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JOURNAL of ADVANCED MATERIALS
Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017, 1, 1: 13-18
OPEN A Review on Pollution Caused by Tannery Effluents and Remediation Aspects Taken in Vellore
REVIEW ARTICLE
Available Online
@ www.pristineonline.org
V. Praveena and S. Mythili Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioscience and Technology, VIT
University, Tamil Nadu, India Correspondence: [email protected]
Keywords: Chromium, Eco-toxicity, Tannery, Pollution, Bio-waste, Vellore
ABSTRACT
Effluents from chrome chemical and chrome tanning industries are
considered to be primary water and soil pollutant sources in Vellore. The
ecological impacts caused by the polluted effluents are health issues to
tannery workers and dwellers of the contaminated site, soil infertility, loss of
soil nutrition, wastage of agricultural lands, problems in domestic drinking
and irrigating water sources in Vellore. This paper reviews about the water
pollution caused by tannery effluent and chemical effluent discharged from
the industrial sites of Ranipet, Ambur, Walajapet, Pernambut and
Vaniyambadi through the primary water source Palar river basin. The various
environmental and practical remediation approaches taken to control the
pollutants includes plant effluent treatment, low cost adsorption and
desorption materials, plant based adsorbents and microbial remediation
approaches include bacterial, fungal and algal for the metal degradation,
removal and recovery have been discussed.
How to cite this article:
Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017,1, 1: 13-18
1. INTRODUCTION
Air, water and soil pollution are the primary source for environmental
health issues. Water contamination is one of the serious lives threatening
problems and being a roadblock for industrial and agricultural growth in
developing countries like India. The water pollution caused by improper
discharge of effluents from various industries like alloys, chemicals, textiles and
tanneries where salts of heavy metals, dyes and detergents used. There are about
3000000 people have been employed in leather tanning industries. India releasing
about 2000-3000t of chromium annually from tannery industrial effluents which
contains chromium between 2000-5000mg/L. Tannery effluent also contains the
supporting chemicals for tanning process like sodium chloride, ammonium salts,
alum salts, sodium sulfides, alkali, organic dyes and acids. The discharge of
untreated effluent forms sludge and contaminates the surrounding water region
[1, 2].
Chromium compounds are mainly used in industries like metallurgy,
textile, chrome chemicals, pigments, timbering, leather manufacturing, paints,
pigments, nuclear power plant, catalyst for corrosion resistance and electroplating
for surface treatment [3, 4, 5]. Tannery industries discharge about 40 - 25,000mg/L
of chromium in effluents [6]. The toxicity of chromium is reported by its valence
and solubility. Inhalation of chromium (VI) dust causes asthma, respiratory
disorder (acute exposure, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, respiratory irritation
Received: 25 February, 2017 Accepted: 14 March, 2017 Available Online: 25 March, 2017
Copyright: © 2017 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original author and source are credited.
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Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017, 1, 1: 13-18
and Infla-mmation), ulcers and skin diseases, dyspnea,
hepatic, renal, hematological effects and lung cancer [7, 8]. The
highest mobility and solubility have raised the toxicity of
chromium (VI) than other valance states [9]. The chromium
(VI) toxicity can result in liver and kidney damage, cancer,
dermatitis, allergies, Mutation [10]. Cr (VI) compounds can
damage cell membranes, disrupt cellular functions and
damage the DNA structure. The chromium (VI) has been
designated as a priority pollutant by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) due to its ability
to cause mutations and cancer in humans [6]. The maximum
contaminant level (MCL) for chromium (VI) in domestic water
supplies according to USEPA standard is 0.05mg/L. The
toxicity studies reported that Cr (III) compounds are cytotoxic
and form DNA adduct and it can cause neurological and
skeletal disorders [11].
2. CHROMIUM CONTAMINATION
The growth of chrome tanning industries in Vellore is
like mushroom junction. Ranipet is reported as chronic
polluted area by the Central Pollution Control Board of India
(CPCBI). Chemicals used in leather production are chromium
sulfates, sodium chloride, calcium hydroxide and sulfuric
acid, the sodium and sulfates of chromium are giving the
characteristic reddish-dull brown color to the tannery effluent.
The effluents released from tannery, paint and chemical
industries are discharged into the lakes Thandalam,
Vanapadi, Pullianthangal and Palar river basin. The tannery
effluent is very much high in pH and concentrations of BOD,
COD and TDS. The tanning process releases less harmful
chromium (III) in the effluent. The chromium (III) oxidized to
chromium (VI) when exposed to various environmental
conditions. The chromium concentration in the contaminated
surface water of Ranipet is ranging from 2.4 to 1,308.6μg/L
and having an average of 247.2μg/L [7, 12].
The Palar River flowing in Vellore, carries huge
volume of tannery effluent due to the flow path is connected
in all the way by discharged tannery effluents. The
concentration of chromium in the Palar river basin is ranging
from 47.4mg/L to 682.4mg/L with an average of 306.285mg/L.
Due to the effluent contamination the fertile lands in Vellore
has becoming waste lands [13, 14]. The surface and ground
water pollution caused by the chromium (VI) leached site of
Tamil Nadu Chromate and Chemicals Limited (TCCL)
industry and the environmental problem caused to the lakes
Pulliankannu and Karai has been discussed [15]. Around the
tannery industries in Vellore it is reported that the
concentration of chromium in surface and subsurface soil is
found to be 16731-79865mg/kg and it reduces the crop 25 to
40% [16]. Ranipet is famous for tannery industries. All the
industries release more than 10000L of purified, partially
purified and polluted effluents into the nearby water bodies.
The Cr present in this effluent contaminates the quality of
both surface and ground water and affects the aquatic
organisms in various ways [3]. The effluent sample collected
from CETP, Ranipet was found to be containing 3.13mg/L of
chromium [17]. Ambur is the second most polluted area by
tannery industries in Vellore, which covers more than 100
number of tannery industries [18].
The bioaccumulation study of chromium in
Pulliyanthangal, Ranipet, Vellore lake water, soil and muscles
of three fish species Catla catla, Ictalurus punctatus, Oreochromis
mossambicus were reported as 0.642±0.60mg/L,
1.391±0.30mg/kg, 0.38±0.12mg/kg, 0.31±0.13mg/kg,
0.27±0.08mg/kg [19]. The concentrations of chromium in water
samples from Karai is 241mg/L, Pullianthangal is 1247mg/L,
Bharathi nagar is 4594mg/L, Tandalam is 2125mg/L,
Maniyamba is 168mg/L and soil samples from Karai is
241mg/L, Pulianthanga is 1247mg/L, Bharathi nagar is
4594mg/L, Tandalam is 2125mg/L, Maniyamba is 168 [20].
Project on the quantitative analysis of bioaccumulation level
of chromium for various vegetables grown in Vellore has been
analyzed and reported as concentration of chromium in mg/L
as follows: cabbage (Brassica oleracea)-1.10, onion (Allium cepa)-
9.511, carrot (Daucus carota)-0.052, spinach (Spinacia oleraceae)-
6.771, beans (Phaseolus coccineus)-9.562, cauliflower (Brassica
oleracea)-8.928, brinjal (Solanum melongena)-5.502, potato
(Solanum tuberosum)-8.506, tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)-
9.949 [21].
3. EFFECT OF TANNERY EFFLUENT ON
ECOLOGY
The phytotoxicity study of tannery effluent in the
plants Allium cepa and Lemna minor collected from Ambur
reported that inhibition in root growth, reduction in number of
fronds, proteins and chlorophyll content. It caused chlorosis
and tissue necrosis in Nostoc muscorum. It showed an inhibitory
action on ecofriendly microbes like Bacillus thuringiensis,
Rhizobium etli and Aspergillus terreus. The genotoxicity study of
the effluent reported to form micronucleus formation in
leukocyte and toxic to erythrocytes [18]. The epidemiological
study of air pollution due to tannery dusts containing
chromium and lead with common gas pollutants has been
investigated for the incidence of asthma. The clinical study
conducuted in Ambur, Pernambut, Ranipet, Vaniyambadi and
Vellore reported that 10 to 15% of children, 15% of adolescents,
20 to 25% of adults and 8 to 12% of old age people has been
affected by mild type of asthma and about 15% of Vellore
population has been affected by asthma. The blood chromium
level and urine chromium level was observed for the tannery
workers, nearby dwellers and hospital staffs were reported as
1.424mg/L, 0.983mg/L, 0.0096mg/L in blood and 35-45µg/L ,
25-35µg/L and 4.5 – 12.5µg/L in urine samples [22, 23]. The
haematological and histopathological effect of tannery effluent
on fresh water species Tilapia mossambica was studied. It is
reported that the toxic effect of tannery effluent caused
decreased red blood cells (RBC), erythrocyte sedimentation
rate (ESR) and packed cell volume (PCV) in Tilapia mossambica
[2].
Increase in the concentration of chromium inhibited
the germination of chickpea (C. arietinum L.) seeds and
decreased the seedling by inhibiting the formation of plantlets
[24]. Contamination of chromium in soil is directly
proportional to the soil particle size. In the soil extraction
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Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017, 1, 1: 13-18
procedure for the removal of chromium, the metal chelating
agent EDTA enhances the removal efficiency [25]. The effect of
chromium (VI) on seed germination of Ocimum basilicum L.
and Ocimum gratissimum L. has been studied, and inhibition in
germination of seeds were noticed. The EC50 of chromium (VI)
for Ocimum gratissimum was 90ppm and 45ppm for Ocimum
basilicum [26]. The exposure of the common plants Helianthus
annus and Solanum nigrum to the heavy metal chromium
contaminated soil, the vitamins and minerals values were
decreased and antioxidant property of Solanum nigrum is
found to be greater than Helianthus annus. The study proved
that chromium is toxic to the plants tested [27]. The exposure
of plants Brassica juncea and Sorghum vulgare to chromium (VI)
resulted in the inhibition of their growth, loss of biochemical
factors, vitamins, mineral and antioxidant properties has been
studied [28]. The chromium toxicity in plants depends on its
oxidation state. It gets accumulated in plants via transport
channels of sulfate and iron carrier ions. The plants growth is
inhibited by over accumulation of chromium that affects
photosynthesis and metabolic process [29]. The populations of
chromium tolerance bacteria in various regions of Vellore are
reported as Vaniyambadi (31%), Ambur (23%), Ranipet (21%),
Walajapet (13%) and Pernambut (12%). The strain Bacillus
cereus VITSCCr02 was found to have tolerance to chromium
(VI) up to 3300 mg/L [13].
4. REMEDIATION OF CHROMIUM
CONTAMINATION
Microorganisms and microbial derived products can
be used as bio-accumulators for soluble and particulate forms
of metals especially in dilute external solutions. Microbial
technologies may provide an alternative or addition to
conventional method of metal removal or metal recovery with
economically convenient [30]. The maximum inhibition
growth zone of Streptomyces spp.VITDDK3 is 30mm for
potassium chromate [31]. Enterococcus casseliflavus isolated
form tannery effluent was found to have highest potential to
the chromium (VI) is about 800µg/ml and it was confirmed by
agar diffusion and broth dilution method. It reduced BOD and
COD from the tannery effluent at normal room temperature
range (35ºC - 45ºC) and nearly neutral pH (7 - 7.5). The bacteria
(Pseudomonas sp., Microbacterium sp., Desulfovibrio sp.,
Enterobacter sp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp., Bacillus,), fungi
(Aspergillus and Nostoc) and blue green algae (Cyanobacteria)
have been studied for chromium biosorption [32]. The
microorganisms Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Pseudomonas ambigua, Pseudomonas fluorescens,
Pseudomonas putida, Escherichia coli, Achromobacter eurydice,
Micrococcus roseus, Enterobacter cloacae, Desulfovibrio
desulfuricans and Desulfovibrio vulgari have been reported to
have chromium resisting property and they can reduce
chromium (VI) to chromium (III) by using chromium (VI) as
terminal electron acceptor while oxidizing the organic
compounds. The growth of SP8 Pseudomonas putida and SP2
Pseudomonas Plecoglossicida is highly inhibited by increasing
concentration of potassium chromate [33].
The pot culture study of vermin compost with, earth
warms (Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae) and microorganisms
(Pseudomonas fluorescens, Trichoderma viride) have been studied
for the detoxification of chromium (VI). The study resulted
that with or without the addition of microorganisms and earth
warms, the vermin compost alone reduces the chromium (VI).
This is because of the biological material present in the vermi
compost made chromium (VI) to get reduced, insolubilized
and immobilized [34]. Adsorption of chromium by ragi husk
has been studied and various natural adsorbents like
sugarcane bagasse, palm flower, groundnut husk carbon,
walnut, hazelnut, almond shell, bale fruit shell, Cystoseira
indica, alligator weed, wheat bran, Catla catla scales, pistachio
hull powder, prawn shell activated carbon, Terminalia arjuna
nuts, neem saw dust and water hyacinth stem has been
reported [35]. The Enhanced phytoremediation approaches
phytostabilization, phytoaccumulation by roots with the help
of various environmental factors like organic matter,
phosphates, alkalizing agents and biosolids has been studied.
The presence of various environmental factors decreases
solubility and mobility of toxic chromium compounds and
enhances the accumulation in plant root. The
phytoaccumulation of chromium is following the order
root>stem>leaf [16].
5. SORPTION STUDIES ON CHROMIUM
REMOVAL
Biosorption of chromium (VI) by bacteria
(Streptococcus equisimilis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus), Fungi
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger, Hirsutella), algae
(Spirogyra, Sargassum sp., Eclonia, Lyngbya putealis (HH-15)), tea
leaves and chromium (III) by bacteria (Gram positive
Coccobacilli bacteria (NRC-BT-2), methylated yeast biomass and
hen eggshells, petiolar felt-sheath of palm and chromium
removal by rice bran has been reported [36]. The adsorption of
chromium (VI) by natural low cost adsorbents like neem
sawdust (NSD), mango sawdust (MSD), wheat shell (WS),
sugarcane bagasse (SB) and orange peel (OP) has been
investigated for the adsorption efficiency of chromium (VI)
with the influence of pH, biomass, initial metal concentration
and contact time. The biosorption efficiency was found to be
decrease with increase in pH and optimum is found to be 2.
The adsorption of NSD, MSD, WS, SB, OP were reported as
58.82mg/g, 37.73mg/g, 28.08mg/g, 23.8mg/g and 19.80mg/g
respectively [37].
The resistance and bioaccumulation of chromium for
the fungal strains isolated from tannery effluent Penicillium
chrysogenum, Aspergillus niger and bacterial strains
Brevibacterium sp. and Enterococcus casseliflavus has been
reported [38]. The biotransformation, reduction of Cr(VI) and
COD removal from synthetic and acute industrial water for the
aerobic suspended growth system, aerobic attached growth
system and anoxic attached growth system with known
chromium (VI) reducing strain Arthrobacter rhombi - RE
(MTCC7048) isolated from contaminated soil has been studied
[4]. Applications of biofilms prepared from bacterial species
Bacillus subtilis VITSCCr01 and Bacillus cereus VITSCCr02 for
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Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017, 1, 1: 13-18
the removal of chromium (III) has been studied with different
supporting materials like glass beads, pebbles, and coarse
sand. The study reported that both the bacterial species
removed 98% of chromium (III) on coarse sand, because it had
more surface area [11].
The biosorption by brown algal biomass Sargassum
wightii and green algal biomass Caulerpa racemosa were studied
for the removal of chromium (III) and chromium (VI) and it
was found to be pH dependent and the optimum pH was
found to be 5 [39]. The adsorption and desorption of
chromium by brown algae Padina tetrastromatica hauck, red
algae Gracilaria edulis S.G gmelin and green algae Ulva
reticulata forsskal were studied and reported that the pH,
initial metal concentration and biomass dosage were
significantly affected the adsorption and desorption process.
The study proved that the reuse of biosorbents after
desorption of chromium [40]. Biosorption of chromium by
Bacillus s., and Staphylococcus sp. has been studied [41]. The
strain TVU-K1 (Bacillus sp. Strain PV26) isolated from treated
tannery effluent has reported to have tolerance of chromium
(VI) about 400mg/L [6].
The chromium reduction % and biosorption % of
microalgal species Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, and
Spirogyra isolated from contaminated effluent were found to be
70.96%, 80.64%, 76.12%, 74.83% and 75.48%, 80.64%, 79.35%
and 77.41% [42]. Biosorption of chromium by Spirogyraha has
been studied with different conditions and the parameters pH,
initial metal concentration, biomass and contact time [43]. The
phycoremediation of chromium (VI) by cyanobacterium
Arthrospira platensis has been studied and the biosorption %
and reduction % was found to be 98.5% and 73.5% [42]. The
batch reactor study had been done for the immobilized
consortium of fresh water isolates, Oocystis, Nostoc, Syncoccus
and Desimococcus species on calcium alginate gel via
entrapment technique for removal of chromium (VI). Spirulina
platensis - alginate beads consortia was used for biosorption of
chromium and algal species Ulva lactuca, Spirogyra sp.,
Cladophora albida, Chroococcus, Nostoc calcicola, Chlorella and
Sargasam sp. had been reported for the removal of chromium
(VI) [44]. The Biosorption maximum of chromium (VI) by two
fungal strains Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus isolated from
tannery effluent of Ambur were found to be 98.61%, 98.14%
and the Biosorption maximum of chromium (VI) by two
fungal strains Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigattus isolated
from Ranipet tannery effluent was found to be 97.66% and
97.13% [20]. The chromium reducing bacteria Pseudomonas
fluorescens LB 300, Enterobacter cloacae HO1, Bacillus sp. had
been reported for their tolerance to chromium and degradation
efficiency [3]. Under acidic pH, the adsorption of chromium by
cow dung was found maximum [8]. The adsorption of
chromium by low cost bio waste materials paddy straw,
coconut coir pith, corn husk and pine apple in batch
experiments were studied. The study resulted that adsorption
is directly proportional to contact time, adsorption dosage and
initial metal concentration with optimum pH 2 and after
equilibrium, the adsorption remained constant [45].
6. CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES
Chromium can be removed from contaminated soil
by sodium bisulfate (chemical reduction method) and by lime
and caustic soda (chemical precipitation method) [46]. The
electro kinetic phytoremediation of Brassica juncea seeds for the
removal of chromium has been studied and which was found
to be decrease from anode to cathode [47]. Various methods
like excavation (physical removal), stabilization (traditional
remediation), phytoremediation, use of nanotechnology (in-
situ remediation) and other biological methods for heavy
metal removal (biosorption by micro-organisms), activated
sludge process, aerobic digestion and stabilization ponds have
been studied [10].
7. CONCLUSIONS
The chromite ore is the primary natural source for
chromium metal. Since no elemental form of chromium is
available in nature, the elemental process of chromium itself
produces toxic carcinogen chromium (VI) as intermediate. The
chromium can be obtained from chemical industries for
commercial purpose. From the overall investigations of
pollution sources and treatment methods taken in Vellore, we
conclude that employment of microbiology in the remediation
aspects has been well established and the low cost sorbents
like agricultural and bio waste material can be used for better
adsorption and metal recovery process. The success of
microbial biosorption for the removal and recovery of
chromium is depend on pH, biomass concentration, contact
time, BOD and COD content of the effluent. The microbes that
naturally exist in chromium contaminated soil and effluent
water were reported to have chromium resisting and
accumulating property, so enhanced microbiological
techniques can be applied for the strain improvement and
metal recovery efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors thank School of Bioscience and Technology
(SBST), VIT University for their support and providing
facilities to access journals.
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