228, 251–52, 255

Karañje, 177KaravalIs, 233KaravIra MChCtmya, 11Karha river, 17–18, 23–24, 26, 52,

62–63, 64figure2.2, 74, 76, 79,160, 163, 172, 174, 179, 214,224, 229, 236

origin story of, 17, 23, 26, 172,214, 224

Karimnagar District, 257Karna, M. N., 224Karnataka, 2map0.1, 3, 10, 58, 86,

122, 136, 140, 170, 183, 189,215, 229, 234, 239, 246,255–56. See also Kannada,Land/country

Karttik (October–November), 168Karve, Iravati, 216–18, 220–21, 227,

246–47Karvir. See KolhaporKasari river, 251Kashmir, 246Kaci, 22, 39, 111, 113, 128, 135,

160–64, 166, 169, 173, 176–78,182, 184, 207–08, 238, 243. Seealso Banaras; Varagasi

five major gods of, 162, 173

Index 303

Kaci – continuedKalbhairav as Kovval of, 162Kaci Vicvecvar, 160, 162–63, 173,

177. See also VicvecvarSouthern, 160, 162, 173, 183Western, 160

KCVhIs, 54–55, 57, 68, 71, 74, 82, 94,96, 99, 232–33, 237. See alsoBhatafgali, kCVhI/pole from; Poles

TaulkCVhIs, 114KCvaTs, 38, 47–55, 57–73, 75–87,

89–90, 108, 114, 211, 213–14,230–31, 233, 235–40

decorating and repairing of, 50,definition of, 47descriptions of, 47, 49–50, 78,

230–31preparing of, for climb up Mufgi

Ghav, 64, 75principal, in difggapor festival,

49–54, 72, 80–81, 83, 86. Seealso Bhutoji Teli; Pañcakrocivillages, kCvaT from

Kaveri river, 22, 183as Gafga of dodras, 255

Kaviraj, Sudipta, 9–10Kaygav, 24, 25map1.2Kedarnath, 130map4.1, 132, 135–36,

159, 165, 168, 177, 182, 207,245–46, 252–53, 255

Keith, Michael, 224Kelapor, 122Kesobas, 191–92Keto, 26Khalad, 46map2.1, 49, 74–76, 78–79,

84, 230, 238, 240Khamasvati, 46map2.1, 54, 82, 237Khanavati, 74–75, 84, 230, 238, 240Khandec, 2map0.1, 4, 122–23, 217,

223, 240Khagtoba, 40, 76, 91–92, 94–95,

97–98, 143, 183, 214, 229, 241as identical with Mailar and

Mallagga, 183

Khapar, 122–23Khaviks, 72, 95Khorvati, 32map1.3, 227Khuldabad, 4KIrtans, 235Kolaba District, xii (map), 124Kolanupaka, 246Kolasur/Kolhasur, 138Kolhapor (place), 11, 83, 85, 98,

118, 121, 124, 130–31, 136,137map4.2, 138–50, 159–60,177, 182, 186, 219, 232, 244,246–48, 251–52, 257, 264

Kolhapur District, xii(map), 8, 85,140, 148–49

Kolharai, 200Kolis, 55, 58, 113, 162, 234, 254

Mahadev Kolis, 179Kolvavate, 119Kolte, Dattatreya Namdev, 52, 65,

73, 224Kolte, V. B., 197–98, 203, 256–62Kofkag, 2, 2map0.1, 10, 12, 24, 83,

116–19, 117map3.4, 142, 174, 188, 212–13, 243–44, 249, 257–58

Kofkagastha Brahmags, 2, 12–13,116–19. See also CitpavanKofkagastha Brahmags

Kopargav, 40Koregav, 243Kothale, 46map2.1, 51–52, 60, 63–64,

70, 75, 80, 85, 231, 240KoVi, 170–71

Koviphalli, 170Kovicvar/Kovecvar, 34, 37, 170–71Kovitirtha, 167, 170–71, 173,

252, 254Koyna, 34, 35map1.4, 36figure1.2, 37,

125, 161, 255Kramrisch, Stella, 224, 254, 262Krsga, 101, 194, 204, 208, 223, 234KRSGC MChCtmya, 19, 23, 160,

162–64, 168, 225–26, 251–54

304 Index

Krsga river, 2map0.1, 4, 11, 19, 21, 26, 33–34, 35map1.4, 36figure1.2, 36–37, 40, 42, 125, 148, 149map4.4, 150–51,153–54, 159–64, 168–76, 179,188–89, 195map6.2, 218–20,225, 228, 251–52, 255–57, 263

Krsgabai, 37, 161, 179, 228, 251, 255festival, 176

“Krsgalahari,” 225Krsgamuni Kavi uimbh, 206–10, 218,

257–58, 262–63Krsgamuni’s “Anvayamalika,” 260Krtamala river, 257Ksatriyas, 171, 181, 257KSetras, 172, 178, 225, 237, 252.

See also Marjara kSetraChaya kSetra, 163Dharmaksetra, 253Ksetra Mahabalecvar, 174Prakac kSetra, 252Ram kSetra, 165

Ksipra river, 22, 177Kubera, 242Kukati river, 111map3.3, 113–15, 243Kukor (demon), 137Kuldaivats/kuldevatCs, 76, 83, 86, 116,

148, 180, 183. See also Familydeities

Kulkargi, Satibai, 150Kulkargi, Sitaram, 246–47Kulke, Hermann, 250Kumbha Mela, 127, 129–30,

245, 264Kumbhars, 242Kumbharvalag, 74–75, 230,

238, 240Kumbhi river, 251Kugts, 113–15, 171, 243KuFkOJ, 48, 175, 229, 254Kuravapor/Kurugatti, 225Kuruksetra, 159–60, 163, 165, 167,

182–83, 252–54, 256Kurukumbh, 32, 32map1.3, 122, 227

Lakade, Sakharam, xiii, 234Lakhamai, 122Laksmag, 11, 150, 162, 212, 263Laksmi, 104, 138. See also MahalaksmiLaksmiai, 98, 120, 120figure3.2, 124Landge Buva, 205Language and languages, 9–10, 43, 224

and nations, 9, 224boundaries, 9–10, 158definitions of states according to, 9European, 224regional, 188–89, 192, 221

Lafka. See Sri Lanka.Lap-filling rite. See OVI bharaGeJLasor, 123, 145Latur District, xii(map), 223, 232Learmonth, A. T. A., 223Legitimation, religious, 153LejhIm, 31, 50, 52, 95, 106, 114, 241Lele, Gagec Sadacivcastri, 159–60, 164,

225, 251–53Legyadri, 141map4.3, 142,

144–46, 249Levy, Robert I., 254, 262Liberation, 128, 166, 207, 209,

218–19. See also SaptapuriLILCcaritra, 58, 180, 187, 197–98, 234,

256–59, 261. See also BiographiesLILCs, 194, 198, 201, 204Limb (place), 11, 26, 30, 34, 171, 226LiFgas, 49, 52, 58, 63, 128–29, 135,

162–63, 170, 173, 175, 207–08,245–46, 253. See also Jyotirlifgas,Twelve; Mahalifgas; divalifgas

and yonis, 129Lifgayats, 47, 58, 74, 234. See also

Vagis; ViracaivasLists, 124, 127, 131, 156, 162, 242,

246–47of sister goddesses, 121–23

Local community projects, 72–74, 148Local pride, 77Lodrick, Deryck O., 223Lohars, 106. See also Blacksmiths

Index 305

Lokapur, R. S., 256Love, 90–91, 101, 125–28

as a basis for connections betweenplaces, 126

confluence/saFgam, 125, 255parental, 101separation as enhancing, 125, 245.

See also VirahaLust, 112

Madhyamecvar, 207Madurai, 183Magh (January–February), 143, 248Mahabal, 171Mahabalecvar, 24, 26, 153, 164, 171,

173–75, 179, 207, 218MahCbhCrata, 17, 159, 224, 246Mahat, 141, 141map4.3, 144–46,

248–49Mahadev, 45, 51, 54, 56, 58–60,

62–63, 66, 68, 74, 83–84,86–87, 163, 174–75, 231, 234.See also dafkar; diva

Har Har Mahadev, 86Mahadev mountains, 45, 218Mahakal, 91, 177, 207–08, 245Mahakalecvar, 177Mahakali, 121–22, 124, 139, 200, 248Mahakuv, 170Mahalaksmi, 118, 121, 123–24, 130,

136, 139, 244, 247–48, 262. See also Laksmi

Mahalifgas, 207–08MahCnadI, 21–22, 30, 173, 253Mahanubhavs, xiii, 4, 10, 14, 57, 158,

180, 185–210, 195map6.1, 212,218, 234, 248, 257–62

literature of, 140, 185, 198–99,210. See also specificMahCnubhCv texts

Mahant Gopiraj, 259, 261Mahant Pac Raüt Baba, 259, 261Mahant Yaksadev, 261pilgrimage traditions of, 187,

194–206, 214

secret codes used in manuscripts of,186, 209–10

theology of, 185, 206, 209Maharashtra, xv, 1, 2map0.1, 71, 83,

85–87, 90–92, 101, 110, 112,115–16, 118–19, 121, 127, 131,136, 138–40, 143, 148, 154,157–59, 162, 170, 173–74,176–78, 182–83, 185, 187–94,195map6.1, 197, 206–10,212–14, 219–21, 223–24,228–29, 232, 234, 240, 242,244–45, 248, 251–52, 254,257–58, 261–64

as a whole, 42–43, 89, 191, 204,206, 215–16, 220, 236

as an integrated cosmos, 220as inconvenient and uncomfortable,

186, 191–92, 210as Southern, 182–84, 188, 224connection between two parts of,

116, 119definitions of, 183–84, 187–91,

217–18, 221, 224, 257–58, 262dramatization of the unity of,

217–18, 220experience of, 218family god of, 76, 240government of, 239. See also

Government officialshistory of, 3–4, 140integration of, 220relationship of, to the rest of India,

140, 261, 263religious archaeology and history of,

205–06religious valuation and

conceptualization of, 14, 185, 187, 192–94, 209–10

sense of inferiority of, to NorthIndia, 158, 183–84

State, 8–9, 14, 43, 212, 214, 216,220–21

State Transport bus system, 82, 143,146, 236. See also Buses

306 Index

Maharashtra – continuedsubregions of, 12, 189Tourism Development Corporation,

146unification of. See Sajyukta

Maharashtra movement;United Maharashtra movement

Mahars, 49, 215, 259. See alsoBuddhism and Buddhists

Mahasarasvati, 139, 248Mahatmyas, 18, 30, 110, 158, 161,

168, 173, 180–81, 186, 255. See also specific MChCtmya texts

of rivers, 19, 21, 165, 182. See alsospecific rivers’ MChCtmyas

Mahendra mountain, 12MCher, 68, 75–76, 116, 124–26, 213.

See also Parental homeand sCsar, contrast used to express

geographical contrasts, 68–69,75, 82–85, 213

Mahecvarpagtit, 263Mahipati, 230Mahisa, 137. See also Buffalo DemonMahisasuramardini, 137, 219Mahuli, 26, 37, 217map7.1, 226.

See also Safgam MahuliMahor/Matapur, 30, 92, 121–23, 136,

137map4.2, 138–40, 186,195map6.1, 196–97, 246–48,251, 257, 262

Mailar, 183. See also KhagtobaMaigto uofgar, 243Majgav, 148, 149map4.4, 153, 250Malabai, 110. See also MalaiMalad, 32map1.3, 228Malai, 110–15, 111map3.3, 124, 126,

214, 241–43MaLCI MChCtmya, 110, 240–44Malegav, 46map2.1, 59, 231Malgafga, 110, 112Malik, Aditya, 226Malik Kapor, 260Malis, 92, 233

Mallagga, 183. See also KhagtobaMallikarjun, 172, 207–08, 245Maloji (grandfather of divaji), 47, 236Malprabha river, 163Malciras, 54, 233–34Malvati, 32map1.3, 228MaGTalas, 145, 172, 249

khaGTa-maGTaLas, 189Mandara mountain, 178Mandavkar, Bhau, xiii, 201Mandhata, 207, 245. See also Ojkar

MandhataMandlik, Rao Saheb Vishvanath

Narayan, 164Mangeshkar, Lata, 125Mafgs, 75Mani, Vettam, 253–54Magikargika, 178Mañjarath, 19, 20map1.1, 163Mañjri, 123MCnkarIs, 56, 99, 233. See also MCnsMafkigi, 112Manpatle, 149map4.4, 149–50, 153MCns, 49–50, 54–56, 58, 63, 77, 79,

86, 232. See also MCnkarIsManthani/Mathani, 20, 20map1.1, 39,

207, 257Mantras, 175, 238Maps, viii, 1, 34, 133, 147, 238,

240–41, 246Maravha armies, 153Maravha tradition, military character

of, 86, 264Maravhas, 46, 86, 101, 138, 149

gods of, 85–86kingdom of, 3, 8, 153. See also divajiroyal families of, 85. See also Satara,

kings ofMarathi, xvii, 1–2, 4, 8–9, 19, 22, 27,

29, 31, 43, 121, 128–30, 136,138–39, 145, 147, 152, 155,163–64, 171, 178, 188–92, 210,217, 221, 223, 226, 228, 230,232, 239, 250, 253–54, 256, 258

Index 307

Marathi—continuedas a literary language, 185–86dialects of, 4, 190films in, 143Lifgayat literature in, 58Old, xiii, 260region, 139, 189. See also

MaharashtraMaravhvata, 4, 11, 54, 83, 116, 228,

230, 232, 237, 239, 261Marglin, F. A., 233Mariai, 97–98Marital imagery, 27, 71, 226, 232–33.

See also Brides and bridal imagery;Marriage; Weddings, imagery of.

as a trope for bringing placestogether, 116, 126

Marjara kSetra, 163Marriage, 22, 40, 56, 73, 90, 104,

115–16, 118, 123–25, 143, 212,249. See also Marital imagery;Weddings

virilocal, 115, 125Maruti, 48, 71, 94, 106, 136, 140,

148–56, 162, 200, 250. See alsoHanuman

Akra/Eleven Marutis, 136, 140,148–56, 149map4.4, 214, 221,251; obscurity of, 155

as a god of strength, 154–55resemblance to Ramdas, 154significance to Ramdas, 154–55

Maruts, 250Marwar, 258Masor, 148, 149map4.4, 150, 153Matapur. See MahorMate, M. S., 176, 225, 247, 258Mathura, 128, 130map4.1, 208–09Matsya PurCGa, 245–46Maulanis, 95Maya/Maya (demon), 208, 263Maya (goddess), 111–12Maya (place), 208Mayavva, 122

Mayorecvar, 249Mazzini, Giuseppe, 218McKean, Lise, 133, 246Meals, 34, 48, 50, 56, 74, 80–81,

97–98, 114, 190. See also Food.communal, 53, 75. See also BhaGTCrCmutton, 95–97, 100, 241. See also

Meatvegetarian, 97. See also Vegetarianism

Measure/measuresof distance, 261of weight. See Weightsstandards of, 182–84tables of, 168–69

Meat, 96, 112. See also Meals, muttonMecca, 134, 224Medium, initiation as a, 98“Meetings,”

of Bhatafgali pole with temple atNatepute, 56

of kCvaTs with each other, 51–52, 231Megaliths, 247Meghafkar ghCV, 189Memory, 125. See also

Recollection/remembranceMegthke Vata, 95, 99, 241Menstruation, 161Merchants, 28, 103Merit, 164, 167, 169, 171, 252–53Meru, Mount, 10, 67, 226Merusvami, 250Mesai, 119Mhaismal, 123Mhaskoba, 39, 177, 228Mhasnarvati, 32map1.3, 228Mhasnoba, 228Mhasoba, 162, 228Mhasobaci Vati, 231Microcosms, 135, 172, 210

definition of, 172Migrations, 118. See also Immigrants

and immigrationof gods, 177

Milk, 23, 175, 254

308 Index

Milky Way, 226Millet bread, 96, 103, 241. See also

BhCkrIMiracles and miraculous powers,

61–63, 204, 235Miraj, 83, 153Mirgalvati, 32map1.3, 228MitCkSarC, 158Moglai, 217Mohava Devi, 123Mohini, 24, 26, 128–29

Mohiniraj temple, 24Mokashi, D. B., 227MokSa, 166, 218. See also Liberation;

SaptapuriMolesworth, J. T., 233Monasteries, 150, 242. See also Bxrams

Buddhist, 215Lifgayat/Viracaiva, 47, 55, 58Mahanubhav, 199, 200map6.2,

201–02, 204,daiva, 47

Money, 80, 103–04Money-lenders, 103–04Monsoon, 1–3. See also RainMoon, 10, 226–27. See also AmCnta

calendrical system; AmCvCsyCeclipse of, 253full. See Porgima; specific months’

full-moon daysMorgav, 141map4.3, 142, 145–46,

160, 179, 214, 249Moroba Gosavi, 142, 145–46, 249Mosques, 156, 200, 215, 224, 262Mountains, 1, 3, 17, 38, 51, 57,

59, 85, 91, 112, 133, 136, 139, 158–59, 178, 212, 218, 230, 244, 247. See alsospecific mountains and mountainranges

Mudgal, 169Mudgalecvar, 23Mughals, 4. See also AurafgzebMuharram, 142

MukhavaVCs, 31, 34, 36, 40, 94, 96,100, 114–15

Mula river, 24–26, 25map1.2Mula-Muvha river, 160Mumbai, xii(map), 1, 2map0.1, 3–4,

148, 215, 237. See also BombayMufgi (place), 161, 164Mufgi Ghav, 49, 51–52, 54, 57,

61–62, 64–67, 69–71, 73, 75,77, 80, 82–85, 89, 236, 239

difficulty of climbing, 64–65meaning of name of, 64shrine at, 65, 73. See also Kolte,

Dattatreya NamdevMunivyas Kovhi/Munibas Kovhi,

203–04, 260–61Muñjavati, 60, 74–75, 78, 230,

238, 240Munn, Nancy, 250MOrtiprakCx, 258Murukan, 135, 143Music, musical instruments, and

musicians, 34–35, 74, 94, 97, 99, 138, 233, 241, 256. See alsoBands; Cymbals; Drums,drummers, and drumming

Muslims, 4, 33, 36–37, 95, 134, 153,215–16, 223–24, 241

festivals of, 142religious geography and pilgrimage

shrines of, in South Asia, 263

Naganath, 162, 207, 245, 262Nagdev, 186, 191–92, 194–95Nago Mali, 92–95, 97–100, 102, 107

Bolavan of, 97–99Nagoba, 62Nagpor, 187, 217map7.1Nagpur District, xii(map), 197, 223Nagpure, Purushottam, xiii, 261Naimisa forest, 163, 165, 182, 254Naivedya, 81, 96. See also Food,

offerings ofNallamalai hills, 135–36

Index 309

Namdev, 61, 219, 228, 254Name of God, the, 228Namuci, 263Nandet, 4, 19, 20map1.1, 30, 136,

160, 215Nanded District, xii(map), 196,

223, 239Nandi, 47, 56, 58, 114, 178, 230–33Nandikecvar, 160, 251Narada, 41, 68, 161, 206NCradapurCGa, 263Narahari, 225Narasijha, 199, 233, 261–62Narayag, 262. See also VisguNarmadC MChCtmya, 19, 227, 255Narmada river, 2map0.1, 19, 22, 28,

30, 39, 87, 165, 169–70,182–83, 188–89, 207, 225,227–28, 240, 245, 252–54, 257

as Gafga of Vaicyas, 255parikrama of, 28–30, 227

Narsobaci Vati, 160, 170, 172, 225, 255

Nasik, 122–23, 129, 130map4.1, 136,155, 159–61, 170, 179, 181,195map6.1, 217, 219, 229, 245,255, 264

Natepute, 46map2.1, 55–57, 68–69,83–85, 233–34, 237

Nath (a god), 228Nationalism, 221–22

Hindu, 133–34, 154–55, 221Indian, 155proto-, 221

Navakalevara ceremony, 233Navaratra, 101, 106–09, 112, 190, 214Navas vows, 58, 65, 72–73, 143–44,

232, 248. See also VowsNavkhag, 92, 93map3.1, 94–100, 109,

214, 241Navkhagtinath, 228Navnath, 235Nectar, 24, 26, 112, 128–29, 230, 244Nene, H. N., 260

Nepal, 242, 246–47, 249Ner Pifgalai, 122Nerkar, Arvind, 139, 248Nevase, 24, 25map1.2, 111map3.3,

113, 160, 195map6.1, 243, 251Nighoj, 111map3.3, 113–15, 243Nilkagvhecvar RSi, 23Nipagikar, 257Nira Narasifgpor, 174, 233Nira river, 39, 120, 174, 177, 228, 244Nirol Gafgamai, 23, 29Nizam of Hyderabad, 4, 228North India, 3, 10, 14, 39, 139,

157–58, 160, 167, 177–78, 180, 182–84, 197, 213, 216,226, 228, 251–52, 256. See alsospecific places in North India

Northeastern India, 221Novetzke, Christian, xiv, 256Nuclearity, expressions of, 18–23, 31,

37–39, 42–43Numbered sets of places, 14, 127–56Numbers, 14, 127, 138–40, 152–53,

156, 169, 212, 245, 256as connecting places, 14, 127, 156as important to collective identity of

sets of deities, 139–40crore. See KoVieight, 144–45, 156, 170eleven, 152–53, 156fifty-one, 245five, 162, 245large, 170, 173one hundred eight, 170, 245seven, 127, 140, 245six, 135three hundred sixty, 170three-and-a-half, 138–40,

156, 169–70. See alsoThree-and-a-half goddesses of Maharashtra, principal

Oaths, 171Obstacles, 18

310 Index

Ocean, 12, 21–22, 24, 27, 30, 117,169, 173–74, 176, 225–26, 253, 255

as grandfather of the Purga river, 22,226

as husband of rivers, 22, 226churning of, story about, 24–26,

128–29Oil mills, 59, 103, 235Ojhar, 141map4.3, 142, 145–46, 249Olivelle, Patrick, xiv–xv, 256Ojkar Mandhata/Omkarecvar,

130map4.1, 226–27, 245. See also Mandhata

Opposition, 40–42, 183, 212. See alsoContrasts

between two regions, 71, 212–13giving way to harmony/unity,

41–42, 71, 84–85, 87, 245rituals expressing, 40–41tense unity despite, 109

Oral history, 57, 60, 77Oral literature, 120. See also Stories, oralOral statements, stereotypical character

of, 182Oral traditions, 113, 131, 158, 182, 203Organic unity, 131–32, 139, 156Orientation to the world, 6–7Orissa, 246, 250, 257“Orpheus” motif, 240OVCs, 199, 201–03, 205–06, 260–61

definition of, 199OVI bharaGeJ, 41, 73, 97, 229, 238OvIs, 229

Padma PurCGa, 245, 254Padmakaci, 163Padoux, André, 136Pagati, Setumadhavrav, 262Pain, Charles, 246Paingafga river, 228Paintings, 121, 123, 152,

152figure4.2, 158, 249. See also Holy pictures

Paivhag, 4, 19–20, 30, 160–61,164–65, 169, 174, 181–82, 195, 195map6.1, 207–08,217map7.1, 227, 251, 261–63

Pakistan, 242Palafge, Baburav Ambadas, 105–06,

108Palanquins (pClkhIs), 4, 31–32, 34–35,

36figure1.2, 37–38, 92, 94–95,96figure3.1, 99–101, 102map3.2,105–10, 113–15, 123, 211–12,214, 216–17, 220, 228, 234, 243

Palestine, 134Pali (Gagapati place), 141,

141map4.3, 144–46, 249Pali (Khagtoba place), 40PClkhIs. See PalanquinsPamphlets, 4, 12, 128–30, 145,

152–53, 155, 255PCn, 99Pañcagafga river, 172, 251–52Pañcagafga temple (at Mahabalecvar),

24, 174, 179PañcakroxI, 22–23, 63, 76, 226Pañcakroci villages, 49–51, 59–60,

68–69, 73–79, 213–14, 231,236, 239

flyer from, 69, 231, 236–37, 240kCvaT from, 85, 230–31, 236–37

Pañcalecvar, 136, 195map6.1, 246Pañcavavi, 122Pagtavas, 17–18, 163Pagtecvar, 17, 160, 163, 225Pagtharevati, 32map1.3, 228Pagtharpor, 31, 32map1.3, 33,

57, 60, 162, 168, 172, 174, 181, 214, 216–20,217map7.1, 228, 234, 246, 251, 254–55, 261

Pagturafg, 33, 162Panhala Fort, 150, 153Panjab, 119, 258Pañjabi, Madhavraj, 258–59Parables, 259

Index 311

Parades, 114, 123, 243. See alsoProcessions

Parali, 118, 130map4.1, 207, 244–45Paramecvar, 61, 66, 187Parasols, 31, 40, 114, 229Paracuram (incarnation of Visgu), 10,

12–13, 116–18, 138, 171, 212,225–26

Paracuram (place), 12, 26, 117map3.4Parbhani District, xii(map), 223, 228,

232, 262Parcheesi (sCrIpCt), 41, 45, 68, 104, 242Parental home, 68, 115–16, 124–25,

191, 212–13. See also MCherPargav, 149map4.4, 149–50, 152–53Parner, 111map3.3, 112–13, 243Parvati, 11–12, 41, 45, 55, 59, 67–71,

84, 110, 112, 116, 128, 178,213, 230, 234, 237, 240–41,244, 247, 249

as a Bhil woman, 68Pastoralists, 4, 58, 183

cults and gods of, 39, 57, 229. See also specific gods and cults

Paus (January–February), 55Pavar, Narayagrav, 11PavitratC/pavitra character, 161, 163,

202–03Pawagad, 124Pawning, 77–78, 238PayoSGI MChCtmya, 19, 21–22, 159, 165,

168–72, 176, 225–26, 252, 254Payosgi river, 19, 23, 164, 168–69, 172,

226, 252, 254. See also Porga riverPecvas, 8, 138, 142, 221Pevh (place), 148–49Phatke, G. H., 160, 162, 251, 254Phalgun (February–March), 94, 166

full-moon day of, 94, 166. See alsoHoli

5th day of dark half. SeeRafgapañcami

Phalvag, 45, 46map2.1, 51, 78, 82, 91,177, 189, 195map6.1, 196–97,207–08, 231, 244

PharCrC (cloth on kCvaT ), 50, 66–67as a sail, 50

Phena river, 162Phirafgai, 32, 122, 227Pile, Steven, 224Pilgrimage and pilgrimages, 13–14, 18,

27–29, 31, 32map1.3, 33–34,45–87, 89–91, 93map3.1, 97,99–101, 102map3.2, 108–09,111map3.3, 115, 119, 128,133–35, 143, 145–46, 148, 156,168, 174, 177, 183, 187, 194–96,198–99, 203, 205–06, 208–10,212–18, 221, 247, 257, 263. Seealso Circulation; specific pilgrimages

as forming regions, 214–16completing a, 168coordinated cycle of, 129difficulty of, 29, 31, 61, 64–65linked to biography, 196manuals for, 135pilgrim fields, 85, 132taxes on, 62

Pilgrimage festivals, 4, 14, 38, 62, 92,94, 99–100, 110, 113, 120, 123,126, 143, 163, 212, 214, 231,240. See also Festivals; JatrCs

chronology of, corresponding withgeography, 83

Pilgrimage places, 135–36, 150, 155,160, 186, 197, 201, 207, 209.See also KSetras; TIrthas; specificpilgrimage places

Pilgrims, 5, 28–30, 33, 35–36, 36fig-ure1.2, 38, 51, 54, 62, 66–67,73, 80–81, 83–84, 86, 89–90,100–01, 106, 109, 114, 123,133, 143, 145–46, 182, 196–97,201–03, 208, 212, 220, 227,229, 231, 234–35

PiGT (� liFga), 162, 175PiGTa offerings, 160, 178, 252–53Pifgalai, 122PIrs, 36–37. See also Sufi shrinesPisarve, 51, 53, 65, 85, 236

312 Index

Place, concept of, 5–7, 224, 250Plaques (VCks), 120Play (kheL ), 231Pokharti, 40–42, 84, 213, 239Poladpor, 153Poles, 4, 50, 54–58, 68–69, 71, 73–74,

80–81, 83, 94, 99, 108, 113–14,211–12, 226, 232–34. See alsoKCVhIs

Old Lady pole, 55, 83. See alsoBhatafgali, kCVhI/pole from

Police, 82Politics, 154, 221–22, 232, 250.

See also Bharatiya Janata Partypoliticized Hinduism, 152–55

Pollock, Sheldon, 134Possession

by deities, 31, 37, 95, 97–99,114–15, 143, 241

by ghosts, 262Pots, 4, 17, 47, 49–50, 61, 79, 106,

112, 114, 172, 180, 226, 231,236, 244

Prabhas, 22, 182, 225, 254–55Prabhudesai, P. K., 245–46PradakSiGC, 28–30, 71, 105, 145, 227.

See also Circumambulationdefinition of, 145

Prakrit, Maharashtri, 218Praghita/Pragita river, 163, 257PrasCd, 37, 48, 114, 242, 249

definition of, 242PrasthCn ceremony, 235, 238Pratisvhan. See PaivhagPravara river, 24–26, 25map1.2, 30,

159, 189Prayag, 129, 135–36, 159–60, 163,

166–68, 182–83, 245–46, 251,254, 256. See also Allahabad

Pregnancy, 110, 242Preston, Laurence W., 144, 248Priests, 5, 65, 99, 120, 122, 143, 172,

176, 241. See also Brahmags;Guravs

Pritisafgam, 125

Privileges, ritual. See MCnkarIs; MCnsProcessions, 31, 33–34, 37, 40, 50–51,

71, 73, 75, 80, 94–96, 100, 105,107, 123, 220, 231, 238. See alsoParades; VarCts

Prosperity, 229Proverbs, 247Public health, 82POjC, 31, 34, 47–48, 59, 74, 80, 91,

95–96, 98, 100, 105–06, 148,151, 172, 175

Pugtalik, 162Pune District, xii(map), 32map1.3, 45,

49, 82–84, 105, 109–10,141–42, 228, 230, 232, 239

Pune/Poona, xv, 1, 2map0.1, 3, 8, 32,47, 72, 82, 84, 93map3.1, 140,141map4.3, 142, 146, 214, 217,219, 223, 237, 242, 249, 264

region of, 144, 148, 153Pugtambej, 19, 20map1.1PuraG-poLIs, 241Puragas, 178, 206, 225, 245. See also

specific PurCGic textsPuragic gods, 138Puri (in Maharashtra), 19, 20map1.1Puri (in Orissa), 130map4.1, 132,

246, 257Purity and pollution, rules about, for

boats, 40Porga river, 2map0.1, 19, 22–23, 26,

29, 159, 164–65, 169–72, 177,195map6.1, 217map7.1, 226,252. See also Payosgi river

POrGimC, 183. See also specific months’full-moon days

pOrGimCnta calendrical system, 183Purusa, 20–21, 225Purusottamaksetra, 186Puskar/Puskara, 163, 165, 168, 182–83

Quarrels, 41, 45, 68, 70, 138

Raeside, I. M. P., 256–57Raheja, Gloria, 244

Index 313

Raho, 26Rahuri, 24, 25map1.2, 26,

102map3.2, 105–06, 108–09,120figure3.2, 124, 263

Rain, 36, 229. See also Monsooncycle of, 226

Rajamahendri, 19–20, 20map1.1, 30Rajapor, 174Rajasthan, 215Rajmath, 199–201, 204Rajvate, 254Raksasbhuvan, 29, 170, 227Ram, 10–12, 23, 137, 148, 150,

153–56, 162, 208, 212–13, 244,247, 251, 263. See also KSetras,Ram kSetra; TIrthas, Ram

Ramvaradayini, 247Ramanujan, A. K., 256Ramaswamy, Sumathi, 9RCmCyaGa, 7, 11, 134, 148, 154

television version, 155–56Ramdas, 149–56, 152figure4.2, 250

as patron saint of Bharatiya JanataParty, 155

identity with/resemblance toMaruti, 154

divaji as most prominent disciple of,150

Ramdasis, 155Ramesan, N., 246Ramecvar (temples at Varamtir and in

Wai), 23, 174–75Ramecvaram, 130map4.1, 132–33, 162,

182, 207, 245–46, 252, 256, 262RCmsohaLC, 250Ramvek, 187, 195map6.1Ragbai, 119Rafgapañcami, 95Ranger, Terence, 248Rañjaggav, 141map4.3, 142,

145–46, 249Ragkhila, 51, 231Racin, 119–23, 234–35Rasvrakovas, 8

Ratnagiri District, xii(map), 254Ratnagiri mountain/Vati Ratnagiri,

150, 177, 255Ravaga, 7, 150, 263Ravasgav, 194, 195map6.1Raychaudhuri, H., 188–89Raygat, 153Raygad District, xii(map), 141qddhipor, xiii, 189–90, 194,

195map6.1, 197–99, 200map6.2,201–02, 204–05, 207–09, 226,259, 261, 263

Qddhipur MChCtmya, 206, 257, 262–63Qddhipurcaritra, 197–98, 256, 259,

261QddhipurvarGan, 199Recollection/remembrance (smaraG),

194–95, 198–99, 201, 203–05,211

Red-lead, 50, 120, 250Region and regions, 5–8, 10, 13–15,

17–18, 30–31, 42, 89, 100, 109,157, 211–12, 250, 263

as mutually oblivious, 213–15, 222circulatory, 101, 146. See also

Circulation; Pilgrimage andpilgrimages, as forming regions

conceptualization of, 26, 28, 38, 76,89, 101, 115, 121, 133–36,146–47, 211, 215–16, 218,221, 223, 240

contextual significance of, 214definitions of, 5, 100, 125, 157, 211dramatization of/making

imaginatively visible, 34,37–38, 71, 220. See alsoMaharashtra, dramatization of the unity of

elasticity of, 224experience of, 215–16, 218founding of, 17intersecting/overlapping of, 7–8, 14,

43, 90, 213, 215–16, 218, 222multiplicity/variety of, 221–22

314 Index

one-dimensional and two-dimensional, 100, 109

types of, 223Regional consciousness, 7, 45, 158,

183, 185, 218Regional languages. See Language/

languages, regionalRegionalism, politicized, 9–10, 216.

See also Sajyukta Maharashtramovement; United Maharashtramovement

Religious geography, 10, 14, 76, 116,159, 209–10, 220–21, 252

Brahmagical-Sanskritic, 263non-Hindu, 134, 215

Reguka, 92, 121–22, 124, 136, 139,161, 246, 251. See also Ekvira

Renunciation, 154, 186. See alsoAsceticism and ascetics;Detachment

Replicas and replication, 110, 115,157–61, 183–84, 208, 212, 216,234, 240–41, 251

Reva (� Narmada river), 165, 252RevC KhaGT, 30qgveda, 20–21Rhetoric, 14, 158, 181, 184, 206, 209“Right-and-Left” ritual, 51. See also

UjvI-TCvI ritesRights, ritual/honorary. See MCnkarIs;

MCnsRivalry, 71, 77, 79, 90, 108–09, 213,

263Rivers, 2map0.1, 3, 6, 13, 17–43,

79–80, 86–87, 89, 120, 133,158, 161, 163, 166–70, 172–80,182, 211–13, 219–20, 226, 231,235–36, 251, 253–55. See alsoConfluences; specific rivers

as bodies, 19–21, 225as boundaries and obstacles, 13,

38–42, 228as feminine/goddesses, 27, 89, 120,

226, 228, 254

as married to the ocean, 22, 27crossing of, 40, 113, 229Mahatmyas of, 169, 256. See also

MChCtmyas of specific riversorientation in terms of, 6–7origins of, 17, 19, 23–24, 26, 41,

67, 172, 214pilgrimages associated with, 28–38sets of seven, 27

qgmocan, 23Roads, 197, 214, 225, 233–34, 237,

241Routes, 56, 100, 109, 126, 145–46,

240, 243, 249Rudra, 153RudrCkSa beads, 58, 64figure2.2, 230Rukhvat, 56, 69, 233Rukmafgad, 208, 263Rukmigi, 4, 208–09

Sack, Robert David, 6Sacrifices, 17, 24, 95, 99, 130–31,

163–64, 173, 226. See also Fire,sacrificial

dahapor, 148, 149map4.4, 150,153–54

Sahyadri mountains, 1, 45, 116, 170,206, 215, 225–26

Saidapor, 34, 35map1.4, 36, 161daiva devotion/bhakti, 45, 57–67, 71,

84, 86–87daiva gods and cults, 31, 45, 57–58,

171, 209, 230, 235, 241, 245,262. See also diva

as fundamental to MaharashtrianHinduism, 262

Vaisgava veneer applied to, 57daka era, 183SakCL newspaper, 40Sakala Santa GCthC, 228Sakalai, 240, 243–44dakambhari, 122yakti, 139, 194, 201–02, 247, 259. See

also diva, and dakti

Index 315

yakti—continueddefinition of, 129five places of, 122Mahanubhav concepts and typology

of, 201–02, 259dakti Pivhs, 127, 129–32, 134–35,

137–38, 140, 156, 244–48, 264. See also Three-and-a-halfgoddesses of Maharashtra,principal

number of, 127, 129–31, 134–35,137

Salve, 92, 241SamCdhis, 59, 65, 76, 78–79, 107,

216, 230, 234–36, 238dambhu Mahadev/dambhu, 45, 47,

79, 83, 86–87, 172, 177, 239–40Sajkhya philosophy, 138. See also

GuGas, threeSamvatsar (place), 40Sajyukta Maharashtra movement, 8,

216, 218. See also UnitedMaharashtra movement

Sand, 172–73, 235Sandals, 65, 73, 202. See also FootwearSandhyC, 74, 238Safgam Mahuli, 26, 34, 35map1.4,

37–38, 228. See also MahuliSaFgams. See ConfluencesSafgli, 21, 83, 176Sangli District, xii(map), 47, 148, 232dani, 105dafkar, 26, 41, 61, 66, 70, 130–31,

171, 230. See also Mahadev; divadafkaracaryas, 132, 230, 246dafkhini, 112Sanskrit, xvii, 4, 19, 23, 27, 59, 107,

128, 135, 141, 145–46, 164,171–72, 179–80, 191–92, 223,225, 230, 232, 245, 247, 253, 258

Saptapuri, 127–28, 130map4.1, 132,135, 208–09, 253

Saptacrfga/Saptacrfgi, 121, 123,136–39, 137map4.2, 219,247–48, 264

Saraladevi, 262Sarasvati river, 22, 24, 26, 160, 169,

174, 182, 225–26, 253–54, 255Sarvatirtha, 171–73, 207

definition of, 171–72SCsar, 69, 116, 124, 213. See also

In-laws’ house; MCher, and sCsardastri, Tryambak Nilakagvh Kavicvar,

225Sasvat, 46map2.1, 49–53, 55, 57,

59–62, 64figure2.2, 65–66,68–69, 71–72, 74, 77–79,81–84, 159, 179, 213–14,217map7.1, 230–31, 236–39

Satara, 8, 40, 85, 214, 217, 217map7.1,219, 231, 237, 239, 250, 264

kings of, 79, 85, 231Satara District, xiii(map), 8, 35map1.4,

40, 45, 82–83, 92, 148, 161, 171,196, 224, 228

Satavahanas, 4, 8Sati, 127, 129–31, 137–38Sati Asara, 120Satmala range, 218Satputa mountains, 2map0.1, 3, 257Savvai, 119Satyanarayag Poja, 143Saundatti, 122Saurasvra, 57, 177, 207, 225, 234, 245SavCI-flags, 50, 79Savarkar, V. D., 134, 246Savitri, 24Schlesinger, Lee, xiii–xiv, 38, 224, 228Schoolteachers, 11–12, 94, 241Schwartzberg, Joseph, 223degti, 40–42, 84, 213, 229, 239, 243yendOr. See Red-leadSeparatist movements, 7, 15, 221–22desa, 135–36Sesame husks, 103, 107deve, Akappa/Akhoba, 234–35Setubandha/Setubandhu, 133, 207,

246, 252Seunacandra, King, 258Seunadec/sIvanadex, 190, 223, 258

316 Index

Seven sages, 27, 226Seven sisters, 114–15, 127, 212,

214–15, 243–44. See also Sisters, goddesses as

Shepherds, 2, 36, 39–40, 45, 57, 61,67, 177, 228–29, 241, 244

Shiv Sena, 86, 155Sholapur, 217. See also Solapur DistrictSibling relationship, honorary.

See SistersyId-poles (on kCvaTs), 49–51, 53,

79–80, 230, 233, 237Siddhavek, 141map4.3, 142, 144–46,

248–49Siddhecvar, 159dikhar difggapor. See difggaporSikhs, 4, 160, 215, 246dilaharas, 8Sijhastha, 19, 30, 172, 225, 227, 252Sin, 165, 168–96Sina river, 40–41, 208dinde, Kamalo, 91, 177Sindho (king), 249Sindhudurg, xii(map), 83difgagvati, 150, 153Singh, Thakur Raja Ram, xiii, 229Singhaga, 45–46, 85difggapor, 38, 45–87, 46map2.1,

64figure2.2, 89–90, 108, 114,116, 177, 195map6.1, 212–14,230–35, 237, 239–40, 245

Sinnar, 195map6.1diplagiri Maharaj, 47dirala, 148–50, 149map4.4, 153Sircar, D. C., 131, 245dirsai, 227dirsuphal, 32map1.3, 227, 231Sisters, 140, 211, 228, 233, 241, 244

and brothers, 92, 109, 116, 176. See also Brothers, goddesses’;KaravalIs

as married, 156, 244–45elder, 120, 123, 237goddesses as, 14, 90, 115, 119–27,

212–13. See also Seven sisters;

meaning of sisterhood of,124–26; types of sisterhood of, 120–21

implied emotional pull among, 125younger, 176

Sita, 11–12, 150, 162, 212, 247div Sena. See Shiv Senadiva, 11, 17, 19, 24, 26, 33, 38, 41,

45, 47, 54–59, 66–71, 73, 86,89, 110–12, 116, 118, 122,128–30, 132, 137, 139–40, 153,164, 173, 177, 209, 230–32,234–35, 237, 240–42, 244–45,247, 255, 262. See also Mahadev;daiva gods and cults; dafkar

and dakti, 41, 82–85, 87, 89, 116,244–45

Ardhanari form of, 122devotion to. See daiva

devotion/bhaktiwith Ganges on head, 67

divaji, 8, 46–47, 79, 85–86, 89–90,101, 138, 149–50, 153, 155, 221,250. See also Maravhas, kingdom of

as patron saint of Shiv Sena, 155divale, 163, 170divalifgas, 17, 24, 47, 49, 151, 159,

164, 169, 175, 225, 230, 235.See also Jyotirlifgas, Twelve;LiFgas; Mahalifgas

sets of five, 135SIvanadex. See SeunadecyivapurCGa, 262divaratri, 38divari, 46map2.1, 49–51, 69–71, 79,

235–37divayoga, 252Skanda PurCGa, 30, 245, 252Slave trade, 238SmaraG. See Recollection/remembranceSmRtisthaL, 191, 194–95, 260Snakes, 62, 175, 263Soil, 223Solapur District, xii(map), 32map1.3,

45, 82, 109

Index 317

Somecvar, 177Somnath/Soravi Somnath, 130map4.1,

177, 207, 225, 245Sonari, 177Songs and singing, 95–98, 112, 123,

217, 241–42. See also Arati;Gondhalis and Gondhals

Sontheimer, Günther, xiii–xiv, 224,228–29, 234, 247, 250, 252,255–56

Sopan Maharaj/Sopandev, 76, 230, 238Sopher, David, 132, 246South, 3, 14, 39, 132, 140, 158, 161,

188, 246, 251, 253, 257. See alsoSouth India

as direction of Yama, 161as inauspicious, 249Southern Gafga, 161, 183Southern Kaci, 160, 162, 183,

247, 251South Asia, 1, 119, 157, 160, 263. See

also IndiaSouth India, 11, 22, 118–19, 135, 183,

213, 226, 228, 240, 245, 256Spate, O. H. K., 223yraddhC (faith), 72, 79–80, 178,

255, 264dravag (July–August), 34–38, 41

last Monday of, 34–38third Monday of, 38

Sri Lanka, 7, 242, 245–46driraj Sant Maharaj, 227drirampor, 25dricailam, 130map4.1, 135–36, 165,

172, 182, 208, 245, 253, 256drfgeri, 246Stairs/steps, 47, 52, 57, 144

large numbers of, 91, 94Stanley, John M., 262Stark-Wild, Sonja, xiii, 92, 251Stein, Burton, 28, 223Step-wells, 114, 244SthCn-MCrga-Darxak, 197SthCnpothI, 186, 196–99, 202–06,

224, 258, 260–62

SthCns, 201, 204–06, 260–61parixray sthCns, 203

Stories, 18, 23–24, 30, 38–39, 41–42,67–68, 89–94, 97, 100–01,109–10, 115–16, 118, 124,128–32, 138, 143, 150–54, 158, 161, 229–30, 241–44. See also Bhaktas, old, storiesabout; Oral stories

about miracles, 176–77about rivers, 17–18, 22–27, 38–40,

67, 172–74, 176, 180–81,212, 214

about travels of gods and goddesses,89–126, 211–12, 214, 229

as connecting people to places, 119as connecting places, 109–10, 116,

128–29, 212, 249. See alsoConnections between places,mythological

as expressing excuses, 101, 161as expressing opposition, 212–13combination of, 252geographical, 10–13, 118, 247implying comparison of places,

165–66, 177–78linked to pilgrimages, 68–70,

89–115, 129Mahanubhav, 209oral, 14, 18, 24, 201orientation in terms of, 6–7

Strength, superhuman, 61, 63, 154–55Sucindram, 118Sufi shrines, 4. See also PIrsSuicide, 165–67duklecvar, 23Sun, 10–11, 129, 245. See also Aditya

eclipse of, 252–53Superiority of one place to another,

162–73, 178, 182–85. See alsoComparison of places

of Godavari to Ganges, 180–81of Maharashtra to other parts of

India, 263quantification of, 163–64, 166–69

318 Index

Superstition, 243Surat District, 124dorpanakha, 263Sutars, 105–06, 242. See also

CarpentersSOtrapCVh, 186–89, 191–92, 198, 202,

210, 248, 257–59commentaries on, 189, 210, 248,

258–59interpretation of, in terms of

context, 259SvayambhO (“self-formed”) images,

120, 144, 175Sweat, 41, 170Swords, 101

Taj Mahal, 216wakli, 111map3.3, 113, 153Tamil, 9, 11

language region, 28Tamil Nadu, 11, 135, 143, 246, 262Tamra Gauri, 164Tamraparna/Tamrapargi river, 164,

257, 262TantracuTCmaGI, 130Tantrism, 245–46TCpI MChCtmya, 19, 22, 161, 163,

166–69, 173, 225, 252–55Tapi river, 2map0.1, 19, 22, 29–30,

161, 163–65, 167–70, 172–73,188, 195map6.1, 217map7.1,252–55, 257

Tarabout, Gilles, 254Tarali river, 40Tasgav, 47, 49Tathya/tatthya, 61, 235Tattva, 66Tatyañca Mala, 106Tax resistance, 62Television, 155–56, 243Telis, 59, 61, 78, 101, 103, 105–07,

239, 242Telugu, 39, 188

Land/country, 187–88, 192, 195map6.1, 248,

256–58. See alsoAndhra Pradesh

wembe Svami, 225Thackeray, Bal, 86Thane District, xiii(map), 124ThCpaGOk, 98Theology, 84. See also Mahanubhavs,

theology ofTheor, 141map4.3, 142, 145–46,

160, 249Thread, sacred, 242Three-and-a-half goddesses of

Maharashtra, principal, 121,136–40, 137map4.2, 159, 170,214, 244, 248, 251, 257, 264

as outlining Marathi region, 139–40named for their places, 139

Tibet, 242Tilak, B. G., 142, 248TIrthamClikC, 198–99, 259TIrthas, 19, 30, 39, 159, 164, 168–70,

171–73, 177–78, 208, 246,253–54. See also KoVi, Kovitirtha;Sarvatirtha

Asvatirtha, 170, 237, 253Atmatirtha, 207Bhairav/Bhairava, 164, 170Bhima, 252Brahma, 170Cakratirtha, 253Dharmacila, 252–53etymology of, 39Gomukh, 176–77Guptecvar, 252Hamunan, 169Karaka, 166Krtacauca, 252Kuruksetra, 167Kucatarpaga, 163Mocanakapala, 165Papapranacana, 169Ram, 178, 252, 255Rudraksamalika, 173dardola, 163diva, 172

Index 319

TIrthas—continuedSoma, 169dukla, 163, 252–55tIrthaliFgas, 169tIrthasthCn, 76Vicala, 252Vicvecvar, 173

Tirupati, 118, 135, 138, 183, 246–47Tiruvanaikkaval, 246Torches, 73, 97–98, 233Trance, 31, 65, 216Transvestites, 36Treta Age, 247Tribals, 3–4, 68, 216. See also specific

groups of tribalsParvati as a, 68

Tripathi, G. C., 233TripurCrahasya MChCtmyakhaGT, 247Tristhali, 135TristhalIsetu, 135Tryambakecvar, 19, 20map1.1,

128–29, 130map4.1, 159, 180,195map6.1, 207, 217map7.1,218, 226, 245, 257, 262

Tug-of-rope ritual, 84, 213Tukai, 12, 120, 122–23, 137–38, 247Tukaram, 219, 228, 230, 247Tulapor, 169Tulja (goddess in Nepal), 247Tulja Bhavani, 89, 101, 105–06,

108–10, 115, 123. See also BhavaniTuljapor, 57, 84, 98, 101, 102map3.2,

104–09, 120–23, 136–37,137map4.2, 139, 176–77, 214,217map7.1, 219, 233, 242–43,246–48, 251, 263–64

Tulpule, S. G., xiii, 197, 228, 234,248, 256–58

Tulci river, 251Tufgabhadra river, 87, 240, 254Turbans, 97, 232. See also DhajTurmeric ceremony (haLdI), 69, 237Turmeric powder/paste, 40, 48, 59, 97,

175, 229, 254Turner, Victor, 132

Udas, Y. A., 252, 254Udumbar wood, 47, 49, 235Ujjain, 22, 91, 128–29, 130map4.1,

136, 163, 177, 207–08, 226, 245

UjvI-TCvI rites, 51, 77, 231Ulkecvar, 255Umbardev/Umbarecvar temple, 56–57,

68, 83, 237Umbraj, 111map3.3, 113–14, 148,

149map4.4, 150, 153, 243Underground passages, 176, 254–55Underworld, 22, 160, 208, 245,

255, 263United Maharashtra movement, 8–9,

210. See also SajyuktaMaharashtra movement

Untouchables, 49, 74, 201, 215, 233,237, 259

UpaliFgas, 159Upanisads, 4, 245Urvaci, 110, 112Usmanabad, 83Usmanabad District, xii(map), 82,

109, 123, 136, 223, 232, 255Uttar Pradesh, 163

Vaidyanath, 118, 207, 244–45Vaigai river, 257Vaicakh (April–May), 75Vaisgavas and Vaisgavism, 57, 66, 132,

245, 262Vajrabai, 124Vajrai, 244Vajreshwari (place), 124Vakavakas, 4, 8Vakhari, 217map7.1, 220Vagis, 74, 238. See also Lifgayats;

ViracaivasVafki, 208Varamtir, 23, 226Varaga river, 153Varagasi, 22, 111, 128–29,

130map4.1, 135–36, 145, 160, 163, 165–66,

320 Index

208, 238, 245, 251, 254. See also Banaras; Kaci

VarCts, 68, 71Vardha District, xii(map), 197, 223, 228Vardha river, 228Varenne, Jean, 254Varhat, 4, 83, 189–91, 195map6.1,

213, 223. See also VidarbhaVarkaris, 31, 57, 185, 210, 214,

216–21, 234, 262pilgrimage of, 217map7.1, 218,

220–21saints of, 219, 230, 238, 251

VarGans, 186. See also specific VarGan textsVastu Purusa, 224Vegetarianism, 63, 72, 241. See also

Meals, vegetarianVefkavagiri, 138Vegga river, 11, 26, 35map1.4, 37, 160Verol, 4, 130map4.1, 163, 195map6.1,

207–08, 245. See also ElloraVetal, 112Vidani, 91Vidarbha, 2map0.1, 4, 54, 188–89,

191–92, 223, 228, 232, 239,258, 261. See also Varhat

Vijayanagara, 164Vijñanecvar, 207Vikram era, 183Vinayak, 141, 144, 156. See also

Asvavinayak; Gagapati; GagecVindhya mountains, 2map0.1, 3,

10–11, 39, 112, 183, 257Vindhyavasini, 112, 241Vir (place), 39, 163, 177, 228–29Viraha, 199. See also Love, separation

as enhancingViracaivas, 47, 58, 136, 246. See also

Lifgayats; VagisVirility, 154Viropaksa, 164Visgu, 11–12, 24–26, 33, 112,

128–29, 131, 138, 164, 172–73,180, 225–26, 247, 262–63

ViSGusmRti, 229

Vicvanath, 207, 245Vicvecvar, 177–78. See also Kaci, Kaci

VicvecvarVivhoba, 33, 60, 143, 162, 216,

219–20, 228, 234, 261–62Viwalwedhe, 124Vows, 58, 65, 72–73, 80, 248. See also

Navas vowsVrddhecvar, 38Vrtra, 165Vurud Budruk, 122Vyafkavec, 118

Waghmare, Pushpa, xiii, 234Waghmare, Sudhir, xiii, 77, 200,

228, 234Wai, 160, 162–63, 169–70, 173,

175–76, 225, 228, 251, 255five major gods of Kaci in, 162

Walking, 30, 34, 48, 54, 63, 80, 95,100, 109, 146, 177, 227, 236

barefoot, 63, 64figure2.2Wandering, 186, 194Washermen, 242Water, 11, 62, 73, 79–80, 82, 86–87,

95, 112, 168–69, 172, 174–75,180–81, 212, 228, 235, 244,246. See also Pots

goddesses, 120nymphs, 110. See also Apsarases

Wealth, 104, 120, 242Weavers, 54–55, 232, 237Weddings, 13–14, 40, 56, 59, 67–69,

83–85, 87, 89, 118, 123, 213,233–34, 237, 240. See alsoMarriage

crowns for (bCxiFgs), 68failing to take place, 116, 118, 123,

126, 247. See also Goddesses,as unmarried/independent

imagery of, 70–71, 245. See alsoBrides and bridal imagery;Marital imagery

processions after. See VarCtstrips for, 116, 118–19

Index 321

Weights, 164, 231, 237Western Ghats, 1, 2map0.1, 3, 45,

116, 141, 189, 215, 218, 244Whips, 98, 112White, David G., 254White, Rodney, 211Whitehead, Henry, 244Widows, 77, 239Wilderness, 12Wind, 61, 66–67, 246, 250Witzel, Michael, 226Wives, 92, 143, 226, 233. See also

Brides and bridal imageryWolpert, Stanley, 248Word-play, 180Worlds, three, 245Wrestlers, 106

Yadava kingdom/kings, 4, 8, 45–47, 85, 142, 188, 221, 223, 248, 258. See also specificYCdava kings

Yama, 23, 42, 161, 251

Yamai, 12, 70–71, 120, 122–23, 235Yamuna river, 135–36, 159–60, 162,

168–69, 182, 251, 253Yamunotri, 135Yauvanacva, 166Yavatmal District, xii(map), 122,

223, 228Yetai, 12, 123Yetevati, 32map1.3, 228Yelamma/Yellamma/Yallama, 36,

122, 138Yermala, 123Yogecvari, 12–13, 116–19, 244, 246.

See also JogaiYogic powers, 154YoginIs, 112Yogis, 172Yonis, 131, 245Young, Katherine, 228Yudhisvhir, 225Yugas, 229

Zelliot, Eleanor, xiii, 224

322 Index