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[paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Association for Environmental Philosophy,

special session on Christopher Alexander, Philadelphia, October 1, !""# $ !"" %avid &eamon'

Clarifying and Evaluating Architect Christopher Alexanders Theory ofWholeness by Interpreting his Approach as a Tetrad of Activity

%avid &eamon

Architecture %epartment

!11 &eaton (all

)ansas &tate *niversity

+anhattan, )& "-!."1

triad/0suedu

222arch0suedu3seamon3

&ince the late 1."s, architect Christopher Alexander 41.5, 1.55, 1.5., 1.61, 1.6,1.65, 1..7, 1.., !""!-"8 has sought to understand and ma0e happen self-consciously a

particular 0ind of order he calls wholeness, 2hich, 2hether in nature or human-made, is

the 9source of coherence in any part of the 2orld: 4Nature of Order [hereafterNO',vol 1,

p ."8 ;hen 2ell done, says Alexander, this coherence offers a sense of harmony, 2hich

9fills and touches us: 4ibid, p 18 +ore so, 2herever there is 2holeness, there is life,

2hich involves such ed bo2l, a fine oil painting, a splendid soaring

cathedral8

In his four-volume The Nature of Order, Alexander presents an approach and process that

he claims might facilitate 2holeness, 2hether in art, decorative ob=ects, buildings, or entire

places Alexander?s means for understanding and ma0ing 2holeness are t2ofold@ first, a

set of fifteen structural properties that he claims reoccur in all things, buildings, places,

and situations that evo0e 2holeness and life 4table 18# second, a step-by-step method of

ma0ing 2hereby each stage in the design of a particular pro=ect becomes a pointer for 2hat

is to come next through the recognition, guided in part by the fifteen principles, of creating

more and more centeredness, density, order, and life (is means to2ard this end are a

series of ten structure-enhancing actions that he claims potentially intensify the life and2holeness of the thing made 4table !8

ecause Alexander?s argument for 2holeness in The Nature of Orderis so complex and

multifaceted, I attempt in this presentation to lay out a simplified but comprehensive

portrayal of 2hat exactly its conceptual and practical heart and thrust are, dra2ing

occasionally onNature of Orderbut relying mostly onA New Theory of Urban Design
mailto:[email protected]://www.arch.ksu.edu/seamon/mailto:[email protected]://www.arch.ksu.edu/seamon/


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4Alexander 1.658, published in 1.65 and his first public account of the structural principle

of centers, 2hich becomes a pivotal concept and aim inNature of Order I ta0e this tac0

becauseNature of Orderis so 2ide-ranging in its theoretical and practical parts that,

ironically, one can readily lose sight of the 2or0?s 2hole y focusing on one of

Alexander?s real-2orld interests and effortsBrema0ing a strong sense of place in the

American cityBone can perhaps more readily locate the central dimensions of Alexander?s

theory of 2holeness and better understand and remember that the theory itself see0s to be

2hole in both its conceptual and applied possibilities

A Systematics of Alexanders Theory of WholenessI am interested in Alexander?s 2or0, first, because it is a significant effort to facilitate

place ma0ing through individual and group understanding, commitment, and action As a

phenomenologist, I am fascinated by his 2or0 because it is part of a larger movement

afoot 2hereby thin0ers and practitioners, often of seemingly different conceptual

persuasions and aims, are attempting to understand the nature of 2holenessBfor example,rene2ed interest in oethean science as a phenomenology of nature or the gro2ing body

of 2or0 on a phenomenology of place

Do locate precisely the conceptual and practical heart and thrust of Alexander?s theory of

2holeness, I dra2 on in this presentation yet another important effort to understand

2holes@ the 2or0 of English philosopher ennett 416.5-1.5F8, 2ho sought in his

four-volume master2or0 The Dramatic Universe4ennett 1.-8 to develop a

conceptual methodB2hat he called 9systematics:Bto clarify pattern, order, and

2holeness by dra2ing upon the


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directed activity, 2hich in Alexander?s case relates most broadly to ma0ing as a process of

creating coherence, order, and life, 2hether one spea0s of an ob=ect, building, place, or

some other made thing

ennett calls the four aspects of the tetradsources, 2hich he designates by the 2ords

ground, direction, instrument, andgoal and places accordingly on the diamond-shaped

tetrad symbol as sho2n in figure ! Do 2hat do each of these sources refer to in relation to

any activityH Dheground is the relatively formless ra2 material 2ith 2hich any activity

must 2or0, 2hile thegoal is the aim of the activity and the ideal end or result In turn, the

direction is the impulse motivating the action bet2een ground and goal, 2hile the

instrument is the practical means and understandings 2hereby the motivating impulse

might be fulfilled

In studying the completed tetrad, one reali>es that the vertical line connecting ground and

goal is related to the 9ends: of the activity in that the need for the ground to become moreordered and complete is present ideally in the goal, 2hich in turn provides the vision and

aspiration for an actuali>ation of order and completion potentially possible for the ground

4figure 78 If the vertical line relates to 9ends,: the hori>ontal line signifies the conceptual

and practical 9means: 2hereby the transformation from ground to goal might unfold in a

particular situation through the effort of the parties involved as that effort is made real and

effective through the particular 0no2ledge, s0ills, and practices available through the

instrument 4figure F8

Alexanders New Theory of Urban DesignDo illustrate the application of ennett?s tetrad to Alexander?s theory of 2holeness, I turn

to hisNew Theory of Urban Design4Alexander 1.658, his effort to suggest a 2ay to return

2holeness, vitality, and health to the American city, 2hich he sees as currently chaotic,

dehumani>ing, and placeless In this boo0, he offers seven rules, as he calls them, 2hich

he believes might provide a healing action for the city and lead to a rene2ed sense of

place Dhese rules are summari>ed in table 7

or example, rule 1B9piecemeal gro2th:Bsays that the best construction increments are

small, thus, in any attempt to strengthen the city or its districts, there should be an even mix

of small, medium, and large construction pro=ects uilding on rule 1, rule !BJthe gro2th oflarger 2holesJBdirects ho2 specific design pro=ects can be seen to belong together and

therefore re


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Of these seven rules, the most pivotal is the lastBformation of centersB2hich, in

Alexander?s 2or0 beginning 2ithNew Theory, becomes the primary conceptual and

practical means for clarifying and extending his earlier 9pattern language: ideas

4Alexander 1..7, 1.., !""78 +ost simply, a center is any sort of spatial concentration or

organi>ed focus or place of more intense pattern or activityBfor example, an intricate

carpet pattern, a handsomely designed 2indo2, a 2ell placed 0ios0, an elegant arcade, a

2elcoming building, a lively pla>a full of people en=oying themselves, or an entire city

neighborhood that is 2ell li0ed and cared for 4see especially Alexander !""7, chap 78

;hatever its particular nature and scale, a center is a region of more intense physical and

experiential order that provides for the relatedness of things, people, situations, and events

In this sense, the strongest centers gather the parts in a relationship of belonging, including

city d2ellers urther, 2here one finds life and 2holeness in the city, centers are never

alone but mutually implicated at many levels of scale@ 9Dhe 2holeness of any portion of

the 2orld is the system of larger and smaller centers, in their connections and overlap:4ibid, pp ."-.18

San Francisco Waterfront as an Experimental ContextAlexander illustrates the use of his seven rules through a simulation experiment conducted

2ith architectural graduate students at the *niversity of California at er0eley in a design

studio taught by him and colleagues Ingrid )ing and (o2ard %avis Dhe nineteen students

in the studio focused on thirty acres of the &an rancisco 2aterfront =ust north of the ay

ridge and destined for development 4figure 7, left8 Dhe ma=or tas0 2as to transform these

thirty acres, mostly empty at the time, into a district of buildings, streets, pla>as and par0s

that 2ould all contribute to a sense of life, atmosphere, and 2holeness Eventually, the

students converted the 2aterfront site into a set of places that included a pedestrian mall, a

main sed until the committee had

evaluated the idea and considered strengths and 2ea0nesses All faculty and students 2ereinvolved in all discussions about every pro=ect, so at least theoretically there 2as much

mutual understanding as to the pro=ect?s progress and ultimate aim

A Tetrad of New Theory(o2 can Alexander?s theory of urban design be understood in light of ennett?s tetradH As

sho2n in figure F, I call the tetrad 9Alexander?s Approach to *rban %esign,: and identify


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its four sources assite, wholeness, rules,and dialogue.Dhegroundof Alexander?s design

process is the thirty-acresite,2hich is 2ithout order and in need of development Dhegoal

for the site is wholeness,2hich for the 2aterfront district 2ould ideally include a

coherence, robustness, and uniation of

2holeness is Alexander?s seven rules,through 2hich the participants in the design process

gain understanding and the 2aterfront gains reali>ation Dhese rules are given directionby

the students and teachers of the design studio, 2ho role-play a developer3committee

relationship founded in dialogueBin other 2ords, continual group a2areness as to 2ho is

planning and designing 2hat, 2here, and 2hen and ho2 each increment potentially

contributes to the 2holeness of place

(o2 2ell does AlexanderLs approach to urban design 2or0H ennett argues that one 2ay to

consider this


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(o2 2ell did the rules transcribe themselves into an actual sense of place 2holenessH

Again, there is both success and failure On one hand, as compared to the arbitrariness of

most conventional urban planning and design, the 2aterfront scheme is clearly superior

because it has a sense of human scale and relaxed informality On the other hand, the final

design is 2ea0 in terms of individual buildings that often lac0 a sense of unity and have the

appearance of Ja late nineteenth-century pseudo-renaissance style of architecture:

4Alexander 1.65, p !78 &till, the completed design evo0es a certain crispness and feeling

of innovation# one senses that, 2ith some pro=ects, the students experienced moments of

genuine insight and vision sympathetic to the site In this sense, there 2ere moments in the

design process 2hen the relationship bet2een dialogue and 2holeness 2or0ed in a real and

po2erful 2ayBa situation that offers much hope for design education and practice modeled

after AlexanderLs approach

inally, there are the tetrad?s vertical and hori>ontal lin0s bet2een site32holeness and

rules3dialogue As already indicated, the line bet2eensiteand wholenessrelates to thereali>ation of the site as a more coherent, robust place, 2hile the line bet2een rulesand

dialogue relates to the gro2ing understanding of students and faculty, especially in regard to

ho2 the rules might be refined to ma0e the design process more effective in generating

2holeness

One of the most encouraging aspects of AlexanderLs experiment is that the studentsL designs

over time appear to have improved as they had practice 2ith the rules and 2ere able to 2or0

2ith them more fluidly and creatively At the same time, the simulation refined AlexanderLs

o2n sense of the seven rules and leads him to emphasi>e, in the evaluation of the

experiment in the boo0Ls final section, that the rules regarding 2holeness need further

refinement so that increments 2ill be more in touch 2ith the larger 2hole and, therefore,

have a more organic, unself-conscious es

that he is not entirely satisfied 2ith these rules (e says that they are not formulated

precisely enough 2ith the final result that 2aterfront design is Jtoo much an aggregate of

parts, not a single 2ell-formed 2hole: 4ibid, p !758

Intensifying Wholenessecause of his emphasis on 2holeness, the most significant


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have the obsessive, dead character of most Murban design? pro=ects of recent decades: 4ibid,

p !7F8

At the same time, Alexander admits in his evaluation that the design has many problems,

and he emphasi>es that the greatest 2ea0ness is that the pro=ect does not have a strong

enough sense of order at the largest scale 4ibid, p !78 (e is particularly displeased 2ith

the +ain &


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volume ! lays out the ten structure-enhancing actions 4indicated by the volume?s title The

!rocess of $reating "ife## and volume F points to2ard the ontological and metaphysical

grounds of life-giving order and 2holeness 4indicated by the volume?s title The "uminous

%round# Nolume 7 might be said to illustrate the entire tetrad in process and product, since

Alexander provides specific examples of ho2 he uses the generative process laid out in

volumes 1 and ! to create life-enhancing things, buildings, and places

As I suggested at the start of this presentation, perhaps the greatest 2ea0ness ofNature of

Orderis its attempt to be both in-depth and comprehensiveBin-depth, in terms of defining a

set of actions that 2ill 2or0 for any process of ma0ing, 2hether creating an art 2or0,

decorative ob=ect, building, or entire place# comprehensive, in terms of providing evidence

of made things at all levels of environmental and architectural scaleBfrom neighborhood

and public space through buildings, rooms, construction and ornamental detailsBeven

2or0s of art and decorative art It is not really clear 2hether the fifteen structural properties

have the po2er to facilitate at such a broad range of material scale the 0ind of clearunderstanding offered by Alexander?s earlier pattern language or the seven rules ofNew

Theory&nor, li0e the unfocused nature of the dialogue process inNew Theory, is it clear that

the ten structure-enhancing actions have the practicality or resilience to really move the

ma0ing process in such a 2ay that it evolves to2ard the life-giving order and 2holeness that

Alexander cherishes

On the other hand, once could argue that the depth and comprehensiveness ofNature of

Orderis its strength in that it demonstratesBat least partly successfullyBthat any 0ind of

material creating is essentially the same@ facilitating a multi-staged ma0ing grounded in a

shared understanding of basic principles and properties and leading to a made thingB

2hether art 2or0, artifact, built environment, or placeBthat evo0es 2ell being, belonging,

2holeness, and life

!uilt Wor" as #ife$Sustaining WholenessIn this regard, I 2ant to end by as0ing 2hether the built 2or0 Alexander presents in

volume 7 ofNature of Order manifests the life-sustaining 2holeness that he advocates

roadly, the ans2er is both yes and no &ome of his pro=ects, especially many of the

houses, seem a202ard, roughly constructed, and second rate On the other hand, there are

a good number of other buildings and made pro=ects that, in various 2ays, evo0e the senseof clarity, dignity, and life for 2hich Alexander strives Perhaps the most po2erful

example is England?s ;est %ean Nisitor?s Centre, a building that, both inside and out,

appears to be stri0ing architecture, expressing a serene stateliness and grace shaped by

careful site placement, a simple, ma=estic form, and handsomely-integrated stone, bric0,

and concrete Dhis building is probably the single best 2or0 presented in The Nature of

Order and a telling example of 2hat a life-enhancing architecture might be


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Dhese and other built pro=ects presented in The Nature of Order demonstrate that

Alexander?s approach to ma0ing can have effective, practical results and is feasible for a

2ide range of situations, clients, and building types *ltimately, ho2ever, he 2ould not

2ish to be =udged on his finished pro=ects alone ather, he sees each of these pro=ects as

an experimentBas another opportunity to figure out and refine a 2ay of learning and

ma0ing that can generate order and life

(ere lies Alexander?s unies that, if 2e are to really 0no2 and shape our 2orld in a

better 2ay, 2e must find a radically ne2 means of loo0ing, understanding, and ma0ing

;ithout a doubt, The Nature of Orderdemonstrates the remar0able progress he has made

to2ard this arduous and nearly impossible aim

%eferencesAlexander, Christopher, &ilverstein, +urray, Angel, &hlomo, Ishi0a2a, &ara, and Abrams,

%enny, 1.5 The Oregon '(periment Ke2 Gor0@ Oxford *niversity Press

Alexander, Christopher, Ishi0a2a, &arah, and &ilverstein, +urray, 1.55A !attern "anguage

Ke2 Gor0@ Oxford *niversity Press

Alexander, Christopher, 1.5. The Timeless )ay of *uilding Ke2 Gor0@ Oxford *niversity

Press

Alexander, Christopher, 1.61 The "in+ $af Ke2 Gor0@ Oxford *niversity Press

Alexander, Christopher, %avis, (o2ard, +artine>, ulio, and Corner, %an, 1.6 The

!roduction of -ouses Ke2 Gor0@ Oxford *niversity Press

Alexander, Christopher, Anninou, Artemis, )ing, Ingrid, and Keis, (a=o, 1.65A New

Theory of Urban Design, Ke2 Gor0@ Oxford *niversity Press

Alexander, Christopher, 1..7A oreshadowing of /0st $entury Art1 The $olor and

%eometry of 2ery 'arly Tur3ish $arpets Ke2 Gor0@ Oxford *niversity Press

Alexander, Christopher, lac0, ary, and Dsutsui, +iyo0o, 1.. The 4ary 5ose 4useum

Ke2 Gor0@ Oxford *niversity Press

Alexander, Christopher, !""7-" The Nature of Order, F vols er0eley@ Center for

Environmental &tructureennett, , 1.- The Dramatic Universe, F volumes. ondon@ &toddard and

;at0ins

ennett, , 1..7'lementary 6ystematics1 A Tool for Understanding )holes.%

&eamon, ed &anta e, K+@ ennett oo0s


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Dables

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Dable !

Dable 7


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igures

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igure !

igure 7 [not included'

igure F

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