objective of this assignment is to write a descriptive essay on six theories of learning and their...

ContentsAssignment Overview..................................................................................................................................1

Theories of learning Introduction................................................................................................................2

Principles of learning...................................................................................................................................2

Sensory Stimulation Theory.................................................................................................................2

Reinforcement theory.........................................................................................................................2

Cognitive-Gestalt approaches..............................................................................................................3

Holistic learning theory........................................................................................................................3

Facilitation theory (The Humanist approach)......................................................................................3

Experiential learning............................................................................................................................4

Action Learning....................................................................................................................................5

Adult Learning (Andragogy).................................................................................................................5

Learning Theories and Models....................................................................................................................6

Experiential Learning (Carl Rogers)..............................................................................................................7

Principles.............................................................................................................................................8

Application...........................................................................................................................................8

Advantages and Disadvantages...........................................................................................................8

Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull).................................................................................................................9

Principles...........................................................................................................................................10

Application.........................................................................................................................................10

Advantages and Disadvantages.........................................................................................................10

Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro, Feltovitch & Coulson).........................................................................11

Principles...........................................................................................................................................11

Application.........................................................................................................................................11


Transformative Learning (Jack Mezirow)...................................................................................................12

Principles...........................................................................................................................................13

Application.........................................................................................................................................13


Subsumption Theory (David Ausubel).......................................................................................................13

Principles...........................................................................................................................................14

Application.........................................................................................................................................14


Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)...................................................................................................15

Principles...........................................................................................................................................16

Application.........................................................................................................................................16


Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................17

Assignment Overview

Theories of learning and human resource development can help guide employees in their career development. By giving your staff access to a broad spectrum of courses, workshops and self-paced alternatives, you can enable their development and improve productivity for your business at the same time.

Objective of this assignment is to write a descriptive essay on six theories of learning and their implications on Employee Training.

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Theories of learning IntroductionTheories of learning are efforts to explain how people learn. Different theories are based on different assumptions and are appropriate for explaining some learning situations but not others. Theories of learning can inform teaching and the use of different instructional resources including technology, but ultimately the learning activities in which the student actually engages (mental, physical, and social) determine what a student learns in the classroom. Classroom learning involves social, emotional, and participatory factors in addition to cognitive ones, and theories of learning need to take these factors into account. Most current theories of learning presuppose that the goal of education is to develop the ability of students to understand the content and to think for themselves, presumptions that are consistent with the majority of modern-day schools.

There are many different theories of how people learn. What follows is a variety of them, and it is useful to consider their application to how your students learn and also how you teach in educational programs. It is interesting to think about your own particular way of learning and to recognize that everyone does not learn the way you do.

Burns (1995, p99) 'conceives of learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior with behavior including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes and emotions.' It is clear that Burns includes motivation in this definition of learning. Burns considers that learning might not manifest itself in observable behavior until sometime after the educational program has taken place.

Principles of learning

Sensory Stimulation TheoryTraditional sensory stimulation theory has as its basic premise that effective learning occurs when the senses are stimulated (Laird, 1985). Laird quotes research that found that the vast majority of knowledge held by adults (75%) is learned through seeing. Hearing is the next most effective (about 13%) and the other senses - touch, smell and taste account for 12% of what we know. By stimulating the senses, especially the visual sense, learning can be enhanced. However, this theory says that if multi-senses are stimulated, greater learning takes place. Stimulation through the senses is achieved through a greater variety of colours, volume levels, strong statements, facts presented visually, use of a variety of techniques and media.

Reinforcement theoryThis theory was developed by the behaviorist school of psychology, notably by B.F. Skinner earlier this century (Laird 1985, Burns 1995). Skinner believed that behavior is a function of its consequences. The learner will repeat the desired behavior if positive reinforcement (a pleasant consequence) follows the behavior.

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Positive reinforcement, or 'rewards' can include verbal reinforcement such as 'That's great' or 'You're certainly on the right track' through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at the end of the course or promotion to a higher level in an organization.

Negative reinforcement also strengthens a behavior and refers to a situation when a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behavior. Punishment, on the other hand, weakens a behavior because a negative condition is introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behavior and teaches the individual not to repeat the behavior which was negatively reinforced. A set of conditions is created which are designed to eliminate behavior (Burns, 1995, p.108). Laird considers this aspect of behaviorism has little or no relevance to education. However, Burns says that punishment is widely used in everyday life although it only works for a short time and often only when the punishing agency is present.

Burns notes that much Competency Based Training is based on this theory, and although it is useful in learning repetitive tasks like multiplication tables and those work skills that require a great deal of practice, higher order learning is not involved. There is criticism of this approach that it is rigid and mechanical.

Cognitive-Gestalt approachesThe emphasis here is on the importance of experience, meaning, problem-solving and the development of insights (Burns 1995, p.112). Burns notes that this theory has developed the concept that individuals have different needs and concerns at different times, and that they have subjective interpretations in different contexts.

Holistic learning theoryThe basic premise of this theory is that the 'individual personality consists of many elements ... specifically ... the intellect, emotions, the body impulse (or desire), intuition and imagination (Laird, 1985, p.121) that all require activation if learning is to be more effective.

Facilitation theory (The Humanist approach)Carl Rogers and others have developed the theory of facilitative learning. The basic premise of this theory is that learning will occur by the educator acting as a facilitator, that is by establishing an atmosphere in which learners feel comfortable to consider new ideas and are not threatened by external factors (Laird 1985.)

Other characteristics of this theory include:

A belief that human beings have a natural eagerness to learn, There is some resistance to, and unpleasant consequences of, giving up what is currently

held to be true, The most significant learning involves changing one's concept of oneself.

Facilitative teachers are:

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Less protective of their constructs and beliefs than other teachers, More able to listen to learners, especially to their feelings, Inclined to pay as much attention to their relationship with learners as to the content of

the course, Apt to accept feedback, both positive and negative and to use it as constructive insight

into themselves and their behavior.

Learners:

Are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning, Provide much of the input for the learning which occurs through their insights and

experiences, Are encouraged to consider that the most valuable evaluation is self-evaluation and that

learning needs to focus on factors that contribute to solving significant problems or achieving significant results.

Experiential learningKolb proposed a four-stage learning process with a model that is often referred to in describing experiential learning (McGill & Beaty 1995). The process can begin at any of the stages and is continuous, ie there is no limit to the number of cycles you can make in a learning situation. This theory asserts that without reflection we would simply continue to repeat our mistakes. The experiential learning cycle:

(Brooks 1995, p.66)

Kolb's research found that people learn in four ways with the likelihood of developing one mode of learning more than another. As shown in the 'experiential learning cycle' model above, learning is:

through concrete experience through observation and reflection through abstract conceptualization

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through active experimentation

Action LearningAction Learning is the approach that links the world of learning with the world of action through a reflective process within small cooperative learning groups known as 'action learning sets' (McGill & Beaty 1995). The 'sets' meet regularly to work on individual members' real-life issues with the aim of learning with and from each other. The 'father' of Action Learning, Reg Revans, has said that there can be no learning without action and no (sober and deliberate) action without learning.

Revans argued that learning can be shown by the following equation, where L is learning; P is programmed knowledge (eg traditional instruction) and Q is questioning insight.

L = P + Q

Revans, along with many others who have used, researched and taught about this approach, argued that Action Learning is ideal for finding solutions to problems that do not have a 'right' answer because the necessary questioning insight can be facilitated by people learning with and from each other in action learning 'sets'.

Adult Learning (Andragogy)Malcolm Knowles (1978, 1990) is the theorist who brought the concept of adult learning to the fore. He has argued that adulthood has arrived when people behave in adult ways and believe themselves to be adults. Then they should be treated as adults. He taught that adult learning was special in a number of ways. For example:

Adult learners bring a great deal of experience to the learning environment. Educators can use this as a resource.

Adults expect to have a high degree of influence on what they are to be educated for, and how they are to be educated.

The active participation of learners should be encouraged in designing and implementing educational programs.

Adults need to be able to see applications for new learning. Adult learners expect to have a high degree of influence on how learning will be

evaluated. Adults expect their responses to be acted upon when asked for feedback on the progress

of the program.

By adulthood people are self-directing. This is the concept that lies at the heart of andragogy ... andragogy is therefore student-centered, experience-based, problem-oriented and collaborative very much in the spirit of the humanist approach to learning and education ... the whole educational activity turns on the student. Burns (1995, p.233)

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Learning Theories and Models

ACT-R (John Anderson)

Adult Learning Theory (P. Cross)

Algo-Heuristic Theory (L. Landa)

Andragogy (Malcolm Knowles)

Anchored Instruction (John Bransford)

Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (L. Cronbach & R. Snow)

Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (L. Festinger)

Cognitive Flexibility Theory (R. Spiro)

Cognitive Load Theory (J. Sweller)

Component Display Theory (M. David Merrill)

Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne)

Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)

Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner)

Contiguity Theory (Edwin Guthrie)

Conversation Theory (Gordon

Information Pickup Theory (J.J. Gibson)

Information Processing Theory (G.A. Miller)

Lateral Thinking (E. DeBono)

Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart)

Mathematical Learning Theory (R.C. Atkinson)

Mathematical Problem Solving (A. Schoenfeld)

Minimalism (J. M. Carroll)

Model Centered Instruction and Design Layering(Andrew Gibbons)

Modes of Learning (D. Rumelhart & D. Norman)

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

Originality (I. Maltzman)

Phenomenonography (F. Marton & N. Entwistle)

Repair Theory (K. VanLehn)

Script Theory (Roger Schank)

Sign Theory (E. Tolman)

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Pask)

Criterion Referenced Instruction (Robert Mager)

Double Loop Learning (C. Argyris)

Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull)

Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio)

Elaboration Theory (C. Reigeluth)

Experiential Learning (C. Rogers)

Functional Context Theory (Tom Sticht)

Genetic Epistemology (J. Piaget)

Gestalt Theory (M. Wertheimer)

GOMS (Card, Moran & Newell)

General Problem Solver (A. Newell & H. Simon)

Situated Learning (J. Lave)

Soar (A. Newell et al.)

Social Development (L. Vygotsky)

Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura)

Stimulus Sampling Theory (W. Estes)

Structural Learning Theory (J. Scandura)

Structure of Intellect (J. Guilford)

Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)

Symbol Systems (G. Salomon)

Triarchic Theory (R. Sternberg)

Transformational Theory (J. Mezirow)

Experiential Learning (Carl Rogers)Rogers distinguished two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and experiential (significant). The former corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables and the latter refers to applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order to repair a car. The key to the distinction is that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner. Rogers lists these qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement, self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and pervasive effects on learner.

To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This includes: (1) setting a positive climate for learning, (2) clarifying the purposes of the learner(s), (3) organizing and making available learning resources, (4) balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning, and (5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.

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According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when: (1) the student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction, (2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems, and (3) self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success. Rogers< also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change.

Roger's theory of learning evolved as part of the humanistic education movement (e.g., Patterson, 1973; Valett, 1977).

Principles1. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the

personal interests of the student2. Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives)

are more easily assimilated when external threats are at a minimum3. Learning proceeds faster when the threat to the self is low4. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive

ApplicationRoger's theory of learning originates from his views about psychotherapy and humanistic approach to psychology. It applies primarily to adult learners and has influenced other theories of adult learning such as Knowles and Cross. Combs (1982) examines the significance of Roger's work to education. Rogers & Frieberg (1994) discuss applications of the experiential learning framework to the classroom.

A person interested in becoming rich might seek out books or classes on ecomomics, investment, great financiers, banking, etc. Such an individual would perceive (and learn) any information provided on this subject in a much different fashion than a person who is assigned a reading or class.

Advantages and DisadvantagesAdvantages

Excellent way to incorporate differentiated instruction into a classroom Students will learn more when they are challenged and have to think about the process Students can cater the learning process to their own needs and learning preferences Teaching strategy is effective for all students, regardless of their ability level

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Disadvantages

In order to develop a purposeful and differentiated lesson, the teacher needs time to develop the different elements

Takes careful planning, which takes time Experiential method takes time to perform in the classroom Can cost money to expose students to constant hands on learning

Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull)Hull developed a version of behaviorism in which the stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S. In other words, Hull was interested in studying intervening variables that affected behavior such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior training (habit strength). Like other forms of behavior theory, reinforcement is the primary factor that determines learning. However, in Hull's theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction plays a much more important role in behavior than in other frameworks (i.e., connectionism, operant conditioning).

Hull's theoretical framework consisted of many postulates stated in mathematical form; they include:

(1) Organisms possess a hierarchy of needs which are aroused under conditions of stimulation and drive

(2) Habit strength increases with activities that are associated with primary or secondary reinforcement

(3) Habit strength aroused by a stimulus other than the one originally conditioned depends upon the closeness of the second stimulus in terms of discrimination thresholds

(4) Stimuli associated with the cessation of a response become conditioned inhibitors

(5) The more the effective reaction potential exceeds the reaction threshold, the shorter the latency of response.

As these postulates indicate, Hull proposed many types of variables that accounted for generalization, motivation, and variability (oscillation) in learning.

One of the most important concepts in Hull's theory was the habit strength hierarchy: for a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a specific response has a probability which can be changed by reward and is affected by various other variables (e.g. inhibition). In some respects, habit strength hierarchies resemble components of cognitive theories such as schema and production systems.

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Principles1. Drive is essential in order for responses to occur (i.e., the student must want to

learn).2. Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for

conditioning to occur ( i.e., the student must be attentive).3. Response must be made in order for conditioning to occur (i.e., the student

must be active).4. Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need (i.e, the

learning must satisfy the learner's wants).

ApplicationHull's theory is meant to be a general theory of learning. Most of the research underlying the theory was done with animals, except for Hull et al. (1940) which focused on verbal learning. Miller & Dollard (1941) represents an attempt to apply the theory to a broader range of learning phenomena. As an interesting aside, Hull began his career researching hypnosis – an area that landed him in some controversy at Yale (Hull, 1933).

Here is an example described by Miller & Dollard (1941): A six year old girl who is hungry and wants candy is told that there is candy hidden under one of the books in a bookcase. The girl begins to pull out books in a random manner until she finally finds the correct book (210 seconds). She is sent out of the room and a new piece of candy is hidden under the same book. In her next search, she is much more directed and finds the candy in 86 seconds. By the ninth repetition of this experiment, the girl finds the candy immediately (2 seconds). The girl exhibited a drive for the candy and looking under books represented her responses to reduce this drive. When she eventually found the correct book, this particular response was rewarded, forming a habit. On subsequent trials, the strength of this habit was increased until it became a single stimulus-response connection in this setting.


Human advancement and our very survival could be attributed to drive theory It leads man to explore and to discover All our actions can be related back to this theory The drive to learn and to be knowledgeable leads students to study hard and achieve high

marks in exams

Disadvantages

Being Over-Driven Is Not Always Beneficial more stress actually produces worse performance.

Drive theory simply fails to explain why humans do things which put them into a stressed or unfulfilled state

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Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro, Feltovitch & Coulson)Cognitive flexibility theory focuses on the nature of learning in complex and ill-structured domains. Spiro & Jehng (1990, p. 165) state: "By cognitive flexibility, we mean the ability to spontaneously restructure one's knowledge, in many ways, in adaptive response to radically changing situational demands...This is a function of both the way knowledge is represented (e.g., along multiple rather single conceptual dimensions) and the processes that operate on those mental representations (e.g., processes of schema assembly rather than intact schema retrieval)."

The theory is largely concerned with transfer of knowledge and skills beyond their initial learning situation. For this reason, emphasis is placed upon the presentation of information from multiple perspectives and use of many case studies that present diverse examples. The theory also asserts that effective learning is context-dependent, so instruction needs to be very specific. In addition, the theory stresses the importance of constructed knowledge; learners must be given an opportunity to develop their own representations of information in order to properly learn.

Principles1. Learning activities must provide multiple representations of content.2. Instructional materials should avoid oversimplifying the content domain and

support context-dependent knowledge.3. Instruction should be case-based and emphasize knowledge construction, not

transmission of information.4. Knowledge sources should be highly interconnected rather than

compartmentalized

ApplicationCognitive flexibility theory is especially formulated to support the use of interactive technology (e.g., videodisc, hypertext). Its primary applications have been literary comprehension, history, biology and medicine.

Jonassen, Ambruso & Olesen (1992) describe an application of cognitive flexibility theory to the design of a hypertext program on transfusion medicine. The program provides a number of different clinical cases which students must diagnose and treat using various sources of information available (including advice from experts). The learning environment presents multiple perspectives on the content, is complex and ill-defined, and emphasizes the construction of knowledge by the learner.


Easy for people to understand and appreciate Looking at information makes sense to most people Teachers can organize activities that will help students learn

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Students benefit because learning will be fun, but they will also be learning more because teaching is designed to enhance learning

Disadvantages

Involves very frequent assessment of the student's learning and retention Designing learning activities that address the evolving educational needs and stages of

the student Entailing a great deal of time, effort, recordkeeping, and flexibility in adjusting lesson

plans. Not suited for large scale implementation

Transformative Learning (Jack Mezirow)The Transformational Learning Theory originally developed by Jack Mezirow is described as being “constructivist, an orientation which holds that the way learners interpret and reinterpret their sense experience is, central to making meaning and hence learning” (Mezirow, 1991). The theory has two basic kinds of learning: instrumental and communicative learning. Instrumental learning focuses on learning through task-oriented problem solving and determination of cause and effect relationships. Communicative learning involves how individuals communicate their feelings, needs and desires

Meaning structures (perspectives and schemes) are a major component of the theory. Meaning perspectives are defined as “broad sets of predispositions resulting from psychocultural assumptions which determine the horizons of our expectations” (Mezirow, 1991). They are divided into 3 sets of codes: sociolinguistic codes, psychological codes, and epistemic codes. A meaning scheme is “the constellation of concept, belief, judgment, and feelings which shapes a particular interpretation” (Mezirow, 1994, 223).

Meaning structures are understood and developed through reflection. Mezirow states that “reflection involves a critique of assumptions to determine whether the belief, often acquired through cultural assimilation in childhood, remains functional for us as adults” (Mezirow, 1991). Reflection is similar to problem solving and Mezirow talks about how we “reflect on the content of the problem, the process of problem-solving, or the premise of the problem” (Mezirow, 1991). Through this reflection we are able to understand ourselves more and then understand our learning better. Merizow also proposed that there are four ways of learning. They are “by refining or elaborating our meaning schemes, learning new meaning schemes, transforming meaning schemes, and transforming meaning perspectives” (Mezirow, 1991).

Mezirow’s original theory has been elaborated upon by others, most notably Cranton (1994;1997) and Boyd (1991). The theory has commonalities with other theories of adult learning such as andragogy (Knowles), experiential learning (Rogers), and Cross.

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Principles1. Adult exhibit two kinds of learning: instrumental (e.g., cause/effect) and

communicative (e.g., feelings)2. Learning involves change to meaning structures (perspectives and schemes).3. Change to meaning structures occurs through reflection about content, process

or premises.4. Learning can involve: refining/elaborating meaning schemes, learning new

schemes, transforming schemes, or transforming perspectives.

ApplicationTransformative Learning theory is focused on adult learning, particularly in the context of post-secondary education (e.g., Craig et al., 2001; King, 2002). Taylor< (2007) provides a summary of research studies about the theory.

Applying transformative theory to curriculum evaluation, one looks for evidence of critical reflection in terms of content, process and premise. Content reflection consists of curricular mapping from student and faculty perspectives; process reflection focuses on best practices, literature-based indicators and self-efficacy measures; premise reflection would consider both content and process reflection to develop recommendations.


Powerful potential for enhancing and accelerating students self-actualization process Encourage students to reflect on and share their feelings and thoughts in class Help students question reality in ways that promote shifts in their worldview Instructors and students are empathetic and good listeners, and are willing to search for

common ground or a synthesis of different points of view

Disadvantages

Instructors are advised to consider ethical questions which may arise in the planning and delivery of transformational learning

Dynamics and the balance of power in the classroom Frequently elicits emotional responses from both student and instructor. Have sufficient maturity to deal with paradigm shifts and material which differs from

their current beliefs

Subsumption Theory (David Ausubel)Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of

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superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers:

"These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure." (1963 p. 81).

Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Ausubel's theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that involve schema (e.g., Bartlett ) as a central principle. There are also similarities with Bruner's "spiral learning" model , although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive development.

Principles1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then

progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with

previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

ApplicationAusubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of advance organizers in learning (see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).

Ausubel (1963, p. 80) cites Boyd's textbook of pathology as an example of progressive differentiation because the book presents information according to general processes (e.g., inflammation, degeneration) rather than by describing organ systems in isolation. He also cites

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the Physical Science Study Committee curriculum which organizes material according to the major ideas of physics instead of piece-meal discussion of principle or phenomenon (p. 78).


Connecting information with previous experience to learn better Building a bigger structure in student mind Contextualizing information rather than giving lists of pieces to be memorized Ausubels theory helps make sense of human forgetting

Disadvantages

Context needs to be familiar to the student and must be able relate to past experience to understand

Memorized information that do not connect does not resonate or become a part of the structure in student mind

Brain filters out any information which isn’t necessary because it is redundant

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational learning are

(1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement)

(2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal)

(3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback

(4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

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Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the strictly behavioral interpretation of modeling provided by Miller & Dollard (1941).

Principles1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.

3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

ApplicationSocial learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1993).

The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.


Easily handles inconsistencies in behavior Optimistic, in a good way Accurate picture explaining how behavior is learned Offers a way to integrate social and cognitive theories Allows and accounts for cognitive processes Explains a large number of behaviors Accurate and easy to understand

Disadvantages

Too heavy of an emphasis on what happens instead of what the observer does with what happens

Does not take into account physical and mental changes Doesn’t explain all behavior

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Doesn’t explain behavioral differences Doesn’t take in account that what one person views as punishment, another person may

view as a reward

Conclusion Although the process of learning is generally complex it is not entirely unpredictable, and its genuine importance to human culture and the advancement of technology and life makes it a most worthy subject of study. This assignment has provided a brief introduction to just some of the more influential general learning theories. It is important to remember that each has its critics and adherents. By looking at many theories of learning it seems that teachers and the students will get a better understanding of human learning processes by considering and understanding a wide range of learning theories and their relevance in different contexts rather than by holding rigidly to any one theory. From among all these theories there does not seem to be even one that is both broad enough to account for all types of learning, and yet specific enough to be maximally useful in practical application.

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objective of this assignment is to write a descriptive essay on six theories of learning and their...

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