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Conflict and Stress

Management

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Conflict

Conflict is a process in which one party perceives that hisor her interests are being opposed or negatively affected

by another party. It may occur when one party obstructs

or plans to obstruct anothers goals in some way.

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Is Conflict Good or Bad

It describes that point in any ongoing activity when an

interaction crosses over to become conflict. Conflict must

be perceived by the parties to it; if no one is aware of a

conflict, it is generally agreed that no conflict exists. Conflictalso involves opposition or incompatibility, and some form of

interaction between the parties.

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Conflict

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Conflict

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Conflict

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Types of Conflict

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Constructive and Relationship Conflict

Constructive conflict occurs when people focus their

discussion on the issue while showing respect for

people with other points of view. This conflict is calledconstructive because different positions are

encouraged so that ideas and recommendations can be

clarified, redesigned, and tested for logical soundness.

Teams and organizations with very low levels ofconstructive conflict are less effective, but there is also

likely an upper limit to the level of intensity of

constructive conflict.

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Types of Conflict

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Relationship Conflictfocuses on people, rather than the

issues, as the source of conflict. The parties refer to

interpersonal incompatibilities such as personalityclashes rather than legitimate differences of opinion

regarding tasks or decisions. Each party tries to

undermine the othersargument by questioning her or

his competency.

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Types of Conflict

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Relationship conflict is sometimes called socioemotional

or affective conflict because people experience and

react to strong emotional responses during such conflictepisodes.

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Sources of Conflict in

Organizations

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The six main conditions that cause conflict in

organizational settings are incompatible goals,

differentiation, interdependence, scarce resources,

ambiguous rules, and communication problems.

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Organizations

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The MSN group had developed desktop search software

that would compete against Google Desktop. However,MicrosoftsWindows group opposed release of the MSN

software because the Windows group had developed

similar software for its Vista operating system. The MSN

group also fought against the Office people over MSNs

desire to connect their online calendar with the calendar

in Office.

Incompatible Goals

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Organizations

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The battles between the Microsoft MSN and Windows

work units illustrate how goal incompatibility in whichthe goals of one person or department seem to interfere

with another personsor departments goalscan be a

source of conflict in organizations.

Incompatible Goals

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Organizations

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Differentiation can be distinguished from goal

incompatibility because two people or departments mayagree on a common goal but have profound differences

in how to achieve that goal. Consider the classic tension

between employees from two companies brought

together through a merger. Employees in eachorganization fight over the right way to do things

because of their unique experiences in the separate

companies.

Differentiation

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Organizations

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Interdependence exists when team members must share

common inputs to their individual tasks, need to interactin the process of executing their work, or receive

outcomes (such as rewards) that are partly determined

by the performance of others. Higher interdependence

increases the risk of conflict because there is a greaterchance that each side will disrupt or interfere with the

other sidesgoals.

Interdependence

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Organizations

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Resource scarcity generates conflict because each

person or unit requiring the same resource necessarilyundermines others who also need that resource to fulfill

their goals. The more resources one project receives, the

fewer resources another project will have available to

accomplish its goals.

Scarce Resources

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Organizations

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Ambiguous rulesor the complete lack of rulesbreed

conflict. This occurs because uncertainty increases therisk that one party intends to interfere with the other

partysgoals. Ambiguity also encourages political tactics,

and, in some cases, employees enter a free-for-all battle

to win decisions in their favor. When clear rules exist, on

the other hand, employees know what to expect from

each other and have agreed to abide by those rules.

Ambiguous Rules

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Organizations

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Conflict often occurs due to the lack of opportunity,

ability, or motivation to communicate effectively. First,when two parties lack the opportunity to communicate,

each tends to rely more on stereotypes to understand

the other party in the conflict. Second, some people lack

the necessary skills to communicate in a diplomatic,

non-confrontational manner.

Communication Problems

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Organizations

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When one party communicates his or her disagreement

arrogantly, opponents are more likely to heighten theirperception of the conflict. A third problem is that the

perception of conflict reduces the motivation to

communicate. Relationship conflict is uncomfortable, so

people avoid interacting with others in a conflictingrelationship.

Communication Problems

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Functional vs.

Dysfunctional Conflict

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Not all conflict is bad. Some conflicts support the goals of

the group and improve its performance; these are

functional, or constructive, forms of conflict. But there areconflicts that hinder group performance; these are

dysfunctional, or destructive, forms of conflict. The

criterion that differentiates functional from dysfunctional

conflict is group performance. If a group is unable to

achieve its goals because of conflict, then the conflict is

dysfunctional.

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Functional vs.


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Functional vs.


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At the lower part of the continuum, we have conflicts

characterized by subtle, indirect, and highly controlled

forms of tension. Conflict intensities escalate as they

move upward along the continuum, until they become

highly destructive. Strikes and lockouts, riots, and wars

clearly fall into this upper range. The upper ranges of thecontinuum are almost always dysfunctional.

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Resolution of Conflict

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The number of styles identified by conflict experts has varied overthe years, but most common are variations of the five-category

model.

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Problem solving tries to find a mutually beneficial

solution to the disagreement. This is known as the win-

win orientation because people using this style believe

the resources at stake are expandable, rather than fixed,if the parties work together to find a creative solution.

Information sharing is an important feature of this style

because both parties collaborate to identify common

ground and potential solutions that satisfy everyoneinvolved.

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Forcing tries to win the conflict at the othersexpense.People who use this style typically have a win-lose

orientation they believe the parties are drawing from a

fixed pie, so the more one party receives, the less the

other party will receive.

Avoiding tries to smooth over or avoid conflict

situations altogether. It represents a low concern for both

self and the other party; in other words, avoiders try to

suppress thinking about the conflict. For example, some

employees will rearrange their work area or tasks to

minimize interaction with certain co-workers.

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Yieldinginvolves giving in completely to the other sideswishes, or at least cooperating, with little or no attention

to your own interests. This style involves making

unilateral concessions & unconditional promises, as well

as offering help with no expectation of reciprocal help.

Compromising involves looking for a position in which

you make concessions to some extent. It involvesmatching the other partys concessions, making

conditional promises or threats, and actively searching

for a middle ground.

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Organizational

Culture

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Organizational Culture

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Culture is the soul of the organizationthe beliefs and

values, and how they are manifested. Culture sets the

tone for how organizations operate and how individuals

within the organization interact. Culture provides stabilityto an organization and gives employees a clear

understanding of theway things are done around here.

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ICICI Bank, Indias second-largest bank exudes aperformance-oriented culture focused on growth. Its

organizational practices place a premium on training,

career development, goal setting, and pay for

performance, all with the intent of maximizing employeeachievement and customer service. The company relies

on GEs storied performance curve, in which a small

percentage of staff receive generous rewards while the

bottom 5 percent are cut from the payroll. Growth

happens only when there are differential rewards for

differential performers, explains ICICIs head of human

resources.

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The key features of culture are as follows:

Culture is shared by the members of the organization.

Culture helps members of the organization solve and

understand the things that the organization encounters,both internally and externally.

Because the assumptions, beliefs, and expectations that

make up culture have worked over time, members of theorganization believe they are valid. Therefore, they are

taught to people who join the organization.

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The key features of culture are as follows:

These assumptions, beliefs, and expectations strongly

influence how people perceive, think, feel, and behave

within the organization.

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Levels of CultureOrganizational culture has multiple levels. However, a

simmering volcano may better represent the layers of

culture: beliefs, values, assumptions bubble below the

surface, producing observable aspects of culture at thesurface.

Artifacts-Aspects of an organizations culture thatyou see, hear, and feel.

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Levels of Culture

Assumptions are the taken-for-granted notions ofhow something should be. When basic assumptionsare held by the entire group, members will have

difficulty conceiving of another way of doing things

Beliefs The understandings of how objects andideas relate to each other.

Values The stable, long-lastingbeliefs about whatis important.

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Characteristics of CultureInnovation and risk-taking. The degree to which

employees are encouraged to be innovative and take

risks.

Attention to detail.The degree to which employees areexpected to work with precision, analysis, and attention

to detail.

Outcome orientation. The degree to which

management focuses on results, or outcomes, rather

than on the techniques and processes used to achieve

these outcomes.

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People orientation.The degree to which management

decisions take into consideration the effect of outcomes

on people within the organization.

Team orientation.The degree to which work activitiesare organized around teams rather than individuals.

Aggressiveness. The degree to which people are

aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing and

supportive.

Stability.The degree to which organizational activities

emphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast to

growth.

Characteristics of Culture

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Culture performs a number of functions within an

organization:

It has a boundary-defining role because it creates

distinction between one organization and others.

It conveys a sense of identity to organization members.

It helps create commitment to something larger than

an individualsself-interest.

Implication of Culture

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It serves as a control mechanism that guides and

shapes the attitudes and behaviour of employees, and

helps them make sense of the organization.

It enhances stability; it is the social glue that helps hold

the organization together by providing appropriate

standards for what employees should say and do.


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It serves as a control mechanism that guides and

shapes the attitudes and behaviour of employees, and

helps them make sense of the organization.

It enhances stability; it is the social glue that helps hold

the organization together by providing appropriate

standards for what employees should say and do.


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A culture can be created in three ways. First, founders

hire and keep only employees who think and feel the

way they do. Second, they indoctrinate and socialize

these employees to their way of thinking and feeling.Finally, the founders behaviour acts as a role model,

encouraging employees to identify with the founders

and internalize those beliefs, values, and assumptions.


For example, Microsofts culture is largely a reflection of its

co-founder, chair, and chief software architect (and former

CEO), Bill Gates. Gates is personally aggressive, competitive,

and highly disciplined.

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Organizations can use several strategies when considering

how to merge the cultures of two organizations:

Assimilation.The entire new organization is determinedto take on the culture of one of the merging organizations.

This strategy works best when one of the organizations

has a relatively weak culture. However, if a culture is

simply imposed on an organization, it rarely works.

Strategies for Merging Cultures

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Separation. The organizations remain separate, and

keep their individual cultures. This strategy works best

when the organizations have little overlap in theindustries in which they operate.


Integration. A new culture is formed by merging parts of

each of the organizations. This strategy works best whenaspects of each organizations culture need to be

improved.

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Separation. The organizations remain separate, and

keep their individual cultures. This strategy works best

when the organizations have little overlap in theindustries in which they operate.


Integration. A new culture is formed by merging parts of

each of the organizations. This strategy works best whenaspects of each organizations culture need to be

improved.

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One of the most well-documented findings from studies

of individual and organizational behaviour is that

organizations and their members resist change. In a sense,

this is positive. It provides a degree of stability and

predictability to behaviour. If there were no resistance,

organizational behaviour would take on characteristics of

chaotic randomness. Resistance to change can also be asource of functional conflict.

Resistance To Change

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Resistance To Change Individual ResistanceIndividual sources of resistance to change reside in basic

human characteristics such as perceptions, personalities,

and needs.

Habit. To cope with lifes complexities, we rely on

habits or programmed responses. But when confronted

with change, this tendency to respond in our

accustomed ways becomes a source of resistance.Security.People with a high need for security are likely

to resist change because it threatens their feelings of

safety.

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Resistance To Change Individual Resistance

Economic factors. Changes in job tasks or established

work routines can arouse economic fears if people are

concerned that they will not be able to perform the newtasks or routines to their previous standards, especially

when pay is closely tied to productivity.

Fear of the unknown. Change substitutes ambiguity

and uncertainty for the known. This is also referred to asthe status quo bias, in which individuals assume that

their current state is better than whatever the changed

state might be.

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Resistance To Change Individual Resistance

Selective information processing. Individuals are guilty

of selectively processing information in order to keep

their perceptions intact. They hear what they want tohear, and they ignore information that challenges the

world they have created.

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Resistance To ChangeIndividual Resistance

In addition to simple resistance to change, employees

often feel cynical about the change process, particularly if

they have been through several rounds of change, and

nothing appears (to them) to have changed. The major

elements contributing to the cynicism were as follows:

Cynicism

Feeling uninformed about what was happening

Lack of communication and respect from onesmanagerLack of communication and respect from ones union

representative

Lack of opportunity for meaningful participation in decision

making

i i l l

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Resistance To ChangeOrganizational Resistance

Organizations, by their very nature, are conservative.54

They actively resist change. You do not have to look far to

see evidence of this phenomenon. Government agencies

want to continue doing what they have been doing foryears, whether the need for their service changes or

remains the same. Organized religions are deeply

entrenched in their history.

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Six major sources of organizational resistance to change

have been identified:

Structural inertia. Organizations have built-in

mechanismssuch as their selection processes and

formal regulationsto produce stability. When an

organization is confronted with change, this structural

inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability.

Group inertia. Even if individuals want to change their

behaviour, group norms may act as a constraint.

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Limited focus of change.Organizations are made up of a

number of interdependent subsystems. One cannot be

changed without affecting the others. So limited changesin subsystems tend to be nullified by the larger system.

Threat to established power relationships. Any

redistribution of decision-making authority can threaten

long-established power relationships within the

organization.

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Resistance To Change Organizational Resistance

Threat to established resource allocations. Groups in

the organization that control sizable resources often see

change as a threat. They tend to be content with the way

things are.

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Overcoming Resistance to ChangeEducation and communication. Resistance can be reduced

through communicating with employees to help them see the

logic of a change. Communication can be achieved through

one-on-one discussions, memos, group presentations, orreports.

Participation and involvement.It is difficult for individuals to

resist a change decision. Before making a change, those

opposed can be brought into the decision process. Assumingthat the participants have the expertise to make a meaningful

contribution, their involvement can reduce resistance, obtain

commitment, and increase the quality of the change decision.

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Overcoming Resistance to ChangeFacilitation and support. Organizations undergoing change

can offer a range of supportive efforts to reduce resistance

such as employee counselling and therapy, new-skills training,

or a short paid leave of absence.

Negotiation and agreement.Another way for organizations to

deal with potential resistance to change is to exchange

something of value for less resistance. For instance, if the

resistance is centred in a few powerful individuals, a specific

reward package can be negotiated that will meet their

individual needs.

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Overcoming Resistance to ChangeManipulation and co-optation.Manipulation refers to covert

influence attempts. Twisting and distorting facts to make them

appear more attractive, withholding undesirable information,and creating false rumors to get employees to accept a change

are all examples of manipulation. Co-optation, on the other

hand, is a form of both manipulation and participation. It seeks

to buyoffthe leaders of a resistance group by giving them a

key role in the change decision.

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Overcoming Resistance to ChangeExplicit and implicit coercion. Coercion is the application of

direct threats or force upon the resisters. If the corporate

management is determined to close a manufacturing plantshould employees not acquiesce to a pay cut, then coercion

would be the label attached to its change tactic. Other

examples of coercion are threats of transfer, loss of

promotions, negative performance evaluations, and poor

letters of recommendation.

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