NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

The Isotopic Symbol

Remember that the nucleus is comprised of the two nucleons, protons(p) and neutrons(n).

The number of protons is the atomic number (Z).

The number of protons and neutrons together is effectively the mass of the atom- mass number (A).

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different masses due to different numbers of neutrons in those atoms.

There are three naturally occurring isotopes of uranium: Uranium-234 Uranium-235 Uranium-238

Uranium has 92 protons. How many neutrons do each of the above isotopes have?

Radioactivity

It is not uncommon for some nuclides of an element to be unstable, or radioactive.

We refer to these as radioisotopes. When they decay, they produce radiation and another element called a daughter product.

There are several ways radioisotopes can decay into a different nuclide. These are called nuclear transformations. The 3 main types are:

Alpha radiation (helium nucleus) Beta radiation (electron) Gamma radiation (electromagnetic energy)

Types of Radioactive Decay Alpha Decay

Loss of an -particle (a helium nucleus)

He42

U23892

Th23490 He4

2+

Types of Radioactive Decay Beta Decay

Loss of a -particle (a high energy electron)

0−1 e0

−1or

I13153 Xe131

54 + e0

−1

Types of Radioactive Decay Gamma Emission

Loss of a -ray (high-energy radiation that almost always accompanies the loss of a nuclear particle)

Notice that there is no mass indicated in the nuclear symbol for this type of radiation

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Penetrating ability

Question

Write the nuclear equation for the alpha decay of radium-226

Write the nuclear equation for the beta decay of uranium-239

Neutron-Proton Ratios Like charges repel - Any

element with more than one proton (i.e., anything but hydrogen) will have electrostatic repulsions between the protons in the nucleus.

A strong nuclear force helps keep the nucleus from flying apart.

Neutrons play a key role stabilizing the nucleus.

Therefore, the ratio of neutrons to protons (n/Z) is an important factor for stability.

Stable Nuclei

The shaded region in the figure shows what nuclides would be stable, the so-called Belt of stability.

Neutron-Proton Ratios

For smaller nuclei (Z 20) stable nuclei have a neutron-to-proton ratio close to 1:1.

Neutron-Proton Ratios

As nuclei get larger, it takes a greater number of neutrons to stabilize the nucleus. Notice the n/Z ratio has increased in the “Belt of stability”

Beta Emitters

Nuclei above this belt have too many neutrons.

They tend to decay by emitting beta particles.

Because a n0 has been converted to a p+, n/Z has decreased into the “belt of stability”

Positron or Electron capture

Nuclei below the belt have too many protons.

They tend to become more stable by positron emission or electron capture.

Because the number of protons has been reduced, the n/Z has increased.

Alpha Emitters

There are no stable nuclei with an atomic number greater than 83.

These nuclei tend to decay by alpha emission.

Radioactive Decay Series

Large radioactive nuclei cannot stabilize by undergoing only one nuclear transformation.

They undergo a series of decays until they form a stable nuclide (often a nuclide of lead).

This shows the decay of U-238. What are the types of decay shown?

Half-life

Half- life is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample to decay

Each isotope has a particular half-life associated with it. Some common ones are to the right.

Half-life

Decay of 20.0 mg of 15O. What remains after 3 half-lives? After 5 half-lives?

Nuclear Transformations

Nuclear transformations can be induced by accelerating a particle and colliding it with the nuclide. Transuranic (Z>92)elements are made this way.

These particle accelerators are enormous, having circular tracks with radii that are miles long.

Measuring Radioactivity

One can use a device like this Geiger counter to measure the amount of activity present in a radioactive sample.

The ionizing radiation creates ions, which conduct a current that is detected by the instrument.

Energy in Nuclear Reactions

There is a tremendous amount of energy stored in nuclei.

Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2, relates directly to the calculation of this energy.

In chemical reactions the amount of mass converted to energy is minimal.

However, these energies are many thousands of times greater in nuclear reactions.

Energy in Nuclear Reactions

For example, the mass change for the decay of 1 mol of uranium-238 is 0.0046 g.

The change in energy, E, is then

E = (m) c2

E = (4.6 10−6 kg)(3.00 108 m/s)2

E = 4.1 1011 J

Uses of Radioactivity

There are a number of uses for radioactivity. They include:

Carbon dating – determine age of dead material (C-14)

Medical uses – radiation therapy, nuclear imaging techniques (Tc-99), sterilising equipment

Industrial uses – fire detectors (Am-241), thickness gauges, detecting cracks in pipes

Food irradiation – to kill bacteria and fungi (Co-60 or Cs-137)

Nuclear Fission Fission is the splitting of a radionuclide

releasing energy Nuclear fission is the type of reaction carried out

in nuclear reactors.

Nuclear Fission

Bombardment of the radioactive nuclide with a neutron starts the process.

Neutrons released in the transmutation strike other nuclei, causing their decay and the production of more neutrons.

This process continues in what we call a nuclear chain reaction.

Nuclear Fission

If there are not enough radioactive nuclides in the path of the ejected neutrons, the chain reaction will die out.

Therefore, there must be a certain minimum amount of fissionable material present for the chain reaction to be sustained. This is known as the Critical Mass.

Nuclear ReactorsIn nuclear reactors the heat generated by the reaction is used to produce steam that turns a turbine connected to a generator. The process is similar to a coal fired power plant, but Uranium has a greater energy content than coal.

A 1000MW power plant will use 8,500,00kg of coal or 74 kg of uranium

Nuclear Reactors –Are they safe?

The reaction is kept in check by the use of control rods.

These block the paths of some neutrons, keeping the system from reaching a dangerous supercritical mass which can generate too much heat and cause a meltdown.

Nuclear Fission and Power

Currently over 100

nuclear power plants

in the U.S. and over

400 worldwide.

Approximately 17%

of the world’s

energy comes from

nuclear.

Nuclear Fusion

Fusion small nuclei combine

2H + 2H 4He + 1n + Energy

1 1 2 0

Occurs in the sun and other stars

Nuclear Fusion

Fusion (combining nuclei together)would be a far superior method of generating power.

The good news is that the products of the reaction are not radioactive.

The bad news is that in order to achieve fusion, the material must be in the plasma state at several million kelvins.

Tokamak apparati like the one shown at the right show promise for carrying out these reactions.

They use magnetic fields to heat the material.