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OCR GCSE Geography B Chapter 1 Rivers and coasts

©OwnedbyorunderlicencetoPearsonEducationLtd2009 1

Rivers and coastsChapter overviewThe aim of this chapter is to give students an opportunity to develop an understanding of:

How systems ideas help us to understand •physical processes that operate in a river basin.

How river fl ooding illustrates the interaction •between natural processes and human activity.

What processes and factors are responsible for •distinctive landforms within a river basin?

What processes and factors are responsible for •distinctive coastal landforms?

Why the management of coastlines is •increasingly important.

Activity sheets1.1 The river system – part of the hydrological cycle

This activity helps build up students’ knowledge and understanding of the hydrological cycle and how the river system is affected by changes in inputs, throughputs and outputs.

1.2 Drainage basins

Students label the features of a drainage basin and then analyse the Tees drainage basin to identify relationships between such factors as height above sea level, amount of precipitation and the average fl ow of the river.

1.3 river channel processes

In this activity students analyse data collected at four sites along a river as well as a short piece of descriptive text. Students use the data to construct a graph, which they then analyse to develop further understanding between changes along the course of a river system.

1.4 The upper course of a river

Students complete an activity to show the formation of a v-shaped valley. They then investigate the formation of waterfalls and gorges. The last activity could be used as an extension or homework task. It requires internet access.

1.5 The lower course of a river

Students investigate the formation of meanders and complete a diagram to show the cross-section of a meander based on data provided on the activity sheet.

1.6 flood (storm) hydrographs

Students complete activities based on hydrograph data. The fi nal activity provides a link to fl oods and fl ooding. You may wish to ensure students are clear on the different parts of the hydrograph: students could be asked to explain what is meant by rising limb, falling limb and lag time and to suggest why the rising limb is steeper than the falling limb.

1.7 reducing the threat of river flooding

In this activity students read a short extract and then analyse different fl ood engineering methods. There are opportunities to develop students’ understanding of sustainable methods of dealing with fl ooding.

1.8 flash flooding: boscastle 2004

Here students are provided with data and photo analysis that supports the Boscastle fl ood case study on pages 18–21 of the Student Book. The fi nal activity on the sheet could be used as an extension/research task. It requires internet access.

1.9 Causes and effects of river flooding

Students read and answer questions on a text extract about fl ooding events in Shrewsbury. The table on this activity sheet could be used for analysis of other fl ooding events if further examples were required. The second and third activities require internet access.

1.10 flooding in bangladesh

This activity helps students to understand that fl ooding is often a result of both natural and human factors. It then considers the effects of fl ooding on one of the poorest countries in the world.

1.11 reducing the threat of flooding in bangladesh

Pages 22–25 of the Student Book feature a case study on fl ooding in Bangladesh and responses

Chapter 1 Rivers and coasts OCR GCSE Geography B

2 ©OwnedbyorunderlicencetoPearsonEducationLtd2009

to it. These two activity sheets (1.10 and 1.11)both support this case study work, with students investigating a photo and text extracts to deepen their understanding of the issues involved and the possibilities for flood management. The extracts come from Practical Action and represent smaller-scale, sustainable flood management strategies.

1.12 Sustainable flood management

In activity sheet 1.12, students are provided with a detailed source of information about flood management techniques in the Tees drainage basin. This activity links back to earlier work on the river system and could form a good plenary activity to link together the various aspects of the river system theme.

1.13 The coast – a multi-use area

This activity supports the Student Book pages 30–31 and introduces the idea of the coast as a multi-resource area and the conflicts that this might create.

1.14 Coastal processes

This activity supports the coverage of processes of erosion and the influence of geology on coastal features provided in the Student Book pages 32–33. NB there is a photo on page 33 (top) that could help students complete the activity about Lulworth Cove.

1.15 Destructive coastlines

Activity sheet 1.15 supports the Student Book’s coverage of destructive coastlines on pages 34–35.

1.16 Constructive coastlines

Activity sheet 1.16 provides students with a data response task and an activity in which they label features of a constructive coastline. These tasks support the Student Book coverage on pages 36–37.

1.17 Protecting coastal environments

The example of Blakeney Point National Nature Reserve is given here, one of the largest areas of protected coastal wetlands in Europe. Students consider what makes it a popular resource and why it might be important to protect such areas.

1.18 The coastline – a barrier to flooding?

This activity starts by asking students to consider why development and increased flood risk might be linked, and then moves on to introduce the idea of undeveloped coastlines providing a natural defence against coastal flooding.

1.19 Managed retreat

Students think through the possible advantages and disadvantages of managed retreat as a coastal management strategy. This activity supports page 48 of the Student Book.

1.20 The rapid erosion of soft coastlines

This activity starts by asking students to draw a sketch of a clay coastline from the photograph provided, identifying the distinctive features of this type of coast. Then students complete a map to show the expected erosion of the coastline at Happisburgh (Norfolk) over the next 100 years, and consider the implications of either protecting or not protecting this coastline from the sea.

1.21 Protecting the coastline – hard engineering

Here students read a statement from a coastal engineer about the benefits and costs of hard engineering, and then apply their knowledge of hard engineering techniques in a task that follows.

1.22 Protecting the coastline – soft engineering

This activity provides the example of Sugar Cove, Honolulu, where a beach replenishment scheme has, since the 1990s, pumped material up from the seabed and shaped it to form a natural, gently sloping beach. Students consider the scheme and relate it to other types of coastline protection.



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et1

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des

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ples

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ood

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neer

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tude

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Thi

sev

alua

tion

cou

ldb

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tend

ed

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ctic

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tis

also

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side

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inth

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uden

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k.Th

eSt

uden

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kM

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case

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cast

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ages

18–

19),

and

this

•

isfo

llow

edu

pon

pag

es2

0–21

by

‘Res

pond

ing

toth

e20

04B

osca

stle

flo

od’,

whi

chc

over

sth

eflo

odp

rote

ctio

nm

easu

res

brou

ghti

nsi

nce

2004

.Th

eSt

uden

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kLE

DC

case

stu

dyis

on

Ban

glad

esh

(pag

es2

2–23

)and

•

page

s24

–25

are

abou

tres

pond

ing

toth

eflo

odh

azar

d.B

oth

case

stu

dies

are

sup

port

eda

nde

xten

ded

bya

ctiv

ity

shee

ts1

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•

1.11

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each

CD

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inni

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;Flo

odin

gin

B

angl

ades

h



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den

t B

oo

k p

age

nu

mb

ers

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den

t B

oo

k sp

read

ti

tle

OC

R S

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ifica

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n B

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er G

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e

acti

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sh

eets

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hin

g n

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sEl

ectr

on

ic

reso

urc

es

26–2

7W

hya

re

exis

ting

floo

dde

fenc

est

rate

gies

un

sust

aina

ble?

How

doe

sri

ver

flood

ing

illus

trat

eth

ein

tera

ctio

nbe

twee

nna

tura

lpro

cess

esa

nd

hum

ana

ctiv

ity?

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hmen

tFlo

odM

anag

emen

tPl

ans

(CFM

P)

The

Tham

esR

egio

nCF

MP

The

spre

adlo

oks

atC

atch

men

tFlo

odM

anag

emen

tPla

ns(C

FMPs

),w

hich

•

seto

utth

est

rate

gies

tore

duce

floo

dri

sks

ina

rive

rbas

ino

vert

hen

ext

50–1

00y

ears

.Th

eem

phas

iso

nth

est

udy

ofth

eTh

ames

Reg

ion

CFM

Pis

one

way

to

•m

ake

the

man

agem

ento

fthe

rive

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inin

crea

sing

lys

usta

inab

le.

Stud

ents

cou

ldre

ferb

ack

toth

ew

ork

they

did

att

hes

tart

oft

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pic

on

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odri

sks

and

judg

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ws

ucce

ssfu

llyth

eTh

ames

Reg

ion

CFM

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ight

ta

ckle

hig

h-ri

skfl

ood

issu

es.

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wor

kca

nbe

ext

ende

dus

ing

acti

vity

she

et1

.12

ons

usta

inab

lefl

ood

•m

anag

emen

t.

28–2

9Sh

ould

we

cont

inue

to

build

on

flood

pl

ains

?

How

doe

sri

ver

flood

ing

illus

trat

eth

ein

tera

ctio

nbe

twee

nna

tura

lpro

cess

esa

nd

hum

ana

ctiv

ity?

Dec

isio

nM

akin

gEx

erci

se

The

2007

sum

mer

floo

ds(U

K)

Tham

esG

atew

ayd

evel

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ent

Appl

icat

ion

ofu

nder

stan

ding

tom

ake

anin

form

edd

ecis

ion

onth

em

ost

•ap

prop

riat

em

anag

emen

tsch

eme

tou

se.

The

mat

eria

lin

the

Stud

entB

ook

and

onth

eAc

tive

Boo

kCD

-RO

Mc

ould

•

befu

rthe

renh

ance

dw

ith

OS

map

ext

ract

san

dus

eof

ICT

tov

iew

the

Tham

esG

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aya

rea.

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seb

uild

ing

and

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lans

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ecte

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ksc

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asu

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lity

and

toe

cono

mic

dev

elop

men

tvia

the

need

top

rovi

de

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ing

seta

gain

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essu

res

onth

eec

onom

yas

are

sult

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loba

lan

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mes

tic

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omic

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ses.

Act

iveT

each

CD

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MAn

imat

ion:

Dec

isio

nM

akin

gEx

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seo

nflo

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reve

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n

30–3

1W

hyis

the

coas

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led

am

ulti

-use

re

sour

ce?

Why

isth

em

anag

emen

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coas

tlin

esim

port

ant?

The

coas

tas

am

ulti

-use

re

sour

ce

Sole

ntc

oast

as

ane

xam

ple

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Stud

entB

ook

star

tso

ffc

over

age

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alto

pics

wit

ha

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nsid

erat

ion

ofth

eco

asta

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mul

ti-u

sere

sour

ce.T

his

help

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ing

toge

ther

the

hum

ana

ndp

hysi

cala

spec

tso

fthe

topi

car

eaa

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uts

the

issu

eof

coa

stal

man

agem

enta

nds

usta

inab

ility

cen

tre-

stag

e.Th

isa

ppro

ach

iss

uppo

rted

by

acti

vity

she

et1

.13.

•

32–3

3H

owa

re

coas

tss

hape

dby

phy

sica

lpr

oces

ses?

Wha

tpro

cess

esa

nd

fact

ors

are

resp

onsi

ble

ford

isti

ncti

vec

oast

al

land

form

s?

The

coas

tals

yste

m

Eros

ion

and

wea

ther

ing

The

impa

cto

fgeo

logy

Itis

key

tog

eta

cros

san

app

reci

atio

nth

atth

eco

astl

ine

isc

onst

antl

y•

chan

ging

.M

ake

the

link

betw

een

the

rive

rsys

tem

and

the

coas

tals

yste

m;i

tmay

•

beu

sefu

lto

cons

ider

the

proc

esse

sof

ero

sion

inth

atc

onte

xt.

The

Stud

entB

ook

wor

ksth

roug

hth

eer

osio

nan

dw

eath

erin

gpr

oces

ses

•an

dth

eim

pact

ofg

eolo

gya

sa

prec

urso

rto

the

land

form

sof

des

truc

tive

an

dco

nstr

ucti

vec

oast

lines

.Th

eex

ampl

eof

Lul

wor

thC

ove

and

Wor

barr

owB

ayis

sup

port

edb

y•

acti

vity

she

et1

.14.



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den

t B

oo

k p

age

nu

mb

ers

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den

t B

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k sp

read

ti

tle

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R S

pec

ifica

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n B

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nt

of

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den

t B

oo

k an

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each

er G

uid

e

acti

vity

sh

eets

Teac

hin

g n

ote

sEl

ectr

on

ic

reso

urc

es

34–3

5W

hat

land

form

sar

eas

soci

ated

w

ith

dest

ruct

ive

coas

tlin

es?

Wha

tpro

cess

esa

nd

fact

ors

are

resp

onsi

ble

ford

isti

ncti

vec

oast

al

land

form

s?

Why

som

eco

astl

ines

are

de

scri

bed

as‘d

estr

ucti

ve’

Hea

dlan

ds

Land

slid

es

Rec

apo

nty

pes

ofe

rosi

ona

sa

star

ter.

•D

iscu

ssd

iffer

enti

ale

rosi

on;h

owg

eolo

gyin

fluen

ces

rate

sof

ero

sion

.•

Asw

ella

sus

ing

the

diag

ram

son

Stu

dent

Boo

kpa

ge3

4,a

nim

atio

ns

•co

uld

beu

sed

tos

how

how

ah

eadl

and

ise

rode

dto

form

an

umbe

rof

dist

inct

ive

feat

ures

,hig

hlig

htin

gth

ese

quen

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ndp

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sses

invo

lved

.Th

isw

ork

coul

dth

enb

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nsol

idat

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ith

acti

vity

she

et1

.15.

Aeri

alp

hoto

grap

hs/O

Sm

aps

coul

dbe

use

dto

iden

tify

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sion

al

•fe

atur

esa

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ctfu

ture

cha

nges

toc

oast

lines

.Po

ssib

lefi

eldw

ork

acti

viti

esa

rea

ssoc

iate

dw

ith

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topi

c.•

Act

iveT

each

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MAn

imat

ions

:D

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orm

36–3

7W

hya

res

oft

coas

tlin

es

vuln

erab

leto

ra

pid

eros

ion?

Why

isth

em

anag

emen

tof

coas

tlin

esim

port

ant?

Exam

ples

ofc

oast

lines

vu

lner

able

tora

pid

eros

ion

Exam

ple

ofH

appi

sbur

gh

(Nor

folk

)

Forl

andf

orm

sas

soci

ated

wit

hle

ssre

sist

antr

ocks

,you

cou

ldu

se

•ph

otog

raph

sof

an

area

that

has

suf

fere

dre

cent

rapi

der

osio

n.S

tude

nts

coul

dus

ea

vari

ety

ofs

ourc

es(s

uch

asa

geo

logi

calm

ap,O

Sm

ap,

rele

vant

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ther

info

rmat

ion

and

new

spap

era

rtic

les)

tow

ork

out‘

Wha

tha

ppen

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ere?

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Stu

dent

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kpr

ovid

ess

ome

info

rmat

ion

onth

ela

rge

land

slid

eat

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eR

egis

,Dor

set(

page

35)

,and

abo

utH

appi

sbur

gh,

nort

hN

orfo

lk(p

age

37).

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ible

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kac

tivi

ties

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ass

ocia

ted

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hth

isto

pic.

•

Act

iveT

each

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MAn

imat

ion:

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mpi

ng

38–4

1H

owa

re

coas

tal

land

form

scr

eate

dby

de

posi

tion

?

Wha

tpro

cess

esa

nd

fact

ors

are

resp

onsi

ble

ford

isti

ncti

vec

oast

al

land

form

s?

Why

som

eco

astl

ines

are

de

scri

bed

as‘c

onst

ruct

ive’

Cons

truc

tive

wav

es,l

ongs

hore

dr

ift,s

pits

,bar

san

dto

mbo

los

You

coul

dus

eph

otos

ofb

each

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oma

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orld

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ffer

ent

•si

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aves

and

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cuss

pos

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sin

fluen

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ssfa

ctor

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ata

ffec

tthe

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ght/

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ero

fwav

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tude

nts

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to

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ech

arac

teri

stic

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the

two

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ety

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stru

ctiv

ean

dde

stru

ctiv

e;th

ere

are

diag

ram

son

Stu

dent

Boo

kpa

ges

34a

nd3

8to

he

lpw

ith

this

.Ex

plai

nth

epr

oces

sof

long

shor

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iftu

sing

ann

otat

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iagr

ams

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•

page

38

inth

eSt

uden

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k).A

ctiv

ity

shee

t1.1

6pr

ovid

esa

dat

aan

alys

isa

ctiv

ity

fort

his

topi

c.St

uden

tsc

ould

des

ign

ane

xper

imen

tto

test

fort

hee

xist

ence

of

•lo

ngsh

ore

drift

and

mea

sure

its

spee

dan

ddi

rect

ion

ona

bea

ch.I

fyou

ha

vea

cces

sto

the

Acti

veTe

ach

CD-R

OM

,you

cou

ldu

sea

sim

ulat

ion

acti

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tos

etth

ista

sku

p.Th

eSt

uden

tBoo

kus

esin

form

atio

nab

outt

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of

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cont

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astl

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it.

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Stud

entB

ook

case

stu

dyo

fBla

kene

yPo

int,

Nor

folk

(pag

es4

0–41

)•

cons

ider

sw

hyc

onst

ruct

ive

coas

tala

reas

are

val

uabl

een

viro

nmen

ts.

Acti

vity

she

et1

.17

onp

rote

ctin

gco

asta

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iron

men

tsc

anb

eus

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r•

furt

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ork

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isto

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iveT

each

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MAn

imat

ions

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rmat

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cate

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est

udy



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ifica

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sEl

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on

ic

reso

urc

es

42–4

3H

owd

oes

the

coas

tlin

epr

ovid

ea

natu

ral

defe

nce

agai

nst

flood

ing?

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isth

em

anag

emen

tof

coas

tlin

esim

port

ant?

The

role

ofc

oast

alv

eget

atio

nin

redu

cing

coa

stal

floo

ding

The

impa

cto

nco

asta

lare

aso

fre

mov

ing

coas

talw

etla

nds

Dis

cuss

ion:

the

effe

cts

ofe

rosi

ona

ndfl

oodi

ngo

npe

ople

and

the

•en

viro

nmen

t.Th

iss

prea

din

the

Stud

entB

ook

look

sat

the

role

oft

hen

atur

al

•en

viro

nmen

tin

prot

ecti

ngc

oast

sfr

ome

rosi

on,a

ndth

eim

pact

oft

he

rem

oval

ofm

angr

ove

fore

sta

ndth

edr

aini

ngo

fsal

tmar

shes

on

coas

tal

flood

ing.

Acti

vity

she

et1

.18

build

son

this

con

tent

and

rais

esth

eis

sue

ofc

limat

e•

chan

gea

ndh

owit

mig

hta

ffec

tcoa

stal

def

ence

dec

isio

nsin

the

futu

re.

44–4

7W

hyis

ther

ean

incr

easi

ng

need

to

prot

ectc

oast

al

area

s?

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isth

em

anag

emen

tof

coas

tlin

esim

port

ant?

How

can

coa

stal

are

asb

epr

otec

ted?

Wha

tis

mea

ntb

y‘s

usta

inab

le

man

agem

ent’

?

The

Stud

entB

ook

intr

oduc

esh

ard

engi

neer

ing,

sof

teng

inee

ring

and

•

man

aged

retr

eat,

toge

ther

wit

hth

eco

ncep

tofs

usta

inab

lem

anag

emen

t.Th

eex

ampl

eof

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tBay

Coa

stal

Def

ence

Sch

eme

inD

orse

tis

give

n;it

•

coul

dbe

use

fulf

ors

tude

nts

toc

onsi

derw

hyh

ard

engi

neer

ing

ism

ost

appr

opri

ate

here

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eSt

uden

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kca

ses

tudy

ofP

even

sey

Bay

(pag

es4

6–47

)sho

ws

•st

uden

tsh

ows

ofte

ngin

eeri

ngm

etho

dsa

reb

eing

app

lied

ina

way

that

w

orks

wit

hth

ena

tura

lenv

iron

men

trat

hert

han

tryi

ngto

con

trol

it.T

he

pict

ures

on

this

spr

ead

give

av

ery

good

indi

cati

ono

fthe

sem

etho

dsin

ac

tion

.

Act

iveT

each

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-RO

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inni

ngg

lobe

to

loca

tec

ase

stud

y

48–4

9M

anag

ed

retr

eat:

a

sust

aina

ble

way

of

man

agin

gth

eco

ast?

Why

isth

em

anag

emen

tof

coas

tlin

esim

port

ant?

How

doe

sm

anag

edre

trea

tw

ork?

Man

aged

retr

eati

sa

key

conc

eptf

ors

tude

nts

toc

onsi

der,

and

itis

•

impo

rtan

tfor

them

tok

now

the

adva

ntag

esa

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isad

vant

ages

oft

his

met

hod

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alm

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1.1 The river system – part of the hydrological cycleThe hydrological cycle describes:

the transfer of water vapour from stores (oceans and lakes, etc.) into the atmosphere•

the return of water to the land by precipitation•

the transfer of water back to the original stores by surface and underground flow.•

Sea

Transpiration

Interception

Groundwaterstorage

Soil moisturestorage

Surfacerunoff

Through-flow

1 Complete the diagram above by adding the following words to the correct boxes.

PRECIPITATION LAKE INFILTRATION EVAPORATION

2 The river system is part of the hydrological cycle. It is made up of four parts:

INPuTS – water entering the system from the atmosphere

STORES – stores of water, often linked to the amount of rainfall

TRANSFERS – processes that move water through the system

OuTPuTS – where water is lost to the system.

Shade in the boxes above using different colours to make a key. using the appropriate colour, shade in the boxes on the diagram to show the inputs, stores, transfers and outputs.

3 How might the river system be changed by higher or lower rainfall?

4 How is the natural river system often adapted for human use?



1.2 Drainage basinsA drainage basin is the area of land drained by a river and its tributaries.

Sea

1 Complete the diagram by putting the correct words from the list below in the appropriate boxes:

source•

mouth•

estuary•

confluence•

tributary•

watershed.•

2 Explain the meaning of:

confluence•

watershed•

estuary.•

The source of the River Tees is Cross Fell, the highest point on the Pennine moorland at 893 m. The area receives over 2000 mm of precipitation a year. Infiltration rates are low, resulting in a wide area of saturated peat bog. Water drains out of the bog creating small streams.

0 10 km

N

Middleton

Barnard Castle

Croft

Darlington

Middlesbrough

North Sea

Yarm

Watershed

Cross Fell

Height (metres)Over 600301–600121–30061–1200–60

Key

The river meanders through a wide flood plain before reaching the estuary, where building development has taken place alongside the river. Embankments have been built to reduce the risk of flooding.

At its mouththe River Tees enters theNorth Sea.

Steep-sided valley with rapids and waterfall.

The River Tees is joined by hundredsof tributaries throughout its course.

The Tees has a wide tidal estuary with sandbanks and mudflats. Many of the natural features of the estuary have been adapted to suit the needs of heavy industry and shipping.

A

B

C

D

E

The above map shows the River Tees drainage basin in north-east England. The table below gives information about the drainage basin.

A B C D E

Heightabovesealevel(m) 840 226 126 42 4

Averageannualprecipitation(mm) 1980 1640 1240 1170 860

Averageflowofriver(cumecs) 2.5 7.8 13.8 17.2 18.4

Cumecs=cubicmetrespersecond.

3 a Draw a graph to show the long profile of the River Tees.

b Describe and explain the relationship between height and precipitation.

c Explain why the average rate of flow increases towards the sea.

4 Explain how changing one part of a drainage basin might affect other parts of the drainage basin.



1.3 River channel processesA group of students carried out an investigation about river processes. They walked along a river from its source, moving downstream towards the mouth of the river. The following observations and data were recorded.

ObServaTiOnS

‘As the river moved pebbles downstream they were constantly colliding with each other. At a bend in the river the force of the water was wearing away part of the riverbank. In some places material being carried by the river was grinding away the riverbed like sandpaper.’

‘The river looked quite powerful. It was moving quite large stones, some were being rolled along, others were being bounced along by the currents. A sample of river water was very cloudy and contained a lot of fine material.’

Data was collected at four sites along the river

Site Height above sea level (m)

Width of river (m)

Lengths of 10 randomly selected stones (mm)

1 262 2.4 42 11 15 36 22 9 31 18 7 26

2 198 3.7 28 12 8 14 1036 13 24 18 7

3 118 4.4 8 6 34 11 8 7 22 14 10 5

4 47 5.6 26 4 12 7 912 10 8 4 5

1 Identify and name three types of river erosion the students may have seen.

2 Identify and name three ways that material is being moved by this river.

3 What site did: a) the largest stone and b) the smallest stone come from?

4 What is the average length of stone at each site?

5 a Draw a graph to show the data collected about the stones in the river at each site.

use a different colour for each site.•

use a dot for each stone.•

Site 1 2 3 4

Colour

Key

Length of stone (mm)0 10 20 30 40 50

Site 1

Site 2

Site 3

Site 4

b Describe the pattern shown by the graph.

c Explain how the size and shape of stones on a riverbed change as the river moves downstream towards the sea.

6 River processes are often described using the following systems diagram:

EROSION → TRANSPORTATION → DEPOSITION

Explain this systems diagram.



1.4 The upper course of a riverErosion is the dominant force in the upper course of a river. This is because the valley is steeper and after heavy rainfall the river has a great amount of energy. Erosion of the bed of the river deepens the valley, creating an increasingly ‘v’-shaped valley.

1 a Draw a diagram like the one shown here.

b Add the following labels to your diagram:

rainfall percolation weathering of rock fragments slumping vertical erosion lateral erosion river.

c use your diagram to explain how the valley is deepened.

Waterfalls and gorges are usually found in the upper course of a river and are linked to changes in rock type along the course of a river. The diagram below is of High Force Waterfall on the River Tees.

Whinstone

Limestone and shale

Formerposition ofwaterfall

E

FB

A

D

C

2 Match the letters on the diagram with the statements below.

Riverflowsovermoreresistantrock

Plungepoolatbaseofwaterfall

Overhangeventuallycollapses

Softerrocksbehindwaterfalleroded

Bouldersfrompreviousrockfall

Waterfallretreats,formingagorge

3 Explain how the waterfall retreats back up the valley.

4 Explain how spectacular physical features like waterfalls can be an advantage to an area. use a spider diagram to organise and plan your ideas.

5 The Iguaçu Falls is one of the most spectacular waterfalls in the world. It is found on the borders of Brazil and Argentina and has become one of the most visited sites in South America. Find out more about the Iguaçu Falls at the Geographic Guide and Iguaçu Argentina websites.



1.5 The lower course of a riverIn its lower course a river is carrying large amounts of water and an increasingly large volume of fine material that has been eroded and transported throughout the course of the river. As the river flows over flatter land it develops bends, called meanders. Because the river has virtually reached its base level the dominant forces here are lateral (sideways) erosion and deposition.

1 The diagram shows a river meander.

a What is shown by the arrow on the diagram?

b Shade in and label the areas where you would expect:

lateral erosion•

deposition.•

c Explain why erosion and deposition might occur in the areas you have shaded.

d Describe and explain what is likely to happen at point A on the diagram.

2 A group of students investigating meanders on a river collected the following information about the width and depth of a river on a meander.

Distance from left-hand riverbank (m) Depth of river (cm)

0.5 100

1.0 90

2.0 80

3.0 65

4.0 45

5.0 20

6.0 5

0

1009080706050403020100

1 2 3Distance from left-hand riverbank (m)

Surface of river

Rive

r dep

th (c

m)

4 5 6

a use the students’ data to complete the cross-section of the river.

b Put the correct letter on the cross-section to show the following features.

A Fastestcurrent

B Slowestcurrent

C Erosion

D Deposition

E Rivercliff

A



1.6 Flood (storm) hydrographsThe amount of water flowing down a river is called the discharge. It is measured in cubic meters per second (cumecs) at different points along a river. A flood or storm hydrograph is used to show how the discharge of a river changes in response to rainfall.

The following information was taken from one point on a river over a nine-hour period.

Time 6–7 a.m.

7–8 a.m.

8–9 a.m.

9–10 a.m.

10–11 a.m.

11–12 12–1 p.m.

1–2 p.m.

2–3 p.m.

Rainfall(mm) 0 5 20 8 4 0 0 0 0

Discharge(cumecs) 10 12 18 54 46 38 32 22 12

6 a.m. 70

10

20

0

10

20

5

15

30

40

50

60

8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 p.m.Time

Dis

char

ge (c

umec

s)

Rainfall (mm

)

A

D E

C

B

2 All drainage basins respond to storms in different ways. Look at the following hydrographs and answer the questions. Give reasons for your answers.

a Which river (A or B) is in anurban area and which is in arural area?

b c Which river (E or F) drainsan area of forest and whichdrains open land?

A

B

C

D

F

E

Which river (C or D) is in agently sloping landscapeand which has steep valleysides?

3 Explain how hydrographs can be used to manage the threat of floods.

1 a use the information above to complete the hydrograph.

b Complete the following table by identifying the key points A, B and E on the hydrograph.

Peakrainfall

Peakdischarge

C Lagtime

D Risinglimb

Fallinglimb



1.7 Reducing the threat of river floodingThe threat of flooding can be reduced in a number of ways, including:

restricting the development of flood plains•

increasing the amount of permeable surfaces (sometimes called green surfaces)•

introducing flood engineering schemes.•

In the united Kingdom it is estimated that approximately 15% of all houses are built on flood plains. During the last 30 years there has been an increase in demand for riverside homes. Many urban areas have seen building development right up to the riverside. Planners estimate that 25% of all new homes built in the next 10 years will be built on flood plains. Some local authorities are trying to reduce house-building on flood plains or insisting that homes built in flood risk areas should be designed and built to withstand a flood.

1 a Read the boxed text above. Why has there been an increase in the development of riverside areas in towns and cities?

b How can the risk of flooding on floodplains be reduced?

2 a How can increasing the amount of permeable surfaces reduce the risk of flooding?

b How can the amount of permeable (green) surfaces be increased in urban areas?

BEFORE ENGINEERING

Tributary

River channels widenedFlood relief channelFlood embankments built

Main river

Built up area

3 The diagrams above show different flood engineering methods. For each flood engineering method:

a explain how it might reduce the risk of flooding

b consider the advantages and disadvantages of the method.

4 How can land use planning reduce the threat of urban flooding? Explain your answer.



1.8 Flash flooding: Boscastle 2004In August 2004 the Cornish village of Boscastle was devastated by flood water. Summer storms produced heavy rainfall which quickly flowed down the steep valleys towards Boscastle. The village, situated around the confluence of two rivers, was inundated by the fast flowing, rapidly rising rivers.

1 Write a brief definition of:

slow-onset flooding•

rapid-onset flooding•

flash flooding.•

2 a Suggest how the flood risk at Boscastle was a result of both physical and human factors.

b use the photo to describe the power of the flood and the potential impacts.

c using the table above draw a line graph (hydrograph) to show the discharge of the River Valency on the afternoon of 16 August 2004.

d use your graph to explain why the flood at Boscastle has been called a flash flood.

e Why are flash floods often considered to be the most dangerous type of flood?

3 using the photograph and your own knowledge suggest how the flood risk in places like Boscastle might be reduced. Find out more at the Met Office and the North Cornwall District Council websites.

Riverflow(discharge)–RiverValency(Boscastle,16August2004)

Time Discharge (cumecs)

12.00p.m. 1

1.00 2

2.00 6

3.00 24

4.00 55

5.00 94

6.00 106

7.00 58

8.00 12

(Source:MetOfficewebsite,CrownCopyright2004)



1.9 Causes and effects of river fl oodingFlooding can result from both physical factors and human changes to an environment. The worst fl oods are often the result of a combination of physical factors and human adaptations to the landscape that have increased the fl ood risk. The following article is about fl ooding in Shrewsbury in 2000.

Shrewsbury hit by worst fl oods in 50 years

The Shropshire town of Shrewsbury has been hit by a series of fl oods in recent weeks which have devastated the local area. The town nestles inside a large meander in the River Severn which makes it especially vulnerable to fl ooding. Development on the fl oodplain has put increasing areas of the town at risk of fl ooding and a number of roads and houses have been affected. At one time nearly all routes into the town were cut off. Rainfall levels have been exceptionally high for a number of weeks

and the ground had become saturated, making recreational areas alongside the river unusable. The catchment of the River Severn is made up of a number of steep sided valleys, resulting in high levels of surface runoff after heavy rainfall. This is made worse by the impermeable rock found in the area which does not allow rainfall to soak in easily. The recent fl oods have affected local schools and a number of car parks were completely submerged. For a short period the main railway line was fl ooded and access to the station impossible. The main shopping centre, although not fl ooded, was unable to get deliveries and suffered a signifi cant loss of trade.

1 use this table to help you analyse the Shrewsbury fl oods. Indicate the physical (P) and human (H) factors which increased the threat of fl ooding.

Causes of the fl ood

Effects of the fl ood

2 Explain how fl ooding can have both direct and indirect effects. Find out more at the BBC Shropshire website.

3 What lessons were learned in the 2000 fl ood? use the internet to fi nd out whether Shrewsbury has been affected by more recent fl oods.



1.10 Flooding in BangladeshBangladesh is a crowded, less economically developed country (LEDC) in South Asia that regularly suffers from both river and coastal flooding. Most of the 140 million people live close to rivers and the main towns and cities do not have adequate flood protection measures. A flood management expert said ‘with 80% of the country less than 2 m above sea level, a monsoon climate and annual snow melt from the Himalayas running into the hundreds of rivers that flow through Bangladesh, flooding is bound to happen’.

1 Explain how the flood threat is a result of both physical and human factors.

2 Describe the scene in the photograph and suggest how flooding in Dhaka might affect local people.

3 using the following extract to help you, explain how flooding in Bangladesh can have both short-term and long-term effects.

banglaDeSh’S inCreaSingly Severe STOrMS have lefT MilliOnS Of faMilieS TraPPeD in a DeSPeraTe CyCle Of POverTy anD STarvaTiOn

‘Five times I have had to abandon my home because of the floods.’ Amul Ali is just one of millions of people in Bangladesh whose lives have been devastated by the country’s relentless floods. A cycle of poverty and hunger traps Bangladeshi citizens after every flood. Crops fail, homes are destroyed and land is left barren. Families have no food, no means to grow any and often nowhere to sleep.

The 2004 disaster left 10 million people homeless, while dysentery and diarrhoea struck the most vulnerable – children and the elderly. Thousands lost their lives. August 2007’s crisis, meanwhile, wiped out over 65% of available safe clean water sources.

(Source: Practical Action)

During the last 50 years, eight extreme flood events have happened in Bangladesh. The most recent major river flood, in 2007, covered over half of the country and affected millions of people. Large parts of the capital city, Dhaka (as shown in the photograph), were under water for weeks.



1.11 Reducing the threat of flooding in BangladeshFlood management in Bangladesh operates at two different scales:

large-scale, expensive flood management programmes such as the Dhaka Integrated Flood •Protection Project, a uS $100 million engineering project

smaller-scale projects, often in more rural areas and funded by non-governmental organisations •(NGOs).

The following extract from the Practical Action charity’s website describes a project organised by the charity.

The fighT againST flOODing

In the past, flood victims were able – just – to survive until the land improved and farming was able to resume. A combination of self-help and emergency international aid saw them through. But in recent years more violent storms are striking more often, plunging the entire country into crisis.

Yet despite all this, there is hope. 300 km north-west of Dhaka, in the Gaibandha district, Practical Action is developing simple, sustainable solutions to ensure that flood disaster is a thing of the past.

Veena Khaleque, the charity’s Country Director for Bangladesh, takes up the story.

‘When I saw the plight of people . . ., I knew we could use our expertise to make a lasting difference to their lives . . . Feeding people during floods [is] a short-term measure, so we made a commitment to make sure they can feed and look after themselves. This way we hope to banish the poverty and starvation that floods bring.

‘That’s why we developed innovations like flood-resistant houses, which are placed on concrete plinths to prevent them being washed away, and an ingenious solution we call a floating garden. This means families can grow enough food to stave off the threat of starvation – even when their homes are surrounded by water.

‘A floating garden is in fact a raft built from woven water hyacinth filled with soil and cow dung. This nutrient-rich mixture is perfect for growing both summer and winter crops, so whenever the next flood hits, my people will survive . . .’

Veena Khaleque knows the scale of the challenge ahead. ‘Millions lost their homes in the 2007 floods. Many lost their lives.’

(Source: Practical Action)

1 Why is emergency aid important after a major flood in a developing country?

2 What is the difference between emergency aid and long-term development aid?

3 Describe and explain how the Practical Action project will help people in rural villages in Bangladesh.

4 Why are small-scale flood management projects often seen as more appropriate in developing countries?

5 Explain why the Practical Action project is considered to be sustainable.



1.12 Sustainable flood managementSustainable flood management attempts to manage the whole of a river basin and not just respond to areas that have suffered from previous flooding events.

Management of the River Tees basin (north-east England)

Yarm

Middlesbrough

Hartlepool

Croft

Darlington

BarnardCastle

Waterfall

0 20 kmN

North Sea

Middleton

Upper Tees (an area of high winter rainfall and spring snowmelt)• A number of reservoirs have been built. These help to regulate the flow

of water into the river and control water levels after heavy rainfall.• The reservoirs also store water which can be transported to towns and

cities downstream.

Yarm (a town built inside a meander)Yarm has suffered from regular flood events. A £2 million flood protection scheme has been built. This includes:• concrete walls around the boundary of

the town• earth embankments• flood gates• gabions to reduce erosion of riverbanks• landscaping, walkways and fishing

platforms.

Lower Tees (a low-lying flood plain)• River defences built.• The Tees Barrage developed to reduce the

threat of river flooding and provide water sport activities.

• Development discouraged on unprotected areas.

• Flood plain zoning which allows part of the river to flood naturally.

1 a Why is the River Tees called a ‘seasonal river’?

b How does this add to the challenge of managing the river?

2 Explain how the following techniques are used to reduce the threat of flooding:

managing river flow•

flood defences•

land use management.•

3 ‘Managing the river is not only about flooding, it is also about water supply and recreation.’ Explain this statement.

4 Explain how changing one part of a river basin may cause problems elsewhere.



1.13 The coast – a multi-use areaLook at the following sketch of a coastal area.

Lighthouse Beach withgroynes

Aquaticactivitycentre

Cottages

Marina

Fishingjetty

Lifeboatstation

Heritagesite

Containerport

Heavy industry

Marshland

National Trustcentre

Chalets

Seaside town

Golf course

Golf course

Protected rarebird sanctuary

War memorial

Caravan park

Amusements

Nature reserve

Ferryterminal

1 using a spider diagram, explain why the coast is often called a multi-use area.

2 Suggest why three different business activities shown on the sketch are located on the coast.

3 use evidence from the sketch to show that coastal areas often have environmental value.

4 Explain why areas like the one shown on the sketch need to be protected from:

coastal processes•

overdevelopment.•

5 Explain why some of the uses of the coastal area shown on the sketch might be in conflict with each other.



1.14 Coastal processes1 Complete the diagram below, which describes the coastal system, by adding the following four

terms in the correct places.

• ..................................

• ..................................• .................................. • ..................................

DEPOSITION EROSION TRANSPORTATION WEATHERING

2 A student was carrying out a fieldwork survey about coastal processes. She made the following notes while standing on a beach in front of a cliff.

A Stormwaveswerebreakingdirectlyagainsttheclifffaceinonearea.Waterwasforcingitswayintocracksintherock–theedgesofthecrackswereshattered.

B Standingonthepebblebeach,therewasaconstantnoiseasthepebblesrubbedagainsteachotherasthewavesbrokeupthebeach.

C Lookingcloselyatsomeofthecracksintheclifffaceyoucouldseesaltcrystalsgrowing.

D Measuringthestrengthofthebreakingwaveswasdifficult.Standinginthesurf,itwasclearthatthebreakingwavescontaingrainsofsandandsmallpebbles.Insomeplacesthesewerebeing‘thrown’againstthecliffface.

a Which of the processes in the student’s notes describe:

abrasion/corrasion•

attrition•

corrosion/solution•

hydraulic pressure?•

b Which of these processes do you think causes the most rapid rates of erosion? Explain your answer.

3 The following diagram shows part of the Dorset coast.

a Which rock is softest? Explain your answer

b What might happen at Stair Hole in the next 100 years?

Chalk

Limestone

Clays/sands

Lulworth Cove

StairHole

Key

4 Explain why cliff profiles associated with hard and soft coastlines are different.



1.15 Destructive coastlines1 Study the following diagram, which shows destructive waves.

weaker than

a Label on the diagram: swash; backwash; frictional contact; plunging waves.

b Explain how destructive waves erode cliffs and remove beach sediment.

2 Study the following diagrams, which show the process of headland erosion.

a Name the features on diagram C shown at points 1–5.

b Describe and explain the processes that have changed the headland shown in the diagrams above.

3 a Explain why beach management is often needed in tourist areas that have destructive coastlines.

b What are the advantages and disadvantages of beach management?

A B

1

3

4

5

2

C



1.16 Constructive coastlinesA group of students carried out an investigation about beach profiles between groynes. They measured the height of beach material between two groynes at high tide. The groynes were 50 m apart. The following data were recorded.

Western groyne Eastern groyne

Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Height (cm) 0 4 7 8 12 16 18 21 25 30 38

1 a use the data to draw a profile of the beach between the two groynes.

0 100

10

20

30

40

50

20 30 405 15 25 35 45 50Distance (m)

Hei

ght o

f bea

ch m

ater

ial (

cm)

Wes

tern

gro

yne

East

ern

groy

ne

b Describe the shape of your completed profile.

c Explain how longshore drift may have created the profile shown on your diagram.

d Why are groynes often built on beaches?

2 The following diagram shows a depositional feature on a constructive coastline.

A

3 How might preserving a beach in one area cause problems for other nearby coastal areas?

a Name the feature labelled A shown on the diagram.

b Complete the diagram by putting the following terms in the correct boxes:

longshore drift•

mudflats•

ocean current•

recurved end•

saltmarsh•

tidal lagoon.•

c Explain how feature A was formed. use diagrams if you wish.



1.17 Protecting coastal environmentsConstructive coastlines often provide important sand dune and saltmarsh habitats. As coastal areas have come under increasing development pressures, many of these habitats have been lost. A number of coastal areas are protected by environmental laws and managed by environmental agencies such as the National Trust. The following example shows one of the largest areas of protected coastal wetlands in Europe.

BlakeneyPointNationalNatureReserve

ManagedbytheNationalTrust

Cley nextthe sea

WivetonBlakeney

Morston

River Stiffkey

Warborough Hill

Blakeney Point

Stiffkey RiverGlaven

A149

A149

A149

Stiffkey SaltmarshesMorston Saltmarshes

The Marrams

Cley Channel

BlakeneyChannel Blakeney Eye

BlakeneyFreshesBlakeney

Harbour

0 1 km N

Reserve boundaryReserve boundary(over the sea)CoastlineA149Other roadsPublic footpathsCar parkVisitor centreRiver

Key

(Source: Natural England)

Blakeney Point is a sand and shingle spit that extends 5 km westwards from the Norfolk coast. Moving towards the seaward end of the spit, increasing amounts of fine sand and mud are seen. Between the spit and the coast an area of saltmarsh has developed. The saltmarsh, shingle and sand dune environments provide the ideal habitat for a range of rare birds and plants.

‘This is a fantastic area. It offers a range of recreational and leisure opportunities, including walking, bird watching, sailing and fishing, and there are some great beaches nearby. There are a number of car parks and refreshment facilities. The visitor and education centre is open for most of the year.’ (Tourist visiting the area)

1 a What is the direction of longshore drift at Blakeney Point? How do you know?

b Suggest why the sediment becomes smaller towards the end of the spit.

c Why is the end of the spit curved inward?

2 Blakeney Point National Nature Reserve attracts thousands of visitors each year.

a Why are people attracted to this area? What sorts of people might come?

b Suggest how the growing number of visitors puts the area under pressure.

c using the resource to help you, suggest how management might reduce the pressure on fragile coastal environments such as Blakeney Point.

3 Why is it important to protect coastal environments like Blakeney Point?



1.18 The coastline – a barrier to flooding?In the last 50 years, many coastal areas have become increasingly developed, especially in tourist areas where holiday resorts and hotels are often built close to the beach. The boxed text below describes changes in the Mediterranean coastal region.

The process of overdevelopment has been going on for decades. By 2025 the resident population will be 175 million, an increase of over 30 million from 2000. In addition, tourist numbers are expected to increase from 175 million (2000) to 312 million by 2025.

The last 30 years have seen rapid urban residential development, the building of new roads and airports and the expansion of industrial ports and areas of heavy industry. And that is without all the tourist development!

Today, nearly 50 per cent of the Mediterranean coastline is built up and in some areas saturation point has been reached and new developments are being built in flood risk areas and on drained wetlands. There are growing concerns about how some areas will cope with rising sea levels over the next 100 years.

1 Why is the Mediterranean coastal area becoming increasingly developed?

2 How might development increase the threat of flooding in coastal areas?

In some parts of the world ‘coastal zone management strategies’ are being used to reduce the threat of flooding. An example of this can be seen below.

High tide

Low tide

Trees planted

Raisedroad

Earth bank

Saltmarshpreserved and

allowed todevelop

Houses

Building restricted

3 a Explain how the management strategy shown above might reduce the threat of flooding.

b Could these measures be considered sustainable or not? Explain why.

4 ‘using the natural environment to reduce the threat of flooding is always more sustainable than building large concrete flood barriers.’ Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.

5 Why will climate change make some coastal areas increasingly vulnerable to the threat of natural hazards?



1.19 Managed retreatManaged retreat is when the sea is allowed to reach its natural position by removing existing coastal defence barriers. The natural shape of the land is then allowed to protect inland areas from further flooding. The following diagrams show a coastal area before and after a managed retreat strategy has been put in place.

1 a Describe the area before the managed retreat strategy was put in place.

b Describe the area after the managed retreat strategy was put in place.

2 using the diagram to help you, explain how managed retreat protects inland areas from flooding.

3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of managed retreat?

4 At a recent conference about planning for managed retreat, a coastal engineer said: ‘Before you start it is important to calculate the area that will be flooded and the effect on the environment. Also, roads, footpaths and buildings need to be considered.’ Explain this statement.

5 Why is managed retreat not a suitable option for all coastal locations?

Concretesea wall

Houses

Road

Before managed retreat

Poor quality farmland

After managed retreat

Nature reserve

Earth bankbuilt

Treesplanted

Saltmarshdevelops

Old sea wallbreached

Sea floodsinland



1.20 The rapid erosion of soft coastlinesThe term ‘soft coastline’ is used to describe a coastline where rocks do not have much structural strength and are easily affected by weathering and erosion. Clay coastlines can easily be worn away because the structure of clay is weakened by rainfall and wave attack.

Look at the photograph below, which shows a soft clay coastline.

0 100 m N

Happisburgh

Currentcoastline

(Source: Environment Agency)

The above map shows a largely unprotected soft coastline near the town of Happisburgh (Norfolk).

5 From its present position it is estimated that the coastline will erode:

100 m by 2030•

175 m by 2060•

300 m by 2110.•

a use three different colours to show the position of the coastline in 2030, 2060 and 2110.

b What might the town of Happisburgh be like in 200 years’ time?

6 There are no plans for coastal defences at Happisburgh. Suggest how the fear of continued coastal erosion might affect Happisburgh.

1 How does the structure of clay change when it is wet?

2 a Draw a sketch of the landscape shown in the photograph.

b use annotations to describe the main features of the landscape (shape of the cliff, different slopes, areas of recent movement).

3 How can you tell that there has been recent movement of the cliff?

4 Why do landslides happen on soft coastlines?



1.21 Protecting the coastline – hard engineeringRead the following statement from a coastal engineer.

‘Hard engineering is really about building barriers between the sea and the land. There are lots of different hard engineering methods. They can be very effective at controlling erosion and reducing the threat of flooding. However, they are expensive, usually between £3 and £8 million a kilometre, but the cost of flooding might be much higher! Some people think that hard engineering methods don’t look very nice and might harm the environment, but they often provide walkways along the top of sea walls so have an important amenity value.’

1 What are the two main reasons for using hard engineering methods?

2 Explain what the coastal engineer means when they say ‘hard engineering is really about building barriers between the sea and the land’.

3 Look at the photograph above, which shows part of a coastline in southern England.

a Name and describe the different types of hard engineering methods used.

b Explain how the methods work.

c Suggest why hard engineering methods were used in this area.

4 Why might the decision to use hard engineering methods cause conflict in local areas?

5 Discuss the view that rising sea levels will increase the need for hard engineering in coastal areas.



1.22 Protecting the coastline – soft engineeringRead the following statement from a coastal engineer.

‘Soft engineering is really about working with the environment to protect the beach. A wide, gently sloping beach is an excellent defence against flooding because it absorbs so much energy when waves break and prevents the waves reaching inland areas.

‘The main soft engineering methods are beach replenishment and reprofiling. Other methods such as fencing and hedging are sometimes used to stop sand being blown away by the wind. Soft engineering is often seen as more environmentally friendly and the resulting beach can be a useful recreational resource.’

beaCh rePleniShMenT – Sugar COve (hOnOlulu)

Sugar Cove is a popular beach for local residents and tourists in Honolulu. The beach was being increasingly washed away until a beach replenishment scheme was used in the late 1990s. Beach material was pumped back onto the beach from the seabed and shaped to form a natural, gently sloping beach.

The position of the seaat high tide

Beach profile 1997Before beachreplenishment 1997

0 500 m

Beach

Houses

Road

0 500 m

Beach

Houses

Road

SugarCove

SugarCove

Beach profile 2005

1912

1960

1997

The position of the seaat high tide

After beachreplenishment 2005

2005

1 Why is a wide, gently sloping beach such a good defence against storm waves?

2 What does the engineer mean when they say that ‘soft engineering is really about working with the environment’?

3 Explain what is meant by:beach replenishment•beach reprofiling.•

4 Study the example of beach replenishment at Sugar Cove in Honolulu.a Describe how the beach had retreated between 1912 and 1997.b Suggest why a beach replenishment scheme was needed by the late 1990s.c Compare the position and the profile of the beach in 1997 and 2005.

5 Beach replenishment is seen as more environmentally friendly than hard engineering. Is it?

6 Why might soft engineering not be a suitable method of coastal defence for all areas?

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