nov 15, 2005 6:50 amgeog 237a1 “field research”: interviews, focus groups and observation...

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 1

““Field Research”: Interviews, Field Research”: Interviews, Focus Groups and ObservationFocus Groups and Observation

(Babbie Ch 10)(Babbie Ch 10)

• Four Qualitative Paradigms• Interviews

– Interviews vs Surveys– Terminology– Common problems– Advantages/Disadvantages

• Focus Groups– Advantages/Disadvantages

• Observation– Advantages/Disadvantages

Geography 237aGeography 237aResearch MethodsResearch Methods

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 2

Four Qualitative ParadigmsFour Qualitative Paradigms

Naturalism/Ethnography• strong links to positivism• assumes reality is out there to be

“discovered”• focus on detailing the social world• often more attention to pattern than

explanation• idiographic• e.g., Whytes “Street Corner Society”

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 3


Ethnomethodology• strong links to phenomenology• reality is socially constructed vs “out

there”• researcher must interpret what study

participants say/do – not take them for granted/at face value

• stronger interpretive role of researcher over naturalism/ethnography

• nomothetic explanations – focus on “underlying social processes”

• e.g. Garfinkel’s “conversation clarification experiment”

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 4


Grounded Theory

• more blatantly inductive than the other 3 paradigms

• typically ideographic theory development

• attempt to systematize naturalistic enquiry

• constant comparative method of sampling and analysis – (see Qualitative Analysis lecture)

• e.g., Glaser and Straus

Case Studies

• in depth study of an “instance” of a phenomenon (e.g, community, process)

• principally detailed idiographic explanations (nomothetic research must apply beyond particular case)

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 5

Interviews Interviews “Interview” vs “Survey”“Interview” vs “Survey”

• “interview” in geog 237 means – qualitative in-depth interview (almost always face-to-face)

• in the literature, both are called “interviews”

• qualitative interviews less “structured” than survey questionnaires – (but just as rigourous and useful)

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 6

Some Characteristics of Some Characteristics of Interview ResearchInterview Research

• typically exploratory• typically inductive• typically idiographic (rarely

nomothetic)• typically small samples (even just

one!, tens, rarely over 100)• typically individuals and groups are

the units of observation

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 7

What is the instrument?What is the instrument?

• In survey research, the questionnaire is the instrument.

• What is the instrument in qualitative

face-to-face interviews?

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 8

Preliminary TerminologyPreliminary Terminology

Researcher as instrument• think on feet, empathy, not passive• “data” recorded in human memory• thus, data are interpreted even at

recording stage• emotionless detachment not advisable• experiential knowledge• (contrast with questionnaire)

Participant• person with whom an interview is

“conducted”• ideally, a two-way exchange of

information• treat as human beings rather than

rows in a spreadsheet.• (contrast with “respondent”)

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 9

Researcher as InstrumentResearcher as Instrument

Several forms of experiential knowledge are necessary to attempt understanding of the complexities and peculiarities of the educational reform processes at work in these settings. Cultural knowledge is needed of the racial, cultural, and sociopolitical contexts being studied. Schooling has been administered in four separate racially segregated and inequitably funded systems--European, African, Asian, and Indian. My knowledge of the history of residential and educational segregation is necessary to understand why attending the few open schools in central city and suburban areas was so desirable for the vast numbers of non-white students living in remote area townships in which schooling has been under funded and inferior to that offered white students.

Source: Brook 1992, Issues of researcher role and subjectivity in research on educational change in South Africa http://www.coe.uga.edu/quig/proceedings/Quig92_Proceedings/brook.92.html

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 10


What about bias?

• If personal, subjective knowledge about the phenomena is “allowed” what is to be done about “bias” in the results?

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 11


Field Notes• researcher notes:

– before interview– during interview– after interview

Autobiography• researcher description of likely

influences on interpretation• personal biases in relation to research

questions and participants• track changes in views

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 12

Autobiography

In describing the researcher as the primary research instrument, and as a participant observer throughout the study, there is some obligation on my part to provide a more extensive description of who “I” am, and of my experiential background, so that the reader may form a context in which to situate the comments and the conclusions of this study. As a local Hispanic woman who believes in life-long learning, I regard myself as having pulled myself up by my “boot strings” against all odds. Born in Laredo, Texas, I lived in the small South Texas town of Hebbronville for the first sixteen years of my life. I grew up as a physically challenged child who was not expected to live.

Source: Gramirez, http://www.tamucc.edu/~gramirez/aperso~1.doc

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 13

Steps in InterviewingSteps in Interviewing

Clarify objectives• though generally inductive, still do as

much background work as possible

Participant Selection• typically purposive – wide variety of

people to cover as many dimensions of phenomena as possible

• temptation to convenience sample (those easiest to talk with)

• random selection (but statistics rare)

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 14


Interview• take field notes, audio tape record

Transcribe• field notes• audio tapes• ideally researcher transcribes to “stay

close” to data

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 15


Analyze

• read over material and interpret meaning

• assisted by software (NVivo, NUDIST, Ethnograph)

Verify (member check)

• go back to participants and see if you have it “right”

• negotiated text

• what about disagreement?

Report

• write up

• present

• participants are audience too!

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 16

Interview GuideInterview Guide

Characteristics• topics to direct conversation• minimum to be covered in

conversation• allows inter-interview comparisons in

interpretation• not necessarily covered in order

– not a linear “roadmap” per se; more a series of unordered “signposts”

• participant guides conversation too

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 17

Interview Guide ExampleInterview Guide Example

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 18

Interviews:Interviews:Advantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages(e.g., compared to surveys)(e.g., compared to surveys)

Advantages

Disadvantages

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 19

Interviews:Interviews:Advantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages

Advantages• high validity• closer to social life• flexible• words of participants• discover the unexpected

Disadvantages• no (rare) statistical analysis• labour intensive• training - researcher as instrument• weak reliability• weak generalizability

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 20

Focus GroupsFocus GroupsCharacteristicsCharacteristics

• group interviews• 8-10• facilitator• note taker• participants similar characteristics

(e.g., all women, all against issue X)• exploration• group dynamics relevant – exchange

of ideas

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 21

Focus GroupsFocus GroupsExampleExample

• FACILITATOR: So what were the alternatives? What was the state of Ryley in 1992 when economic development seemed to be an issue?

• MARGRET: It was dying like most small towns were at that time.

• SADY: It’s been dying for 40 years and it hasn’t changed any from then.

• FACILITATOR: What’s the population?

• SADY: Including cats and dogs?

• UNIDENTIFIED: 411 I think.

• FACILITATOR: The last I have is ’96 statistics and it says around 500. But it could have gone down or up by then.

• MARGRET: Ryley’s around 500 I would say now.

• HUGO: I think, like all these little towns are dying, Holden is next and it’s 8 miles and that’s another small town. And I remember the school there when it had about 600, 650 people and now I think it’s under 400, 390. So it’s dying too. And so Ryley, they’re roughly the same size and I imagine Ryley was probably in that 500 or 600 once upon a time in the ‘50s.

• Margaret: Oh lots more before that, we had all these businesses here.

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 22

Focus GroupsFocus GroupsAdvantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages

Advantages• approximates social conditions• new ideas• forces participants consider issues

may not think of themselves• increased participant self-awareness

on issue

Disadvantages• researcher has less control• difficult to analyze• training – facilitator skill• difficult to obtain groups• “social conditions” contrived

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 23

Observation:Observation:TerminologyTerminology

covert• people do not know being studied• ethical implications?

participant• the only way to truly “know” is to

“do”• “method acting” for researchers?• get involved in study group

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 24

Observation:Observation:TerminologyTerminology

going native• researcher’s reference group is no

longer academics, but group under study

Hawthorne effect• act differently because special

attention• different from social acceptability

bias (intentional) in surveys, but related

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 25

Observation:Observation: (field research) (field research)

Tradeoffs: Four Major Types of Observation Field Research

people know they are being studied

researcher engages in the activ-ities studied

people likely to act naturally

researcher risks “going native”

risk of Haw-thorne effect

researcher may affect study situation

Participant(covert)

no yes yes yes no yes

participant as observer

yes yes no yes yes yes

observer as participant

yes no no ? yes ?

observer(covert)

no no yes ? no no

Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 26

Observation:Observation:Advantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages

(e.g., compared to interviews)(e.g., compared to interviews)

Advantages

Disadvantages

nov 15, 2005 6:50 amgeog 237a1 “field research”: interviews, focus groups and observation...

Documents