office building
DESCRIPTION
This publication has been prepared as part of a five week graduate thesis studio assignment in the Northeastern University School of Architecture for the Fall 2008 Architecture G691 course. Other publications in this series include urban retail, hotel, and parking garage typologies, all produced by graduate students in the Northeastern University architecture program.TRANSCRIPT
FALL 2008
Northeastern University School of Architecture
ARCH G691 Graduate Degree Project Studio
OFFICE BUILDING
FALL 2008
Northeastern University School of ArchitectureARCH G691 Graduate Degree Project Studio
BRENDAN CROSBY
BRIAN ELY
JASON HICKEY
LISA HOANG
MATTHEW JOHNSTON
STEVEN ORLANDO
JASON NEVES
JAMES SAUNDERS
SALVATORE VALENTE
EDGAR VELIZ
OFFICE BUILDING
Studio Research Team
Brendan Crosby - Mechanical Systems
Brian Ely - Vertical Circulation
Jason Hickey - Office Layout
Lisa Hoang - Exterior Wall Systems
Matthew Johnston - Common Programing, Back of House
Steven Orlando - Lighting and Book Design
Jason Neves - Introduction and Graphic Standards
James Saunders - Common Programming, Lobbies
Salvatore Valente - Structural Systems
Edgar Veliz - Office Sociology
Studio Lead
John Backman
Unless specifically stated otherwise all content is
property of the authors. Every reasonable attempt
has been made to identify owners of copyright,
photographs, diagrams and images. Errors or
omissions will be corrected in subsequent editions.
Copyright © 2008 by Northeastern University School of Architecture
All rights reserved
First printing November 2008
Special thanks to
Yanni Tsipis of Colliers Meredith & Grew real Estate Consultants
No part of this publication may be used, reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976
United States Copyright Act, without the prior
written permission from the authors.
Published by
Northeastern University School of Architecture
360 Huntington Ave
Boston, Massachusetts 02115
This publication has been prepared as part of a five
week graduate thesis studio assignment in the
Northeastern University School of Architecture for
the Fall 2008 Architecture G691 course. Other
publications in this series include urban retail, hotel,
and parking garage typologies, all produced by
graduate students in the Northeastern University
architecture program.
Studio Research Team
Brendan Crosby - Mechanical Systems
Brian Ely - Vertical Circulation
Jason Hickey - Office Layout
Lisa Hoang - Exterior Wall Systems
Matthew Johnston - Common Programing, Back of House
Steven Orlando - Lighting and Book Design
Jason Neves - Introduction and Graphic Standards
James Saunders - Common Programming, Lobbies
Salvatore Valente - Structural Systems
Edgar Veliz - Office Sociology
Studio Lead
John Backman
Unless specifically stated otherwise all content is
property of the authors. Every reasonable attempt
has been made to identify owners of copyright,
photographs, diagrams and images. Errors or
omissions will be corrected in subsequent editions.
Copyright © 2008 by Northeastern University School of Architecture
All rights reserved
First printing November 2008
Special thanks to
Yanni Tsipis of Colliers Meredith & Grew real Estate Consultants
No part of this publication may be used, reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976
United States Copyright Act, without the prior
written permission from the authors.
Published by
Northeastern University School of Architecture
360 Huntington Ave
Boston, Massachusetts 02115
This publication has been prepared as part of a five
week graduate thesis studio assignment in the
Northeastern University School of Architecture for
the Fall 2008 Architecture G691 course. Other
publications in this series include urban retail, hotel,
and parking garage typologies, all produced by
graduate students in the Northeastern University
architecture program.
Introduction
Structure
Vertical Circulation
Mechanical Systems
Common Programming
Exterior Wall Systems
Lighting
Floorplan Configuration
Sociology
0.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
6
22
34
46
56
76
96
114
134
0. Introduction
Overview
Office buildings host many intricate systems and design strategies that become staggering
when trying to incorporate them all at the same time in the design process. This book breaks
down the components of the office building and presents them in a comprehensive manner in
order to give the young professional a foothold in the understanding of such a complex build-
ing. In order to expedite the learning process of office buildings, this book uses generic office
floorplates and layouts to straightforwardly give the fundamental knowledge that can inform
any office building design.
Chapter Contents
0.1 Office TypesType DefinitionsFloor Plans
0.2 DefinitionsTypical Plan ComponentsArea Calculations
0.3 Site ConsiderationsSuburbanUrban
1010 0.1 Office Types
1312
4
13
50+
9-14’
0.1 Office Types
Office buildings can be categorized by the
following types: low rise, mid rise, and high
rise. This page outlines the typical dimensional
characteristics and configurations of each,
providing a basis for preliminary planning
decisions.
45’
45’
40’ 30’ 40’ 45’45’
150’200’
60’ 60’
200’
150’120’30’
60’120’
Low RiseGross Floor Area: 21,600sf
Net to Gross Ratio: 0.93
Mid RiseGross Floor Area: 24,000sf
Net to Gross Ratio: 0.92
High RiseGross Floor Area: 22,500sf
Net to Gross Ratio: 0.84
Fig. 1
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 110.1 Office Types 11
1
1
1
3
2
4
2
Low RiseDefined as one to three story structures mostly
found on large sites in low density suburban
developments. Quite often low-rise offices are
located adjacent to highways as single buildings or
grouped together into office parks or campuses.
Out of the three office types, low-rise are more
often built to suit a single tenant. This leads to
greater variation of size and configuration within
this type. However, a generic floor plan can be
distilled from these variations as shown in the
images to the right. This type allows for the
flexibility necessary for the building to operate as a
speculative development; easily adapting to single
or multi-tenant uses as needed. Most low-rise
office buildings are multi-core configurations with
centrally located elevator banks and restrooms.
Because the floorplate can often be quite large,
multiple cores and stairs are needed to meet
maximum travel requirements. See 2.1 for more detail on travel distances
Figures 1 through 4 show single, double and
multiple tenant configurations.
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
12
Mid RiseMid rise office buildings are the most prevalent
type, found in suburban settings and also in higher
density urban areas. They are used in build-to-suit
development situations, but are more often built as
speculative developments with the flexibility to
accommodate a wider range of tenant types and
number of tenants. Because of their efficient use
of area and their flexibility, floorplans do not vary
greatly from the floorplans shown to the left.
Vertical circulation, mechanical systems,
restrooms, and support spaces are centrally
located in a single core.
Figures 5 through 7 show single, double and
multiple tenant configurations.
1
1
1
3
2
4
2
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
12 0.1 Office Types
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 13
High RiseDefined as thirteen to fifty or more story buildings
located in high density urban locations. Sites are
generally very small with extremely high property
value. The small site leaves little choice for
developers but to build vertically. The height is
also an economic function where developers try to
attain the most amount of rentable area to make a
profit and counter the cost of the property and
construction.
As height increases there are greater demands put
on the mechanical systems and vertical circulation,
thereby increasing the core size. Aside from this,
the floorplan is very similar to that of the mid rise
type and allow the flexibility required in what is
most often speculative development. For
economic reasons and site-specific zoning high
rise office buildings are often mixed-use,
incorporating a hotel into the upper floors, for
instance, or including retail or restaurant amenities
in the lower and ground floors.
Figures 8 through 10 show single, double and
multiple tenant configurations.
1
1
1
3
2
4
2
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
0.1 Office Types 13
14
0.2 Definitions
The following section includes definitions for
important terms used when designing office
buildings. These definitions cover a range
of general office building components as
well as guidelines for calculating the area.
An understanding of these terms and area
calculations, particularly rentable area will aid the
dialogue between the architect and client, and
allow the architect to accurately accommodate the
clients needs early in the project.
CoreThe core is the heart of the office building,
especially for high and mid-rise offices. All support
systems are compactly situated in this centralized
location. The image above points out the major
components of the core that are discussed in more
detail later in the book.
RGB: 228, 65, 69 CMYK: 5, 90, 75, 0
RGB: 253, 187, 99 CMYK: 0, 30 , 70, 0
RGB: 88, 183, 221 CMYK: 60, 10, 5, 0
Restrooms see 4.4
Restroom Exhaust
Plumbing Chase see 4.4
Egress Stairs
Exhaust Airsee 3.2-3
Supply Air see 3.2-3
Electrical or A/V
Lateral bracingsee 1.5
Elevator Lobbysee 2.3
Service Elevatorsee 2.2-4
Service Corridorsee 2.3
Mechanical Roomsee 3.2-3
Vertical Risers
Fig. 12
Fig. 11
14 0.1 Office Types
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 15
FloorplateRefers to the shape and size of an entire floor,
including vertical penetrations such as the core,
columns, or partition walls.
See chapters 7 and 8 for layout strategies
Exterior Wall SystemPerimeter enclosure of the building. Comprised of
glazing, window apertures, insulation, waterproof-
ing, and other materials and systems.
See chapter 5 and 6 for more detail
Lease SpanGenerally the distance from the core to the exterior
wall. In cases where the depth is measured from
one exterior wall to another, or to a party wall, the
lease span is half the actual distance. Typical lease
spans in the United States range from 40’ to 45’.
Structural bayDistance from one vertical structural member to
the adjacent one. Spans typically range from 30’
to 45’.
See 1.2-4 for more detail
0 40’ 120’ 200’
0 40’ 120’ 200’
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 13
0.1 Office Types 15
16
Area Calculations: bOMAEfficient use of area is an important aspect in
the design of office buildings and meeting the
client’s needs. However, there are many different
nuanced ways in which area is calculated where
certain parties use one method and others use
a different method. The method used by most
developers and owners is outlined by BOMA
(building Owners and Managers Association) in
“Standard Method for Measuring Floor Area In
Office Buildings.” These methods are outlined
and clearly diagrammed in the following pages.
However, the most current official BOMA
document should be used to ensure the most
accurate interpretation of their methods.
Dominant PortionFor the use of determining the usable or rentable
space of a single office or floor of an office
building, the dominant portion the exterior wall is
the portion of that wall which constitutes more than
half of the vertical floor to ceiling dimension. The
usable area is measured to the interior finished
surface of the dominant portion of the exterior
walls as demonstrated in the diagrams to the right
and above.
>50%
>50%
dominant portion
dominant portion
dominant portion
dominant portion
Fig. 17
16 0.1 Office Types
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 17
Gross Floor AreaGross floor area is commonly used to discuss the
size of a project or floorplate but is not used for
renting or leasing purposes. The gross floor area
is the area with the exterior finished surface of the
exterior walls.
Gross Measured AreaGross Measured area is the area of a floor within
the interior finished surface of the dominant portion
of the exterior walls.
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
0.1 Office Types 17
18
Usable AreaTo interior finish surface of dominant portion of
exterior wall.
To interior finish surface of walls separating office
from common floor area.
Floor Usable AreaFloor usable area is equal to the sum of all the us-
able areas of the same floor. It can also be mea-
sured as the gross measured area minus the floor
common area and major vertical penetrations.
To centerline of partition walls.
No deductions made for necessary columns and
projections.
Fig. 21
Fig. 22
18 0.1 Office Types
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 19
Floor Common AreaFloor common area is the area for use by all the
tenants on that floor. It is the gross measured area
minus the floor usable area and major vertical
penetrations. The floor common area may include
janitor closets, electrical closets, restrooms,
mechanical rooms, public corridors and elevator
lobbies.
Major Vertical PenetrationsMajor vertical penetrations are the penetrations
between floors that are for the private use of a
tenant. These may include stairs, elevator shafts,
pipe shafts, mechanical shafts, and ducts and their
enclosing walls.
Floor Rentable (Leasable) AreaFloor rentable area results from subtracting the
vertical penetrations from the gross measured
area. This area is also equal to the floor usable
area plus the floor common area. This is a very
important calculation as it allow the developer to
make estimates on how much rent he or she will be
receiving from the building.
Basic Rentable AreaBasic rentable area is the area which can be
charged to the rent of a single tenant. This calcu-
lation incorporated a portion of the common area
into the usable area for one tenant. The calcula-
tion has two steps:
1. Floor rentable area / Floor usable area = r/u ratio
2. Usable area x r/u ration = Basic rentable area Fig. 24
Fig. 25
0.1 Office Types 19
20
0.3 Site Considerations Suburban SiteLow rise office buildings are most often the type
seen in suburban sites. These are generally much
larger then their urban counterparts ranging from
80,000 square feet to more than 400,000 square
feet. One of the main determinants of the size of
the site needed is parking requirements.
Parking Rules of ThumbAlthough parking requirements vary from place
to place there are general rules of thumb that can
be used at the conceptual planning level. See the
diagrams on the left for these guidelines.
Parking StrategiesThe most common strategy for handling parking
loads on suburban sites is the surface lot. This
takes up an immense amount of space, often more
area then the actual gross office area. Surface
parking tends to take up an average of 75% of the
total site.
Another common strategy is the parking garage.
These are often two to three level structures adja-
cent or attached to the office building.
See “Parking: A Pattern Book” for more detail.
*Note that zoning codes typically govern the
minimum parking requirements. Numbers shown
here are based on accomodating average office
building occupant loads.
Structured Parking:
3-4 cars per 1000sf of office space
350-400sf per car*Surface Parking:
3-4 cars per 1000sf of office space
300sf per car*
Fig. 27
20 0.1 Office Types
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 21
Urban SiteUrban sites are generally much smaller than
suburban ones. They range from 20,000 square
feet to 60,000 square feet. Parking loads are
also much smaller as site are often close to public
transit. Because urban land values are so high,
parking strategies try to minimize the amount of
site covered solely by parking.
Parking StrategiesParking requirements in urban areas and cities
vary greatly from city to city, and even from district
to district within the same city. So it is hard to say
here in great detail any rules of thumb or specific
numbers pertaining to parking space require-
ments. However there are several strategies that
are useful to know in the conceptual planning
phases of office design. Three of the most preva-
lent strategies are illustrated on the right. The first
strategy embeds the parking garage in the middle
of a block an below the office tower. It is hidden
from street view and allows more active building
program to line the streets. The second strategy is
a simple attached parking structure adjacent to the
office building. The third and most inconspicuous
strategy for incorporating parking is below grade.
See “Parking: A Pattern Book” for more detail.
Embedded
Adjacent
below-grade
Fig. 28
0.1 Office Types 21
1. Structure
Overview
Understanding the structural makeup of an office building is crucial to its efficient design.
While structural strategies have been refined over time to create the most efficient designs,
even with a conventional plan there remains a great number of variables that will affect the
cost and aesthetics of the building.
This chapter intends to give a designer a basic understanding of the structural elements that
compose a typical modern office building. It is meant to be a starting point for selecting a
structural system, and obtaining structural member dimensions of that system for schematic or
preliminary design.
Chapter Contents
1.1 Getting StartedFloor LayoutsConcrete vs. SteelSelecting the Structural SystemTributary AreaLive Loads
1.2 Steel Two Way beam Pros and ConsBeam SizingColumn Sizing
1.3 Open Web Joist Pros and ConsBeam SizingColumn Sizing
1.4 Two Way Concrete Flat PlatePros and ConsBeam SizingColumn Sizing
1.5 Lateral LoadsTypes of Lateral LoadsRigid PerimeterRigid Core
24
Floor LayoutsWhen dealing with office buildings, especially
speculative office buildings, the building is
designed in order to provide tenants with large
portions of column free space. This offers flexibilty
for any number of space-planning arraingemnts
& easy desk and cubical placement. With this
in mind, developers and architects have refined
the design of office buildings over time, and have
developed somewhat of a standard in what is the
ideal office plan and column layout.
As in all structural configurations, a regularized,
nearly square structural system is most efficient.
When looking specifically at urban mid rises and
high rises office buildings, most floor plans have
columns spaced at 30’ intervals. A typical subur-
ban low rise has a 45’-30’-45’ column spacing con-
figuration. These column spacings have seemingly
struck a balance between economic structural
efficiency and the spatial qualities desired by the
building’s tenants.
1.1 Getting Started Concrete vs. SteelBoth steel and concrete can be ideal materials for
the structure of office buildings. There are several
factors however, which may sway a designer to
choose either material.
From an economical standpoint, it is important
to look at the specific local market when choos-
ing to build with either concrete or steel. In many
markets, steel can be cost effective because of
its easy fabrication and because there are usually
numerous different contractors who are familiar
and able to provide steel framing services. On the
other hand, in many markets, concrete costs less
than steel and there may be several well quali-
fied contractors able to build with concrete. When
choosing either, one must look at both the cost of
obtaining the material in the area and the cost of
labor to actually build the structure using the given
material.
Looking at sustainability, each material has
positives and negatives. Many raw materials
from which steel is manufactured are becoming
depleted. Also, it requires an embodied energy
of about 19,2000 BTU/pound to produce. On the
other hand, about 66 percent of all steel used in
construction is able to be recycled.
Concrete is the largest consumer of raw materials
in the world. It has an embodied energy of 2400
BTU/pound. Concrete however, may also be com-
posed of much recycled material. buildings made
of concrete can be more energy efficient because
of its ability to serve as a thermal mass, stabilizing
temperature swings.
24 1.1 Getting Started
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 25
Member DimensionsThere are several factors that determine the sizes
of structural members. While not all of these have
been considered, this chapter intends to give a
designer a good starting point by proving general
dimensions of structural members. All informa-
tion in this chapter is roughly based on the criteria
described below.
Tributary AreaThe tributary area of a column is the floor area that
a column supports. Total tributary area is this num-
ber multiplied by the number of floors a column
supports including the roof. In a 30’x30’ grid, as
in a typical office floor plan, a typical column will
have a single floor tributary area of 900 sf The total
tributary area is 900 sf multiplied by the number of
building stories. Perimeter columns have a smaller
tributary area but generally receive greater loads
because of lateral loads
See Fig.1.
Live LoadsLive loads include all loads imposed after con-
struction including people and furniture. Office
buildings are considered to receive light to medium
loading at 30-100 psf. All of the information in this
chapter will be based on these loading conditions.
Selecting the Structural SystemWhen selecting the structural system for an office
building, their are a number of things a designer
must consider. First of all, the type of system will
determine the floor assembly thickness. This will
effect the floor to ceiling height, and the overall
height of the building. The floor thickness will be
highly visible in the facade (See chapter 5), and
effect how HVAC equipment will be located in the
building (see chapter 3). Also, certain systems al-
low for cantilevering while other systems are better
suited for very tall structures. based on structural
and economic efficiency, this chapter describes
three common structural systems including the
two way steel beam system, the open web steel
joist system, and the two way concrete flat plate
system. This chapter also describes lateral load
resistance techniques.
Fig. 1
1.1 Getting Started 25
26
Two Way Steel beam SystemThe two way steel beam system is the most com-
monly used steel system for office buildings. It
provides cost efficiency and can be fabricated
quickly. The two way steel beam system easily
spans required distances for office buildings and
can achieve greater heights than any other system.
very long spans
possible
considerable structural
floor depth required
very strong for its
weightfireproofing required
inefficient for
cantilevering
easliy fabricated and
assembled
better suited to tall
structures
1.2 Steel Two Way beam System
Cons Pros
26 1.2 Steel Two Way beam System
steel angle
steel decking
beam
girder
column
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 27
beam DepthSpan
10’ 6” 8” 3” 8”
15’ 8” 10”
20”
30”
N/A 8”
30’ 16” N/A 8”
45’ 27” N/A 8”
Decking Depth Total Slab DepthGirder Depth
Corrugated cellular steel decking sheets with spans up to 10’ are most economical.
Decking with a greater gauge may span up to 25’ .
beam
steel angle
column
girder
steel decking
concrete slab
Column SizingFig. 2 is for wide flange steel columns. Columns
are listed with their nominal dimensions. Many
sizes are available with the same nominal dimen-
sion. The taller the building is , the larger the
column dimensions will be.
Beam and Girder SizingFig. 4 lists dimensions for wide flange steel beams
and girders. The spans listed are the most com-
mon ones found in a typical office building.
bu
ildin
g S
tori
es
Fig.2 Fig.3
Fig.4
1.2 Steel Two Way beam System 27
28
Steel Open Web Joist System Using steel open web joists and joist girders is an
economical alternative to traditional steel fram-
ing. Its members are lighter in weight and produce
equivalent spans. Another notable benefit is the
ability to run HVAC equipment and ducts through
the joists.
light weight
members are deeper
than traditional steel
framing
costs less than tra-
ditional steel framing
inefficient for short
spans
fireproofing required
and is more costly
than on conventional
wide flange beams
HVAC equipment can
pass through
joists
1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System
Cons Pros
28 1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 29
tubular column
Corrugated cellular steel decking sheets with spans up to 10’ are most
economical. Decking with a greater gauge may span up to 25’ .
Span
10’ N/A N/A 3” 8”
15’ N/A N/A
28”
42”
N/A 8”
30’ 20” N/A 8”
45’ 24” N/A 8”
Joist Depth Joist Girder Depth
Decking Depth
Total SlabDepth
open web joist
steel decking
concrete slab
joist girder
Column SizingFig 5. Is for tubular steel columns. It should be
noted that most office buildings will use conven-
tional wide flange columns and girders to sup-
port the open web joists. This is because while
tubular columns are much lighter than wide flange
columns, they are very limited in allowable height.
Tubular columns are better suited for low rise of-
fice buildings when cost and weight is a priority.
Joist and Girder SizingOpen joist can rest on either Joist girders, a
heavier version of the joist, as shown, or conven-
tional wide flange girders.
bu
ildin
g S
tori
es
Fig.5
Fig.6
Fig.7
1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System 29
30
attractive monolithic
appearance
Cons Pros
thin structural slabs
Costly post tensioning
required for longer spans
large column sizes
required for very tall
structures
easily allows for
cantilevers and ir-
regular floor plans
no fire proofing
required
1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System Flat Plate Concrete System Concrete is unique because it can take the
shape of its form and all structural members
become a unified system. Though there are
many structural approaches using concrete, the
two-way flat plate system is ideal for office build-
ings. It provides the needed spans and allows for
a thin, attractive floor slab and minimal floor to
floor heights. This structural system is also very
easy to cantilever.
30 1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 31
concrete slab
concrete column
15’ 5.5” 5”
30’
45’
12” 8.5”
N/A 12.5”
Column Sizing Fig. 8 shows square concrete column sizes at a
strength of 4000 psi for typical office building load-
ing. For round columns add 1/3 of the dimension
shown to the diameter. Rectangular column have
the same area as square columns and can have
no dimension less than 10”. Significantly greater
heights (up to 100+ stories) may be achieved using
a higher strength of concrete. For a strength of
6000 psi, multiply the dimension by .8, for 8000psi
x .7, for 12000psi x .60 .
Slab DepthFig.9 provides general numbers for concrete slab
thickness. For longer spans, concrete can be post
tensioned, which will however add cost.
bu
ildin
g S
tori
es
Fig.8
Fig.10
Fig.9
Span ConventionalSlab Depth
Post-tensionedSlab Depth
1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System 31
32
1.5 Lateral Loads
Rigid coreRigid perimeterFig.11 Fig.12
Lateral LoadsThe previous sections discussed systems for
resisting gravity loads. Unlike gravity loads, lateral
loads are forces that act upon a building horizon-
tally. These forces include wind and earthquake
loads. A tall building must have structural elements
that counter these forces.
Rigid Perimeter One way of providing lateral resistance in tall
structures is by stiffening the perimeter of the
building. This can be done by using either diagonal
bracing as shown in Fig. 11, moment connections
or shear panels. While diagonal bracing and shear
panels will cause design limitations on the build-
ings facade, using moment connections on steel
members will add cost and time to the framing
process.
Rigid coreTypically, the core of an office building contains
the stairs, elevators and mechanical shafts and is
located in the center of the building. Because of
its centralized location, the core provides an ideal
location for resistance against lateral forces. The
core can also be stiffened with either shear panels,
cross bracing or moment connections. In this con-
dition, the core must remain consistent throughout
the entire height of the building. Considerable de-
sign freedom with the building’s facade is allowed
using this technique of lateral resistance.
See Fig. 12.
32 1.5 Lateral Loads
2. Vertical Circulation
Chapter Contents
2.1 Elevator Design GuidelinesDeciding number of elevatorsCode requirements for elevators and stairs
2.2 StairsCritical DimensionsPressurizationStandpipe
2.3 Elevator Types
2.4 Elevator LayoutSectional overviewElevator lobbies
2.5 Latest in Elevator TechnologyElevator Call Touch Pad
Overview
Vertical circulation is one of the first elements that is initially designed in high rise buildings.
The number of elevators needed is something that needs to be decided early on, as it’s very
hard to change later.
This chapter takes a look into the elevator and all of the design strategies that go into selecting
the right elevator configuration. It will also take a quick look at stair towers and all of the criti-
cal dimensions that go into designing stairs.
3636 2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines
2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines
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7E+0
5
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5
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er
of E
leva
tors
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ed
ed
0
2
4
6
8
12
10
14
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20
Area Above the First Floor That Elevators are ServicingElevatorsService Elevators Fig. 1
35
,00
0
105
,00
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175
,00
0
24
5,0
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315
,00
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Guidelines for ElevatorsThe first thing that should be done when design-
ing any building that will incorporate elevators is
to higher an elevator consultant. The systems
are so complex that it takes someone full time to
understand all the intricacies of elevators. With
this said these next few sections will try to help
you understand enough about elevators to be able
to make educated choices on designing elevators
within your office building.
When determining the number of elevators for
your office building, the general rule of thumb is
that you need 1 elevator per 35,000 square feet
of office space that the elevator serves. Also
1 service elevator per 265,000 square feet is a
good starting point. The chart on the left is a
quick guide to the number of elevators in blue, and
service elevators in orange that are needed for any
given usable area. This rule of thumb falls apart
in the taller of the mid rise buildings and most
assuredly in high rise buildings. Otherwise your
entire floorplate would quickly become covered in
elevators. Other systems come in to play to reduce
the overall number of elevators needed in these
instances. Express elevators and local elevators
is the most basic concept that is widely used in
order to increase the efficiency out of the number
of elevators used. Also two elevators sharing the
same shaft is common to reduce the number of
hoist ways needed while still having a high level of
service.
See 2.4 for more detail on elevator layouts
and 2.3 for more detail on types of elevators
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 372.1 Elevator Design Guidelines 37
150’ max
1/3 total diagonal dimension of floorplate
300’ max
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Code for Elevators and StairsThe amount of code that governs elevators and
stairs is too much to get into for this book. Entire
books are devoted to the subject. We’ll take a look
at the general layout of elevators and stairs in lay-
ing them out within an office space.
For elevators the general guideline for max travel
distance is 150 feet. However this isn’t a code
rule, it’s only a rule of thumb for designing an office
space that doesn’t create a condition that is un-
comfortable for the users. Also one elevator cab,
51 inches by 80 inches with a 42 inch clear open-
ing to accommodate a stretcher must be provided
and identified.
See 2.3 for more on laying out elevators
Stairs are more stringently confined by code. 2007
IbC stipulates that the max travel distance from the
most remote location in the office floorplate to the
stair is 300 feet. Additionally a user can only travel
a max of 75 feet before they are given 2 choices
for exiting. Also stair doors can’t be closer than
1/3rd the overall diagonal dimension of the floor
plate. This is to ensure that if a fire is blocking one
stairway, it won’t be blocking both stairways at the
same time. There is also discussion right now that
a third stair be mandatory for high rise buildings,
this would be incorporated into IBC 2009.
See 2.2 for more detail on stair design
3838 2.2 Stairs
2.2 Stairs
Same width as stair
25% of stair width
12”
1 1/2”
Tread Width + 12”
44” min*
Standpipe 2 Hour Rating
Stair Pressur-ization Shaft
Pressurized Stair Vestibule
Stair DimensionsThe total width of all stairs is based of the oc-
cupancy of the largest floor of the building. Once
this occupancy number is figured out, a factor of .3
inches per occupant is used to determine the total
minimum clear width of all stairs. For example if
the largest floor in an office building is calculated
to have 200 max occupants, then the total width of
all stairs is 60 inches. In a typical 2 stair building,
the width of each stair would be a minimum of 30
inches based on this calculation, however the ab-
solute minimum width of any stair is 44 inches, so
therefore in our example both stairs need to be a
minimum of 44 inches. The stair landing needs to
have the same clear width as the stairs themselves
and any doors opening onto the landing can only
interfere with the clear width by 25%. So in our ex-
ample of the stairs needing to be 44 inches clear,
then the door swing can overlap the clear path on
the landing by 11 inches.
The other critical dimensions when laying out a
stair in plan are the handrails. In office buildings
the handrails need to extend 12 inches beyond
the top tread and on the bottom tread they need
to slope for an extra tread width and then an ad-
ditional 12 inches horizontally.
In high rise buildings there is also the need for
stairs to be pressurized in order to keep the stairs
smoke free in case of fire. There is a dedicated
shaft connected to the stair for this purpose.
Fig. 4
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 392.2 Stairs 39
11” min
34-38”42”4-7”
80” min
12’ Max
Head Height
Standpipe
2 Hour Rating
Continuous Handrail
Spaced to not allow a 4” sphere to pass through
Stair Dimensions in SectionCode limits the height and width of each individual
tread on a stair. The tread can only be 4-7 inches
in height and a minimum of 11 inches in depth.
Also the treads need to be of uniform dimension
throughout a flight of stairs. Also a single run can’t
go higher than 12 feet total before a landing is
needed. Throughout the design of stairs it’s also
necessary to keep in mind that a minimum head
height of 80 inches is mandatory.
The inner handrail of a typical stair tower needs
to be continuous and also in-between 34 and
38 inches. There needs to be a guardrail on the
interior portion of the stair that is 42 inches high
and also with intermediate bars so that a sphere of
4 inches can not pass through.
Another requirement in high rise buildings is a
standpipe that is located either in the stairway or
in a shaft next to the stairway with horizontal pipes
penetrating into the stairway itself. Discussions
should happen between the architect with the fire
marshal on wether they prefer the access to the
standpipe to be on the intermediate landings or on
the floor levels instead.
Other requirements for stairways in high rise build-
ings are: telephones or other two-way communica-
tion systems must be provided at every fifth floor
inside the stairwell, and one stair must continue to
the roof and must be marked.
Fig. 5
4040 2.3 Elevator Types
Holeless HydraulicHydraulic elevator without the need for a well or
buried piping. Max height: 14’.
Machine-RoomlessThe Machine for the elevator actually fits inside
the hoist way itself, eliminating the need for a large
room on the roof.
TractionThe standard in high rise elevators. Operates at
speeds over 500 feet per minute.
Roped HydraulicNo need for a well and can reach 60’.
Telescoping Holeless HydraulicSame benefits of the holeless hydraulic with the
added benefit of being able to reach 44’-1”
Holed HydraulicNeed for a well but allows a vertical height of 60’.
2.3 Elevator Types
Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8
Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 412.3 Elevator Types 41
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1 2 3 4 5 60
50
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200
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350
400
14’125 125 150 150
350
1200
44’-1”60’ 60’
300’
400’+
400
600
800
1000
1200
Deciding Which Elevator to UseWhen trying to decide which type of elevator to
use, there’s a lot of factors that go into the deci-
sion. How high the elevator needs to reach is
usually the first factor that goes into deciding what
type of elevator and it’s the easiest way to elimi-
nate many of the options. Other things to consider
are the environmental impacts of certain elevators
(mainly for low and mid rise hydraulic applications)
the speed of the elevator, and of course, the cost.
Ultimately you should consult an elevator consul-
tant when deciding what elevator to go with, but
these quick descriptions on the left and the chart
on your right should help you get on your way.
your elevator consultant can also help with com-
plex elevator systems that are used in high rise
buildings such as stacked cabs, where to elevator
cabs are physically attached and serve 2 floors
at a time, or elevator systems where 2 elevators
share the same shaft with the gears of the lower
elevator mounted to the underside of the upper
cab.
Fig. 12 Fig. 13
4242 2.4 Elevator Layout
2.4 Elevator Layout
Diagramming Elevators in SectionThe diagram on the right is one of the first dia-
grams that should be drawn up when designing the
vertical circulation of any high rise office building.
Figuring out how to get the right amount of service
to every floor is a hard task and looking at that in
section is the best way to understand it. The blue
areas indicate the levels that the elevators stop at
whereas the dotted gray lines are the levels that
aren’t served by that elevator, the solid gray boxes
represent the elevator overrides and pits. This
diagram will become very useful when convers-
ing with your elevator consultant and figuring out
the best ways to design your vertical circulation
system as efficient as possible.
Low RiseThe elevators are grouped in the center of the
building in the main lobby area.
Mid RiseA large central elevator lobby is the most typical
and efficient layout. In the larger of the mid rises,
elevators that are just used for freight become
common.
High RiseElevators are staggered vertically with intermedi-
ate transition floor or ‘sky lobbies’ denoted with the
dashed red line. There are several different strate-
gies for the type of elevators used, from stacked
elevators, to two elevators sharing the same shaft.
Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 432.4 Elevator Layout 43
Bank of 4 elevators
in a single line.
Bank of 2 elevators
in a single line.
Bank of 4 elevators
with 2 facing each
other.
Bank of 2 elevators
with 1 facing each
other.
Elevator LobbiesWhen laying out your elevators you want to group
them together so they can share the same shaft.
For the user, having all of the elevators in a row is
the easiest for them to be able to see all of them
at the same time when waiting for an elevator. 4
elevators is considered the largest amount that you
want to have in a line with 3 being the optimum.
When designing the elevator lobby, keep in mind
that if you have all of your elevators in a single line,
then your minimum lobby width is 8 feet, however
if the elevators are opposite of each other across
the lobby, then the minimum width becomes 10
feet instead.
High Rise Upper Level LobbiesThe top middle image is an elevator lobby at a
typical upper level lobby and the bottom image is
a typical ground floor lobby. In addition to elevator
shafts needing to be 2 hour rated, elevator lobbies
above the first floor need to be 1-hour rated. Also
doors into these lobbies need to be 20 minute
rated.
8’ min
10’ min
8’ min
10’ min
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Fig. 22
4444 2.5 Latest Technology
Latest in Elevator TechnologyHaving an elevator call touch pad instead of an
elevator button allows a computer system to de-
cide the most efficient elevator that the passenger
should use. It groups passengers that are going
to floors located near each other to provide a trip
with the fewest stops. The diagram above shows
people upon entering the lobby and proceeding to
the call touch pad to enter in what floor they are
going to. The computer system determines the
most efficient elevator to get you there and a letter
that is associated to an elevator is displayed on the
screen. The diagram to the left shows the way that
the system tries to group people going to similar
floors to reduce the number of stops each elevator
is making. They also try to reduce elevator over-
crowding by trying to limit the number of passen-
gers to 5. After 5 people have been assigned to an
elevator, anymore passengers going to the same
floor are assigned the next most efficient eleva-
tor. They also have a system that integrates the
call touch pad with the security gate, so when you
slide your security card through it knows what floor
you’re going to and assigns you to an elevator.
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
- 0
2.5 Latest Technology
Fig. 23
Fig. 24
Fig. 25
3. Mechanical Systems
Chapter Contents
3.1 General Design InfoDesign ObjectivesVentilation RequirementsSystem Components & Functions
3.2 Mechanical CirculationLoad DistributionsSystem RelationshipsSpacial Requirements
3.3 Localized Air DistributionVariable Air Volume SystemsRaised Floor Systems
3.4 Heat Gain / Lossbuilding Envelope Overview
3.5 System SustainabilityMethods, Ideas, and Tips
Overview
The functions of mechanical systems serve to create an indoor air environment free of pol-
lutants and to provide its occupants with a thermal comfort level suitable for each to work in.
In office buildings where the life of the structure typically outlives the lease life of the tenants
which occupy them, flexibility in design and approach to mechanical systems is important to
allow the building to adapt to changing technology and varied usability.
This chapter discusses general design criteria for low, mid and high rise office building ty-
pologies in relation to flexibility, occupant comfort, and spatial requirements. It discusses its
relevance to heat gain and loss, breaks down system components, their connections, and their
individual functions to the system as a whole. The overall flexibility of a building relies largely
on the application of air distribution. This chapter will break down the advantages and disad-
vantages of two typical air distribution systems: variable air volume distribution and raised
floor systems.
In today’s world design and building professionals are responsible for thinking more environ-
mentally aware, to build more sustainable, and to design “greener” systems. Lastly, this chap-
ter will offer methods, tips and general insight to improving the efficiency and sustainability of
office building mechanical systems.
48
Fig. 1 Temperature & Humidity Chart - The highlighted blue area’s repre-sent optimal operating temp.’s and humidity for winter and summer months when mechanical systems are running most.
Fig. 2
Ventilation Rates for Office Buildings
Design ObjectivesThe success of a mechanical system in an office building is directly related to its ability to meet certain
design objectives.
Maximization of Usable Space:
Mechanical systems require a certain amount of space in a building, strategically placed and require a
great deal of thought and communication between design teams especially early on in the design phases.
Typically the sizes of the mechanical spaces required are directly related to the sizes and space require-
ments of the components of the systems which are decided by the square footage and load requirements
individual for each project. See Section 3.2: Mechanical Service for typical space requirements for
system components and spaces.
Flexibility:
There must be the ability to accommodate the needs of a variety of tenants and occupants and their
changes in needs over the life of the building therefore it is strategically important to design mechanical
systems/spaces accordingly. A well designed office will provide excess space for future tenant build out
including extra mechanical room and shaft space.
Occupant Comfort:
The environment produced and regulated by your mechanical system must provide a very specific com-
fort zone in relation to temperature and humidity needed for a building to be inhabited and to provide a
gradient of change to suit individual preferences. In general a Class A office building should operate at 75
degrees Db and 50 percent RH in summer months and 72 degrees Db/25 percent RH in winter (Figure
3.1.1). Individual occupant comfort can be more efficiently achieved through the choice of your distribu-
tion systems See section 3.4.
Other Design Criteria to be considered:
-Provide office lobbies with separate VAV AHU
-Empty Shaft Space should be provided for future tenant exhaust requirements.
-Provide stair and elevator shafts with pressurization systems w/supply air fans located at penthouse
mechanical rooms.
-Parking structures to be naturally ventilated.
-Ventilation Rates
Office areas/Public space 20cu ft/min per person
Toilet areas 15 air changes/hour
Life saftey smoke exhaust 8 air changes/hr/floor
Smoking room exhaust 20 air changes/hr
Nightime purges 0.5 air changes/hr/flr
Enclosed parking 6 air changes/hour
3.1 General Design Information
48 3.1 General Design Information
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 49
Standby Generators: provide alternate power
source that runs off fuel to power mechanical
system components in the case of electrical power
outage
boilers: Heat domestic hot water through electri-
cal coil system and pump to domestic water tanks
for storage, as well as to AHU and fan coils.
Fan Coil Units (FCU): provides localized, non
ducted heating and cooling.
Fuel Storage Tanks: provide storage and supply
of fuel oils needed for system components such as
generators, fans and air handling units to run.
Fig. 3
Typical air handling unit (AHU) sized for mid to
high rise office building.
See Section 3.2 for spacial req.’s
Fig. 4
Typical air cooled chiller assembly sized for mid to
high rise office buildings
See section 3.2 for spacial req’s.
Fig. 5
Roof-top cooling tower unit for high rise office
buildings
See section 3.2 for spacial req’s.
Mechanical System ComponentsThis section serves as a brief breakdown of
system components and descriptions of their func-
tions.
Chiller Plant: Produces chilled water as a cooling
medium, circulated by pumps throughout the build-
ing. The water is used in various AHU systems
throughout the building to cool air. Water is re-
turned at a warmer temperature to be cooled again
and recirculated. Typically housed in mechani-
cal levels or basement levels as this component
requires spaces with head rooms of 16+ clear ft.
Cooling Towers: Heat generated by chillers is
rejected to condenser water circuits and pumped
to cooling towers where outdoor air enters the sys-
tem, evaporates the water and carries it away from
he building in an air stream via fans. Typically
located on all size office building at roof top levels
or high-level setbacks.
Air Handling Units (AHU): Centralized unit consist-
ing of a blower, heating and cooling elements, and
a humidifier. Receives cooled water from main
chillers or hot water from boilers and cools/heats
air and distributes it to different zones within the
building.
Stair Pressurization Fans: provide constant flow of
air to egress stairwells to ensure, in the case of a
fire, relatively smoke-free egress areas.
30’ Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
38’
40’
8’
15’
25’
3.1 General Design Information 49
50
Fig. 6 In typical Low Rise office buildings one small roof-top Air Handling Unit (AHU) is sufficient to supply the entire building space with conditioned air.
Fig. 7 In a Mid Rise office building, depending on design preferences, either all mechanical components can be placed on the roof-top or a single penthouse level will be designated to house all system components serving the entire building.
Fig. 8In High Rise offices, mechanical loads are broken down into zones with intermediate mechanical spaces throughout the building. As a rule of thumb, each mechanical level typically serves from 10-12 floors in each direction.
3.2 Mechanical Circulation
Load Distribution
Mechanical equipment have stringent require-
ments for space which are critical to the efficiency
of space utilization and system performance,
equal to the importance of programmatic require-
ments. Typically in office buildings, mechanical
spaces and components are housed in mid-level
or penthouse level spaces, designated strictly for
mechanical use. For tall buildings there is more
intense competition for space at the base of the
structure because of demands of parking, lobbies,
loading docks and retail that is typically associ-
ated with an office project. In very tall buildings
space utilization becomes even more critical, as
M48-49
M34-35
M10-11
L01-02
P01-03
M11-12
L01
b01-02
L1-3
b1
the vertical and horizontal trade-offs have greater
consequences. Tall buildings exert large hydrostat-
ic pressures on water systems and must be broken
down and organized into pressure zones so that
there is a pressure break in the circuit. This break
requires mechanical space with-in the tower. Typi-
cally in high rise structures, mechanical levels can
be found to serve 10-15 levels in each direction
individually and require large clear heights, usually
16 + feet; therefore most mechanical levels will
encompass two full floor levels.
50 3.2 Mechanical Circulation
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 51
Air Handlers
Typical Mech. Space Req. for High Rise Office
Air-cooled chillers 3,200 Sq. Ft.
Cooling towers 7,000 Sq. Ft.
Tenant standby generators 1,000 Sq. Ft.
House domestic water tanks 600 Sq. Ft.
Penthouse Levels
Typical Floor Levels
Mechanical fan room 500 Sq. Ft.
basement Levels
Life saftey & tenant generators 800 Sq. Ft.
Fuel oil storage 1,000 Sq. Ft.
Boiler & chiller plant 15,000 Sq. Ft.
Fig. 11Diagrammatic section of a typical high rise office building showing mechanical components and connections
Fig. 9Diagrammatic section of a typical low rise office building showing mechanical components and connections
Fig. 10 Diagrammatic section of a typical mid rise office building showing mechanical components and connections
Typical Mech. Space Req. for Mid Rise Office
Air-cooled chillers 2,500 Sq. Ft.
Cooling towers 3,000 Sq. Ft.
Tenant standby generators 1,000 Sq. Ft.
House domestic water tanks 600 Sq. Ft.
Penthouse Levels
Typical Floor Levels
Mechanical fan room 400 Sq. Ft.
basement Levels
Life saftey & tenant generators 500 Sq. Ft.
Fuel oil storage 300 Sq. Ft.
Boiler Room 1,500 Sq. Ft.
Fuel Oil PipingSystem ComponentsReturn AirSupply AirExhaust
Stair Pressurization Fans 800 Sq. Ft. Stair Pressurization Fans 400 Sq. Ft.
Fuel oil piping
Supply Ducts
Return Ducts
Back-up Generator
Chiller
Exhaust Chases
boilers
Fuel oil storage
Stair Pres. Fans
3.2 Mechanical Circulation 51
52
Variable Air Volume System (VAV)Typically in office building settings, the most efficient
and cost effective way to distribute air is a VAV system
(Variable Air Volume). These systems use an air
handling unit (supply fans w/filters and cooling coils) to
distribute conditioned air at pre-determined tempera-
tures in sufficient quantity to offset heat gains See sec-
tion 3.3. The space temperatures would be controlled
by varying the volume flow rate of supply air by the use
of VAV control dampers above the ceiling. The on-floor
VAV system is a re-circulating system in which the air
from the space is returned above the hung ceiling acting
as a plenum. The air is then returned to the fan room
at the core and back to chiller plants to be re-cooled.
Cooling loads distributed vary along with occupancy
levels and solar gain through the exterior skin. See sec-
tion 6.2
Raised Floor Distribution SystemIn response to the demand for flexibility and change
in an office building, raised floors for distribution of air
and cabling are another design choice that provides
easy modification and relocation options after they are
installed. Typically raised above the slab 12-18 inches,
raised floors utilize lift-out floor modules that allow for
easy cable and outlet modification. In this case owner-
occupied buildings use this system more frequent be-
cause the occupant derives most of the benefit through
the buildings life. Air is supplied to the space from floor
diffusers instead of overhead, while on floor handlers
blow air into the floor cavities via supply ducts. Warm air
is returned to the air handlers by way of open plenum
above the hung ceiling as the cool air, diffused low,
begins to heat and rise.
14’
9’
2’
3’
14’
9’2
4”
3’
18”
45’
45’
Fig. 12Typical VAV system air distribution showing above ceiling supply and return ducts and overhead diffusers to cool office spaces.
Fig. 13 Typical raised floor air distribution diagram showing under floor air supply ducts fed by a local AHU and plenum return duct back to the core. Floor swirl diffusers allow for a cleaner striation of cool air below to warmer air above.
3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems
52 3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 53
1’-8
3’
9’ to F.F.
1’
2’
2’-6”
14’FL.- FL.
3’
14’FL.- FL.
1’
2’
4”
9’4 - F.F.
45’
3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems 53
Fig. 15 - Raised Floor Fig. 14 - VAV
Advantages and Disadvantages of VAV vs Raised Floor
VAV AdvantagesCentralized maintenance, quick, easy construction
timeline, up front cost is cheaper than installing a
raised floor.
VAV DisadvantagesLess opportunity for personalized comfort zones
with dampers, requires local mechanical room,
even air distribution is sometimes compromised
due to operating at high turn down; tends to mix
supply air with return air at a higher percentage,
resulting in less efficiency.
Raised Floor AdvantagesRaised floors allow for lower life cycle costs
because of their flexibility of re-configuring, re-
wiring and re-arranging office configurations. The
absence of overhead ducting in this system can
allow for an increase in floor to floor height or a
reduction in overall building height by close to 10
percent. Comfort for occupants is increased by
creating more personalized zoning options. This
system also allows for a more efficient use of air as
cooler air is distributed low and gradually makes
its way to the plenum as it becomes warmer. The
overall result is improved indoor air quality.
Raised Floor DisadvantagesLarger up front construction costs.
5454 3.4 Heat Gain/Loss
building Envelope OverviewDepending on the choice of building skin and the
exterior envelopes design approach, structures
experience various levels of heat gain and loss
that influence the design of distribution systems as
well as the efficiency of the system. The great-
est contributor of heat gain in an office building
is usual sunlight. Solar heat gain is the percent-
age of heat gained through both direct sunlight
and absorbed heat. The larger the percentage of
heat gain in a building the more the mechanical
systems will work to counter-balance, therefore
engineers use a heat load calculation to determine
the mechanical needs of these areas. Determining
the specific heat gain for a design with an engineer
is pertinent to maximizing efficiency of mechani-
cal system. Curtain wall systems (a typical choice
for office skins) and other envelopes with large
surface areas of glass require additional mechani-
cal design attention to counteract heat loss or gain.
See chapter 5
Perimeter Diffuser Air DistributionTo counteract heat gain at curtain walls or window
walls, areas with high solar exposure, perimeter
diffusers are used. Usually supplied by extra
perimeter VAV boxes, they produce cooler and
higher volumes of air typically to offset the heat
being gained through the skin. This strategy is
typically used in all distribution schemes including
raised floor.
45’
Fig. 17Overhead VAV systems use seperate perimeter diffusers in the ceiling to distribute air down across windows.
3.4 Heat Gain/Loss
Fig. 16Raised Floor perimeter diffusers distribute air up across window walls
45’
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 55
3.5 System SustainabilityTips for Building “Greener”When designing a building, base system size and
equipment on a long-term plan, one which has a
significant amount of flexibility, not just focusing on
the current building occupant’s needs and require-
ments.
Research systems that provide larger number of
control zones than conventional systems. Applica-
tions such as raised floors provide air distribution
on a wider and more individual basis which allows
more occupants to have control over their spaces
environment.
Consider carefully factors that influence comfort
see section 3.1. Consider operating spaces at
lower relative humidity during the cooling season
to widen the dry bulb temperature comfort band
See operating temperature chart in section 3.1.
Greater comfort can result from improved wall
insulation or high performance glass systems (See
chapter 6 for information on wall system options for
office buildings). The building envelope alone can
have huge effects on how well or how sustainable
your mechanical systems can operate. Also using
solar screening or shades can drastically ease the
strain on a systems typical load requirements.
- Provide heat exchangers within the toilet exhaust
air to reduce ventilation air pre-heating require-
ments.Fig. 18Building energy disbursement breakdown highlighting the large percentage (39% of total buiding energy) used on mechanical systems
The use of humidifiers in outside air streams keeps
AHU coils wet. This condensate typically tends to
absorb pollutants in the ventilation air.
Use daylight responsive lighting to reduce heat
gain from electric lights
In appropriate area, consider the use of mixed
HVAC systems that can operate in tandem with
natural ventilation. In certain weather conditions
the system can be de-activated and operable win-
dows can perform the cooling and drying functions
of the mechanical systems.
Energy Recovery VentilationTo reduce the load on primary air handling sys-
tems that take on the task of conditioning various
levels of outdoor ventilation air, outdoor units that
employ pre-conditioning strategies are an efficient
consideration. These recovery units moderate
temperature and humidity content of outdoor air
coming into the building and pre-condition it so to
allow for the zone AHU’s to concentrate on trim
control rather than having to take on the much
larger load variations that are imposed by outdoor
ventilation air. These units will reduce demands
on heating & cooling equipment and result in cost
savings with a short payback period.
3.5 System Sustainability 55
4. Common Program
Chapter Contents
4.1 Front of HouseLobby InformationVestibule RequirementsSecurity types
4.2 CafeteriaTypes of Spaces Location SuggestionsRequirements
4.3 Back of HouseWaste RemovalRamp Requirements
4.4 RestroomsRequirements
4.5 Ground Level LeasableTypes of LeasorsRequirements / Considerations
Overview
Common programming and back of house spaces provide the lifeblood of any office build-
ing. Some of them tend to be forgotten in the initial design process which can become very
detrimental to the design of the building later on. Having a firm grasp of all of the common
programs early on in the design process can be very beneficial to the overall design of the
building.
This chapter examines the different types of spaces that are typically associated with all office
buildings. We will gain an insight of these spaces through a better understanding of the code
requirements and minimum space requirements. Diagrams and equations will be shown to
illustrate the main points and also additional possibilities.
5858 4.1 Front of House
4.1 Front of House
LobbiesThe lobby is the first point of which individuals will
interact with the building. The lobby has multiple
functions; to advertise for the offices of the build-
ing, create an identity, serve as a security check-
point. The lobby is the home for the Concierge,
Guards, Speed gates, and seating area. The
Concierge is there to provide information about
the building, what floors office or individuals can
be found on and as a check in point. The guards
are there to verify those that have passes visually.
Speed gates are used to verify an individual’s ID
quickly and accurately. They are typically used
more in Urban High rises and some Urban Mid ris-
es due to the larger volumes of individuals. Sub-
urban may utilize them if there is a large enough
number of employees. The security level can be
adjusted to allow for differing rates of traffic.
VestibuleA vestibule, the space separating the exterior
of the building and the lobby, is an efficient way
to control the climate with in the office and also
control traffic flow. A vestibule has to adhere to
specific ADA requirements. The minimum size
that a vestibule can be is 44” wide x 72”, in the
direction of travel, and the ceiling must be 20” or
more above the doors.
Door typesSingle doors are perfect for slower pedestrian traf-
fic. There is the option to use an automatic single
door which would allow the door to remain open
longer, allowing for a slightly higher flow of traffic.
Double doors; allow for varying traffic levels of me-
dium to high. The option of automatic doors would
increase the rate of traffic allowing for a higher
density of individuals as well as any individual not
able to use their hands.
Revolving doors are able to control the climate and
also the individual flow of traffic in places where
security is an issue. These doors will slow a
higher flow of traffic so that guards or speed gates
or not overwhelmed. Operation during emergen-
cies needs to be considered due to this slower
flow. Solutions vary from double doors located
near the revolving doors or collapsible doors with
in the revolving door assembly.
SecurityA concierge and a guard are similar in purpose
but different in use. Guards are serve as a visual
security check point by verifying an individuals
identity. Concierges serve not only as security
but also information. They can inform individuals
in the offices of a clients arrival or direct a client
a specified location. The number of occupants
should determine the use of one or both of these.
Speed gates are a more efficient and accurate way
to verify the identity of individual. Varying settings
can be adjusted to allow for higher rates of traffic,
open/close responses and verification setting. The
gate can be left open to allow maximum flow and
only close when an individual can not be identified
or set to open at a certain speed to increase or
decrease traffic flow
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 594.1 Front of House 59
Elevators to offices above
Ground level Offices
Security/Concierge
Visual Security Verification
Figure 1 Suburban Office Lobby
This is a partial plan diagram showing the basic
implementation of requirements in a Suburban
office building lobby. The use of Speed gates may
not be necessary depending on the size of the
office and number of employee’s. A concierge
would serve as the security barrier and provide cli-
ents with information and check in. Offices are
typically located on the ground floor and may have
little separation from the lobby space.
6060 4.1 Front of House
Elevators to offices above
Speed Gates
Security/Concierge
Visual Security Verification
Fig. 2 Urban Mid Rise Office Lobby
Depicted above is a partial plan of a Urban Mid rise
office lobby. The need for security is greater
because of the number of employee’s and the abil-
ity of anyone to enter the building. The use of
speed gates may be necessary based on the num-
ber of employee’s and level of security required.
Locker rooms or rest rooms may be required for
guards or by the occupants of possible leasable
space.
Fig. 3 Urban High Rise Office Lobby
Depicted above is a partial plan diagram of a
Urban High rise office lobby. The need for security
is greater because of the volume of employee’s
and the use of more security guards and speed
gates is necessary to verify employee’s quickly and
accurately. Rest rooms or Locker rooms maybe
required for guards or by leasable occupants.
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 614.1 Front of House 61
Diagram of a revolving door in a regular use.
Emergency Situation
Diagram of a collapsed revolving door during a fire
alarm emergency. Two of the doors will fold
towards the exterior of the building.
Exterior
Exterior
Interior
Interior
Elevation of Revolving door.
Typical elevation of a speed gate. The doors slide
into the base allowing individuals access.
Typical plan diagram showing the possible loca-
tions of sensors and the movement of the gates
into the consoles.
Possible locations for sensors.
Possible locations for sensors.
Fig. 4 Elevation of Speed Gate
Fig. 5 Plan of Speed Gate
Fig. 6 Elevation of Revolving Door
Fig. 7 & 8
Revolving Door/Emergency Revolving
11”20”11”
36”48”
11”
60”
Inside Dimension6’ min
7’
62
4.2 Cafeteria
Cafeteria’s may be required in low rise offices
and Urban High rises. Low rise office buildings
may not be located close to other food services,
which would mean that employee’s might have to
drive during their lunch breaks to get food, if they
do not bring their own. Their use in Urban high
rise offices is based on the time it would take for
an employee to leave and return. A second factor
is the volume of employee’s that leave during the
same time, as this would affect all employee’s that
leave during that time. Cafeteria’s allow for a more
efficient use of the employers and employee’s
time.
Cafeteria’s have a large range of spaces that need
to be accounted for. Spaces include; Kitchen, Din-
ing area, Service Area, Storage and Locker room
for staff. Each category has their own set required
spaces with in them. The Kitchen requires cold
food preparation, range/grill, vegetable station,
bakeshop, meat station and cleaning. Storage,
both cold and dry, should be close to the kitchen
and loading dock for quick storing and preparing
of food. The Service area is the space between
the kitchen and the Dining or Seating Area where
individuals arrive and get food. The flow of traffic
through the cafeteria should not be hindered. An
individual should be able to enter, get food, seat
and eat, return tray and plates and exit without in-
terfering with anyone else entering. The first thing
to determine is the number of individuals that will
utilize the cafeteria. Once determined, divided the
total number of individuals by the number of shifts
for serving and then multiple by ten. Ten is the av-
erage square foot of space that an individual takes
up. All of the other spaces will be determined from
this space.
SA = Total to be served x 10
Shifts
kitchenThe kitchen serves as a transition space as well
as food preparation. An individual should have to
pass through the kitchen to and from the loading
dock. In this way, food can be easily accessible,
as well as removed from the kitchen and cleaning
stations efficiently. The kitchen is should be ap-
proximately one half the size of the dining space.
K = SA
2
StorageThe storage should be approximately one fourth of
the space of the seating area. This is total space
for storage, so dry and cold split this space.
S = SA
4
62 4.2 Cafeteria
Locker Rooms and Cleaning
The locker rooms are required for the staff to
change and prepare for their shifts. The clean-
ing station should be located close to the kitchen
and dining area so that clean plates and utensils
can be transferred efficiently. These should fit in
the same amount of space as the storage and the
same equation can be used.
These spaces are just to give a preliminary starting
point and may need to be adjusted to accommo-
date specified appliances, or ADA requirements.
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 63
Kitchen: allow for meat prep, vegetable prep, cold
prep, range/grill, bakeshop and service line
Locker rooms
Storage areas: Cold and dry.
Cleaning Station and Office
Dining Area
Trash collection
Arrows represent the flow of traffic. Traffic should
move in one general direction and should not
impede any other traffic.
kitchen
Dining AreaStorage
cleaning
Lockers
Fig. 9 Required Cafeteria spaces and relative sizes
Fig.10 Relative comparison of Space
Requirements
4.2 Cafeteria 63
Exit to loading dock
64
4.3 Back of House
Several different aspects occur as a part of the
back of house or support system within an office
environment. The loading dock, and surrounding
functions, account for most of this category, Sev-
eral different layers are included when addressing
the design of back of house programming. From
an organizational standpoint, the juxtaposition of
other back of house elements to the loading dock
is the most logical. All of these features of an
office building are not what the typical employee
or visitor wants to have noticeable, so often times,
these elements are shifted to the back or base-
ment levels of the building. All of these aspects
may have some involvement with large truck
access, for delivery or shipping purposes, waste
pick-up, or building and employee safety and
security. Therefore it makes sense that all of these
elements are located within the vicinity of the load-
ing dock.
Low Rise Mid-Rise High-RiseDock Master's Office x x xCentral Mail Room
Receiving Room x x xMail Room Storage x x x
Sorting Room x x xScreening Room x x
Anti-Room \ xTenant Pick-up x x x
SecurityTruck Checkpoint at entrance \ x
Security offices x xMaintenance
Offices xMachine Shops and Storages x x x
Building Engineers x x xWaste Management
Recycling Dumpsters 1 1 1Trash Dumpsters 1 1+ 1+
Compactors x x1 cu. Yd. of waste per 10,000 sq. ft. of office space
Restrooms
1 toilet per sex will be required for anything less
Criteria for Office Loading Docks
Additional dumpsters may be required for leasable space on first floor. Restaurants and/or retail.
Occupancy of a loading dock is 1 person for every 300 square feet
64 4.3 Back of House
Explosive
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 65
The Loading DockLoading docks can be tricky when deciding on
dimensions and locations. There is a lot to think
about, and more often then not is approached as a
case by case basis. There is no industry standard
for how many bays are required for a buildings
loading dock, there are only guidelines that should
be explored when approached with the task of
implementing one, and a lot of this has to do with
the types of trucks that will be visiting the dock.
Low rise, suburban, office buildings are the easiest
to accommodate as there is not much in the way
of space requirements. As long as it’s taken into
account the maneuverability and size of a full 18
wheel tractor trailer, externally, there is not much
more to cover. What does have to be considered
though is a landing zone for the trailer. This zone
should be made of a harder substance, so that the
trailer does not sink into asphalt on a hot summer’s
day. This zone can be calculated by taking the
longest truck accessing the yard and subtracting
7’ from that. As well, an apron space is required,
which is twice the size of a truck plus 10’ to ac-
count for the turning and reversing capabilities that
these large vehicles lack.
Commonalities can begin to be shown between
low, mid and high rise offices at the actual dock.
Docks should be designed to align with the height
of the bed of a delivery truck. However, there are
several different types of truck that vary in height.
Commonly average dock heights are from 48” to
52”, and other variations can be accommodated by
the use of dock levelers.Apron space = truck lengthx2 + 10’
Truck Length - 7’
Landing Strip
4.3 Back of House 65
varies 48”-52”
114” 96”-108”
96”-102”
96”-108”
Outside Turn-
ing Radius
Inside Turning
Radius
180° Turn
33’ Wide Road
150° Turn
35’ Wide Road
120° Turn
27’ Wide Road
90° Turn
27’ Wide Road
60° Turn
24’6” Wide Road30° Turn
16’6” Wide Road
For the mid rise and the high rise office building
the design may get a little more challenging. With
these two options the loading dock may have to be
located within the foot print of the building as there
may not be enough space around the building to
accommodate truck access. When the loading
dock is brought within the building, more has to
be identified in the terms of security. First, the
area has to be blast proofed and second is how
the dock is accessed, through ramps and security.
Depending on extraneous services may depict
how many docking bays there are in general. The
offices alone may need a couple, but an extra ser-
vice such as retail, or restaurant may want there
own docking bay to accept their own deliveries.
Minimum Road Width Requirements for truck
turning purposes
66
ApproachLoading docks are used several times everyday.
How these area are accessed and kept secure is
the main consideration. Low rise office buildings,
generally don’t require strict security checkpoints
on the approach to the building, and in most cases
they are accessed by a solitary access road that
brings the vehicles around to the back of the build-
ing to keep them out of site of the building’s daily
users.
Mid rise and high rise office buildings approach
the concept of the loading dock very differently
where they bring the traffic into and beneath the
building. This accomplishes the same task of
getting the trucks out of the sight of the buildings
daily users, while throwing in other design chal-
lenges. With the dock within the building footprint,
considerations of possible threats have to be taken
into account. At building entrances often times, a
pull off area will be designed into the access road
to allow for safety and security officials to inspect
vehicles going to the loading dock. Other factors
in accessing mid and high rise office loading docks
include the grade of the ramp getting down to the
loading dock. A dock ramp cannot be too steep for
the fear of the runaway truck. It is recommended
that a ramp should be between 10 and 15 % grade.
Approaching a Loading Dock
Low Rise Mid Rise High Rise
Access Road
At grade X /
Ramped access below grade \ X
Land Usage X
Within Building Footprint \ X
Waiting Area X
Security Checkpoint at entrance \ X
Inspection Pullover Area
5% 2’
10% 4’
40’
15% 6’
20% 8’
66 4.3 Back of House
Recommended slope of an access ramp to prevent runaway trucks.
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 67
Waste RemovalOther uses for the loading dock are also found in
the waste collection and removal services. An
office typically creates a total of 1 cubic yard of
waste for every 10,000 square feet of usable
space. Therefore, the larger the building, options
arise in using up more space with more dumpsters,
or using the means of compactors which can
reduce the volume in a ratio of 4 or 5 to 1.
Low rise offices will generally contain two dump-
sters on site. Like the loading dock they would
generally be pushed to the back of the building ac-
cessed by the same road that accesses the load-
ing dock. If the lot does not allow for this, masking
the appearance of the dumpsters is another option
by providing an enclosed dumpster cage dressed
with excessive landscaping. Providing two 10 yard
dumpsters, at 12’x8’x4’, unless otherwise speci-
fied, is the most logical explanation for this type,
where one dumpster would be used for waste and
the other for recycling.
In mid and high rise, once again, the dumpsters
are brought into the building generally at the same
level as the loading dock. Space may begin to get
a little bit more tricky as the building gets larger.
In the mid rise an additional dumpster for more
waste could be acceptable, but it may also be time
to start looking at compactors, especially for the
high rise, This minimizes the amount of space
that the waste takes up and as well minimizes the
amount of floor space that the dumpsters occupy.
Similar to the amount of docking bays required,
extra dumpsters may be required if extra program
is included in the building design.
Relative ProgrammingAround the loading dock other integral office sup-
port programming resides. For the dock itself, a
dock master needs an office where the schedules
can be organized to attempt to avoid an over-
crowded dock. Also, as the dock is where the
daily mail generally passes through, a central mail
room is required in this area. Here we may see
a difference from low rise offices to mid and high
rise offices where security doesn’t matter so much.
In low rise, all that may exist is the receiving and
shipping room and the sorting room, along with
a tenant pick up space. In the mid and high rise
typologies, this space may also include a screen-
ing room for potential life threatening packages,
explosive and chemical based. This is added se-
curity program that otherwise may not be deemed
necessary. As well, the mail room, and the bay
itself need storage capacity to hold shipments that
are being processed for acceptance or for delivery,
the mail room especially
Along with these issues, there is also a building
maintenance crew that needs space to complete
their work, that doesn’t interfere with the general
function of the offices.
4.3 Back of House 67
68
OverviewAll office environments require the functions of
rest rooms within the design of the building. Low,
mid and high rise office buildings all require ad-
equate rest room functions. This means that the
design has to comply with state and local codes
and the American’s with Disabilities Act (ADA)
requirements, as well as expressing interest in
aesthetic quality and functionality. Knowing these
requirements and having a basic knowledge of
installation requirements can prevent redesign-
ing a layout or having casework that cannot be
installed properly due to a disregard for fixture
layout. Redesigns can become costly and unless
the architect pays particular attention to wall types
and chase dimensions to accommodate piping
and supports the architect will need to readjust
the spaces to meet certain code requirements in
space allocation.
In general, the rest rooms shall be located towards
the center of the building, within the boundaries
of what is the core. This is the nearest point of ac-
cess for all tenants single or multi. In the case of
multi tenancy the rest rooms become a public facil-
ity, unless a tenant to occupy the space requests
a private facility of, which is between the architect,
developer and tenants discretion.
4.4 Restrooms
68 4.4 Restrooms
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 69
Rest Room FixturesRest room design for an office environment
requires several different acknowledgments by the
architect. One needs to know the basic principles
behind the plumbing and bracket supports for the
various fixtures involved in a rest room layout.
There are many different types of fixtures from wall
mounted toilets and urinals to the floor mounted
version of the same. As well, sinks come in vari-
ous shapes, sizes and materials from wall mounted
to counter-tops; porcelain to stainless steel. The
major factors that the architect has to worry about
are aesthetics, functionality, and the product instal-
lation process.
Aesthetically there are a number of choices that
the architect can choose. Products are so varied
that architects have innumerous possibilities, when
it comes to colors, finishes, and shapes, even as
far as themes for fixtures, faucets and trim.
Functionality of the fixtures goes to how the facili-
ties are used, and how the fixtures can be selected
to accommodate the users more efficiently, includ-
ing handicapped access.
Installation and fixture types are the most impor-
tant aspect of the plumbing design. In multi-story
office buildings, wall hung fixtures are more logical
as they provide better sanitation. This also means
that space has to be accounted for within the
chase wall for a bracket system that will support
the fixtures. As there are many products available,
the chase dimension cannot be assumed. This
dimension will have to be determined after prod-
ucts have been selected, based on the manufactur-
ers recommendation. To the right are the minimum
requirements for chase wall depths.
12” min*
12” min
6” min
6” min
14” min*
16” min*
* Note: Add 2” for 5”-6” waste stacks
4.4 Restrooms 69
70
Rest Room LayoutA lot has to be considered when designing and
laying out a rest room within an office environment.
After the design of the building is determined, then
the core layouts can be deciphered. Rest rooms
generally are considered part of the core as this is
the central location easily accessible by all. The
size of the rest room is to be determined by the
overall square footage of the building, and the
occupancy rating of the building. For an office the
occupancy rating is 1 person for every 100 square
feet. Of the result number this is divided in half
for men and women. For every 25 males and 20
females a separate water closet is required. The
men’s rest room, has the exception with that 33
% of the water closets are required to be urinals.
Lavatories, are also required at 1 for every 50
people, male and female.
These are considered minimum requirements,
so having more is not necessarily bad. Cost and
space ultimately limit this number to the minimum,
but this should not be held as a design restraint.
Other functions incorporated with the rest room
core include a water fountain, and a janitor’s closet
with mop sink.
As well, as the dimensions discussed in the previ-
ous section, other dimensions have to be consid-
ered for comfort purposes as well as handicapped
accessibility. A double entry door is recommended
for privacy with minimum dimensions as noted in
the drawing on the left, along with the minimum
dimensions of a single stall, that allow for comfort
entering and using the facilities. Along with this
can be addressed the handicapped accessibility
requirements.
Minimum Toilet Facilities Water Closets Lavatories
Female Male Urinals each sex
1/20 1/25 33% 1/50
Example
30000 sq. ft. floor plate
1 person/100 sq. ft. = 300 people
150 Male @ 1/25 = 4 toilets and 2 urinals
150 Female @ 1/20 = 8 toilets
Lavatories = 3 each
7’ min
5’
18” min
5’ min5’
2’-8”
5’
16” min 14” min
70 4.4 Restrooms
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 71
ADA ComplianceIn accordance with the American’s with Disabilities
Act, an office environment requires that at least
one stall, male and female, be handicapped acces-
sible. At least one lavatory will need to meet these
requirements, too. The code is regulated so that a
person in a wheel chair can be granted the same
amenities as everyone else.
Handicapped citizens deserve the same rights as
everyone else. To not include them would be dis-
criminatory, and illegal, for that matter. The images
to the right give a brief overview of what is required
for ADA design in a typical office setting.
4” max
max 6”
6” max
17”-19”
17”-19”
24” max
48” min
17” min
min 8”
min 8”
6” max
6” max
40” min
33”-36”
9” min
9” min
27” min
27” min29” min
36” max
30” min
34” max
40” max
33”-36”
36” max toilet paper
12” max
42” min56” min
36” min
12” max
17”-19” 19” min
32” min
18”
4.4 Restrooms 71
72
4.5 Ground Level Leasable
Urban Mid-rise and Urban High rise have the
ability to have leasable space on the ground floor
level. This is not an easy thing to plan for due to
the large number of groups that can occupy these
spaces and the different requirements that they
each require. The common uses that can occupy
these spaces can range from: Retail, Light food,
Restaurant, and Health Club. Each will require
a unique set of design and code requirements
that will need to be addressed. Spaces that
require exhaust systems and HVAC systems can
be problematic because of the need for venting.
One solution is to place these spaces close to the
core. This will allow you to combine the mechani-
cal spaces for the building and run the shafts up
through the whole building. Issues may arise be-
cause of the need for separate ventilation systems
and therefore more space occupied on the above
floors. The second solution is to vent through the
side of the building. This will require the use of
separate fans and may take up leasable space
at ground level if they can not be mounted on the
ceiling. Another issue of this method is where it is
venting, as it may affect the surrounding buildings
or spaces. Each of these consideration require
careful planning and you may need to consult with
a consultant about specific issues.
4.5 Leasable
kitc
hen
kitc
hen
Exh
aust
Acc
ess
to L
oadi
ng
Doc
k
Dire
ct D
aylig
ht
Ven
tilat
ion/
Coo
ling
Hig
h F
ire P
roec
tion
Noi
se b
arrie
r
Str
eet V
isib
ility
Restaurant x x x x x x x
Light Food x x x x x
Retail x x x x
Health Club x x x x x
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 73
There are usually multiple spaces that can be
gained in an Urban Mid-Rise building. The high-
lighted section show two spaces; the left space
is approximately 9,000 sq ft and the space on the
right is approximately 11,000 sq ft.
Urban High rise also have the possibility of Leas-
able space on the ground floor. The highlight
space is approximately 10,600 sq ft.
4.5 Leasable 73
74
Restaurant and Retail setup
The restaurant will require access to the loading
dock for shipments and waste removal. The kitch-
en should be located near the core of the building
so that any kitchen exhausts can go up through the
core without needing to be re-routed or interrupt
any office layouts above. The same equations for
sizes for cafeteria still relates to these spaces.
kitchen
Retail Space
Storage
Cleaning Area
Employee Lockers / Rest rooms
Public Rest rooms
Office
Dining Area
Access to Loading area and Dumpsters
4.5 Leasable
5. Exterior Wall System
Chapter Contents
5.1 Exterior Wall SystemsCurtain Wall SystemStud Backed Wall SystemPrecast Concrete Wall System
5.2 Curtain Wall System Design
5.3 Stud Backed Wall System
5.4 Precast Concrete Panel System
5.5 Window SystemsWindow Wall System Curtain Wall SystemStorefront System
5.6 Window AppearanceRibbon WindowStorefront Window
5.7 Double Skin Facade
Overview
There are many available systems to choose from for a building’s exterior walls. In this
chapter, we will be looking at typical exterior wall systems that are used in office building.
Each has implications in areas such as cost, time of erection, field work, efficiency, quality of
work, or the complexity of assembly. This chapter will survey the different types of exterior
wall systems and provide information on which is the most efficient system to use for low, mid,
and high-rise office buildings. It will also provide a fundamental understanding of the process
of exterior wall construction as a basis for design decisions. Below is a organizational chart
outlining the chapter and the relationships between these various wall systems.
Stick-BuiltCurtain Wall
UnitizedCurtain Wall
Stud-BackedWall System
PrecastConcrete Panel
Exterior Wall Systems
Curtain WallSystem
Window WallSystem
StorefrontSystem
Window Systems
RibbonWindow
PunchedWindow
StorefrontWindow
Window Appearance
78
Curtain Wall SystemA curtain wall is defined as thin, usually aluminum-
framed wall, containing in-fills of glass, metal
panels, or thin stone. The framing is attached to
the building structure and does not carry the floor
or roof loads of the building. The wind and gravity
loads of the curtain wall are transferred to the
building structure, typically at the floor line.
Stick-Built Stud-Backed Wall System with Punched or Ribbon Windows(may also be cmu wall)
A stick built stud backed wall system can have
many exterior cladding. It is erected on site by mul-
tiple specialized teams. Studs are framed between
building structure. It requires minimal hoisting time.
Minor imperfection can be made, and transporta-
tion costs are minimized. Stick built construction is
the most affected by weather conditions at the site
and requires scaffolding to apply the finish.
Precast Concrete Panel Wall SystemA precast concrete panels are durable and
structurally adequate to resist lateral forces while
spanning between floors to between columns.
It resistance to tornado/hurricane damage; fire,
termite, and dry-rot.
5.1 Exterior Wall System
Curtain Wall System
Rigid Insulation
Light Gauge Metal
Window Wall System
Metal Stud Backed System
(may also be cmu wall)
Exterior sheathing
Air/Moisture barrierMembrane
Rigid insulation
2” Min. Air Space
Exterior Finish
Window Wall System
Precast Concrete Wall
Spray Insulation
Light Gauge Metal
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Stick Curtain Wall
Cost effective for smaller size or
low and mid-rise building.
Long time to assemble on-site.
Single specialized team for in-
stallation. they are erected piece
by piece on-site.
Single system controls thermal
expansion and contraction; seis-
mic motion; building sway and
movement; water diversion; and
thermal efficiency.
Presents some quality control is-
sues. because components are
erected piece by piece.
1. Anchors
2. Mullion
3. Horizontal rail
4. Spandrel Panel
5. Horizontal Rail
6. Vision Glass
7. Interior Mullion Trim
8. Insulation as required
9. Light Gauge Metal Interior
Finish
Unitized Curtain Wall
More cost effective for larger
size or high-rise building.
Short time to assemble on-site.
Single specialized team for in-
stallation. Each unit is connected
to form the façade.
Single system controls thermal
expansion and contraction; seis-
mic motion; building sway and
movement; water diversion; and
thermal efficiency.
Quality control can be strictly
monitored in the factory.
1. Anchor
2. Pre-Assembled
Frame Unit
3. Insulation as required
4. Light Gauge Metal Interior
Finish
Stud-Backed Wall
Costs are lowest for low-rise
building.
Long time to assemble on-site.
Multiple specialized team for
installation. One team needs to
finish until the next team installs.
Multiple system controls the
efficiency of the building. Effi-
ciency depends on the quality of
the material chosen and details
done by the architect.
Corrode when exposed to
continuous moisture, deflect
more than masonry, and act as a
thermal bridges conducting heat
to or from the exterior.
1. Metal Stud
2. Exterior Sheathing
3. Rigid Insulation
4. Adhered Membrane
5. Air Space
6. Flashing
7. Exterior Wall
8. Window
9. Interior Finish
Precast Concrete Panel
Costs depends on number of
picks for low and mid-rise building
Short time to assemble on-site.
Two specialized team for instal-
lation. Only the precaster and
insulator.
Requires less insulation for
energy.
Quality control are strictly moni-
tored by fabricators specializing
in this type of construction.
1. Anchor
2. Precast Concrete
3. Sprayed Insulation
4. Light Gauge Metal Interior
Finish
Cost
Time of
Erection
Field Work
Efficiency
Quality Control
Assembly
5.1 Exterior Wall Systems 79
80
Spandrel Glass
Cost: Lowest
Aesthetic: Strong
Horizontal Band
Efficiency: Good Thermal
Insulation
Shadow box
Cost: Medium
Aesthetic: Less Strong
Horizontal Band
Efficiency: Bad Moisture
Control
Vision Glass
Cost: Most
Aesthetic: Flexible
Efficiency: Require
Lower U-Value glass for
better insulation
5.2 Curtain Wall System Design
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What can go wrongCurtain wall systems range from manufacturer’s
standard catalog systems to specialized custom
walls. Custom walls become cost competitive with
standard systems as the wall area increases. This
single system controls thermal expansion and
contraction; seismic motion; building sway and
movement; water diversion; and thermal efficiency.
Subject to failures are extremely rare as it is de-
signed in a very controlled environment.
A curtain wall is defined as thin, usually aluminum-
framed wall, containing in-fills of glass, metal
panels, or thin stone. The framing is attached
to the building structure and does not carry the
floor or roof loads of the building. The wind and
gravity loads of the curtain wall are transferred to
the building structure, typically at the floor line.
Aluminum framed wall systems date back to the
1930’s, and developed rapidly after World War II
when the supply of aluminum became available for
non-military use.
Vision Glass with Steel Construction
On a steel construction, even with a cantilever,
there still needs to be a girder at the end. So the
distance between the curtain wall to the soffit are
very close so the soffit can be viewed from the
exterior.
Vision Glass with Concrete Construction
On a concrete construction, the distance between
the curtain wall to the soffit can span a great
distance which gives a thin slab aesthetic from the
exterior.
5.2 Curtain Wall System Design 81
82
5.3 Stud-Backed Wall System (May also be CMU)
This type of backup wall represents a large
percentage of modern wall construction for
several types of cladding. The reason is that steel
studs are lightweight, fast to erect, economical,
noncombustible, and are not susceptible to rot
or infestation. They do, however, have their
shortcomings. They corrode when exposed to
continuous moisture, they deflect more than
masonry, and they act as thermal bridges
conducting heat to or from the exterior.
Window Wall System
Metal Stud Backed System
(May also be CMU Wall)
Exterior Sheathing
Air/Moisture barrierMembrane
Rigid Insulation
2” Min. Air Space
Exterior Finish (Shown on Right)
Note:It is important that no insulation is inside the stud
cavity and have the insulation outside the stud cav-
ity regardless of the climate condition.
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Wood SidingIt requires periodic maintenance. Wood stain lasts
longer than paint. Using wood that has a natural
resistance to the effects of heat, wind, and rain is
advisable to the applications. Redwood, cedar, and
cypress are recommended is the budget permits.
MasonryEfflorescence and cracking are the major problem
for masonry. Efflorescence is caused by moisture
migrating through the mortar, dissolving salt with it,
and leaching to the surface.
StuccoIt is hardy and durable finish if executed properly. It
has a tendency to develop cracks if the supporting
studs are not stiff enough, have wider spacing than
usual, or lack frequent control joints.
EIFSDelamination and moisture accumulation behind
the insulation board is the bane of their system.
Gypsum sheathing is not suitable. A masonry wall,
cement board, or fiberglass faced GWB sheathing
fastened to metal studs should be used instead.
Tile VeneerTile is impervious to water, so it provides one of
the better defenses against water penetration from
the exterior. However, it is susceptible to attach
by water vapor migrating from the interior of the
building. This vapor can accumulate behind the
tile, freeze and cause it to spall.
What can go wrongStuds systems are subject to more flexural move-
ment than masonry or concrete wall systems. They
are more prone to damage caused by water or
moisture penetrating behind the sheathing or inte-
rior finish. This incipient deterioration can continue
for a relatively long time before detection. By that
time, the structural stability of the stud system may
have reached a point where the whole system has
to be replaced at a cost that could reach as much
as three times the original cost of construction. For
this reason, it is imperative that the details be
developed with full understanding of the various
defenses against water penetrations. Head, jamb,
and sill details at window and door opening must
be drawn at a large enough scale to show the ter-
mination and sealing of the edges of the adhered
membrane, damp-proofing or waterproofing mem-
branes, as well as air barriers. Although the work
does not guarantee it will be executed correctly,
frequent site visits to spot check execution and pro-
vide guidance are also very important to prevent
bad execution.
5.3 Stud-Backed Wall System 83
84
5.4 Precast Concrete Panel Wall System
Precast concrete panels are shop-fabricated by
experienced technicians under controlled condi-
tions. The choice of finishes can be predetermined
by sample selection. A full size mock-up can be
constructed and tested for leakage or appear-
ance problems. Each panel is completed in one
pour, thus avoiding the need for concealment of
construction joints, and, in many cases, the panels
are prestressed to minimize hairline cracks, resist
bowing, and reduce deflection.
In addition to these advantages, precast panels
are durable and structurally adequate to resist
lateral forces while spanning between floors to
between columns. Panels may be used as a load-
bearing wall element to combine both appearance
and functions.
precast concrete wallpanel thickness
1” min. windowplacement fromedge of panel
PANELDIMENSIONS 8’ 10’ 12’ 16’ 20’ 24’ 28’ 32’
4’ 3” 4” 4” 5” 5” 6” 6” 7”
6’ 3” 4” 4” 5” 6” 6” 6” 7”
8’ 4” 5” 5” 6” 6” 7” 7” 8”
10’ 5” 5” 6” 6” 7” 7” 8” 8”
Guidelines for panel thickness for overall flat panel stiffness consistent with suggested normal panel bow-
ing and warping tolerances. Note: It should not be used for panel thickness selection.
window wall system
spray insulation
light gauge metal
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What can go wrongArchitectural precast concrete is produced under
strict quality control by fabricators specializing in
that type of construction. Examples of failure are
extremely rare. A properly constructed precast
panel with support points designed to accomodate
thermal movements, deflection, and supporting
structure deformation due to lateral loads is one of
the most dependable wall systems. There are,
however, a few design decisions that can affect the
optimal performance of the system.
Avoid Deflection:
- Support the panels directly on the column
Avoid bowing:
- Increase panel thickness
- Stiffening ribs may be added to the back
- Double layer of reinforcing steel may be used
Avoid staining and streaking:
- Use rough textured surface and darker colors
- Cant the panels either upward or outward
- include drips in the soffits to reduce streaking
- Break up large blank surfaces with horizontal
projections
- Create vertical grooves below mullions and fins to
channel the stain
- Use rounded or splayed corners to reduce the
concentration of rain at these locations
Horizontal Spanning Vertical Spanning
Closed Shape Open-ended Shape
Column and Spandrel
beam Cover
Multi-Story
Panel TypesThis is a schematic representation of different ways in which panels may be configured.
5.4 Precast Concrete Panel Wall System 85
86
5.5 Window Systems
Window systems come in three major framing
and glazing types: window wall, curtain wall and
storefront. Each window systems create different
facade expression, it can be combined to form any
type of office building.
Curtain Wall SystemTypically used to glaze large areas of build-
ings and is identified by the fact that it is
suspended outside of the building structure,
spanning past floor levels. Curtain wall gener-
ally is glazed from scaffolding erected on the
outside of the building.
Storefront SystemsStorefront systems are used for larger areas
of glazing than standard windows; they typi-
cally span from the floor to structure in the
ceiling above. Frequently, storefront systems
include entrance doors and vestibules, typi-
cally in the ground floor. Glass in storefront
systems is generally field installed, with con-
tractors working from the floor of the building.
Window Wall System“Window wall” is a term that can be used to
describe various applications of glazing sys-
tems that install between floor slabs and are
set within a wall. This term can be used for
punched windows, ribbon windows, store-
fronts, or other glazed openings that form a
wall of glass in a single story application.
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Vision Glass Height ConsiderationAs a general rule of thumb, for moderate to cold
climate, using standard e-glazing window, the
maximum vision glass height is 7’-0” to avoid
energy loss. If the vision glass is greater than
7’-0”, a baseline heating needs to be provided in
the interior to accommodate for the cold transfer
into the building. Shading device, reflective glass,
or higher u-value glass (refer to chapter 7) are
needed as part of the design decision to control
the amount of heat transfer into the building.
Structural Glass Height ConsiderationAlso as a general rule of thumb, for a standard
size window wall system, the maximum window
height span is 9’-0”. Higher window height, such
as 10’-0” may need other means to support the
span such as thicker window mullion or using
high-spanning steel reinforcement which can
increase structural costs.
Mullion Spacing5-ft module is chosen because it allows for a
minimum room dimension of 10-ft as well as
larger offices and conference rooms.
Note: On the right, a schematic illustration of the
different window system is shown to understand
the achievable facade aesthetic but with the
acknowledgement of the factor stated above to
help you better evaluate your design decision.
Window Wall System(stud-backed or
precast concrete panel)
Curtain Wall System(stick-built or
unitized)
Storefront System(stud-backed or
precast concrete panel)
7’-0”
9’-0”
10’-0”
5’-0” 5’-0”
5’-0”
5.5 Window Systems 87
88
Punched Window“Punched” window gets its application term by the
concept that a cookie-cutter type hole is punched
in the exterior wall of the building and filled with
a window. Like storefronts, punched windows
can vary greatly in cost due to their size and
configuration. They require the most field work
because of individual window framing.
Storefront Windows“Storefront” applications can sometimes be the
heaviest and most costly glazed wall system on a
building. It normally span from floor to ceiling, at
a typical 10 ft height. It requires a high-spanning
steel-reinforced glass wall. Storefronts can be
very simple in nature or highly complex due to
their various applications and design presence
statement.
Ribbon Window“Ribbon” window gets its application term
by simulating the look of a ribbon wrapped
horizontally. It can be any height between typical
floor slabs. Ribbon windows are typically most
cost-effective, so long as opening heights are
modest and modules are kept repetitive. These
types of systems can be designed to install in a
variety of ways including shop-glazed (unitized) or
field-glazed (stick-built).
5.6 Window Appearance
5’-0”
30’-0”
60’-0”Window Sizes Can Vary
7’-
0”
5’-
6” 10
’-0
”
13’-
0”
7’-
0”
5’-
6” 10
’-0
”
13’-
0”
10’-
0”
2’-
6” 10
’-0
”
13’-
0”
Stud-Backed or PrecastConcrete Panel
Punched Window(Any Height)
Stud-Backed or precastConcrete panel
Ribbon Window(Any Height)
Stud-Backed or PrecastConcrete Panel
Storefront Window(Floor to Ceiling Height)
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Facade Expression: Schematic representation of possible design.
Design Variable: Exterior Wall System, Window Types, Window Heightm Column Width, and Detail
Full bay ExpressionP
UN
CH
ED
OP
EN
ING
EX
PR
ES
SIO
NH
OR
IZO
NT
AL
EX
PR
ES
SIO
NV
ER
TIC
AL
EX
PR
ES
SIO
NSplit bay Expression Double Window Expression
5’-0”
30’-0”
60’-0”
5’-0”
30’-0”
60’-0”
5’-0”
30’-0”
60’-0”
5.6 Window Types 89
90
5.7 Double-Skin Façades
Generally speaking, double-skin facades are
appropriate when buildings are subject to great ex-
ternal noise and wind loads. This can apply both to
high-rise and low-rise structures. If buildings are to
be naturally ventilated via the windows for as great
a part of the year as possible, the double-skin con-
struction offers distinct advantages in practice.
Double-skin facades have a special aesthetic of
their own, and this can be exploited architectur-
ally to great advantage. The visual impression of
transparency and depth, often in conjunction with
a frameless form of construction in the outer skin,
opens up new design paths.
Double-skin facades are based on a multilayer
principle. They consist of an external facade, an
intermediate space and an inner facade. The
outer facade layer provides protection against the
weather and improved acoustic insulation against
external noise. It also contains opening that allow
the ventilation of the intermediate space and the
internal rooms. The flow of air through the interme-
diate space is activated by solar-induced thermal
buoyancy and by effects of the wind. To achieve
greater adaptability in reacting to environmental
conditions, it may be possible to close the open-
ings in the outer facade layer.
Up to now, the external skins of this type of facade
have generally been constructed as a layer of sin-
gle glazing in toughened safety glass or laminated
safety glass. An adjustable sunshading device
is usually installed in the intermediate space to
protect the internal rooms from high cooling loads
caused by insolation. As a rule, the inner facade
will consist of a supporting framework with a layer
of double glazing, which provides the necessary
protection against thermal losses in winter. In
almost all cases, the inner facade can be open to
permit natural ventilation.
Types of Construction
Comparison of single-skin and
double-skin facade onstruction.
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box Windows
The box window is probably the oldest form of a
two-layered facade. box windows consist of a
frame with inward-opening casements. The single
glazed external skin contains openings that allow
the ingress of fresh air and the egress of vitiated
air, thus serving to ventilate both the intermediate
space and the internal rooms.
The cavity between the two facade layers is
divided horizontally along the constructional axes,
or on a room-for-room basis. Vertically, the divi-
sions occur either between stories or between indi-
vidual window elements. Continuous divisions help
to avoid the transmission of sounds and smells
from bay to bay and from room to room.
box-type windows are commonly used in situations
where there are high external noise levels and
where special requirements are made in respect of
the sound insulation between adjoining rooms.
This is also the only form of construction that pro-
vides these functions in facades with conventional
rectangular openings. Each box window element
requires its own intake and extract openings, which
have to be considered when designing the outer
facade.
Elevation of box-window facade. The
division between each bay mean that
an opening light is also required for
each bay,
Section through typical box-window
facade with separate ventilation for
each bay.
Plan of box-window facade. The divi-
sions of the facade intermediate space
are set on the construction area.
Inner and outer facade layerSolid wall
Room 2Room 1 Room 3
Solid wall
5.7 Double-Skin Façade 91
92
Shaft-box Facades
The shaft-box facade is a special form of box win-
dow construction. It is based on the “twin-face”
concept developed by the Alco company in
Munster and consists of a system of box windows
with continuous vertical shafts that extend over a
number of stories to create a stack effect. The
facade layout consists of an alternation of box win-
dows and vertical shafts segments. On every story,
the vertical shafts are linked with the adjoining box
windows by means of a bypass opening. The stack
effect draws the air from the box windows into the
vertical shafts and from there up to the top, where
it is emitted. As a means of supporting the thermal
uplift, air can also be sucked out mechanically via
the vertical shafts.
Shaft-box facades require fewer openings in the
external skin, since it is possible to exploit the
stronger thermal uplift within the stack. This also
has a positive effect in terms of insulation against
external noise. Since, in practice, the height of the
stacks is necessarily low-rise and mid-rise build-
ings. An aerodynamic adjustment will be neces-
sary if all the box windows connected to a
particular shaft are to be ventilated to an equal
degree.
Shaft-box facades are suited where particularly
high levels of sound insulation are required. be-
cause of the smaller size of the external openings.
Elevation of a shaft-box facade. The
arrows indicate the route of the
airstream.
Section through a shaft-box facade.
The arrows indicate the route of the air-
stream flowing through the box windows
into the common ventilation shaft.
Plan of a shaft-box facade. There are
side openings in the shaft divisions in
the facade intermediate space.
Ventilation opening to shaft
Inner facade layer
Outer facade layer
Horizontal division
Room 2Room 1 Room 3
shaft shaft
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View along intermediate space between
facade layers in mock-up facade con-
struction. In every third bay, there is an
extract shaft, which is open at the top.
Diagram of ventilation principle in the 8-story high
shaft facade sections.Services
7th floor
6th floor
5th floor
4th floor
3rd floor
2nd floor
1st floor
Opening toshaft
Air-intake opening
Exhaust airopening
Exhaust airopening
Ventilation stack
Casement
Air-intake opening
Room Depth bay width
5.7 Double-Skin Façade 93
94
Corridor Facades
In corridor facades, the intermediate space
between the two skins is closed at the level of each
floor. Divisions are foreseen along the horizontal
length of the corridor only where this is necessary
for acoustic, fire protection or ventilation reasons.
In the context of ventilation, this will usually be nec-
essary at the corners of buildings where great dif-
ferences in air pressure occur, and where openings
in the inner facade layer would result in uncomfort-
able drafts from cross-currents. This problem can
generally be avoided by closing off the corner
spaces at the sides. In the rest of the corridor,
there are likely to be only relatively small differ-
ences of air pressure, and these can be used to
support the natural ventilation.
The air-intake can extract openings in the external
facade layer should be situated near the floor and
the ceiling. They are usually laid out in staggered
form from bay to bay to prevent vitiated air
extracted on one floor entering the space on the
floor immediately above. Where a corridor-facade
construction is used, the individual spatial seg-
ments between the skins will almost always be
adjoined by a number of rooms. Special care
should, therefore, be taken to avoid sound trans-
mission from room to room.
Elevation of corridor facade. Air flows
on the diagonal to prevent vitiated air
from the lower story being sucked in
with the air supply of the floor above
(recontamination).
Section through a corridor facade.
Separate circulation for each story.
Plan of corridor facade. The intermedi-
ate space is not divided at regular inter-
vals along its horizontal length.
Inner facade layer
Outer facade layer
Horizontal division
Room 2Room 1 Room 3
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Multistory Facades
In multistory faces, the intermediate space
between the inner and outer layers is adjoined ver-
tically and horizontally by a number of rooms. In
extreme cases, the space may extend around the
entire building without any intermediate divisions.
The ventilation (air-intake and extract) of the inter-
mediate space occurs via large openings near the
ground floor and the roof. During the heating
period, the facade space can be closed at the top
and bottom to exploit the conservatory effect and
optimize solar-energy gains.
Multistory facades are especially suitable where
external noise levels are very high, since this type
of construction does not necessarily require open-
ings distributed over its height. As a rule, the rooms
behind multistory facades have to be mechanically
ventilated, and the facade can be used as a joint
air duct for this purpose. As with corridor facades,
attention should be paid to the problem of sound
transmission within the intermediate space.
Elevation of part of a multistory facade.
The arrangement of the casement
opening lights depends on the ventila-
tion and cleaning concept chosen for
the facade.
Section through a multistory facade.
The external skin is set independently
in front of the inner facade. The inter-
mediate space can be ventilated in all
directions.
Plan of a multistory facade. The inter-
mediate space is undivided and can be
freely ventilated.
Inner facade layer
Outer facade layer
Room 2Room 1 Room 3
5.7 Double-Skin Façade 95
6. Lighting
OVERVIEW
Lighting is one of the most important factors affecting the interior spaces of an office and
the psyches of those who work there. The quality of a space’s lighting will affect the way
that space feels and is perceived by its occupants. An effective architect must realize the
influential and evocative power of lighting and understand the numerous factors that affect
a space’s quality of light. In addition to providing a more pleasant working environment, an
effective daylighting strategy can reduce an office’s electricity and heating costs, and thus
should play a key role in any environmentally responsible design.
This chapter will discuss general strategies for using daylighting to achieving a favorable level
of lighting in an office building. It will describe the many factors that affect daylight quality and
methods for controlling it. It will also discuss ways to supplement daylighting with artificial light
to achieve ideal lighting levels for various spaces within an office.
Chapter Contents
6.1 Critical DimensionsDistance to DaylightTypical Layout & Variations
6.2 GlazingProperties of GlazingCommon Types & AttributesSingle, Double & Triple Pane
6.3 Quality of DaylightWindow SizeEffective ApertureDepth of Daylight PenetrationWindow Height
6.5 Shading SystemsApplicationsIntegrated ShadingDepth of ShadingLight ShelvesSeasonal Strategies
6.4 AtriaGeometry & RatiosRoof TypeReflectivity of MaterialsDrawbacks
6.6 Lighting & Office LayoutIdeal Lighting LevelsDirect & Indirect LightingEffect on Furniture Arrangement
98
Distance to DaylightThe floorplate of a typical office building has been
refined throughout history based on several key
factors affecting office use and construction. One
of the most important such factors is the access
of the office’s occupants to natural light. Most
office buildings maintain a critical dimension of
45’ between the inside of the building’s exterior
walls and the central core (Fig. 1). This is typically
considered to be the farthest distance that any
occupant can be from a window while still enjoying
the benefits of the natural light and views that the
window provides. Any spaces beyond this 45’
dimension are typically reserved for functions such
as mechanical rooms, rest rooms, and vertical
circulation. These are areas that people do not
inhabit continuously for extended period of time
and where access to daylight are not a priority.
It is important to note that, while these dimensions
are a good rule of thumb to use in American of-
fice buildings, daylighting requirements are much
more stringent in other countries. In Europe, for
example, every worker is required to have access
to natural light. This requirement effectively limits
typical European floorplates to 25’ deep or less.
45’
45’
Fig. 1
6.1 Critical Dimensions
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Typical High Rise Floorplan
Daylit Wall Length: 600’
Maximum Floorplate Depth: 45’
Maximum Distance To Daylight: 45’
In a high rise floorplan of typical dimensions, the
building perimeter will equal approximately 10 to
15 times the depth of the floorplate. Increasing
the perimeter will provide more area for daylight to
enter and thus increase the building’s daylighting
performance.
Articulated High Rise Floorplan
Daylit Wall Length: 760’
Maximum Floorplate Depth: 85’
Maximum Distance To Daylight: 45’
Increasing the building perimeter allows for a
deeper floor plate and a greater overall floor area
while keeping the daylighting level and maximum
distance to daylight constant.
Atrium High Rise Floorplan
Daylit Wall Length: 720’
Maximum Floorplate Depth: 45’
Maximum Distance To Daylight: 22’-6”
An atrium scheme can effectively cut an occu-
pant’s maximum distance to daylight in half, allow-
ing for better working conditions and a more even
quality of natural light throughout the building. See
chapter 6.5 for more information.
45’ 45’85’
Fig. 2
Fig. 4
Fig. 3
6.1 Critical Dimensions 99
100
The type of glazing used in a building’s windows
will have a profound effect on the quality of light in
its interior. There are several important factors to
consider when selecting a glazing system:
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)
Measures the amount of solar energy that is
transmitted through the glass. Windows with a low
SHGC will transmit less heat to the interior, leading
to greater occupant comfort and reduced cooling
costs. See Chapter 3.x for more information.
Visible Transmittance (VT)
Measures the percentage of visible light that is
able to pass through a window. An increase in
VT generally means an increase in SHGC as well
(Fig. 5).
Luminous Efficacy Constant ( ke)
Measures a window’s ability to simultaneously
transmit daylight and prevent heat gain. It is
expressed as the ratio of (VT) to (SHGC). The
higher the ke Value, the greater the daylighting
performance of a glazing system.
U-Value & R-ValueU-Value & R-Value are inverse measurements.
While U-Value measures a material’s ability to
conduct heat, R-Value measures its ability to resist
heat flow. Windows with a low U-Value (and thus
a high R-Value) will provide greater insulation and
moisture control, especially in cooler climates.
6.2 GlazingDaylight Transmission vs. Heat Gain
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Daylight Tranmission (%)
Hea
tGai
nC
oeffi
cien
t
Daylight Transmission (%)
So
lar
He
at G
ain
Co
effic
ient
Fig. 5 - Daylight Transmission vs. Solar Heat Gain
ke = VT
1.5 (SHGC)
100 6.2 Galzing
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 101
Standard Single-Pane Glass 0.25 0.81 0.89 1.09 0.92 0.73
Single-Pane Glass w/ Heat-Rejecting Laminate 0.25 0.46 0.73 1.06 0.94 1.06
Double-Pane Insulated Glass 1 0.70 0.79 0.48 2.08 0.75
Tripple-Pane Insulated Glass 2 0.67 0.74 0.36 2.78 0.74
Low-e Double-Pane Glass 1 0.71 0.75 0.33 3.03 0.70
High Efficiency Low-e Glass 0.25 0.37 0.7 0.29 3.45 1.26
Suspended Coated Firm Glass 0.25 0.35 0.55 0.25 4.00 1.05
Double Suspended Coated Film Glass 1 0.34 0.53 0.10 10.00 1.04
U-Value Luminous Efficacy Constant (K )
R-ValueThickness(inches)
Light Transmittance (VT) (%)
Glazing Type Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) e
Single, Double & Triple Pane GlassDouble-pane glass is the standard for most office
applications but triple-pane may be used where
energy efficiency is a high priority. Single-Pane
glass is almost never used in offices due to its poor
thermal performance and relatively low strength.
There are many kinds of low-e coatings and films
that may be applied to the glass to further increase
its performance. In colder climates, where
the main goal is to retain heat, these coatings
are usually applied to the outer surface of the
innermost pane. In warmer climates, where the
goal is to prevent solar gain, these coatings are
applied to the inner surface of the outermost pane.
Another option for increasing thermal performance
is to fill the gaps between panes with an inert gas,
typically Argon. These gasses have a higher R-
Value than air, and thus provide better insulation.Fig. 6 - Single, Double, and Triple-Pane Glass
Fig. 7 - Properties of Common Glazing Types
6.2 Glazing 101
102
WWR = Glazing Area Total Facade Area
Window SizeIn general, the larger the windows a space has,
the more daylight that space will receive. A
facade’s Window Wall Ratio (WWR) is the most
effective way to measure window size as it relates
to daylighting potential. WWR is defined as a
facade’s net glazing area to its total area.
Effective ApertureAs discussed in Chapter 6.2, the Visible
Transmittance (VT) of a window’s glazing has
a great impact on the amount of light allowed to
enter a space. For this reason, WWR alone is not
an effective measure of daylighting performance.
A more accurate measurement is the glazing
system’s Effective Aperture (EA). Effective
Aperture is determined by multiplying a facade’s
Window Wall Ratio by the Visible Transmittance of
its glazing. A higher Effective Aperture will mean
more daylighting potential, however, it will also
mean more solar gain and glare. See Chapter 5.x
for more information on facade composition.
6.3 Quality of Daylighting
÷
Glazing Area: 200 sf Total Area: 810 sf÷
=
= .25
WWR
Single Pane
Double Pane
Triple Pane
Glazing Type VT EA
÷
Glazing Area: 240 sf Total Area: 810 sf÷
=
= .30
WWR
Single Pane
Double Pane
Triple Pane
Glazing Type VT EA
÷
Glazing Area: 540 sf Total Area: 810 sf÷
=
= .67
WWR
.89
.79
.74
.27
.24
.22
.89
.79
.74
.22
.20
.18
Single Pane
Double Pane
Triple Pane
Glazing Type VT EA
.89
.79
.74
.60
.53
.50 EA = WWA x VT
d = h x 2.5
Fig. 8 - Punched Windows
Fig. 9 - Ribbon Windows
Fig. 10 - Curtain Wall
102 6.3 Quality of Daylighting
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Depth of Daylight PenetrationThe distance that daylight will penetrate into a
space depends on several factors. The geometry
of the space - its width and the angle of its walls
- will effect how far light is able penetrate. The
reflectivity of a space’s materials is another
important factor; spaces containing many highly
reflective surfaces will allow light to penetrate
much deeper that an identical space with matte
finishes. However, the most important and
easily quantified factor effecting the depth of
daylight penetration is the positioning of a space’s
windows.
Window HeightThe dimension from the finished floor to the top of
the window (h) is the single most important factor
in determining the distance that daylight from that
window will penetrate into the building (d). A good
rule of thumb to use when trying to determine the
depth of daylight penetration is that d = 2.5h. (Fig.
11-14). Windows placed higher on the wall will
allow light entering the building to reflect off of the
ceiling and thus penetrate further into the room.
Raising the ceiling height in a room is one way
to take advantage of this principle (Fig. 14). See
Chapter 1.x for more information.
The size of a window will affect the intensity of the
light emitted into a room, but will not alter the depth
of light penetration (Fig. 12 - 13).
22’-6”
9’
45’
22’-6”
45’
23’-9”
9’-6”
45’
16’-3”
4’
45’
6’-6”’
4’
9’9’
9’-6”
Fig. 11
Fig. 14
Fig. 13
Fig. 12
6.3 Quality of Daylighting 103
104
6.4 Shading Systems ApplicationsWhile effective natural lighting is important for the
success of an office building and for the health and
well-being of its occupants, it is also important for
that daylight be carefully controlled and regulated.
Direct daylight leads to solar heat gain which can
increase the demands on a building’s mechanical
systems (See Chapter 3.x for more information).
It also results in sharp contrast between areas
of light and shadow and an uneven lighting of
the building’s interior spaces. One of the best
ways to prevent these problems is through the
implementation of an exterior shading system.
Shading will provide a much more diffuse and even
quality of light (Fig 15).
The ideal strategy for shading a building will vary
greatly depending on the climate that it is located
in, its latitude, and its elevation. For this reason,
3D modeling, solar path analysis, and shading
studies are indispensable tools in the design of an
effective shading system.
Horizontal louvers are the most effective way to
deal with direct light. In the Northern Hemisphere,
where the strongest afternoon sun is in the
southern sky, these louvers are usually installed
on the southern and sometimes the northern
facade of a building. For a finer level of daylighting
control, vertical louvers, or fins, may be installed
on the east and west facades of a building to
regulate indirect light.
Fig. 15 - Exterior Shading
Fig. 16 - Integrated Shading
104 6.4 Shading Systems
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÷ 4
÷ 6÷ 6÷ 6÷ 6
Integrated ShadingAs an alternative or a supplement to exterior
shading, a wide variety of glazing options are
available to control direct light. Glazing that
incorporates reflective films or metallic particles
can be very effective at preventing solar gain.
Translucent glass can also be used to block direct
sunlight where exterior views are not a priority
(Fig. 16).
Depth of ShadingWhen assessing the effectiveness of a particular
shading system, it is important to remember that
the depth of individual shading elements is not as
significant as the combined depth of all elements in
the system. For example, ten feet of total shading
will provide the same amount of protection from
solar gain and glare whether its is arranged as one
ten-foot deep louver, five two-foot deep louvers,
or twenty six-inch deep louvers, as long as those
elements are evenly spaced on the building’s
facade (Fig. 17-18).
Fig. 17 - Depth of Horizontal Louvers
Fig. 18 - Equivalent Options for Distribution of
Shading Elements
6.4 Shading Systems 105
106
Light ShelvesOne specific type of exterior shading that is
particularly effective is the light shelf. A light shelf
is a horizontal louver that is located at near the
top of a wall of fenestration. In most applications,
light shelves are used both on the exterior and
on the interior of the building. The light shelf
blocks direct light from entering the window, thus
reducing solar gain and glare. At the same time,
it reflects light up onto the space’s ceiling, lighting
it and producing a more even quality of light that
penetrates deeper into the room (Fig. 18).
One particular advantage to light shelves is that,
even if the shades are drawn on the lower portion
of the window, light will still enter the space
through the upper portion. This allows occupants
to close the shade to further decrease glare and
solar gain while still receiving the benefits of
natural light (Fig. 19).
Fig. 18 - Light Shelf
Fig. 19 - Light Shelf with Shades Closed
106 6.4 Shading Systems
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Seasonal ShadingWhile preventing solar gain is an important
requirement of shading during the spring and
summer months, solar gain can often be beneficial
during the colder months of the year. Allowing
solar gain in winter can reduce the amount
of mechanical heating required to achieve a
comfortable working environment, thus reducing
a building’s total energy costs. For this reason,
some of the most effective shading systems are
those that take advantage of the difference in solar
angle between winter and summer. In addition to
the solar heat gain benefits, these strategies will
allow sunlight to penetrate deeper into the building
during the dimmer winter months.
One way to take advantage of this principle is to
size and position a building’s louvers so that they
block direct sunlight in the summer, when sun’s
azimuth is greater, and allow sunlight to enter
in the winter, when the angle is lower (Fig. 18).
Another effective strategy is to use strategically
placed trees as a form of natural shading. In the
summer, the trees will block sunlight and provide
the building with shade. In the winter, when their
branches are bare, they will allow sunlight to pass
through and enter the building. (Fig. 19)
Fig. 18 - Seasonal Shading, Summer
(above) and Winter
Fig. 19 - Natural Shading, Summer
(above) and Winter
6.4 Shading Systems 107
108
In buildings with deeper floorplates or where a high
quality of natural light is a design priority, an atrium
is an excellent way of increasing the amount of
daylight that enters a building. The implementation
of an atrium effectively cuts an occupants
maximum distance to daylight in half and allows
for a higher and more even level of daylighting
throughout the space.
The best way to quantify the daylighting
performance of an atrium is by measuring
its Daylight Factor (DF). The Daylight Factor
describes the ratio of outside illuminance over
inside illuminance, usually expressed as a
percentage. The higher the DF, the more natural
light is available in the atrium. The Daylight Factor
is affected by the geometry of the atrium, as well
as its roof form and the reflectivity of its materials.
Plan Aspect Ratio (PAR)The most efficient shape for the plan of an atrium
is a circle. In atria with non-circular plans, the
PAR can be used to measure the effectiveness
of the space’s geometry. The PAR is equal to the
atrium’s width divided by its length. An atrium
with a PAR closer to 1 (square) will have better
dayighting performance than one with a PAR
closer to 0 (linear).
Section Aspect Ratio (SAR)The SAR measures the ratio of an atrium’s height
to its width. A low SAR indicates a shallow atrium
and a relatively high Daylight Factor.
6.5 Atria
PAR = w l
SAR = h w
WI = h x (l + w) 2 x l x w
Fig. 20 - Atrium Types
h
w
lAttached
Semi-Enclosed
Enclosed
Linear
Fig. 21 - Atrium Measurements
108 6.5 Atria
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0
5
10
15
20
25
30
FlatMonitorSawtooth
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Depth of Atrium (Number of Floors)
Co
ntr
ibu
tion
to D
aylig
ht F
act
or
(%)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
FlatMonitorSawtooth
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Well Index (WI)The WI combines the PAR and SAR into one
comprehensive measurement that compares the
vertical surface area of the atrium’s walls to the
horizontal surface area of its plan. An atrium with
a low WI will be shallower and have a greater
Daylight Factor than one with a higher WI. As
WI increases, Daylighting Factor decreases
exponentially (Fig. 22)
Roof Form There roof of an atrium can take many shapes
depending on the atrium’s geometry, structure,
and design intent. An atrium with an open roof will
allow for the maximum Daylight Factor, however,
this is not always practical. Three common roof
forms are shown in Figures 24-26 and Figure 23
shows the effect that each of these forms have on
an atrium’s Daylight Factor.
In a shallow atrium, a flat roof will provide the
greatest DF, however it also allows for the
most Solar Heat Gain. A sawtooth roof will
decrease solar gain and is also more effective
at providing light to lower floors. In any atrium,
the performance of the roof structure will depend
largely on the building’s location and orientation
with respect to the sun. For example, light
monitors are very effective at admitting light
entering at a low angle which make them very
useful at high latitudes or in winter months.
Because of this, lighting studies should be
conducted before finalizing any atrium design.
Fig. 24 - Flat Roof
Fig. 26 - Sawtooth
Fig. 25 - Light Monitor
Fig. 23 - Effect of Roof Form on DF
Well Index
Day
ligh
t Fa
cto
r
Fig. 22 - Well Index vs. Daylight Factor
6.5 Atria 109
110
Fig. 27 - Daylighting in Typical building and Atrium building
ReflectivityThe reflectivity of an atrium’s materials will also
affect its Daylight Factor. Surfaces with a higher
reflectivity will allow light to penetrate farther into
an atrium and increase daylighting performance.
because an atrium’s effectiveness is dependant
on so many varied factors, it is possible to
compensate for shortcomings in one area by
increasing performance in another. For example,
if building or site geometry prohibits the atrium
from having a low Well Index, a desirable Daylight
Factor could still be achieved by using more
reflective materials on its interior surfaces.
Drawbacks To Atrium BuildingsIn spite of the daylighting benefits that atria
provide, there are several drawbacks which should
be carefully considered before an atrium scheme
is implemented. First of all, the empty space taken
up by the atrium on each floor will reduce the
building’s Net to Gross Ratio and its Floor Area
Ratio with respect to its site. See Chapter 0.X for
more information.
In addition, any atrium that is three or more stories
tall must conform to strict smoke and fire control
regulations. See International building Code (IbC)
Section 909 for specific requirements.
110 6.5 Atria
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6.6 Lighting & Office Layout
An effective daylighting strategy supplemented
by intelligent use of artificial lighting is one of the
most crucial factors contributing to the success
of an office space. The standard unit of measure
for light in a space is the foot-candle (FC), which
measures the amount of light that falls on a given
surface. Foot-candles can be measured with
a photometer or any camera with a built-in light
meter.
The optimal level of illumination varies greatly
depending upon the type of space in question and
the specific tasks being performed there. A private
office usually requires between 50 and 70 foot-
candles of illumination (Fig. 28). This can usually
be achieved with a combination of natural light and
one or two artificial light sources.
A conference room must be much more adaptable
due to the wide variety of uses they have, including
meetings and presentations (Fig. 29). Thus it will
usually have several independently controllable
light fixtures and either blinds or shades for
daylight control.
Open workspaces require a higher level of
illumination (Fig. 30). A high level of daylighting is
very important in these spaces. Artificial lighting is
usually provided by indirect fixture mounted on the
ceiling, however individual fixtures can be provided
at each workstation to provide more flexibility and
reduce energy costs.
Fig. 28
Private Office:
50 - 70 Foot-Candles
Fig. 29
Conference Room:
30 - 50 Foot-Candles
Fig. 30
Open Workspace:
60-80 Foot-Candles
6.6 Lighting & Office Layout 111
112
saerA noitpeceRlarutcetihcrA sseLtneiciffE ygrenE tsoMWide Range of Manufacturers Hard to Avoid Glare on Computer Monitors Private OfficesLower Initial & Maintenance Cost Requires more Wiring and Mounting Utility SpacesCan be Integrated into HVAC System
secapskroW nepO tneiciffE ygrenE sseLlortnoC eralG rof tseBsecapS noitalucriCtsoC laitinI rehgiH larutcetihcrA & evitavonnI eroM
Conference Rooms
snoitacilppA detsegguSsnoC
Direct Lighting
Indirect Lighting
Pros
Fig. 34 - Direct Lighting vs. Indirect Lighting
Fig. 31 Fig. 32
Fig. 33 - Energy Consumption in a Typical Office
Direct Lighting, or “downlighting”, is the most
energy efficient method of lighting a space.
Light from the fixture is allowed to directly enter
the space, allowing for the maximum amount of
illumination. However, this method of lighting
provides a higher level of contrast which can lead
to uneven lighting and glare.
Indirect Lighting, or “uplighting”, uses a diffused
light to illuminate a space. This is achieved by
bouncing light off of a reflective surface and
usually off of the space’s ceiling. Lighting the
ceiling provides a softer, more even light and
greatly reduces glare. The relative pros and
cons of direct and indirect lighting are outlined in
Figure 34.
Direct Lighting vs. Indirect Lighting
112 6.6 Lighting & Office Layout
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Furniture ArrangementThe location and orientation of office furniture
with respect to sources of daylight will have a
great impact on the comfort and productivity of a
building’s occupants. Studies have shown that
access to natural light and exterior views have
a beneficial effect on the health and psyche of
workers. A scheme such as the one shown in
Figure 35 will provide occupants with the greatest
amount of natural light and direct views to the
exterior; however, it also exposes the them to
direct glare which leads to eye strain and visual
discomfort.
Another option is to orient workstations as
shown in Figure 36. This configuration reduces
the occupants’ visual contact with the outside;
however, it also greatly reduces the amount of
direct glare that they have to deal with. In spite of
this they are still subject to indirect glare reflecting
off of their computer monitors and workstation
walls. In both schemes, the window’s shades must
be closed in order to avoid glare, thus negating any
natural light or views to the outside. See Chapter
7.x for more information on Layouts.
In a schemes such as these, the implementation
of an exterior shading system, such as those
discussed in Chapter 6.4, are ideal because they
will reduce glare while still giving occupants the
benefits of natural light and views.
Glare
Direct View to Outside
Oblique View to Outside
Fig. 35
Fig. 36
Glare
6.6 Lighting & Office Layout 113
7. Floorplan
Overview
The geometry and constraints of the human body are the generator of the office environment
at its finest grain, and all other component parts of the workspace must respond to that
geometry. These elements are arranged in space to facilitate one of a variety of modes of
work, and to facilitate or segregate the interactions of the individual workers according to this
collaborative philosophy.
This chapter is a study, first, of the spatial generator of the human form. The chapter will then
outline the planning modules and physical components of the workplace in relation to that
form. Finally, the chapter will study the patterns in which these physical and human
components can be combined within a space to suit a given mode of work. The intent of this
chapter is to give the designer the means with which to generate office landscapes tailored to
the particular needs of the individual and the broader corporate entity, either by assembly of
pre-manufactured modular components, or through design of custom elements.
Chapter Contents
7.1 Human Scale + ConstraintStandingSeatedPlan
7.2 Planning Modules + Components5’ Module 240°/120° Degree ModuleModular Components/Workstations
7.3 Spaceplanning PatternsThe Farm Linear CubiclesThe Organism 240° 120°The Epicenter Hard Walled Offices + Hierarchical Plans
116
7.1 Human Scale + Constraints
116 7.1 Human Scale & Constraints
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Fig. 1 Standing Figure Fig. 2
Vitruvian Man, ca.1487
Leonardo da Vinci
Fig. 3
Le Modulor, 1948
Le Corbusier
7.1 Human Scale & Constraints 117
118
7.1 Human Scale + Constraints
118 7.1 Human Scale & Constraints
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Fig. 4 Seated Figure
7.1 Human Scale & Constraints 119
120
7.1 Human Scale + Constraints
120 7.1 Human Scale & Constraints
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Fig. 5 Figure In Plan
7.1 Human Scale & Constraints 121
122122 7.2 Planning Modules / Compoents
7.2 Planning Modules/Components
Fig. 6 Linear Worksurface + 5’ Grid Fig. 7 Cubicle + 5’ Grid
122 7.2 Planning Modules / Compoents
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Fig. 8 240° Workstation + Hexagonal Grid Fig. 10 Casework + Hardwall + GridFig. 9 120° Workstation + Hexagonal Grid
7.2 Planning Modules / Compoents 123
124
MetricsWorkspaces- 84
SF Per Worker- 32 sf
LF worksurface- 420 lf
LF Per Worker- 5 ft
Floor Area- 2,700 sf
Total Area of Worksurfaces- 1,050 sf
Worksurface Area Per Worker- 12.5 sf
Floor Area : Worksurface Area- 2.57:1
7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Farm
LINEAR Program Precedents- Financial, Creative
-Maximum Density
-Maximum Acoustic Transmission
-High Potential Shared Worspace/Team Overlap
-High Project Team Mobility
-High Visibility
-Minimum Personal Identity
-Minimum Net Workspace Within Primary Reach
-Minimum Enclosure
Fig. 11
124 7.3 Space Planning Patterns
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Fig. 12
Sound Intesity
Plan Detail
Visual Overlap
7.3 Space Planning Patterns 125
Low LowHigh High
126
MetricsWorkspaces- 30
SF Per Worker- 90 sf
LF worksurface- 300 lf
LF Per Worker- 10 ft
Floor Area- 2,700 sf
Total Area of Worksurfaces- 705 sf
Worksurface Area Per Worker- 23.5 sf
Floor Area: Worksurface Area- 3.83:1
7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Farm
CubeProgram Precedents- Call Center, Corporate
-High Density
-High Net Workspace Within Primary Reach
-Moderate-High Enclosure
-Moderate Personal Identity
-Low-Moderate Acoustic Transmission
-Low Potential Shared Worspace/Team Overlap
-Low Project Team Mobility
-Low-Moderate Visibility
Fig. 13
126 7.3 Space Planning Patterns
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Fig. 14
7.3 Space Planning Patterns 127
Sound Intesity
Plan Detail
Visual Overlap
Low LowHigh High
128
MetricsWorkspaces- 32
SF Per Worker- 85 sf
LF worksurface- 320 lf
LF Per Worker- 10 ft
Floor Area- 2,728 sf
Total Area of Worksurfaces- 768 sf
Worksurface Area Per Worker- 24 sf
Floor Area : Worksurface Area- 3.55:1
7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Organism
240° Program- Creative, Corporate
-High Density
-High Net Workspace Within Primary Reach
-High Acoustic Transmission
-High Potential Shared Worspace/Team Overlap
-Moderate-High Visibility
-Moderate Personal Identity
-Moderate Project Team Mobility
-Low-Moderate Enclosure
Fig. 15
128 7.3 Space Planning Patterns
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 129
Fig. 16
7.3 Space Planning Patterns 129
Sound Intesity
Plan Detail
Visual Overlap
Low LowHigh High
130
MetricsWorkspaces- 44
SF Per Worker- 62 sf
LF worksurface- 264 lf
LF Per Worker- 6 ft
Floor Area- 2,728 sf
Total Area of Worksurfaces- 528 sf
Worksurface Area Per Worker- 12 sf
Floor Area : Worksurface Area- 5.17:1
7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Organism
120° Program Precedents- Creative, Corporate, Real
Estate, Education
-High Density
-High Project Team Mobility
-High Acoustic Transmission
-High Potential Shared Worspace/Team Overlap
-Moderate-High Visibility
-Low Enclosure
-Low Net Workspace Within Primary Reach
-Low Personal Identity
Fig. 17
130 7.3 Space Planning Patterns
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Fig. 18
7.3 Space Planning Patterns 131
Sound Intesity
Plan Detail
Visual Overlap
LowHigh High
132
MetricsWorkspaces- Executive 4
General 18
SF Per Worker- Executive 225 sf
General 100 sf
LF worksurface- Executive 60 lf
General 180 lf
LF Per Worker- Executive 15 lf
General 10 lf
Floor Area- 2,700 sf
Total Area of Worksurfaces- 603 sf
Worksurface Area Per Worker-Exec. 45 sf
Gen. 23.5 sf
Floor Area : Worksurface Area- 4.48:1
7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Epicenter
Hardwall/CaseworkProgram- Creative, Corporate, Legal, Financial
-Maximum Enclosure
-High Personal Identity
-High Net Workspace Within Primary Reach
-Moderate Potential Shared Worspace/Team
Overlap
-Low-Moderate Visibility
-Low Density
-Low Project Team Mobility
-Low Acoustic Transmission
Fig. 19
132 7.3 Space Planning Patterns
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Fig. 20
7.3 Space Planning Patterns 133
Sound Intesity
Plan Detail
Visual Overlap
LowHigh
8. Sociology
Overview
Office Buildings are usually constructed for one of two purposes. One is a more speculative
approach, in which developers foresee a market need for a new office building. The second
is a privatized approach, in which large companies want to create a flagship office building or
have the resources and need for an office building of their own. In the latter there is room for
innovation as well as a driving force which wishes to create a high-quality structure.
The layouts of office buildings; however, are driven by the users. This can result in one of
three typical floor plans. One is the hierarchical layout, in which private offices and conference
rooms are located on the perimeter of a floor and the general employees and their cubicles
are located at the center. The second one is an inverted-hierarchical layout. In this plan the
workers and their workspace are located at the perimeter of the plan and the private offices
and rooms are at the center. The third layout is the non-hierarchical layout. This is an open
plan, in which workers have more interaction and are able to be more productive.
This chapter will explore all three of these types of layouts and how they are used in office
buildings. Multi-tenant plans will also be explored, in which a mix of these three plan layouts
can be applied to one floor.
Chapter Contents
9.1 Hierarchical PlanProfessional Usesbasic Floor LayoutTypical bay SectionOffice Infrastructure / Interaction
9.2 Inverted-Hierarchical PlanProfessional Usesbasic Floor LayoutTypical bay SectionOffice Infrastructure / Interaction
9.3 Non-Hierarchical PlanProfessional UsesFloor Layoutsbay SectionOffice Infrastructure / Interaction
9.4 Multi-TenantsFloor ConfigurationsOffice Infrastructures / InteractionsFloor Requirements
136
8.1 Hierarchical Plan
In this type of plan there is a private outer ring and
a communal inner ring. Located in the outer ring
are private offices and conference rooms. The
inner ring contains the lower ranked workers as
well as spaces for them to collaborate, eat, and
interact.
This type of hierarchy was the typical office layout,
but more companies are moving towards an
inverted- hierarchical plan. In the hierarchical plan,
the common worker aspires and strives to have his
or her own office. They can move up the ladder of
success, and it will be solidified and commended
by having their own personal space.
In this flow of hierarchy the highest ranked workers
are on the outer ring and those at the lower ranks
are centralized and surround the core. This loca-
tion of rank allows for those in charge to open their
doors and delegate to those below them. Such is
the scenario in law firms, corporate offices, and
other companies with a ladder of success.
Common Inner Ring
Common Inner Ring
Common Inner Ring
Typical bay
Typical bay
Typical bay
Core
Core
Core
Private Outer Ring
Private Outer Ring
Private Outer Ring
45’
45’
45’
45’
45’
45’
Typical Upper Level Plan
Typical Mid-Level Plan
Typical Suburban Plan
136 8.1 Hierarchical Plan
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 137
Typical bayIn this perspective view, you can see the typical
bay of a hierarchical plan, and it becomes evident
of the aspiration that a lower ranked employee
could have. The conference rooms and private
offices on the perimeter of the building provide
both the clients and those in charge a sense of
importance. Sunlight and views are very important
as they make employees more productive. For this
reason companies are now using glass walls to
separate the private offices and conference rooms.
The glass allows more light to come into the office,
thus making everyone a more productive
employee. The glass also allows easier for those in
charge to interact with those below them. Making a
better work environment.
Common Inner Ring
Typical Hierarchical bay
Core
Private Outer Ring
8.1 Hierarchical Plan 137
138
8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan
The inverted-hierarchical plan is self explanatory.
The private offices and conference spaces that
crowded and blocked the outside world are moved
towards the core and the lower ranked employees
are given the perimeter. As a result of increase
productivity from natural light and fresh air, this
model is more appealing to companies that are
driven by average employee. It still provides the
hierarchy required to evoke aspirations and com-
petitiveness amongst the employees who want to
climb the ladder of success, while making the work
environment friendlier and more productive.
These types of layouts are found in progressive
law firms and corporate offices as well as in design
fields such as architecture firms, engineering firms,
advertising, and other such fields.
Inverted-hierarchical plans also allow workers to
interact and collaborate easier than the hierarchi-
cal plans. They force interaction within the open
plan in the outer ring and the private offices in the
inner ring.
Common Outer Ring
Typical bay
Core
Private Inner Ring
45’
45’
Typical Upper Level Plan
Common Outer Ring
Typical bay
Core
Private Inner Ring
45’
45’
Typical Mid-Level Plan
Common Outer Ring
Typical bay
Core
Private Inner Ring
45’
45’
Typical Suburban Plan
138 8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 139
Common Outer Ring
Typical Inverted
Hierarchical bay
Core
Private Inner Ring
Typical bayIn this perspective view, you can see how those in
charge can oversee more efficiently the employees
around them. It is also easier to see how the aver-
age workers would become more productive when
they have a better light and ventilated working envi-
ronment. This plan focuses those in charge to look
and interact with those working for them, thus mak-
ing office interaction and communication easier.
The workers are happy, those in charge still have
their private office, and hierarchy still exists.
8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan 139
140
8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan
As the office layout evolves the plans become
more worker oriented and open, with minimal
privatization. In the non-hierarchical plan the
private ring is consumed by the open plan ring,
and the necessary private offices and conference
rooms are then brought back and scattered around
the plan. Factors driving this type of office layout
are the increase in employee productivity, environ-
mental agendas, and economical planing.
In this open plan the employee interaction is facili-
tated through open plan. Collaboration is easier
encountered and productivity increases. This is
why this layout is currently very popular in creative
professional environments. These fields include
architecture, engineering, planing, advertising, and
other such fields.
This type of plan also allows developers to create
more office buildings without being hindered by
speculation of use and marketability. The layout
can be manipulated and laid out to accommodate
the users more easily because of the nature of the
plan.
Common Open Plan
Common Open Plan
Common Open Plan
bay
Core
Scattered Private Spaces
Scattered Private Spaces
Scattered Private Spaces
Suburban Plan
bay
Core
Mid-Level Plan
bay
Core
Upper Level Plan45’
45’
45’
45’
45’
140 8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 141
Non-Hierarchical bay
Core
Shared Open Plan
Scattered Private Spaces
Scattered Private Spaces
bayIn this perspective view it is evident how an open
plan can facilitate office interaction while at the
same time keeping its necessary private spaces.
The conference room is on the outside of the plan,
while the office stays closer to the core, keeping
blurred the line of hierarchy. If hierarchy does need
to be established, this can be done more openly
and subtly through the assigned office furniture. It
puts those in command in direct contact with the
lower ranked employees.
8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan 141
142
8.4 Multi-Tenants
When dealing with one tenant per floor, it is easier
to locate a receptionist space. However, when
dealing with multi-tenants more careful planning is
required to keep the separate offices independent
while allowing them to share common program,
such as rest rooms and means of egress.
If two or more tenants occupy a space, it becomes
necessary to create a dedicated reception space
for each tenant. This creates the need for a cor-
ridor connecting the different offices. In these
layouts you can find two of the same types of
layouts divided in one floor or two or more different
office configurations in one floor. These office
floors are usually taken up by smaller firms who
don’t need an entire floor to themselves. This can
create a bigger profit for developers, depending on
how they are charging the rented space. They can
charge the various offices for use on the common
space, making profit on what would normally be
charged once by charging it two, three or even four
times.
Private Spaces
Open Plan
Open Plan
Common Open Spaces
Open Spaces
Private Spaces
Reception Spaces
Reception Spaces
Reception Spaces
Corridor
Common Egress
Core
1
2
1
1
2
2
Two Tenant Mixed-Plans
Four Tenant Mixed-Plans
Two Tenant Open Plans
43
Core
142 8.4 Multi-Tenants
ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 143
Core
Open Plan
Private Spaces
Reception Spaces
Multi-Tenant Perspective
Tenant 3
Tenant 4
Multi-Tenants PerspectiveIn this perspective we see just one of many config-
urations in which a multi-tenant floor plan can be
laid out. It shows the approach that needs to be
considered when arriving to the offices. As well as
the very different atmospheres created within each
office as a result of the layout.
8.4 Multi-Tenants 143
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OFFICE BUILDING
ARCH G691 GRADUATE DEGREE
PROJECT STUDIO
FALL 2008
This publication has been prepared as
part of a five week graduate thesis studio
assignment in the Northeastern University
School of Architecture for the Fall 2008
Architecture G691 course. Other publications
in this series include urban retail, hotel, and
parking garage typologies, all produced
by graduate students in the Northeastern
University architecture program.