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AD-fl149 545 ATLAS OF THE BEAUFORT SEAMU COAST GUARD RESEARCH AND
1/~2DEVELOPMENT CENTER GROTON CT I M LISSAUER ET AlL
UNCLSSIIEDOCT 84 CGR/DC-17/84 USCG-D-33-84 FG83 N
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Report No. CG-D-33-84 .
ATLAS OF THE BEAUFORT SEA 0
Ln Ivan M. Lissauer 0L.E. Hachmeister
nB.J. Morson
':1
FINAL REPORTOctober 1984
This document is available to the U.S. public through the -
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161
Prepared for:
U. S. Department of TransportationUnited States Coast GuardOffice of Research and Development
- Washington D.C. 20593 OTIC
8 0JATN 18 198 5
85~~ ~ 0 1064 .__
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This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the4 Department of Transportation in the interest of information
exchange. The United States Government assumes no liabilityfor its contents or use thereof.
The United States Government does not endorse products or
S
manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers' names appear hereinsoley because they are considered essential to the object ofthis report.
U The contents of this report reflect the views of the Coast0Guard Research and Development Center. which is responsiblefor the facts and accuracy of data presented. This reportdoes not constitute a standard , specification, or regulation.
SAMUEL F. POWEL, IllTechnical DirectorU.S. Coast Guard Research and Development CenterAvery Point, Groton, Connecticut 06340
-'I
4
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Technical Report Documentation Page -7. Reoort No. 2. Government Accession NO. 3. liecisent's Catalog No.
CG-D-33-84 /4. Title and SuOtitle 5. Report Date
October 1984Atlas of the Beaufort Sea 6. Performing Organization Code
8. Performing Organization Report No.7. AutOr(s)
Ivan M. Lissauer, L.E. Hachmeister, B.J. Korson CGR&DC 17/849. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit NO. (TRAIS) S
U.S. Coast Guard Research Science Applications, Inc.Research and Dev. Center 13400B Northrup Way #36 I . Contract or Grant No.
Avery Point Bellevue, WA 98005Groton, CT 06340
13. Type of Reoort and Period Covereo12. Soonsoring Agency Name and AddressDepartment of Transportation •U.S. Coast Guard FINAL REPORTOffice of Research and Development 14. Soonsorng Agency CodeWashington, D.C. 20593
15. Supplementary Notes
iS
16. Aostract
This is a reference document on oceanography, meteorology, ice andclimatology. The oceanography section contains information for circulation,tides, riverine input, ice conditions, storm surges and bathymetry of theAlaskan Beaufort Sea. From review of information on meteorology, climate, iceconditions, and oceanography, maps have been generated showing circulation intwo typical wind conditions: ENE wind at 10 knots and NW storm wind at 30knots. These maps show tides, storm surges, bathymetry and river dischargesas well as charts of mean ice drift over time. The meteorology sectioncontains information on winds, storm surges and waves. Included is a rapidmanual forecast system for estimating the height of a storm surge.
The ice section gives information on the ice zones, including the annual icecycle within the nearshore area, the freezing and breakup of nearshore ice,and the movement of the pack ice.
The climatology section includes information on the arctic climate,temperature information (including wind chill charts), visibility, andpreci pi tati on.
7 ey 'orcs i. Dstribution Statement
Atlas Xeteorology. Document is available to the U.S. publicBeaufort Sea Ice through the National Technical InformationCceanography Cli=atolo'. Service, Springfield, VA 22161
e. ecurity .assit. (of 'mis reoort) 20. SECt.RITY CLASSIF. 'of 1 is oagei 21. No. of caqes 22. Or,ce
' .;CI-kS S 17:"-ED =.CLASSIFIED
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION A - OCEANOGRAPHY Page
1. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-2
2. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ..................... A-4
3. GENERAL CIRCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-7
3.1 01l Spill Transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A-9
4. CONTINENTAL SHELF CIRCULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-13
4.1 Outer Shelf . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-134.2 Inner Shelf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-13
5. LAGOON AND NEARSHORE CIRCULATION...... . . . . . . . . . . . A-24
5.1 Open Lagoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... A-245.2 Pulsing Lagoons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-26
* 5.3 Limited Exchange Lagoons . . ......... . . . . . . . A-27
6. TIDES..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. A-50
7. RIVER DISCHARGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-55
8. STORM SURGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-62
9. ICE DRIFT . . . . . . . ...... . . .................. . A-65
10. BATHYMETRY. . ............ . . . . . . . . . .... . A-73
SECTION 3 - METEOROLOGY
11. WINDS....... . . . ................................ . B-3
12. STORM SURGES . . ........... . . . . . . . ................... B-20
* 12.1 Rapid Manual Forecast for Predicting Storm Surges . .... B-21
13. WAVES...... . . . . . . .... ..... .............................. B-26
SECTION C - ICE
* 14. ICE ZONES ......... ... ............................ C-2
15. SHOREFAST ICE ....... ... ... .......................... C-3
15.1 Annual Ice Cycle ',ithin the 1,earshore Areaof the Beaufort Sea (Average Conditions) ..... .......... C-4
16. PACK ICE ........ ............................. .... C-8
.... i. .-...................... ..-- -.......... . .
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)
Page
SECTION 0 - CLI14ATOLOGY
17. ARCTIC CHARACTERISTICS...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0-2
18. SUNLIGHT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0-4
19. TEMPERATURE . . . . . .*...... . . . . . . . . . . . D-8
20. VISIBILITY .......... . . . . . . . . .. . .. D-1 3
21. PRECIPITATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0-16
22. CLIMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-19
SECTION E - CASE HISTORIES
23. CASE HISTORIES. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . E-1
SECTION F - REFERENCES
24. REFERENCES .. .. .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1
TI
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 General circulation patterns in the Beaufort Sea ........ A-8
2 Locations of current estimate charts for ContinentalShelf circulation A-I 6
3 Current estimates for Barrow to Cape Halkett regionunder 10 kt NE wind . . . . . .......... A-17
4 Current estimates for Barrow to Cape Halkett regionunder 30 kt NW wind. . . . . . . . . . ............ A-18
5 Current estimates for Cape Halkett to Canning Riverunder 10 kt NE wind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-19
6 Current estimates for Cape Hal kett to Canning Riverunder 30 kt NW wind. . . . . ............. . .. A-20
7 Current estimates for Canning River to Demarcation Pointunder 10 kt NE wind......... . . . .......... A-21
8 Current estimates for Canning River to Demarcation Pointunder 30 kt NW wind . .................... A-22
g Basic lagoon types: open, pulsing, and limited exchange A-28
10 Combined wind and tidal effects in a pulsing lagoon suchas Pokok Bay and Angun Lagoon. . . . . . . A-29
11 Locations of current estimate charts for Lagoon andNearshore circulation A-30
12 Nearshore current estimates for Cape Halkett to ThetisIsland under 10 kt NE wind. . . . . . .............. A-31
13 Nearshore current estimates for Cape Halkett to ThetisIsland under 30 kt NW wind ....... ................. A-32
14 Nearshore current estimates for western Simpson Lagoonunder 1 kt HE wind. ........................ A-33
15 learshore current estimates for western Simpson Lagoonunder 30 kt MW wind .... ..................... ..... A-34
15 Nearshore current estimates for eastern Simpson Lagoonunder l0 kt NE wind ..... .................... .... A-35
17 ,earshore current estimates for eastern Simpson Lagoonunder 30 kt NW wind .... ..................... ..... A-36 5
18 'Nearshore current estimates for Prudhoe Bay to TigvariakIsland under 10 kt NE wind ..... ................ .... A-37
iii S
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* . .- .. -. - _ - -. .
LIST OF FIGURES (cont'd)
* Figure Page
19 Nearshore current estimates for Prudhoe Bay to Tigvariak
Island under 30 kt NW wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-38
20 Nearshore current estimates for Tigvariak Island toCanning River under 10 kt NE wind. . . . . . ........ A-39 S
21 Nearshore current estimates for Tigvariak Island toCanning River under 30 kt NW wind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-40
22 Nearshore current estimates for Canning River toBarter Island under 10 kt NE wind. . . . . . . . . . . . .. A-41
23 Nearshore current estimates for Canning River to
Barter Island under 30 kt NW wind. . . . . . ......... A-42
24 Nearshore current estimates for Jago Lagoon toPokok Bay under 10 kt NE wind. ........ ........ . A-43
25 Nearshore current estimates for Jago Lagoon toPokok Bay under 30 kt NW wind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-44
26 Nearshore current estimates for Pokok Bay to AichilikRiver under 10 kt NE wind. . ......... . . . . . . . A-45
27 Nearshore current estimates for Pokok Bay toAichtilik River under 30 kt NW wind . . . . ........ . A-46
28 Nearshore current estimates for Egaksrak Lagoon toDemarcation Bay under 10 kt NE wind ........... . . . A-47
29 Nearshore current estimates for Egaksrak Lagoon to
Demarcation Bay under 30 kt NW wind ..... ............. A-48
30 Amplitude of the 112 tide in the Beaufort Sea .... ........ A-52
31 Tidal ellipses in the Beaufort Sea ............... ..... A-53
32 Over-ice flow of the Colville River during breakup ....... A-58
33 Mean daily discharge of the Sagavanirktok River: 1971, 1973. A-5934 Cean daily discharge of the Kuparuk River: 1972, 1973. . . . A-60
35 Height of 1970 storm surge above mean sea level,as measured from the elevation of driftwood found
on the mainland and on the islands ... ............ .... A-63
36 Track of ice drifter buoys off the Alaskan coast in 1979 . A-68
37 Track of ice drifter buoys off the Alaskan coast in 1980 . . A-69
iv
--------------------------------------.. *"
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Sq
LIST OF FIGURES (cont'd)
Figure Page
38 Track of ice drifter buoys off the Alaskan coast in 1981 . . A-70
39 Track of ice drifter buoys off the Alaskan coast in 1982 . . A-71
ro 40 Depth contours from Barrow to Cape Halkett ........... .... A-74
41 Depth contours from Cape Halkett to Thetis Island ......... A-75
42 Depth contours from Spy Island to Bertoncini Island. . ... A-76
43 Depth contours from Cottle Island to Prudhoe Bay ... ...... A-77
44 Depth contours from Prudhoe Bay to Tigvariak Island. . ... A-78
45 Depth contours from Tigvarlak Island to Canning River . ... A-79
46 Depth contours from Brownlow Point to Barter Island ..... ... A-80
47 Depth contours from Jago Lagoon to Pokok Bay .......... ... A-81
48 Depth contours from Pokok Bay to Aichilik River .......... A-82
49 Depth contours from Egaksrak Lagoon to Demarcation Bay . . . A-83
so General location map of coastal areas of Alaska .......... B-5
51 Geographic locations along the Beaufort Sea coast fromthe U.S.-Canadian Border ..... .................. .... B-6
52 Characteristics of the wind at Point Barrowand Barter Island .... ......... ............. B-7
53 Prevailing wind directions in the Arctic Basin duringthe mid-winter months ..... .................... .... B-8
54 Prevailing wind directions in the Arctic Basin duringthe mid-summer months ........ .................... B-9 71
55 Primary and secondary storm tracks for the North Slopeof Alaska ....... ... .......................... 8-10
56 Paths of meteorological systems that have caused* storm surges ....... ... ........................ B-23
57 Cirve of surge height vs. frequency of occurrence forstorm surges in the 3eaufort. Sea ...... .............. B-24
58 Extreme northern and extreme southern latitude of the0 pack ice edge - July ....... ....................... C-9
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- C -T . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES (cont'd)
Fi gure Page
5g Extreme northern and extreme southern latitude of thepack ice edge - August ................... C-10
60 Extreme northern and extreme southern latitude of thepack Ice edge - September .................... . C-11
61 Extreme northern and extreme southern latitude of thepack ice edge -October. .... .. ... . . . . . .. C-12
62 Mean latitude of the pack ice edge - July ..... .......... C-13
63 Mean latitude of the pack ice edge - August. . . . . . . . . C-14
64 lean latitude of the pack ice edge - September ... ....... C-15
65 tean latitude of the pack Ice edge - October .... ........ C-16
66 rlean and extreme ice cover (1) along theBeaufort Sea Coast - August ...................... . . C-17
67 Mean and extreme ice cover (%) along theBeaufort Sea Coast - September .... ............... .... C-18
68 lean and extreme ice cover (0) along theBeaufort Sea Coast - October .................... C-19
69 Hours of continuous sunlight on a monthly basisfor northern latitudes .... ................... .. ... 0-5
70 Hours of continuous sunlight and twilight on amonthly basis for northern latitudes ... ............ .... 0-6
71 :1onthly graphs of the percentage probability ofoccurrence of free air temperatures ................ .... 0-11
72 Monthly graphs of the percentage probability ofoccurrence of equivalent chill temperature .... ......... 0-12
v
vi
- . . .. - -_ I" " .,- - - l " "[ - " " " i 1 l " - l " l ,,' . "" . . - " -
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
I Hydrographic data for major rivers enteringthe Alaskan Beaufort Sea .................... A-56
Areal extent of river overflow on sea ice in spring ..... ... A-573 Average monthly ice drift speeds ............. . A-67
4 I-lean monthly wind speed values for sixteen directof the compass - Barter Island... . . . . . . . B-11
5 Mean monthly wind speed values for sixteen directic Sof the compass - Point Barrow .............. . . . . . . B-12
6 !lonthly percentage frequency of occurrence of winddirection for sixteen directions of the compass -Barter Island.. . . . .................... -13
7 Monthly percentage frequency of occurrence of winddirection for sixteen directions of the compass -Point Barrow ...... ... ........................ B-1 4
Wind-percentage frequency of occurrence by speed groupsfor Point Barrow and Barter Island by month. Extrememonthly wind speeds for both locations by month .......... B-15
9 Percentage frequency of occurrence of wind directionand speed for Barter Island ....... ................. B-16
10 a) Average winds in the Beaufort Sea area by month forPoint Barrow, Prudhoe Bay and Barter Island; b) Extreme(one-minute) winds in the Beaufort Sea area by monthfor Point Barrow, Prudhoe Bay and Barter Island .......... B-17
11 Aind speed data by month for Point Barrow and3arter Island ....... .. ........................ B-18
12 Sea height vs. direction from 11 July to 31 Octoberfor the central Beaufort Sea coast ................. B-27
13 Sea height vs. directions from 11 July to 31 Octoberfor the eastern 3eaufort Sea coast .................. B-28
14 Sea height vs. direction from I July to 20 4ovemberfor the western 3eaufort Sea coast .... ............. . -29
1 'ind soeed and direction vs. sea height from 11 Julyto 31 October for the central Beaufort Sea coast ... ...... 8-30
15 imid speed and direction vs. sea height from 11 Julyto 31 "ctober for the eastern 3eaufort Sea coast ... ...... 3-31
vii
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LIST OF TABLES (cont'd)
Table Page
17 Wind speed and direction vs. sea height from 1 Julyto 20 November for the western Beaufort Sea coast ......... B-32
18 Annual maximum winds and waves for selectedreturn periods. . ... ................. B-33
19 Freezeup and breakup dates of fast ice forBarter Island and Point Barrow ..... ............... C-6
20 a) Wind chill equivalent temperature chart; b) Windchill index nomogram .................... 0-9
21 Wind chill chart defining temperatures hazardousfor properly clothed persons .... ................. 0-10
22 Percentage frequency occurrence of ceiling heightand visibility for Barter Island ... .............. .... 0-14
23 Percentage frequency occurrence of ceiling heightand visibility for Point Barrow ...... ............... 0-15
24 Percentage frequency of occurre,:ce of daily amountsof snowfall and precipitation - Barter Island .... ........ 0-17
C 25 Percentage frequency of occurrence of daily amountsof snowfall and preci:)itation - Point Barrow .......... .D. 0-18
25 Climatological -r-,aries for Point Barrow andBar-er island ....... ...................... .D..... 0-20
27 Percentage frequency of occurrence of weatherconditions for Point Barrow, Barter Island andUmiat (an inland station) ........ ................. D-21
28 'Ionthly values of percentage frequency of occurrenceof snow depth, visibility and sky cover - Point Barrow 0-22
29 Monthly values of percentage frequency of occurrenceof snow depth, visibility and sky cover - Barter Island. . . 0-23
4I
viii
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• . , . . .
-
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
r 'Illustration PageI Technique for determining the transport of oil .. .. .... A-1O
2 Example of developing a current field for determiningoil spill transport . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . A-li
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7 D-fl149 545 ATLAS OF THE BEAUFORT SER(U) COAST GUARD RESEARCH AND 2/2DEVELOPMENT CENTER GROTON CT I M LISSAUER ET AL.OCT 34 CGR/DC-17/84 USCG-D-33-84UNCLASIFIEDF/G 8/ N
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MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHARTNATI, NAL f ' i t., ' ' . -
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SECTION BMETEOROLOGY
41
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WINDS -'.
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-
II
11.0 WINDS
Figure S0 shows the coastal areas of Alaska. Figure 51 presents the majorgeographic areas along the Beaufort Sea coast. For this entire coastline,which runs several hundred miles, long-tern wind data is availaole from onlytwo sites, Point Barrow and Barter Island. This data collected every threehours is available from 1942 to the present. A source of wind data, overshorter tern, is from Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. This data covers the last fifteenyears. Other sporadic sources of data are available but because of their 0nature cannot be used to develop climatological data bases. Hufford et al.(1976) examined wind data from several sources and concluded that the mostapparent and consistent feature of the surface winds along the north Alaskancoast is the persistence of easterly winds throughout the year (figure 52).The cause of these predominantly easterly winds is the atmospheric highpressure area centered over the Arctic in the eastern Beaufort Sea. Thegeneralized effect of this atmospheric system can be seen in the prevailingwind directions for the Arctic Basin during both the mid-winter and mid-summer months (figures 53 and 54). For both these time periods theprevailing easterlies are apparent along the North Alaskan Coast. Thepredominant easterly winds are punctuated by westerly winds particularlyduring the late summer and early fall. These westerly winds are moreapparent at Barter Island than at Point Barrow (figure 52). The westerlywinds are attributed to low pressure systems moving eastward over the ArcticOcean (figura 55). Searby and Hunter (1971) analyzed the winds at BarterIsland and Point Barrow and provided mean monthly wind speeds for sixteendirections of the compass (tables 4 and 5), and the monthly percentagefrequency occurrence of wind directions for sixteen directions of thecompass (tables 6 and 7). The strongest winds occur from the east-northeastand west directions during the late summer through the fall when low pressuresystems, discussed previously, reach a maximum in intensity and numbers.Table 8 provides percentage frequency of occurrence by speed groups of thewind for each month and for sixteen directions of the compass for Point Barrowand Barter Island. The predominant wind speed group on a monthly oasis is4 to 12 miles per hour ( -.2 to 6 m/s). The secondary wind speed group is13 to 24 miles per hour (-. 6 to 10 m/s). These two speed groups accountfor approximately 90 percent of the measured winds at Barrow and 80 percentat Barter Island. Table 9 shows the frequency of occurrence of wind speedand direction for Barter Island. Table 10 provides further information onthe average winds in the Beaufort Sea for Point Barrow, Prudhoe Bay and BarterIsland. The mean wind speeds range between 4.2 and 6.8 meters per second( %9 to 15 mph). Thus the energy of the winds on the average is not high.However, more energetic winds can occur as indicated in taole 11.
Recent research work by Kozo (1980 and 1982) has investigated mesoscalephenomena along the Beaufort Sea coast which affect the wind field whichin turn is responsiole for near shore surface water movement. The phenomenastudied were mountain barrier baroclinicity and sea breeze forcing. Mountainbarrier baroclinicity is a predominantly wintertime phenomenon caused ly theBrooks Range. The basic cause of this phenomenon is a piling up of cold airagainst the Brooks Range. This causes a pressure gradient which is favoraoleto west winds. The ultimate result is a 1800 surface wind shift along theAlaskan Arctic coast between Point Barrow and Barter Island during moderatewind conditions. Such shifts are not explained by the National WeatherService synoptic charts. Kozo (1980) indicates that this phenomenon is amajor physical process responsible for the wintertime abundance of westerly
8-3
-
S - w - - i. -" -. - - - - t' *'- - - - .- - -
winds from Prudhoe Bay to the east. Likewise the frequency of westerly windsduring wintertime is less from Prudhoe Bay west to Point Barrow.
The second mesoscale phenomenon investigated by Kozo (1982) was sea breezeforcing. This phenomenon results in a pressure gradient that accelerates themovement of air from sea to land. Kozo's data indicates that the sea breezecan dominate the surface wind direction at least 25% of the time during thesummer in a zone at least 20 km landward and 20 km seaward of the coast.
i
B-4
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180 1600 140"AR OCEAN
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FIGURE 50 - GL'-ERAL LOCATION MA? OF COASTAL AREAS OF ALASKA
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0 100q 200 km*0 50 100mi
FIGURE 51. - GEOGRAPH~IC LOCATIONS ALONG THE BEAUFORT SE.A COASTFROM THE U.S. -CANADIA.1 BORDER
3-6
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WSW
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CALM
J F MA A PA 4 j A S 0 N 0
I FREQUENCY OF WIND DIRECTION
~TG1 52 C~IRACER-STICS OF THE WIND AT POINTr BARROW AND BARTER ISLA=(BASEDl 0N 4Z YEARS OF DATA)
8-7
-
Ice 6c"
14d Mid-Winter
Ise
14 41
FICURE 53 - REVAILING WPMD DIRECTIONS IN THE ARCTIC BASIN* DURING THE MID-WINTER MONTHS (FROM B ILLELO, 1973)
-
* Mid- Summer
i~d 4e
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~IU~54 - PREVAILING wIND DIRECTIONS IN 7HE ARCTIC BASINDURING THE MID-SUMER MONTHS (FROM 3ILL-TLO, 1973)
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4 B-1
-
IiTable 4
MEAN MONTHLY WIND SPEED VALUES FOR SIXTEEN DIRECTIONS OF THE COMASSBARTER ISLAND
EARTER rSLAND WIND SPEED - MEAN VALUES
(IN MET!ERS PER SECOND)
J F M A M 3 J A S 0 N D
N 2.7 2.9 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.5 2.6 3.2 3.8 2.6 2.5 p
NNE 3.0 2.5 2.9 2.9 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.9 3.2 4.2 3.2 2.9
NE 3.8 3.9 3.9 4.2 4.1 3.4 4.0 4.2 4.9 7.4 5 4.2
EIE 6.4 6.0 7.1 6.3 5.8 5.7 5.4 6.4 6.6 9.0 .' 6.6
E 6.9 6.6 6.8 6.5 7.0 6.2 5.7 7.0 7.1 10.C 8.7 7.7
ESE 4.5 5.1 5.0 4.9 5.2 5.2 4.7 4.8 5.5 5.9 - 5.0
SE 4.2 3.0 3.3 3.7 3.2 3.7" 3.2 3.5 4.4 4.2 3.6 3.3
SSZ 5.0 2.9 3.0 3.5 2.6 2.9 3.3 3.0 3.1 3.0 2.8 3.1
S 3.6 3.2 3.1 3.4 3.3 2.6 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.5 3.3 3.4
SSW 3.2 3.2 2.9. 3.0 2.8 2.7 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.6 3.6 3.5
SW- 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.8 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.4
WSW 8.0 6.2 5.2 4.9 4.4 5.1 5.6 5.9 6.3 6.9 6.0 6.1
W 9.7 10.0 8.5 7.9 6.3 5.4 5.7 5.7 7.2 8.7 8.1 8.6
IJW 7.7 9.1 7.1 6.9 5.5 4.6 5.0 4.9 5.4 7.1 6.9 7.3
NW 4.0 4.3 3.1 3.5 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.9 5.2 4.8 4.8
NNW 3.7 2.5 2.8 2.6 2.9 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.2 4.1 2.8 3.0
MONTHLY AVERACE SEE
6.4 6.5 6.0 5.5 4.4 4.7 4.6 5.2 5.6 6.8 6.5 6.1
B-11
-
Table 5 S
MEAN MONTHLY WIND SPEED VALUES FOR SIXTEEN DIRECTIONS OF THE COMASSPOINT BARROW
BARROW WIND SPEED - MEAN VALUES
(EN METERS PER SECOND)
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
N 4.4 3.8 4.6 4.6 3.7 3.8 3.7 4.1 5.6 6.1 6.1 4.2 0
NNE 4.3 4.1 5.8 5.4 5.3 4.4 4.4 5.3 6.0 6.8 6.1 4.8
NE 5.1 4.9 5.3 5.2 5.6 5.4 5.6 5.3 5.9 6.7 7.3 5.8
ENE 6.4 7.2 6.4 6.4 6.8 6.8 7.4 7.9 7.4 8.0 9.0 7.3
E 6.4 7.5 6.0 6.6 7.4 7.6 6,8 7.9 7.5 8.1 7.5 6.2 0
ESE 8.1 6.7 6.4 7.2 7.0 7.3 6.9 7.0 7.2 6.3 6.2 5.4
SE 5.5 4.2 5.3 5.4 6.1 5.4 6.0 5.4 5.2 5.2 4.9 4.0
SSE 4.5 4.0 4.6 4.9 3.9 4.7 5.9 5%3 5.6 5.0 5.6 3.5
S 4.2 4.5 4.4 5.2 4.1 4.6 5.7 5.2 4.9 5.9 6.0 4.2 0
SSW 5.3 6.2 5.2 6.4 4.9 4.6 6.3 6.8 6.1 6.1 705 5.9
SW 4.8 6.1 4.8 5.4 5.7 5.4 6.2 5.9 6.3 5.9 7.8 5.4
WSJ 6.4 8.1 6.5 6.5 6.1 6.4 6.5 7.7 6.6 8.2 9.7 6.3
W 6.9 6.7 5.6 6.1 5.4 5.2 5.7 6.5 7,5 7.4 8.7 7.7
W 5.6 6.4 5.4 6.5 5.6 4.9 4.6 6.3 7.8 6.9 7.3 7.5NW 4.8 5.5 3.9 5.2 3. .4 .4 5.8 . 5.9 6.9 6.1
NNW 4.9 4.6 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.3 4.1 5.4 6.0 6.4 6.5 4.2
MONTHLY AVERAGE SPEED
5.8 6.2 5.5 5.9 6.2 6.1 6.0 6.5 6.6 6.8 7.4 6.1
B-12
-
m mm = m m m m , om - ." . . • • .
Table 6
MONTHLY PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF WIND DIRECTION FORSIXTEEN DIRECTIONS OF THE COMPASS - BARTER ISLAND
BARTER ISLAND
WIND DIRECTION(PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE)
3 F M A m J J A S 0 N D
N .4 .4 .5 .8 1.8 2.6 2.8 2.5 1.9 .9 .6 .9
NNE .5 .3 .7 .9 1.5 2.3 3.1 3.0 2.2 1.2 1.0 .5
NE 2.6 2.3 4.3 2.9 7.2 8.7 9.4 8.1 6.6 6.8 4.3 3.9
ENE 10.8 10.6 15.2 13.9 20.1 23.6 21 .2 19.8 15.0 13.0 16.2 14.5
E 19.8 18.5 17.5 17.6 29.4 Z 18.2 q ZQ 1L. 1&, 15.7
ESE 5.3 5.3 5.1 5.7 5.1 3.0 4.5 5.7 6.9 7.2 6.7 5.0
SE 3.9 1.1 1.7 2.1 1.1 '.9 1.5 1.8 3.0 4.1 3.6 1.6
SSE .9 .6 .4 .8 .5 .5 .7 .9 1.0 1.2 1.0 .7
S 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.9 .9 .7 1.5 1.4 1.8 4.3 3.3 2.1
SSW 2.2 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.2 .6 .7 1.2 1.7 6.1 4.5 4.2
sw 10.3 8.9 9.2 7.0 4.6 1.3 1.4 1.8 3.1 7.4 8.0 12.0 5
WSW 12.4 13.3 12.2 11.6 3.9 3.7 3.6 3.7 6.4 8.1 9.4 10.7
W 19.I Z. 9 .J 2.5 10.2 9.3 11.0 11.2 13.6 11.8 13.4 1 .
WNW 4.0 4.8 3.8 4.4 5.2 7.7 7.9 8.9 6.4 4.2 3.0 2.9
Nw 1.1 .9 .9 1.4 2.6 4.3 5.0 4.5 4.0 1.9 1.1 1.7
NNW .2 .1 .3 .4 1.3 1.8 2.0 2.2 1.7 .8 .4 .3
CALM 4.7 4.0 4.1 6.1 3.4 4.8 5.5 3.7 4.6 3.7 4.6 3.8
PREVAILING DIRECTION UNDRLMIED
-
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-
TABLE 7
1ONTHLY PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF WIND DIRECTION FORSIXTEEN DIRECTIONS OF THE COMPASS - POINT BARROW
BARROW
WIND DIRECTION(PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE)
, F A A J 3 A S 0 N D
N 3.9 3.4 5.0 3.7 2.1 2.5 4.3 4.3 3.7 2.0 3.1 2.6
NNE 3.8 2.5 4.8 5.3 3.9 3.6 6.1 5.5 5.9 3.7 2.0 3.9
NE 6.2 10.1 11.9 9.4 9.9 6.5 5.8 5.4 7.4 8.3 7.8 11.2
ENE 43 17.4 1.6.._0 .3 2 17 2 23 4 27 7
E 8.2 15.0 12.9_11.4 19.7 10.2 12.9 1-20 14.3 16.8_ 11.7_15.2
ESE 11.4 7.9 9.1 11.3 13.6 17.4 9.3 11.4 13.9 12.0 7.1 6.3
SE 5.4 3.7 5.4 6.0 5.5 5.2 5.3 4.8 4.7 8.6 5.9 4.3
SSE 3.1 1.9 2.4 3.7 2.1 2.2 3.6 4.1 5.3 6.5 5.6 2.2
S 3.1 2.3 4.1 4.6 2.1 1.7 2.5 2.8 3.1 5.5 6.4 2.8
SSW 5.2 2.3 4.7 5.0 2.3 2.0 3.2 3.8 2.8 4.3 6.0 3.0
SW 5.4 3.1 3.9 4.4 2.9 3.1 5.2 4.1 2.8 3.0 3.4 3.1
WSW 5.9 2.9 3.3 4.5 3.4 8.5 9.5 7.7 2.7 2.6 3.1 2.7
W 7.6 9.5 5.7 5.7 2.4 6.4 6.5 8.9 4.6 2.2 3.7 4.9
WNW 6.8 9.3 3.9 5.7 1.9 4.5 3.7 7.7 5.8 2.6 4.6 4.6
NW 4.8 5.3 3.3 3.6 2.6 3.6 2.9 3.4 3.1 1.7 3.2 2.4
NNW 3.8 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.6 2.2 2.5 4.1 2.7 2.3 4.5 1.6
Calm 1.2 0.8 1.2 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.7 1.0 0.6 0.4 1.5
PREVAILING DIRECTION UNDERLINED
B-14
-
TABL. 8
VI-PM.WRETAGE FREQUENCY OF 0C=RME= BY SP--n GROUPSFOR P01N7 BARROW AND BARTER ISLAND BY MOTH
ErD'tE MONTHLY WI?4 SPMS FOR BOTH LOCATIOKS BY MOTH(1 mph - 0.4470416 m/s)
iI-REZAEZO oe =UR R--~ By 5 "UPS ESpmaARWIt d-AK& R LSLAJaO 1 WINDS (MPH4l
~~f - " wU~q a f" IWO -@0 0 C @~ cr. INC I
, o o: --_ N_ . .= _ _ = in E- ccm .:I: qr m a :CJ= . = .Jan 1.3 6.1 59.6 Z7.5 4.0 1.4 0.1 4.7 6.4 44.0 29.Z 7.4 6.8 1.4 56 75Feb 0.8 7.5 53.4 31.2 4.7 23 0.1 4.0 5.3 43.2 32.8 6.9 6.2 1.7 58 65
Mar 1.2 5.8 60.3 30.9 1.7 0.1 0 4.1 6.7 44.9 32.8 6.5 4.2 0.8 58 "' 77
Apr 1.0 4.6 57.2 33.1 .3.8 0.3 0 6.1 6.4 47.0 31.2 5.6 3.5 0.2 52 52May 1.1 3.1 52.3 41.9 1.5 0.1 0 3.4 6.4 48.3 36.7 3.6 1.6 0 43 55Jun 0.9 2.5 54.9 40.4 1.3 0 0 4.8 6.2 53.9 33.1 1.6 0.3 0 38 38Jul 1.0 3.6 52.5 42.0 0.9 0 0 5.5 5.8 56.6 30.6 1.3 0.2 0 56 40Aug 0.6 2.7 53.6 37.7 4.2 1.2 0 3.7 5.5 52.8 32.8 3.7 1.5 0.1 47 @ 46Sep 1.0 3.1 46.1 46.4 3.1 0.3 0 4;6 5.9 47.4 34.3 5.1 2.2 0.4 56 7814 qcOc 0.8 2.7 49.2 40.6 5.5 1.2 0 3.7 4.5 40.2 3:..9 9.8 7.5 0.4 55 - 58
Nov 0.3 3.8 43.4 42.2 6.9 3.2 0.2 4.6 5.9 42.0 31.0 9.0 6.6 0.8 63 o 67Dec 1.4 6.9 50.4 38.0 2.8 0.5 0 3.0 6.8 45.9 31.6 6.9 4.0 1.0 70 75
Yr 0.9 4.4 5.7 37.7 3.4 0.9 4.4 6.0 47.2 32.5 5.6 3.7 0.6 70 73
B-iS
-
-- -: -: - -
A II
4n1
inS
0 -- - - - - - - - - - - -cc-U3' % ~ N N ~ ~ O ~ ~ - .* '. . . -
_c w9B3a C %% O ~ . 4 ~ 4 n- g--I - --
- - - - - 'CM-e cc 4 N N In 0 - N ' 7
0 A
%0 40 0 0- 0
0 N- P4. en n
N
4 o6 t~U -n 000 FRN NOa ~0C 6 z
7i *u i
La. 0 - In %C i- .-B-.16
-
TABLE 10
a) AVERAGE WINDS IN THE BEAUFORT SEA AREA BY MONTH FOR POINT BARROW,PRUDHOE BAY AND BARTER ISLAND
Barrow Prudhoe say Baruer Islandionus Mean Speed Prevailing Mean Speed Prevailing Mean Speed Prevailing
(mis) Direction (m/s) Direction (m/s) Direction
January 5.1 ESE 6.8 W 6.6 W
February 4.9 E S.9 W 6.3 W
March 5.0 ENE 5.4 W 6.1 W
April 5.1 NE 5.3 E S.3 W
PAy 5.2 EN! .2 E 5.6 E
June 5.1 E 4.9 E 5.1 ENE
July S.2 E 4.7 E 4.7 ENE
August S.5 E 4.2 E 5.2 E
Septmber 5.8 E 5.7 U 5.9 E
October 5.9 E 5.2 U 6.5 E
Novumoer 5.S E 6.4 U 6.7 C i
Oecemeer S.0 E 5.4 W 6.2 E
Annual 5.3 £ 5.4 E 5.9 E
b) CMEHE (ONE-MINUTE) WINDS IN THE BEAUFORT SEA AREA BY MONTH FORPOINT BARROW, PRUDHOE BAY AND BARTER I..AND
Barrow Prudhoe Bay Bartr Islandmonth Mean Speed Direction Speed Direction Speed Di recti on
(mis) fm/s) (m/s)
January 22 E U3 W 36 W
February 21 E 17 W 28 W
March 26 W 17 ESE 34 W
April 18 USW 16 U 23 U
May 17 WSW i5 E 25 W
June 16 SW 20 £ 17 Id S
July 16 SW 14 WNW 18 WSW
August 16 SW 22 W 20 W
Septmber 20 MU 21 E 3S U
October 25 w Z3 ENE 26 V S
move"r 24 W 18 E 36 W
December 25 WSW 26 w 32 w
Maximum 26 U 26 W 36 '0
(FROM U.S. NATIONAL CENTER AND U.S. NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE RECORDS)
B-17
+ " . . . 1 . + + ' ' J + " + + p " : " + ' *
-
Lfi
q' L&JOe FA-
uCw 'OL
9=W
fn LA
en E
=g U ik CV =W =..Lai
#00i
-~N t-. cc CD~ I~ z Ofin =f~a
W' 0 W I *q6 .s
La. r-. '0i k
IAm
CL: 4J L 1= 4A 41W
,I (m C~~. :
0 o P'LJO CL.
z iv p~.~B.18
-
S STORM SURGES 1
B-i 9
-
12.0 STORM SURGES
Storm surges may occur with little or no warning. They are caused by the -wind pushing water towards the coastline thus causing a rise in sea levelat the coast. This rise in sea level can cause severe flooding along acoastline. A brief description of storm surges was presented in sectionA. This section provides a more detailed study of storm surge events anda practical method for estimating how high the sea level might rise andtherefore how severe the flooding might be.
Surges are highest when there is little or no ice (open water) over theocean. Intensive storms can produce 12-foot (3.7 meters) surges overalmost any portion of the western and northern Alaska coasts. This seemsto be the upper limit of surges in most places. In ice-covered seas thesurge is usually less than 3 feet ( % meter). A hazard associated withice-covered surges is the flooding of shorefast or bottomfast ice as therising water comes through the cracks in the ice. Another hazard is icepush-up, which occurs when floating ice rises above shorefast ice and ispushed on-shwre hy wind or current forces.
Finally, there is the condition were the sea is ice covered, but the ice isrelatively thin or unconsolidated. Some storms are capable of obliterating pthin ice and thus creating an open water condition. Surges have exceeded 4feet with these situations.
Autumn is the season for most storm surge flooding along the Beaufort Seacoast. The most likely storm for a surge is one moving from west to eastwell offshore with the surge being caused qy the west to northwest winds inthe southwest quadrant of the storm.
The two worst recorded cases of coastal flooding were caused by fall storms.One, in October 1963 (Section E, Case #4), had a surge of 12 feet (3.7 meters)in Barrow and lesser surges from Point Lay to Barter Island. The other, inSeptember 1970 (Section E, Case #6), was judged to be as high as any previousstorm as determined by driftwood lines. The elevation of the highest driftwoodline varied from 4.5 to 11.2 feet (1.4 to 3.4 meters) above sea level. Thevariation of height is partially due to differences in exposure. Since theonshore winds during the storm were from the west, eastern shores of streammouths, bays, etc., had higher surges than western shores. Figure 56 showsthe paths of meteorological systems which have caused large storm surge
* occurrences. Documentation of some of these events as well as others isprovided by Wise et al., 1981 (Section E).
B
• B- 20
6
-
12.1 RAPID t1ANUAL FORECAST FOR THE BEAUFORT SEA COAST1. Favorable wind direction for surge formation measuring clockwise: 270 Sto 020 (OT).
2. If the wind is from a favorable direction determine the following from _meteorological forecasts:
a. The number of hours the coastal area will be subjected to the Sfavorable winds. The wind direction and speed should be reasonably constantand not vary past the following limits:
(1) The wind direction or orientation of the isobars does not changedirection at a rate greater than 150 per 180 nautical milesand the total changes does not exceed 300 .
(2) The wind speed does not vary more than 20 percent from theaverage wind speed in the area of the direction fetch beingconsidered. Example: average wind is 40; acceptable rangeis 32 to 48.
3. Using the wind speed compute the surge height from Figure 55. The surgeheight is then adjusted for duration of wind speed, ice cover and barometricpressure.
a. If wind speed duration is less than:
(1) 3 hours reduce surge by 60 percent(2) 6 hours reduce surge by 40 percent(3) 9 hours reduce surge by 20 percent(4) 12 hours reduce surge by 10 percent(5) 12+ hours no reduction
b. If ice cover is less than: 0
(1) 1.5 tenths no reduction(2) 3.0 tenths reduce surge by 20 percent (cumulative to above)(3) 5.0 tenths reduce surge by 50 percent (cumulative)(4) 10.0 tenths reduce surge by 75 percent (cumulative)(5) Surges to 3 feet with 10 tenths ice cover have been reported
with ice to 3 feet thick between October and January.
c. Raise the surge height one foot for every 30 mb pressure incrementbelow 1000 mb in surge area.
The above surge prediction method contains some subjectively derived Iinformation. Therefore it should not be used to predict an exact value
of the surge height, but rather, a general estimate of the potentialmagnitude of a surge event.
B-21
L
-
4. Example
A possible surge condition is developing in the Prudhoe Bay region.Predicted wind is 2900 T at 38 knots. Using Figure 57 the surge heightis predicted to be 10 feet. Wind duration is forecast to be five hours.Reduce surge by 40 percent (10 -4 - 6). Ice cover is 4 tenths. Reducesurge by 50 percent (6 -3 - 3). Lowest pressure coincident with surge is960 tob. Raise surge height 1.3 feet (3 +1.3 = 4.3). Estimated surge heightis therefore predicted to be between 4 and 5 feet.
(1 foot - 0.3048006 m)(1 nautical mile - 1.85326 Kim)
Lei
~0
B- 22
0 ' ". -"
-
1 . 2-3 Oct, 1963, Barrow 5. 26-27 Aug 1975, Icy Cape2. 5-7 Oct 1963, Barr-ow 6. 17 Aug 1975, Icy Cape, negative surgel3. 15-17 Nov 1966, Barrow 7. 8-12 Oct 1972, Point Lay4. 20-25 Sep 1968, Barrow 8. 25-26 Oct 1969, Barrow
Two additional surges not on the map: one with a low center 1770 1780N,and another caused by a large persistent high pressure area centered northand east of the area.
'a.b It*,'
'p OAF
00
LS
FIGURE 56 -PATHS OF TEOROLOGICAL SySTLNS THAT HAVE CAUSEDSSTORM SURGES (FROM BROW.ER, ZT AL., 1977)
B-23
-
II48-55114
7
-I-
I41-4 7 ...... -
16 30 30 40 s s n Ie in no Yer
34-40 10 H ( - I (Y-e- - - "(1 f - 0348 m
-028-33 / ------------ -.
FIUR 57 - V FSREHIH SFRQEC FOCREC O
17-21 SG I H - -EAUFO-T-Sli i 71 - i
----31- -, 1 - -- -- - -.,- -
20 20 4t so to iu is t no io t73 Years
LSurge aeight (Fe) Frequency Interval (Years)WJind Range (Kts) SURGE HEIGHT - FREQUENCY INTERVAL CURVE
I(1 foot - 0.3048006 m)(1 knot - 0.5148 m/s)
FIGURE 57 - CURVE OF SURGE HEIGHT VS FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE FORSTORM SURGES IN THE BEAUYFORT SEA p
8-24
qI
-
IrI
WAVES
B 2
B-25
-
I.L
13.0 WAVES
Wave action along the North Alaskan coast is inhibited by the presence of thepack ice and floating ice during periods of open water. The pack ice duringthe summer and fall months may vary from only a few kilometers to 100 kilo-meters offshore depending on meteorologic conditions. The pack ice reducesthe open water fetch and floating ice on open water areas reduces thedevelopment of waves. The surface winds determine the prevailing directionof the seas.
When ice conditions provide an appreciaole fetch, the generally small seaheight conditions can be surpassed (tables 12-14). For the Western BeaufortSea area waves of greater than 30 feet (9.1 meters) were recorded for windsfrom the east. Other wave occurrences of more than ten feet are indicated forall of the areas along the coast. However, for all these areas thetabulations of sea height versus direction indicate that over 85% of the timesea height is less than 3 feet (-l meter). For the nearshore area of PingokIsland, Wiseman, et al. (1979), found that the most common nearshore wavefield had an energy peak at periods between 2 and 3 seconds and a significantwave height of 20 to 30.cm. These nearshore conditions are generally true for
the entire Beaufort Sea coast.
Tables 15-17 provide further information on sea height conditions in theBeaufort Sea. For the western, central and eastern areas of the coast, seaheight values are provided for different wind speed groups for eightdirections of the compass.
Table 18 provides estimates of maximum sustained winds, maximum significantwaves, and extreme waves for various selected return periods.
B-26
S , - . . - ' - . . m - m m - m - - - - - | m . . .• . o. - _
-
Table 12
SEA HEIGHT (F.T) VS DIRECTION FROM 11 JULY TO 31 OCTOBER FOR THECENTRAL BEAUFORT SEA COAST
(FROM GATTO, 1980)
(1 foot = 0.3048006 m)
SEA HEIGHTr1r
-
Table 13
SEA HEIGHT (T) VS DIRECTTON FROM 12. JULY TO 31 OCTOBER FOR THE
EASTERN BEAUFORT SEA COAST(FROM GATTO, 1980)
(1 foot - 0.3048006 m)
SEA HEIGHT
1
-
cn ct p
4U
odpIOw
a02p
'a:aa
IM
O -
ONuu~~ziihH±si :'i3S:r- B-29
-
TABLE 15
WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION VS. SEA HEIGHT FROM 11 JULY to 31 OCTOBERFOR THE CENTRAL BEAUFORT SEA COAST
(FROM GATTO, 1980)
(1 knot - 0'5148 m!s)(U foot - 0.3048006 m)
WIND SPEED (KNOTS) AND DIRECTION
a a *
a
62
7 It
i V
o-- - - - - - - - - i • -
B-30
-
TABLE 16
WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION VS. SEA HEIGHT FROM 11 JULY to 31 OCTOBERFROM THE EASTERN BEAUFORT SEA COASTr (FROM GATTO, 1980)
(1 knot - 0.5148 mls)(1 foot - 0.3048006 m)
WIND SPEED (KNOTS) AND DIRECTION
!~i 3 3 s I ,it i ' I -7
. .- , , ---
CI I I
*, , . . -
------z?
B-31j
u • . ..
.11
II , a a a.f fl1 2 112 tt iil I l M. - AL -
Ij I t I.I
-1-T - "
B-31
0
-
I=
TABLE 17
WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION VS. SEA HEIGHT FROM 1 JULY TO 20 NOVE4BERFOR THE WESTERN BEAUFORT SEA COAST
(FROM GATTO, 1980)
(I knot e- 0.5148 mIs)(U foot - 0.3048006 m)
WIND SPEED (KNOTS) AND DIRECTION.8 i a InesM ,
Its I 1 2 1 1
L Ll
Is
I.!:= .=: • "n . ... .
di
so 46211 61ll 14 6l I t 1 611 Le 1 I LA AI 42 of 9 l e tIkl I fit? J= i
A I
B-32
; .. 0-. - -.. ... . .- - --,- ..-. ."".. . . .
CA j -r'- - . -
-- 9 9
B-32
-
TABLE 18
ANNUAL MAXIMUM WINDS AND WAVES FOR SELECTED RETURN PERIODS
Return periods for maximum sustained winds and for maximum significant andextreme wave heights are presented in tabular form for the Beaufort Seacoast. Sustained winds are winds averaged over a period of one minute;the significant wave height is the average height of the highest one thirdof all waves (sea and swell) in view and the extreme wave height is anempirical estimate of 1.8 times the significant wave height. The returnperiod (years) is statistically derived from empirical observations. Itestimates how often an extreme event may occur in a particular area. Forexample, on the average the Beaufort coast can expect annual maximumsustained wind speed to exceed 81 knots once in 100 years.
Return period flaximum sustained flaximum significant Extreme waveyears wind-knots wave-meters (feet) meters (feet)
5 57 10.0 (33) 18.0 (59)10 62 11.0 (37) 20.5 (67)25 69 13.0 (43) 24.0 (78)50 75 15.0 (49) 27.0 (88)
100 81 17.0 (55) 30.0 (99)
-
0
B-33
S
-
1!-
SECTION C i
ICE :
C. .
6t
-
14.0. ICE ZONES
Three ice zones can be broadly defined for the southern Beaufort Sea.
1. Fast ice zone - consists of seasonal ice which is an extension ofthe land, because it generally remains immobile during the winter.Its extension seaward varies but typically progresses to the 20 meterdepth contour by late winter. The ice is generally two meters thick.
I
2. Seasonal pack ice zone - begins at the edge of the fast ice andcontinues out 100 to 200 km. There are often strong shear forceswithin this ice zone. It is mobile and often contains a largepercentage of first year ice. In this zone, the undeformed areasof ice have an average thickness of approximately 2 meters.
3. Polar pack ice zone - mainly composed of thick multi-year floes.This zone generally lies beyond the continental shelf. Approximateice thickness of the general terrain of old multi-year floes is 2 to4 meters.
C-2
. i .... .. . T _. . -: ,, , ..... ... ... ."
-
-.---.-.--- ~ - - -
2S I0
I.1
SjS
Ii
__________________ Oj
SHORE FAST ICE
S4
S
S
S
C-3
-
I
15.1 ANNUAL ICE CYCLE WITHIN THE NEARSHORE AREAOF THE BEAUFORT SEA (AVERAGE CONDITIONS)
I
Time Event
Late September New ice begins to form in open water. Ice formsto early October first adjacent to rivers and in coastal lagoons.
(During severe ice seasons this process can beginas early as late August.)
Mid to late October The landfast ice sheet has formed and iscontinuous. Areas of the ice are unstable becauseof the thinness of the ice (particularly north ofthe barrier islands).
November to February The landfast ice area has thickened and becomemore stable, particularly inside the barrierislands. Some modifications of the ice sheetoccur due to ridging, incursions of older pack icenorth of the barrier islands, and grounding of icemasses as they are driven ashore by the winds.
March to Mlay Ice has generally reached its greatest thickness.
Ice has its most stable period during this time.
Late flay to early June Warming trend causes breakup of rivers and over-flooding of ice by the rivers in the nearshorezone.
Early to late June Melt ponds begin to form on the ice. The icebegins to lose thickness and therefore weakens.Toward the end of the period open water areasbegin to occur. These areas are generally alongthe coast and around the barrier islands,particularly the southern sides. Cracks in theice can be found both north and south of thebarrier islands.
June to August Breakup of ice sheet continues. Significant openwater occurs within the barrier islands by mid tolate July.
August to September Generally open water within the barrier islands.Some ice masses remain within the barrier islandduring severe ice years. Open water north of thebarrier island is dependent on the north-southmigration of the pack ice. Refreezing occurs.
C-
I
C -4
I
L 1 - i i - r , ' , .
-
15.2 FREEZING AND BREAKUP OF NEARSHORE ICE
Table 19 provides data on freezing and breakup of the nearshore ice field atpoint Barrow and Barter Island. As can be seen, yearly freezeup may occurat Barter Island at any time between 20 September and 25 October and at PointBarrow at any time between 23 September and 19 December. Similarly, breakuphas occurred at Point Barrow as early as 15 June and as late as 22 August,and at Barter Island from 22 July to 14 August. Freezeup and breakup areat present unpredictable parameters.
S
It
S
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-
IA Ad
S. P. . -
INCCL
0 Z
o 4.o
CA kc
CD--
LaJ
6C
0 VQq'a., N
*~ fa,
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-
PACK ICE
I rS
C-7
-
A.7
16.0 PACK ICE
In addition to the unpredictability of freeze-up and breakup is the erratic pmovement of the pack ice. The pack ice can be driven toward the coast atany time by a strong onshore wind. During severe ice seasons, i.e., 1975,ships can be prevented from passing east or west along the Beaufort Seacoast. During less severe seasons, the ice edge can retreat more than 50kilometers offshore leaving a wide expanse of open water along the entireBeaufort Sea coast. Because of the sporadic nature of ice movement andgrowth "average ice conditions" are difficult to ascertain. However, -Brower et al. (1977) prepared a comprehensive climatic atlas of the outercontinental shelf waters and coastal regions of Alaska. From their work,diagrams of the extreme northern latitude and extreme southern latitudeof the pack ice edge can be shown for the period 1 July to 31 October(figures 58-61). Additionally, the mean location of the ice edge hasbeen extracted for this same period (figures 62-65).
Satellite imagery has provided a method of obtaining more detailed informationof sea ice distribution. Barnes et al. (1976) used four years of Landsatimagery to compile statistics on nearshore ice concentration relative tothe distance from the Alaskan coast for August, September and October(figures 66-68). The lines indicate distance offshore in nautical miles.
-
C-8J
4
-
I6 ~140* 12(r
K~54 75* II.. ... .....-. ... ...
.. ..... ...7. . . . . . . . .
..4.. ..14~~~~ ~~ ..... ......717 1 4 5 13 1 3 l I
....... .. OBS ........ ... ... ......
£.. .6 ........ *
.. . .... .
.. .. . .. . . ....
YEARS OF OBSERVATION
1400 1207V7
FIGUR.E~~~~~..... ..... ..... .X~l OTENADETEESUHR AIUEO H
..... .... GE - ULC.... -..
. ... .. . ...
.......
-
1600o 140* 120r
-5
1 -. .. -. ..
- w -.... ...
...[.. .. .
August ..... ...15 ...... . ... .. ....
34 ~ ~ ~ . .. .... ..... ..I * 35 3 4 11 3 0 3Y.A.S OF.. .BEVTO
.6.. ...
C~ ...... 14.1..- -.. -...
..6.. ..
.. ... .
...... AR O.. .. .. S.......N
----. .. ... . .FI ..R .......ENOTEN N XT OUHR LTTDEO H
.. AC. ......... A GUS
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-
1600 140. 20
75' 7
. .. . .... . . . . .. ... ............
.. .. ... . .. .. . . .... ..... ..... ....
.... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ V ..... Q.... ...
60 100.
13 17 IS 1 3 13 I 10 32 13 13 13 82 a 1YEARS OF O8SERVATION
140* 120
FIGUR 60-7T5NRTENAD£TR OTENLAIUEO... E ICE.... ED GE... ....... .
...... ...........
-
Iwo0 1400 12(0*50 75
Y.... OF .OBS ..A.O .
754 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ... ............. .. - r- 5
... ....
O ct be ............
....... OF... ... RATO
. ... ...........FIGURE~~~~~~~~...... 61........PR ADETR OTHR ATTD O H
A... ..C... ......CTOBE
..... .....
07
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X.,.
. . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ........ .. . .. . . . .. ..I
YEA. OF....... .......
t .... .
...... .... .. ..I ... .. .... .....1. ....
- JULY 1-315
YER OF OSERVAION
1400
FI7 R 6212(rLT T DE O H P C C ~ E J
.C -...1 3 ...
....... . 75.
-
1601400 1200754 75j )
...*.ii..... ... ..
. .. .....
.2..1.1176 111 121010 ....... AR OF.. ..S.. AI.
0. .... ..
.. .. .. .. ..... .. .... ... .. .
..... ...r-
.. ... ......... S .. .. .. S....... . . . . .
FIGURE~~~ ~~~~ 63.. ..... .2NLTTD FTEC C DE-AGSC- 4........
.. . . . . . .
-
*1600 We 2t75 175
.. .... ..
.. .. ... . . . .. . .. . .
13151151151..1131129 ....... . . . ...S O F.. . ......I
0... .
.... _ __........__ _ 1.
..... ... XT" :
.. ...).
00
13 715 1 5 613i233 113 131312 11 9 10YARS OF OSEVATON
14010
FIGUR 64-7LINLAIUEO 5l AKIEEfG ETE...-.. ..
.. . .. ..
-
160 140* 12007r I... 5... ... ... .. .. .. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ... .....
. .-. .. . . . .-. . . . . . . .
.. . . ... . . .. ..... ....... ..... ........
4 7 j...~..*.... 75....--....- -.. 1
.. . .. .. . .. .. . ..-.- ....
.. . 3.. .......... .... .. . . .... .
OCTOBER 1-5 ..
YEARS OF CBSERVATiON
1600 100 1207IUR 65.. . 75* LAIUEO0h AKIEEG COE
C... 6.... . . . . . . . .
-
IL 'a
4 IL
FICURE 66 AN MCr.?M ICE COVER C)ALONG MHE BEAUFORTSEA COAST - AUGUST
C-1 7
-
I r
.1 4
N64
C-1
-
C91
-
I1.UP
I
SECTION D .'CLIMATOLOGY -"
£- .
-
17.0 ARCTIC CHARACTERISTICS
The term Arctic is generally associated with ideas of cold, snow, ice and nighlatitudes. There are a number of commonly used definitions, each valid in itsown right depending on the particular function for which it was developed.Definitions may use climate, conditions, or some other variaole to define thepolar areas. Several definitions using climate as a criterion are:
1. The area lying north of the boundary fixed by the isotherm of 50OF 0(100C) for the warmest month, or the isotherm of 140F (minus100C) for the coldest month).
2. Areas having a mean annual temperature of 320F (O°C) or below.
3. All areas where the sum of the average temperature in degreescentigrade of the warmest month plus one-tenth of the temperature ofthe coldest month is less than 90C.
Regardless of the criteria used for the various definitions, there are certaincharacteristics common to the region. These are:
1. Short, cool summers.Z. Long, cold winters.3. Low annual mean temperature.4. Long periods of semi-darkness.5. Periods of continual daylight and darkness.6. Absence of forests.7. Freezing in winter of lakes, rivers, bays, and parts of the sea. S8. Scant precipitation.9. Low absolute humidity.10. Low evaporation rate.11. floist soils when thawed.12. Presence of permanently frozen ground.13. High windchill factor.14. High latitude position.
0-2
I _
-
I
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18.0 SUNLIGHT -
The Beaufort Sea coast receives a majority of its sunlight during the summermonths. The Arctic Circle separates the area to the north which receives 0
continuous sunlight for part or all of the summer and no sunlight duringpart or all of the winter (figure 69). The length of the day during thesummer months is extended significantly if twilight is considered (figure70). At latitude 700N, twilight occurs approximately 11. of the timeand therefore the yearly percentage of sunlight and twilight is 63% atthe Arctic Circle latitude. These charts can be used to determine amountof darkness if a winter response to a spill is necessary.
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S70 - OURS OF CO,'T=OUS S M,!GH AMN rJ'=IHT ON A l1ONTMY BASIS
4."OR NOR--= L. :=LES (FROMe BARa11.A- & JOENSON, 1978)
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S4 TEMPERATURE
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19.0 TE4PERATURE
Temperatures in the Arctic, as one might expect, are very cold most of theyear. There are large differences in temperature between the interior andcoastal areas. In the interior during the summer days, temperatures oftenclimb to the mid 60's or low 70's and occasionally rise to the high 70's orlow 80's. Temperatures in the 90's are also recorded on rare occasions.
The Arctic coastal regions are characterized by relatively cool, shortr summers. During the summer months the temperatures normally climb to the
40's or low 50's and occasionally reach the 60's. There is almost no growingseason along the coasts, and the temperatures will fall below freezing duringall months of the year. At Point Barrow, Alaska, the minimum temperaturefails to fall below freezing on only about 42 days a year. Over the ArcticOcean the temperatures are very similar to those experienced along the coast;however, the summer temperatures are somewhat colder.
Winter temperatures along the Arctic coast are very cold but not nearly socold as those observed in certain interior areas. Only on rare occasions doesthe temperature climb to above freezing during the winter months. The coldestreadings for these coastal areas are in the -60's and -70's (degreesFahrenheit).
The air temperature alone is not the best indicator of how cold one feels ifthere is any appreciable wind. Using wind speed and temperature the conceptof wind chill index or equivalent temperature can be derived (Arkin, 1971).Table 20 shows a wind chill nomogram and a table of wind chill equivalenttemperatues which were prepared from the nomogram. To use the nomogram thetemperature and wind speed must be known. For example, assume the wind speedis 10 mph and the air temperature is 200F. Move along the 10 mph line untilit intersects the 20oF vertical line. Then move horizontally to the 4 mphline and read the wind chill temperature vertically below this point. (Note:The 4 mph line is always used as the baseline to estimate the wind chill forany set of wind speed and temperature.) (Example: The data line shows thatfor a 20°F air temperature and a 10 mph wind, the equivalent temperatures is30 F). The highlighted area of the wind chill equivalent temperature chartshows the same result as the nomogram example.
Table 21 is another example of a wind chill chart. This chart gives theapproximate boundaries, for properly clothed persons, where wind chillswould be of little danger, considerable danger or very great danger.
The final temperature charts (figures 71 and 72) provide the percentageprobability of occurrence of free air temperature for all coastal stations(North Slope) and percentage probabilty of occurrence equivalent chilltemperature developed for Barrow, Alaska (Searby, 1971) but valid for allcoastal stations (North Slope). The equivalent chill temperature chartindicates the severity of the Arctic environment. Fifty percent of thetime during the months of November, December, January, February and Marchthe equivalent chill temperature poses considerable danger to properlyclothed pe*sons (table 21).
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Table 21
WIND CHILL CHART DEFINING TEPERATURES HAZARDOUS FOR PROPERLY CLOTHED PERSONS
WINOCHILL CHART
LOCAL TEMPERATURE CF)
EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE
CALM 321 231 141 5 -41 112 -311-40 -49j -58s 29 201 101 1 -9j-li-28 -37 -47 -561 -65
10 1 7 -4 -15 -26 -37 -48 -59 -70 -81 -92
15 13 -I -13 -25 1-37 -49 -61 -73 -85 -97 -109
20 7 -6 -19 -32 -44 -57 -70 -83 -96 -109 -121
25 31 -10 -24 L- 3 7 -50 -64 -77 -90 -104 -117 -130
30 1 -1 -27 -41 -54 -68 02 997 -09j -123 -137
35 -1 -15 -29 -43 -57 -71 -85 -99 -113 -127 -142
40 -3 -17 -31 -45 -59 -74 -67 -102 -116 -131 -145
45 -3 -16 -32 -46 -61 -75 -89 -104 -118 -132 -147
so -4 -331-47 -62 -76 -91 -lOS -120 -134 -1489
LITTLE DANGER CONSIDERAIE VERY GREAT DANGERCFOR PROPERLY CLOTHED PERSONS DANGERDANGER FROM FREEZING OF EXPOSED FLESH
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FIGURE 71. - MONTHLY GRAPHS OF THE PERCENTAGE PROBABILITY OFOCCURRENCE OF FREE AIR TEMPERATURES(FROM HARTMAN & JOHNSON, 1978)
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FIGURE 72 -MONTHLY GRAPHS OF THE PERCENTAGE PROBABILITY OFOCCURRENCE OF EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMERATURE
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20.0 VISIBILITY
Two conflicting factors make the subject of visibility in the polar regions 0very complex. Arctic air being cold and dry, is exceptionally transparent andbecause of this extreme ranges of visibility are possible. On the other hand,there is a lack of contrast between objects, particularly when all distinguish-able objects are covered by a layer of new snow. Limitations to visibility inthe Arctic are primarily blowing snow and fog.
1. Blowing snow. Blowing snow constitutes a more serious hazard tooperations in the Arctic than in midlatitudes, because the snow is dry andfine and is easily picked up by gentle and moderate winds. Winds in excessof 8 to 12 knots may raise the snow several feet off the ground, and the .blowing snow may obscure surface objects.
2. Fog. The two types of fog most frequently found in the polarregions are advection and radiation fog. Fog is found most frequentlyalong the Arctic coastal areas during summers and usually lies in a beltparallel to the shore. Tables 22 and 23 provide monthly percentage frequencyof occurrence of visibility and ceiling height for Barter Island and PointBarrow. S
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21.0 PRECIPITATION
Precipitation amounts are small varying from 3 to 7 inches ( 7 to 18 cm)along the Arctic coastal area and over the ice pack. The climate over theArctic Ocean and adjoining coastal areas is as dry as some of the desertregions in the United States. Most of the annual precipitation falls as snowduring the winter months. Precipitation statistics are found in taoles 24 and25.
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22.0. CLIr4ATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
Climatological parameters for Point Barrow and Barter Island are suimarized intables 26-29.
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CLIMATOLOGICAL SUMMARIES FOR POINT BARROW AND BARTER ISLAND(1 knot 0.5148 m/s)
C *AR*Ow.(1 inch 2.54c)SAXCW.ALA" CUrprtSaUal. 111611c. 1314?1W.; Ly~as (groom, 22 go".
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I
23.0. CASE HISTORIES
The following fourteen case histories provide descriptive information forsevere storm surges between 1954 and 1977.
STORM PROFILE: 1REGIONS: West ArcticCOMMIUNITIES: BarrowINCLUSIVE DATES: 17/9/1954 TO 18/9/1954DAMAGE, Barrow: Water washed over the beach into camp, a helium tank fromBarrow village was moved almost to the point.MAXIMUM SURGE: 9 to 10 ft in BarrowDATA SOURCES: 8.0
STORJ PROFILE: 2REGIONS: West ArcticCOMMUNITIES: Barrow, WalnwrlghtINCLUSIVE DATES: 3/10/1954 TO 5/10/1954DAMAGE: Minor damage. Wainwright had beach erosion, goods were moved fromstore, and a scow was washed 4 miles to east and buried in sand.MAXIMUM SURGE: 9.5 ftCOIIENTS: Only known reference is by Hume. The 1954. storm was the strongestprior to the October 1963 storm.DATA SOURCES: 8.0, 5.0
STOP4 PROFILE: 3REGIONS: East ArcticCOMMUNITIES: Barter Island
( INCLUSIVE DATES: 19/9/1957 TO 21/9/1957DA14AGE: Road damage, 4,400 barrels of fuel washed away. Part of runwayundermined. Navy LST ran aground.MAXIMUM SURGE: 6-12 ftDATA SOURCES: 8.0
ISTOR4 PROFILE: 4REGIONS: West Arctic, Colville, East ArcticCOI4UNITIES: Barrow, Barter Island, Point Lay, WainwrightINCLUSIVE DATES: 3/10/1963 TO 3/10/63DAIiAGE: $3 million to Barrow. 15 homes plus 15 other buildings and contents,4 airplanes, freshwater supply contaminated with sea water, electricalgenerating plant received $100,000 damage. Sediment transport was theequivalent of 20 years normal transport. Water depths 2 ft at ARL Laboratory,3.5 ft in other areas. Wainwright 5(re flooded, 4 ft water to top of bluff.MAXIMUM SURGE: Barrow 11-12 ft; Barter Is. 5.5 ft; Pt. Lay 9 ft; Wainwright
4 ftCO111ENTS: A deepening low pressure center 995 to 980 mb moved from 74N 16311to 74N 120W at 25-30 knots in 24 hours. Surge developed in west to northwestflow, south of storm.DATA SOURCES: 8.0, 5.0, 3.0
E
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STOR4 PROFILE: 5REGIONS: Western ArcticCO11IUNITIES: Barrow, Pt. BarrowINCLUSIVE DATES: 21/9/1968 TO 24/9/1968DAJIAGE: $50,000. Road between Barrow and city dump (3 mi) eroded severelyand a bridge damaged.fIAXIMUI SURGE: 8.5 ftCOtM ENTS: A storm moving west to east at 15 kts, 200 miles north of Barrow,brought 25 ft waves offshoreDATA SOURCES: 1.0, 3.0, 5.0
STOPM PROFILE: 6REGIONS: West Arctic, East ArcticCO1MUNITIES: Oliktok, Prudhoe Bay, BarrowINCLUSIVE DATES: 13/9/1970 TO 13/9/1970DAMAGE: Oliktok lost several hundred ft of runway, driftwood lines indicateda surge of approximately 3 meters.MAXIMUII SURGE: 3 m at Oliktok; 3 m approx. at Prudhoe; 2.4 and 3 m at HerschelCOM4ENTS: No weather reports except Barrow. Winds from reference: Oliktok80 km/hr (50 mph); Deadhorse 46 km/hr; Cape Haklett 130 km/hr (estimated).DATA SOURCES: 18.0
STORII PROFILE: 7REGIONS: East ArcticCOMI1UNITIES: Prudhoe BayINCLUSIVE DATES: 28/11/1970 TO 28/11/1970COMMENTS: Storm center causing flooding 27/11/70 at Kotzebue curved nearBarrow to move east at 25 kt to 72N, 45W at 28/1200Z. SDATA SOURCES: 15.0
STORM PROFILE: 8REGIONS: East ArcticC0f14UN ITI ES:INCLUSIVE DATES: 2/9/1972 TO 2/9/1972MAXIMUM SURGE: 3.8 ftCODIENTS: A 996 mb low pressure center moved from west to east 200 nmi northof the coast. Surge occurred in northwesterly flow southwest of the storm.DATA SOURCES: 6.0
STORIM PROFILE: 9REGIONS: East ArcticCOMMUN ITI ES:INCLUSIVE DATES: 27/9/1972 TO 27/9/1972COMMENTS: Ship at MSQ 268/13 reported 14 kts W with 5 ft waves, 5 sec.period. Same ship next at MISQ 268/12 at 210OZ 9-28-72 reports wind 15 kts W,with 15 ft waves 6-7 sec. period.DATA SOURCES: 15.0
E-2il .
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STOR4 PROFILE: 10REGIONS: West ArcticCOIMIUNITIES: Point LayINCLUSIVE DATES: 9/10/1972 TO 10/10/1972COIMIENTS: A 980 mb low pressure system moved from 62N 177W to 74N 153W at 25knots in 36 hours. Surge occurred with southwest winds in the southeastquadrant of the storm.DATA SOURCES: 4.0O
STOR4 PROFILE: 11REGIONS: East ArcticINCLUSIVE DATES: 5/1/1974 TO 7/l/1974COMMENTS: Maximum winds on record at Barter Island occurred with an estimated990 mb low pressure center moving west to east 300 nmi north of the BeaufortSea coast.
DATA SOURCES: 6.0
STOR1 PROFILE: 12REGIONS: West Arctic, Colville, East ArcticINCLUSIVE DATES: 26/8/1975DAMAGE: UnknownMAXIMUM SURGE: 9.5 ft SCOMMENTS: The 1975 Prudhoe Bay Sealift fleet was stopped for several days.One barge in the fleet went aground. Driftwood line indicated surge height of9.5 to 10.0 ft in places. Surge heights highest in sector I determined bydriftwood lines (Reimnitz and Maurer).DATA SOURCES: 3.0, 4.0
STORM PROFILE: 13REGIONS: West ArcticCOMIUNITIES: Icy CapeINCLUSIVE DATES: 26/8/1975 TO 27/8/1975DAMAGE: High water and flooding at Icy CapeMAXIMUM SURGE: Unknown •COMtIENTS: The remains of tropical storm Rita moved north/northeast at 30-35kts from 67N, 174W to 77N 149W in 12 hours.DATA SOURCES: 4.0
STOPJ4 PROFILE: 14REGIONS: West ArcticCOMMUNITIES: Barrow, Barrow Gas WellsINCLUSIVE DATES: 29/12/1977 To 30/12/1977DAMAGE: On the morning of December 30, rising water lifted the pack ice atBarrow and wind drove it as much as 30 yds inland. Barrow gas well runwaypartially flooded with 6 to I in of water rising through a crack in the ice.MAXIMUM SURGE: 3.5 ftCOriENTS: A storm moved north at 40-50 knots from the Aleutians thru BeringStrait to northwest of Barrow. Southwesterly winds along the Chuckchi coastpersisted 12 hours.DATA SOURCES: 5.0, 3.0
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24.0. LITERATURE CITED
Aagaard, K., 1979. Current measurements in possible dispersal regions ofthe Beaufort Sea. Environ. Assess. of the Alaskan Cont. Shelf, Ann. Rep.Princ. Invest. RU 91. Boulder, CO: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA, OCSEAP.
Aagaard, K., 1981. Current measurements in possible dispersal regions ofthe Beaufort Sea. In: Environ. Assess. of the Alaskan Cont. Shelf. Volume3: Physical Science Studies. USDC Office of Marine Pollution Assessment.Washington, DC.
Aagaard, K., 1983. The Beaufort Current. In: The Alaskan Beaufort SeaEcosystems and Environment (D. Schell, P. Barnes, E. Reimnitz, eds.). Inpress. New York, NY. Academic Press.
Arkin, M.A. 1971. Windchill (Equivalent Temperatures), EnvironmentalInformation Summaries C-3, U.S. Department of Commerce. Silver Spring, MD.
Barnes, J.C., C.J. Bowley, M.D. Smallwood, and J.H. Willard, 1976. Sea IceConditions in the Beaufort Sea Derived from Four Years of LANDSAT SatelliteData. Prepared for Alaska Oil and Gas Association by Environmental Researchand Technology, Inc., Concord, MA. Document No. P-1415-F.
Barnes, P.W. and L.J. Toimil, 1979. Maps showing inner shelf circulationpatterns, Beaufort Sea, Alaska. flap 1F-1125. U.S. Geol. Survey, Denver,CO.
Barry, R.G., 1979. Study of climatic effects on fast ice extent and itsseasonal decay along the Beaufort-Chukchi coast. Final Rep. Prin. Invest.,Environ. Assess. Alaskan Cont. Shelf RU #244. NOAA, OCSEAP. Boulder, CO.
Bilello, 1I.A., 1973. Prevailing Wind Directions in the Arctic Ocean. U.S.Army Corps of Engineers, CRREL Research Report 306.
Brower, W.A., H.W. Searby, J.L. Wise, H.F. Diaz and A.S. Prechtel, 1977.Climatic atlas of the outer continental shelf waters and coastal regions ofAlaska. Vol. III Chukchi-Beaufort Sea. NOAA/AEIDC Pub. B-77. Anchorage, AK.
Carlson, R.F., 1977. Effects of seasonality and variability of streamflow onnearshore coastal areas. In: Final Rep. Princ. Inves. Envir. Assess. AlaskanCont. Shelf. NOAA/OCSEAP.-Pp. 96-215.
Gatto, L.W., 1980. Coastal Environment, Bathymetry, and Physical Oceanographyalong the Beaufort, Chukchi and Bering Seas. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,CRREL Special Report 80-5.
* Hachmeister, L.E. and J.B. Vinelli, 1983. Physical oceanography. Chapter 7in Envi-onrettal Characterization and Biological Use of Lagoons in the Eastern
Teaufort Sea. LGL Report to OCSEAP. Juneau, AK.
Hartman, C.W., and P.R. Johnson, 1978. Environmental Atlas of Alaska.Institute of Water Resources, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK.
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