official report of the games of the xxv olympiad barcelona 1992 – volume i
TRANSCRIPT
Official Reportof the Games of theXXV OlympiadBarcelona 1992
Official Reportof the Games of theXXV OlympiadBarcelona 1992
Volume I
The challenge
COOB'92
From the ideato the nomination
Director of the Report:Romà Cuyàs
Cover illustration:Original picture by Antoni Clavéproduced specially for this edition andkindly presented to COOB'92 by theartist
Graphic design:Zimmermann Asociados, S.L.
Editorial coordination:Thema Equipo Editorial
COOB'92 would like to thank thefollowing companies for their help withthe preparation of this work:
And special thanks for assistance withdistribution to:
Published by:COOB'92, S.A.© 1992 COOB'92, S.A.
Plaça de la Font Màgica, s/n08038 Barcelona
Photographs:All Sport-Firo Foto, AOMSA archive,Association of Municipalities of theBarcelona Metropolitan Area,Barcelona Archaeological Museum,"Barcelona posa't guapa" campaign,Bert archive, Agustí Carbonell, JaumeCasas, Eugenio Castillo, FrancescCatalà-Roca, Josep Coronilla,COOB'92 archive, Department ofCommerce, Consumer Affairs andTourism (Generalitat of Catalonia), ElMundo Deportivo archive, Historicalarchive of the city, IMBE, IMPUSA,Institute of Cartograpy of Catalonia,Institute of Publications (BarcelonaProvincial Council), IOC archive,FRIS, Lunwerg Editores, Jordi Llobet,Oriol Maspons, Christian Maury,Melcior Colet Museum and StudyCentre, Municipal Tourist Board,Museum of Modern Art, OCSA,Manuel Perez, Marta Povo, FelipeRaurich, Miguel Raurich, SebastiàSabaté, Lluís Sans, Rafa Seguí, SportsInformation Service (Barcelona CityCouncil), Sports library, (Generalitat ofCatalonia), TAF, Tàpies Foundation,TAVISA, Technical Office of theImage (Barcelona City Council), VOSA.
Photocomposition:Thema Equipo Editorial
PMT:Crack, Cromoarte, Sator
Printing and binding:Grafos, S.A., Art sobre paper
Paper:Ikonorex Special Matt 150 gmanufactured by Zanders anddistributed in Spain byTorraspapel, S.A.
Distribution:Enciclopèdia Catalana, S.A.
ISBN:84-7868-107-8 (4 Volume set)84-7868-108-6 (volume I)
DL:B-22559-92
Contents
2.1.
2.2.
Foreword by Pasqual MaragallIntroduction by Josep Miquel AbadEditor's note by Romà Cuyàs
1. The city
Barcelona, a great metropolisA privileged climate and settingAn active and industrious cityA well-connected city
Barcelona through the agesFrom the Romans to the city of the CountsThe Mediterranean expansionFrom a city of artisans to a city of industrialistsThe city in the twentieth century
Cultural and artistic BarcelonaThe Catalan language
The transformation of the cityThe stages of growthThe Barcelona of the Games
2. The Olympic Games
Squares and urban thoroughfaresLarge scale projectsThe new seafrontThe ring roadsTelecommunicationsThe definition of the city centreThe cultural infrastructure
Origin and recovery of the Olympic GamesThe Olympic Games and classical Greece
The setting of the Olympic GamesThe return of the Games: the Modern Era
The Summer Olympic Games of the Modern EraAthens 1896 (I Olympiad)Paris 1900 (II Olympiad)St Louis 1904 (HI Olympiad)London 1908 (IV Olympiad)Stockholm 1912 (V Olympiad)Antwerp 1920 (VII Olympiad)Paris 1924 (VIII Olympiad)Amsterdam 1928 (IX Olympiad)Los Angeles 1932 (X Olympiad)Berlin 1936 (XI Olympiad)London 1948 (XIV Olympiad)Helsinki 1952 (XV Olympiad)Melbourne 1956 (XVI Olympiad)Rome 1960 (XVII Olympiad)Tokyo 1964 (XVIII Olympiad)Mexico City 1968 (XIX Olympiad)Munich 1972 (XX Olympiad)Montreal 1976 (XXI Olympiad)Moscow 1980 (XXII Olympiad)Los Angeles 1984 (XXIII Olympiad)Seoul 1988 (XXIV Olympiad)
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3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3. The Candidature
The city and sportThe sporting tradition of Barcelona
The Olympic calling
The idea: Barcelona'92 is born
The project stage (1983-1984)
The practice of sport todaySport in recent years
The first attemptThe great hope failsThe People's OlympiadA forgotten attemptThe Stadium in a fermentThe hope eluded
From the idea to the first textThe first estimates
The Olympic Office and the Managing CouncilThe city gets ready
Promotion and popularisation of the idea
The image of the candidature
The Preliminary ProjectThe planThe sports programme and calendarThe sports facilitiesAccommodation for the participantsThe new infrastructuresTelecommunicationsThe budget and financingThe cultural programmeThe first official approval
Future projects and immediatemeasures
A velodrome in the Vall d'HebronThe Montjuïc Olympic RingA village by the sea
Public appearances
The international debut in an Olympic year
The machine in operation (1985-1986)Institutional supportThe formal application and the reinforcement of the structureWork goes ahead on the Olympic venues
The Candidature around the world
The decisive year
The Candidature DossierThe commitment of the cityThe drafting of the DossierThe Magic BoxPrior guaranteesThe calendar and sports
Building work on MontjuïcPlanning the Parc de Mar AreaFilling a gap
A successful presentationFrom continent to continent
The competition programm
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3.8.
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
The Olympic areas
The Olympic residencesEfficient transport
The Montjuïc AreaThe Diagonal AreaThe Vall d'Hebron AreaThe Parc de Mar AreaThe cities of 1992
Information technology and telecommunicationsA balanced budget
The cultural projectThe fact-finding committees
The final pushEveryone's goal
Beyond Barcelona
The campaign
The nomination"Operation Lausanne"
The week of the nomination
The Barcelona Olympic outburst
4. Appendixes
The structure of the Candidature
The Council of Support
Chronology of the Candidature
Olympic glossary
Olympic medals
Tables, maps and photo credits
The financial modelThe Organising Committee budgetExpenditureIncome
Social and institutional unanimityThe last Olympic Days
The Olympic Bus around SpainThe volunteers: a new recordEverywhere at once
Informing the electorsCoubertin and the new decalogueAt all the championships
The preparationsThe exhibition at the HermitageThe final impact
The session beginsThe ambassador Montserrat CaballéA sudden returnThe final examThe presentation"A la ville de ... Barcelona!"Three rounds of voting
Montjuïc, chock-a-block:"Now we are Olympic!"
COOB'92 is born
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H.R.H. Felipe de BorbónPrince of AsturiasHonorary president of COOB'92
"For Barcelona'92, in the memories andhearts of everyone"
FelipePrince of Asturias
Mr Felipe González MárquezPresident of the Spanish Government
Mr Jordi Pujol ì SoleyPresident of the Generalitat of Catalonia
Mr Pasqual Maragall i MiraMayor of Barcelona andPresident of COOB'92
Mr Carles Ferrer SalatPresident of the COEFirst vice-president COOB'92
Mr Javier Gomez NavarroPresident of the Higher Sports CouncilSecond vice-president of COOB'92
Mr Josep Lluís Vilaseca i GuaschSecretary general for Sport atthe Generalitat of CataloniaThird vice-president of COOB'92
Mr Josep Miquel Abad i SilvestreChief executive officer of COOB'92
Pasqual Maragall i MiraPresident of COOB'92 andmayor of Barcelona
On 17 October 1986, a long road paved with efforts and hopes reachedits end when Barcelona was chosen to be the site of the Games of theXXV Olympiad. After so many years, history finally smiled on Barcelona.
The Olympic movement placed its faith in the city, in its enthusiasticand hard-working people. For almost six years, the organisation hasacted to meet the commitment undertaken by its citizens to the countryand the international community.
On 25 July we shall be raising the curtain on the Olympic Games andBarcelona will once again be making history on a grand scale.Thousands of eyes will be turned to the city. Now we can say that wehave done honourably by what was expected of us.
When the Olympic flame has been quenched, everyone, and particularlythe generations to come, will be left with a city transformed, with anew urban weft and a new loom. Those of us who have lived throughthat time will also have the satisfaction of having worked on theorganisation of a unique event.
This Official Report is a modest tribute to everyone who has made theBarcelona Olympic Games possible.
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IntroductionJosep Miquel AbadChief executive officerof COOB'92
It must be admitted that the best and most thorough report of theBarcelona'92 Olympic Games is the one that each of us has storedaway among our most intimate memories. No-one can conjure up thishistoric moment better than we ourselves with emotions, images orsensations. No chronicler could match the strength of our own experience.
The true collective memory, as I understand it, is made up ofthousands of hours lived and shared by thousands of people who willhave thrilled to the Games, whether near or far away. Historians havealready undertaken the task of researching, verifying, rationalising andinterpreting the events. For the time being, the most genuine recordsare those of eye-witnesses.
But the human memory, so powerful and suggestive, also has itslacunae. This is particularly true for the Olympic Games, where thepoetry of the moment may cause it to miss a detail, overlook a fact ordistort the measurement of time. I am convinced, therefore, that anofficial report is an indispensable complement to what will become anunforgettable episode in our life.
With this Report we fulfil the obligations of the Olympic Charter, butalso an obligation to the people of the city and lovers of sport. If thestadiums and the roads are the tangible legacy, the publication you arereading now is the written monument to the Games of the XXVOlympiad. Any admirer of our city or the Olympics will be able tosatisfy the need to know about all the details of this historic occasion inthe pages which follow.
I recognise that the publication of this first volume of this OfficialReport before the Games are held may come as a surprise. This is not,of course, an exercise in clairvoyance. First, we wanted to show whatwe have always said: that the sixteen days of competition will be theclimax of a process which has taken years and that many of ourobjectives -the reactivation of the city and the country, the townplanning works, the boost to the economy- will have already been morethan accomplished before the magic date. Furthermore, we would liketo give the readers an opportunity to find out what has happened andto arouse their interest so that they can come to the Games withenough background information to have a better understanding of howand why they have been organised in a certain way.
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Of Barcelona, of the history of the Olympics and the candidature forthe Games of 1992 we can speak before the torch enters the MontjuïcStadium. As for other matters, however, we shall have to wait untilafter the closing ceremony. We shall only be able to make a clearassessment of the resources -facilities, staff and equipment- when wehave seen them in action. For the second volume, therefore, we shallhave to wait until the operators have finished off the task that theplanners, the workers and the fitters began.
The third volume is a similar case: we shall have to wait in order toappraise the efforts of hundreds of people, and especially of those mostdirectly involved in the organisation, until we have the results. Morethan once the operation involved in the Olympic Games has beencompared to a military campaign; and even if the objectives are quiteincompatible, there are certain parallels. The logistical complexity isone, and the mission is not accomplished until the objective has beensecured. The daily battles are important, but only the last one isdecisive.
Allow me to make an observation which touches on moral ground. Ifwe are capable of mobilising so many people and so many resources, ofbringing together the youth so many countries, of capturing theattention of such different audiences, around such noble ideals, in agreat festival of peace and youth, it means that we can have faith inthe human condition. The energy and the enormous human potentialthat spring from the Olympic Games serve fundamentally for thatpurpose: to prove that people are still anxious to live moments of joy.
The last volume of the Official Report we shall be keeping, with duedevotion, for the true heroes and heroines: the sportsmen and women.The vast majority of spectators will remember Barcelona'92 for theiridols: their sporting feats and their records. The quest for perfection,excellence and beauty will be immortalised in images that will travelaround the world: the sportsmen and women will be the leading actorson the stage that, for two weeks, will be Barcelona and the Olympicsubsites.
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To explain the Games of the XXV Olympiad in four volumes, evenlong ones, is not easy. We shall include the essentials and I am surethat a few years from now we shall feel the lack of items ofinformation that might seem of slight importance to us today. But thevital thing is the great work of compilation immediately after theOlympic event when the material is still fresh and the memory stillclear.
The Barcelona 1992 Official Report will be the first one to be on saleto the public. So far the summary and analysis of the Games has beenrestricted to a select group of people and, in an abbreviated version, tothe press. This time we wanted to round off the job with a piece ofwork which will be thorough, free of secrets and within the reach ofeveryone.
Ultimately, the Olympic Games would not be what they are withoutcommunication. Thousands of millions of people follow them on thesmall screen and without that enormous audience the sources of financeor the massive support which makes it possible to meet the cost wouldsimply not be forthcoming. The event is interesting in itself, but so isthe expectation it arouses.
This communicative potential gives us the chance to broadcast ourmessage loud and clear. It allows us to bring our way of living, our wayof working and our way of understanding the relationships betweenpeople to the four corners of the earth.
With the Official Report, we analyse the facts and the capacity of ourorganisation. But, most of all, we scatter to the four winds theenthusiasm of our people, which has been decisive, since the outset, inthe will to offer the best and most universal Olympic Games in history.
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Editor's noteRomà Cuyàs i SolDirector ofthe Official Report
One of the commitments undertaken by the Organising Committee ofthe Olympic Games is to take charge of the publication of the OfficialReport. The Report has one essential purpose: to pass on to themanagers of the Olympic Movement and future Organising Committeesthe experience acquired. As an additional benefit, it provides theOlympic Family as a whole with the results of the sports competitions.
Furthermore, because they involve the whole world, the OlympicGames are the most complex and demanding event on the calendar.They are itinerant by nature, which means that the organising city isunlikely to have any previous experience. And so the Official Reportwhich each Organising Committee leaves to its successors must be areflection not only of the sporting event, which has already beenthoroughly discussed and analysed by the media on the five continents,but also of each and every aspect of the organisation which made itpossible and which only the Report can explain in the necessary depthand detail. It must therefore be an exhaustive, serious document fromwhich future organisers can extract the maximum amount of information.
But the Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad is the firstone in history to be available to the public. This unusual element posesa new challenge to the people in charge of producing it: to make theexplanation of the organisation of the Games interesting and enjoyableto a wide audience without sacrificing the seriousness and thoroughnessdemanded by the content.
Facing this twofold requirement, then, COOB'92 set to work on theReport about a year and a half ago. The first step was an exhaustiveanalysis of previous reports in terms of both structure and content,graphics and text. One of the first decisions was to shun themonumental in terms of extent and presentation; the dimensions chosenwere intended to make for easier reading. The planned length wasabout one thousand five hundred pages spread over four volumes ofsimilar length. This would make it possible to market it in serial form,with the added advantage that distribution could begin before the
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Games. This has meant that the Report itself is an element instimulating public interest in the Games just a few months before theyare held; such is the aim of this first volume which, as it covers theperiod of the Candidature, will be available before the opening ceremony.
And so, as Josep Miquel Abad says in his introduction, the first volumewill be "the climax of a process which has taken years", and the fruit ofthe labours of the whole city and the entire country. Moreover, thebook explains the transformation of Barcelona since holding the Gamesthere became more than just an idea.
As a contribution to the spread of the Olympics and bearing in mindthat for the first time the general public has been included in thereading of an official report, COOB'92 has decided to introduce achapter dealing with the history of the Games since their revival in1896 to the Barcelona Games this year. The outstanding events of eachone are listed and there are tables with the complete results of all thecompetitions in all the sports on the official programme in Barcelona.Thus the reader can follow the evolution of the scores and timesachieved over the years and discover the highlights of each sport. Afurther contribution to Olympic knowledge is the glossary, which youwill find in the appendices to this volume, which defines the termsfound in the Olympic Charter or commonly used by COOB'92.
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The drafting of this first volume has involved a tremendous labour ofdocumentation. The information has been taken, as far as possible,from the most reliable sources, the basis being the documents publishedby the Olympic Office and the branches of the administration whichformed the consortium of the Managing Council during the period ofthe Candidature. The IOC archives have also been consulted, as well asthose of the companies which make up HOLSA (AOMSA, VOSA andIMPU) and those so kindly placed at our disposal by the institutions ofthe COOB'92 consortium through the relevant organisations. Someprivate archives were also referred to when the need arose. Altogetherthe compilers have read over thirty thousand pages and looked at overten thousand photographs. In the selection of the photographic materialprominence has been given to the documentary and informativeaspects. Moreover, the Report has benefited from the contribution ofspecialists from a wide range of disciplines -who have brought to ourwork an authority which it would not otherwise have had- and, as thedrafting progressed, from the suggestions of all those closely involvedwith the Candidature.
The next volumes will concentrate on the planning, organisation andstaging of the Barcelona Olympic Games. COOB'92 is already workingon the compilation of the documents.
We trust that this volume will live up to expectations and that in thefuture it will be a reference point for students of a period as thrillingand decisive in the history of the city and the country as these years ofpreparation for the Games of the XXV Olympiad.
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The Rambla in Barcelona iswell - loved and used bythe people of the city andby visitors.
The breakwater for the portis also used in moments ofleisure.
The district of Poblenou,completely transformed forthe Olympic Games.
The Sant Josep market,popularly known as LaBoqueria.
Four and a half kilometresof seafront have beenrehabilitated for the city.
The popular musical barsplay an important part inBarcelona nightlife.
Barcelona, a great metropolis
Barcelona is a city with more than twothousand years of history. Since itsfounding by the Romans in the firstcentury it has continued to grow until itnow occupies the whole of the plainbounded to the north and south by therivers Besòs and Llobregat, and to theeast and west by the Mediterranean andthe Collserola range of hills. According tothe 1991 census, of the slightly morethan 3 million inhabitants in theBarcelona metropolitan area 1,623,542live in the 99 square kilometres enclosedby the city boundaries.
Barcelona's location in the south-west ofEurope and on the shores of theMediterranean has made it a historicallyimportant crossroads for commerce andculture: technical innovations, ideas,currents of thought and fashions from allover the world have found their way intothe Iberian peninsular through thegateway of Barcelona. This has beenimportant in making the city known inEurope and the rest of the world.
A privileged climate and setting
Barcelona is the capital of Catalonia, oneof the seventeen autonomouscommunities into which Spain is dividedadministratively. Catalonia has its ownhistory, language and culture. Barcelonais also the second largest city in Spain,after Madrid, and the leading industrialcentre.
Catalonia is situated in the north-east ofthe Iberian peninsular. It is almostperfectly triangular in shape, with twonatural frontiers: the Pyrenean mountainrange to the north and the Mediterraneanto the east. A virtually straight westernboundary runs between the Pyrenees andthe sea. It occupies an area of greatorthographic variety; 32,000 squarekilometres, 6.3% of the total of Spain.Catalonia has 6 million inhabitants outof a total Spanish population of 39million and is therefore one of the mostdensely populated parts of the country(187 inhabitants/square kilometre).
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The Parc de la Creueta delColl is a former quarryconverted into a newrecreational area.
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Previous page.View of Barcelona fromTibidabo.
The monastery of Sant Perede Rodes is one of thefinest examples of CatalanRomanesque.
A beautiful panorama ofthe snow-covered Pyrenees.
The village of Taüll isnotable for the bell towersof its Romanesque churches.
Catalonia's beaches are oneof its main touristattractions and a source ofwealth for the country.
The Ebro Delta is anagricultural area of greatecological importance.
Market day in the Plaçadel Mercadal in Balaguer,in the centre of Catalonia.
The wooded slopes of the Pyrenees arethe source of the main rivers inCatalonia: the Ter, the Llobregat, theSegre (a tributary of the Ebro) and theNoguera Pallaresa and the NogueraRibagorçana which, in their turn, aretributaries of the Segre. The coastal zone,more than 400 km in length, can bedivided into three main sectors: thenorthern coast (Costa Brava), rocky withsteep cliffs; the Maresme, with beaches ofthick white sand; and the southern coast(Costa Daurada), with long expanses ofbeach. Inland lies the Central CatalanDepression, made up of a mosaic of rivervalleys, plains and plateaus. In the farsouth lies the Ebro Delta, one of themost important in Europe for therichness of its animal life.
The mild climate, the beauty of thelandscape and the extensive network ofair, land and sea communications havemade Catalonia one of the major touristareas of Europe, with more than 16million visitors a year.
Barcelona has a temperate Mediterraneanclimate. Extremes of temperature arerare; winters are short and mild and theheat of the summer is relieved by the seabreezes. The sun shines in all seasons ofthe year and there are only seventycloudy days on average.
An active and industrious city
Barcelona was at the forefront of Spanishindustrialisation, which began with theemergence of the Catalan textile industry,based principally on family firms, at theend of the eighteenth century. In thecourse of the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies other industries such asmetallurgy and chemicals have alsoestablished themselves. The economicgrowth of the nineteen sixties extendedto neighbouring communities such asSanta Coloma de Gramenet, Badalona,Sant Adrià de Besòs, Cornelia and
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The Zona Franca inBarcelona, situated in thebasin of the RiverLlobregat, is an industrialand warehousing areawhich is well connectedwith the rest of Catalonia.
The fishing zone of the portof Barcelona. In spite ofthe important industrialand commercial elements inthe port, fishing activitystill goes on.
Barcelona is the centre ofan important area ofindustrial activity andservices for more than threemillion people.
Antiquarians bringBarcelona's past alive.
l'Hospitalet de Llobregat, which came toform a dense agglomeration around thecity.
Since Spain's accession to the EuropeanCommunity in 1986 there has been agrowth in the presence of foreign firmsand multinationals in Barcelona and itssurrounding area. These firms areengaged in a large variety of industrialsectors. Recent reports on the economicprospects of European cities are agreedin describing Barcelona as one of thefirst choices for company investment,something which has reinforced its roleas a commercial crossroads.
Because of the size of its industrialsector, Catalonia -which accounts foralmost 25% of Spanish industrialproduction- is today one of the mostimportant industrial regions in Europe.The distribution of the economicallyactive population by sector in the regionis typical of an advanced economy: 5.2%engaged in the primary sector(agriculture, stockbreeding and fishing),
45.7% in the secondary sector (industryand construction) and 49.1% in thetertiary sector or services.
The majority of companies in Cataloniaare located in the area of Barcelonawhich contributes 80% of the GrossAdded Value (GAV) to the Catalaneconomy. In European terms this has anabove average growth rate for GrossDomestic Product (GDP). The mostactive economic sectors include theautomotive industry, Pharmaceuticals,electronics, computers and newtechnologies, graphic arts and the textileindustry.
The industrial diversity of the Catalaneconomy, the high level of specialisationand the fact that none of its basicindustries was seriously affected by theeconomic crisis of the nineteen seventies,together with its traditional openness,have all been decisive factors in ensuringits continued competitiveness in therecent period of economic adjustment.
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The new architecture of thebuildings in the AvingudaDiagonal contrasts with theclassic colours of theBarcelona taxis.
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The town of Calella, animportant tourist centre inthe Maresme, has one ofthe most popular beacheson the whole of the Catalancoast.
Entering Barcelona by theAvinguda Diagonal. Trafficflow at the access points toBarcelona and the centralarea of the city hasimproved thanks to theconstruction of rapid routeswhich encircle the city.
The port of Barcelona, atthe bottom of the Rambla.
A well-connected city
The port of Barcelona is one of thebusiest in the Mediterranean and is oneof the driving forces behind theeconomic development of themetropolitan area and Catalonia as awhole. It handles a large part of thegoods traffic entering Spain and leavingfor the rest of Europe and is a pole ofattraction for the location of industryand services. Its increasing dynamism inthe nineteen eighties has led to a fargreater increase in traffic than in otherports in Mediterranean Europe. The portof Barcelona and the neighbouring portof Tarragona, which specialises inpetroleum and chemicals for thepetrochemical industry in the region,together handle forty million tonnes ofgoods per year.
The airport, situated just ten kilometresfrom the city centre and with excellentroad and rail connections to the whole ofthe surrounding area, enjoys magnificent
weather conditions throughout the year.Thanks to its location on the coast, it isan extremely safe airport which is opento traffic 95% of the available time. Ithandles more than 9 million passengers ayear and over 100,000 regular flightsconnect it with the major cities of theworld. The three new terminals whichhave been brought into service for the1992 Olympic Games have given it acapacity of more than 16 millionpassengers a year.
Because of Barcelona's strategic positionin the European road, motorway and railnetworks, a large part of the goods trafficbetween Spain and the rest of Europepasses through the city. The motorwaywhich links Barcelona with France makesthe frontier accessible in an hour and ahalf and both the motorway which leadson into the Peninsula and the one whichfollows the coast down to southern Spainconnect it to the main cities of thecountry. Catalonia also has 600kilometres of internal motorway.
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The Olympic Port, situatednext to the OlympicVillage, is a marina withmore than 800 berths.
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The Barcelona Airportconcourse, which has beenextended and redesigned forthe Olympic Games by thearchitect Ricard Bofill.
An everyday scene in theEstació de França beforerenovation.
Barberà del Vallèsmotorway intersectionfifteen kilometres fromBarcelona. The motorwaynetwork connects Barcelonawith the main Spanish andEuropean cities.
Barcelona itself is surrounded by asystem of ring roads which facilitatecommunications between the outlyingareas of the city and between the centreand certain key points, such as theairport and the port.
Barcelona's urban transport systemincludes 70 kilometres of subway lineswhich connect the centre of the city withthe surrounding districts and theindustrial centres and is used by270 million passengers a year. The busnetwork carries 200 million passengerswithin the city and another 35 million inthe metropolitan area.
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Barcelona through the ages
Columns from the Romantemple dedicated toAugustus. This building wassituated on Mount Taber,the small hill which wasthe site of the Romancolony of Barcino.
Water channels from astreet in Roman Barcelona.Remains from the ancientcity can be seen in theMuseu d'Històrìa de laCiutat, near the Plaça delRei in the Earn Gòtic.
Pantocrator from thechurch of Sant Climent inTaüll, which is to be foundin the National Museum ofArt of Catalonia onMontjuïc. This museum isconsidered the mostimportant in the world forRomanesque painting.
The monastery of Sant Paudel Camp, Visigoth andRomanesque in style, wasfounded at the beginning ofthe tenth century outsidethe walls of Barcelona onthe road to Montjuïc.
From the Romans to the city of theCounts
In the first century AD the Romansfounded the the colony Julia AugustaPaterna Favencia Barcino on MountTaber, a hill which was in those days acoastal promontory. This colony wouldeventually give the city its name. Barcinowas situated in an area of marshland andlagoons, which the Romans quicklydeveloped as a port in place of theancient Iberian port of Laie situated atthe the foot of Montjuïc. Barcino grewrapidly and by the second century it hadalready become an important marketcentre for the western Mediterranean,rivalling Tarraco (Tarragona) andMassalia (Marseille).
In the third century the city entered aperiod of crisis and instability thanks tosuccessive conquests by the Visigoths,Moors and Franks. The first barbarianinvasion led to the city being fortifiedwith new protective walls.
The expansion of Islam into Europe,through the Iberian Peninsula, in theseventh century came up against theorganised defence of the Franks. TheirEmperor, Charlemagne, established theSpanish March on either side of thePyrenees. This name referred toterritories which formed the shiftingboundary between Moorish and Christiandomains and which were the origin ofwhat would later become Catalonia.
At the end of the tenth century, thecounts of Barcelona cut the bonds ofvassalage with the Franks and, with theirpower increased through the union withthe kingdom of Aragon in 1149, began togovern their domains as independentkings. This was the era in whichRomanesque art flourished in all itssplendour, especially in pockets ofresistance to Islam and centres ofcivilisation and culture in the Pyrenees.The monasteries of Ripoll, Sant Cugatdel Vallès, Sant Pere de Rodes, SantMarti del Canigó and Sant Miquel de
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Vaults in the central naveof the church of SantaMaria del Mar; built in thefourteenth century, it is thefinest example of CatalanGothic.
Mural by Ferrer Bassa,from the fourteenth century,in the monastery ofPedralbes.
Gallery of the Gothiccourtyard in the Palau dela Generalitat deCatalunya; the work of thearchitect Marc Safont, it isthe most important mediaevalcivic building in the city.
In the Plaça del Rei, centreof the Gothic Quarter, isthe Palau Reial Major,where the Counts ofBarcelona lived.
The Saló de Cent inBarcelona Town Hall,Gothic in style.
Tiles from the eighteenthcentury representing variousoccupations of the period.
Cuixà and the churches of Taüll and Boíare the most important examples ofCatalan Romanesque.
The Mediterranean expansion
With the consolidation of theCatalan-Aragonese crown and, above all,starting from the reign of the Jaume I inthe thirteenth century, Catalonia initiateda process of commercial and militaryexpansion into the Mediterranean. Thisperiod gave rise to some importantpolitical institutions: the Corts General(1214), considered by some historians asthe first parliament in Europe; theConsell de Cent (1265); the consultativeassembly for the municipal governmentof Barcelona; and the Generalitat (1365),a permanent delegate body of the Cortswith governmental functions.
The Catalan expansion into theMediterranean and the establishment oflocal institutions coincided with thedevelopment of Gothic art. Barcelonastill retains beautiful examples ofreligious and civil buildings whichdisplay the luminosity and gracefulnesscharacteristic of Gothic architecture: thechurch of Santa Maria del Mar(constructed between 1329 and 1383 atthe instigation of the merchants, artisansand seamen who inhabited the Riberadistrict), the monastery of Pedralbes, theCathedral, the palaces in the Carrer deMontcada, the Llotja and the Drassanes.These buildings have their equivalents inother parts of Catalonia, such as Lleidaand the royal monasteries of Poblet,Santes Creus and Vallbona de les Monges.
In the closing years of the fifteenthcentury, after the union of the crowns ofCastile and Aragon through the marriageof their king and queen, Ferdinand andIsabella, the city entered a period ofeconomic decline which was to last for
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Previous page.The Llotja de Barcelona.This great Gothic hall is atpresent home to theBarcelona Stock Exchange.
Saló del Palau Moja, oneof the neoclassical palaceson the Rambla.
Front page of the firstedition of the Diari deBarcelona, the secondoldest daily newspaper inEurope still in production.
The Mar Bella beach inPoblenou at the beginningof this century.
Part of the site of the 1888Universal Exhibition.
The old MaquinistaTerrestre i Marítima factory.
El Born, once the centralmarket of Barcelona.
the two centuries during which theHapsburgs were on the throne of Spain.The discovery of America, in 1492, ledto a decline of the Mediterranean portsto the advantage of the Atlanticseaboard. The War of Succession(1702-1714), finally won by the Bourbonpretender, Felipe V, opened a new era inCatalan and Spanish history. This is theperiod when Montjuïc Castle and themilitary fortifications which occupied thesite of the present Ciutadella Park wereconstructed. During the second half ofthe eighteenth century the city underwenta revival, thanks to trade with Americaand the success of its incipient industry.The prosperity of the period is expressedin the neoclassical buildings of theRambla, the facade of the Palau de laGeneralitat, the church of La Mercè andthe Civil Government building(previously the Customs House) situatedin the Plaça del Palau.
From a city of artisans to a city ofindustrialists
The process of industrialisation whichtook place during the nineteenth centuryled to one of the most spectacularperiods of growth in the city's history.The industrial revolution gave rise to anew class: the bourgeoisie, and with itthe cultural, artistic and literarymovements of the Renaixença andModernism, which were marked in apolitical sense by Catalan nationalism.The growth experienced by the cityduring the nineteenth century wasextraordinary: in 1832 the first factorypowered by steam was established; twoyears later the first steam ship was built;by 1842 the city had gas lighting; in1848 the first railway line in Spain wasopened between Barcelona and Mataró;and by the end of the century the firsttrams were in operation and the city wasalive with industrial activity.
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Inside the Gran Teatre delLiceu, in use since 1847.
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Stained glass ceiling in thePalau de la MúsicaCatalana, designed by LuísDomènech i Montaner.
The Modernist style can beseen in small shops inBarcelona.
Poster by Ramon Casas.Painter and draughtsman,he was one of the group ofModernist artists who metin the bar Els Quatre Gats.
The Sagrada Família,Gaudi's best-known workand symbol of the city.
The Hospital de Sant Pau,one of the other jewels ofModernism in the city.
Modernist furniture.
From 1854 onwards, after the mediaevalwalls surrounding the city were finallypulled down and with the approval ofthe "Plan for the Reform and Extensionof Barcelona" by Idelfons Cerdà in 1859,the city began to spread out over theplain which separated it from the smallneighbouring towns. The firstinternational event to be held in modernBarcelona, the Universal Exhibition of1888, was important for theconsolidation of several importantthoroughfares in the city, such as theParal-lel, the Passeig de Colom and theRambla de Catalunya, and for thecreation of one of the largest open publicspaces in the city, on the site of the oldmilitary citadel built in 1716. Thisperiod of expansion initiated theincorporation into the city of theneighbouring communities on theBarcelona plain, which still constituteclearly differentiated neighbourhoods.
This period of intense, thrusting,innovative activity which extended into
the first third of the twentieth centuryproduced the Modernist buildings ofAntoni Gaudí (the Sagrada Família, theParc Güell, the Pedrera, Can Batlló),Lluís Domènech i Montaner (the AlbertLleó i Morera house, the Palau de laMúsica Catalana, the Hospital de SanPau) and Josep Puig i Cadafalch (theCasa de les Punxes, the Casa Amatller),and the work of painters such as RamonCases, Santiago Rusiñol and IsidreNonell, sculptors such as Josep Llimona,metalworkers, stained glass workers,cabinet makers and other artisans. Theywere the local expressions of the artisticferment of fin de siècle Europe.
The city in the twentieth century
The first third of the twentieth centurywas marked by the activities of thethinkers and artists in the noucentismemovement and the political activity of
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The Casa Milà, popularlyknown as La Pedrera, byAntoni Gaudí.
View of the Poble Espanyolin Montjuïc, built for the1929 InternationalExhibition.
Numerous advances inscience and technology wereon display at theInternational Exhibition.
The Palau Nacional, inMontjuïc, seen from anilluminated Avinguda de laReina Maria Cristina.
The German pavilion at theInternational Exhibition,designed by Mies van derRohe.
Other pavilions at theExhibition, such as that ofSweden, also representedavant-garde architecturaltendencies.
the Mancomunitat de Catalunya. TheUniversal Exhibition of 1929 was a newoccasion for planning the Barcelona ofthe future. The structure of the old citywas partially reorganised, the slopes ofTibidabo were developed and the firstsubway lines were built. The monumentalcomplex of buildings constructed onMontjuïc for the Exhibition is now usedevery year to house the most importanttrade fair in Spain and numerousinternational shows, which justify thedescription of Barcelona as the city offairs and congresses.
After the proclamation of the SecondSpanish Republic in 1931 and therestoration of the Generalitat ofCatalonia, the first urban and socialplanning projects were drawn up,inspired by the functionalism of theCatalan Architects and TechniciansGroup for Progress in ContemporaryArchitecture (GATCPAC), which wasinfluenced by the ideas of Le Corbusier.However, the outbreak of the Spanish
Civil War in 1936 prevented theimplementation of the extensive projectsthrough which the Generalitat and theCity Council aimed to turn Barcelonainto a modern metropolis.
After the end of the war, in 1939, and anumber of years of international isolationand repression under the Franco regime,Barcelona experienced a period of growthand expansion which began towards theend of the nineteen fifties andaccelerated during the following decade.Large scale immigration from other partsof the country necessitated the provisionof both private and public sector housingand the construction of new suburbs.This period of economic prosperity alsobrought some improvements in thetransport infrastructure, such as therailway line in the Carrer d'Aragó beingre-routed underground, the constructionof the central railway station in Santsand the extension of the Gran Via to thenorth of the city.
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Cultural and artistic Barcelona
Entrance to the PicassoMuseum. Situated in theCarrer Montcada, it has animportant collection of thepainter's work, above allfrom his youth and the blueperiod.
In recent years, Barcelonahas become a leading centrefor interior and furnituredesign.
The Orfeó Català, one ofthe most prestigious choirsin Barcelona, was createdin 1891 by Lluís Milletand Amadeu Vives.
Towards evening, the Plaçade Sant Iu in the GothicQuarter becomes a peacefulspot for listening to music.
Monument to FrancescMacià, president of theGeneralitat of Cataloniafrom 1931 to 1933,designed by Josep MariaSubirachs.
Barcelona has a deeply rooted culturaltradition which is expressed in itscontributions to the worlds of art, cultureand science. The numerous museums inthe city include the Picasso Museum,with more than 4,000 works by theartist; the Miró Foundation, a museumand a centre for the study ofcontemporary art designed by thearchitect Josep Lluís Sert; the TàpiesFoundation; the Science Museum; theModern Art Museum, which contains themost important examples of Catalanmodernism and noucentisme, and theNational Museum of Art of Catalonia,situated in Montjuïc Park and home tothe most important collection ofRomanesque art in the world.
However the historical and artisticheritage of Barcelona is not only to befound within the walls of the museums;it can also be seen on the streets.Barcelona is a city recognised throughoutthe world for its innovative aestheticsense. The beauty of the Romanesque
and Gothic buildings which give theirhistoric imprint to the city is matched bythe brilliance of the modernistconstructions by Aritoni Gaudí or theGerman Pavilion designed by Mies vander Rohe for the 1929 UniversalExhibition, known as the PavellóBarcelona, which is considered to be oneof the most important architecturalworks of the twentieth century.
Barcelona's artistic proclivity is alsoreflected in its important growth as afashion and design centre. In addition tothe traditional textile design, industrial,furniture and other design are all thrivingin Barcelona.
Barcelona has a long musical tradition,represented above all by the opera house,the Liceu, opened in 1847, and the Palaude la Música Catalana, built in 1908 as ahome and concert hall for the OrfeóCatalà. Composers such as Isaac Albéniz,Enric Granados, Ricard Viñes, PauCasals, Frederic Mompou, Robert
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Sculptures on the roof ofthe Miró Foundation.Designed by the architectJosep Lluís Sert, it is hometo an important permanentcollection of works by thepainter, as well astemporary exhibitions ofcontemporary art.
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Mosaic by Joan Miró, inthe Pla de l'Ós in theRambla, once a crossroadsfor roads leaving the citythrough the city walls.
Castells (human towers),together with the sardana,are among the mostcharacteristicrepresentations of Catalanfolk culture.
One of the most popularevents in the festival of thecity of Barcelona is thecorre-foc.
Some of the Gothic palacesin the old part of the cityhave been turned intocultural and artistic centres.
Gerhard and Xavier Monsalvatge;musicians Alicia de Larrocha and TeteMontoliu; and outstanding figures fromthe world of opera Fransesc Viñas,Victoria de los Angeles, Jaume Aragall,Montserrat Caballé and Josep Carrerashave represented Catalonia in concerthalls and on stages all over the world.
The oldest examples of local folkloresurvive in the city's popular festivals.Apart from the Festes de la Mercè,celebrations of the patron saint ofBarcelona, and the annual festivals inmany neighbourhoods, such as Sarrià,Gràcia and Sants, traditional festivitiessuch as Sant Ponç, fireworks andbonfires on the night of Sant Joan,Carnival and corre-focs with dragons,devils and other monstrous figures, arealso celebrated. Human castles and thetraditional dance, the sardana, are anintegral part of many of the citycelebrations.
The dramatic arts in the city are goingfrom strength to strength, thanks to thetwo theatres administered by theGeneralitat of Catalonia (the Polioramaand the Romea), the Teatre Lliure andthe National Theatre of Catalonia, whichis under construction. The early nineteeneighties saw the foundation of an annualsummer festival of high qualityinternational productions in the TeatreGrec and the Festival de Tardor. Catalantheatre, represented by many differentgroups, is successful today on stagesaround the world.
There are five universities in Barcelona:Barcelona University, the oldest, foundedin 1842; the Polytechnic University ofCatalonia; the Autonomous University ofBarcelona, in Cerdanyola; the PompeuFabra University, which opened its doorsin 1990, and the first private universityin Catalonia, Ramon Llull, which wasfounded in 1991.
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The Tupies Foundation.Housed in the old EditorialMontaner i Simon, it is thework of Lluís Domènech iMontaner.
The giants of the city.These figures, which oftenrepresent kings or lords,have a long traditionthroughout Catalonia.
The book of Usatges is alegal work compiled fromthe twelfth centuryonwards. Initially writtenin Latin, the Catalanversion dates from thethirteenth century.
Saint George's day in thePlaça de Sant Jaume. Thetraditional festival of thebook and the rose.
The Catalan language
Catalan is the native language ofCatalonia and, with Spanish, theco-official language. It has been thenormal vehicle of communication for themajority of the inhabitants for more thanten centuries. The first known examplesof the written language date from thetwelfth century.
Catalan has been a medium for literaryexpression for centuries, as in the workof Ramon Llull of Palma, who was usingit to express his philosophical ideas inthe thirteenth century, or in the QuatreGrans Cròniques (thirteenth andfourteenth centuries), which tell the storyof the lives of the Catalan count-kings.The illustrious figures of Arnau deVilanova, Francesc Eiximenis, BernatMetge, Ausiàs Marc - one of the greatEuropean poets of the fifteenth century-and Joanot Martorell -author of Tirantlo Blanc- contributed to the formationand development of an extremely richliterary tradition in the Middle Ages.
In the middle of the nineteenth centurythe Catalan language gained new forcethrough the movement of theRenaixença, whose key figure was thepoet Jacint Verdaguer. Among theliterary figures dating from the periodbefore the codification of the language byPompeu Fabra at the beginning of thiscentury, the most important are AngelGuimerà, Narcís Oller and JoanMaragall. These names have since beenjoined by those of Josep Carner, CarlesRiba, J.V. Foix, Josep Maria de Sagarra,Josep Pla, Mercè Rodoreda and SalvadorEspriu.
Barcelona is the main centre for thepublishing industry in Spanish and at thesame time the centre of a growingproduction in Catalan. The considerableincrease in local literary production andpublishing in Catalan has been aided bythe use of the language in magazines andnewspapers such as L'Avui and the twohundred year old Diari de Barcelona, andby the opening of two television channelsat the beginning of the nineteen eightiesto broadcast solely in Catalan.
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The transformation of the city
Engraving from CivitasOrbis Terrarum, publishedin Cologne in 1597.Barcelona seen fromMontjuïc in the sixteenthcentury.
Plaça de Sant Felip Nerí,in the Gothic Quarter, nearthe cathedral.
Map of Barcelona from thebeginning of the eighteenthcentury, signed by thegeographer Nicolas de Fer.It shows the streets, waterchannels, convents, millsand other towns on theBarcelona plain.
The present conurbation of Barcelonahas been formed by the addition to theancient Roman and mediaeval city of thedevelopment known as the "Eixample",which began in the middle of thenineteenth century; the incorporation ofcommunities on the Barcelona plain intothe city between the turn of the centuryand the beginning of the nineteentwenties; and the accelerated growth ofthe nineteen sixties. The Barcelona urbanarea has therefore gone through fourbasic stages of development.
The first of these stages corresponds tothe primitive Roman settlement situatedon the Mount Taber promontory andenclosed by walls which were laterreinforced and extended. The populationof the city in the fourth century, knownby the name of barcinonenses orfauentini, varied between 3,500 and5,000 inhabitants. The centre of theRoman city was situated close to thepresent Plaça Sant Jaume, where the
Palau de la Generalitat, the seat of theautonomous government of Catalonia,and the Town Hall, the seat of themunicipal government, face each othertoday.
The second stage of urban growth wasthat of the mediaeval town whichcovered the area of the Ciutat Vella,including the cathedral, the royal palacesand various buildings of great historicalimportance. This area is bounded by thefour Rondas: Sant Pau, Sant Antoni,Universitat and Sant Pere. Thepopulation of the city seems to havereached 40,000 in the fourteenth century,falling again to 30,000 by the end ofsixteenth century as a result ofepidemics. The population grew byalmost 100% during the eighteenthcentury to reach a figure of 125,000.Barcelona retained its mediaevalstructure until the middle of thenineteenth century, when the walls werepulled down. From this point onwardsthe city began to extend rapidly outwards.
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The stages of growth
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View of Barcelona by theFrenchman A. Guesdon,dated between 1860 and1870. It shows the smokefrom the factories and thesteam ships, symbols of thegrowing industrialisation.
During the festival ofGràcia, a former villagewhich retains a strong senseof identity, the inhabitantsdecorate the streets withgreat imagination.
In the nineteen fifties andsixties, decades ofimmigration intoBarcelona, the city spreadout to the north with thecreation of numerous newdistricts.
Map of the Barcelonametropolitan area. Atpresent, Barcelona and thesurrounding communitiesoccupy 600 squarekilometres.
The response to Barcelona's need lorexpansion defined the third stage ofurban growth. The key element was theEixample, constructed between 1860 and1930 in accordance with a plan byIldefons Cerdà. The Eixample is anextensive development based on a regulargrid pattern of streets running paralleland perpendicular to the sea, which formsquare, uniform islands of housingmeasuring one hundred by one hundredmetres. The Carrer de Balmes divides itinto two zones: the right and leftEixample. The extraordinary growth ofthe city at the end of the nineteenthcentury and the beginning of thetwentieth obliged Barcelona, whichalready had half a million inhabitants, toincorporate neighbouring communities.After overcoming strong resistance, thecity incorporated the nearby villages -LesCorts, Gràcia, Sarrià, Sant Marti deProvencals, Sants, Sant Andreu dePalomar and Horta-, some of which stillconserve their own structure andcharacter. This process of incorporation
is reflected in the present division of thecity into ten districts.
Finally, the form of the city wascompleted in a fourth stage, which beganat the end of the nineteen fifties andcentred on the construction of residentialsuburbs to house successive waves ofimmigrants, above all from southern andcentral Spain. The influx of newcomersbrought the population of Barcelona toover one and a half million in 1965 andthis considerable demographic growth ledto a shortage of open spaces and publicfacilities. Between 1960 and 1975 thegrowth extended to the Barcelonametropolitan area whose populationincreased from two million to more thanthree million.
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Previous page.Aerial view of part of theEixample and Gràcia. TheEixample, designed byIldefons Cerdà in 1855 todevelop the Barcelona plain,joined the old city with itsneighbouring towns andvillages.
The Plaça dels PaïsosCatalans, designed by HelioPiñón and Albert Viaplana,is one of the earliestexamples of thetransformation of the cityat the beginning of thenineteen eighties.
Parc de l'EspanyaIndustrial, by PeñaGanchegui and Rius iCamps, built on the site ofa former textile mill of thesame name.
The Barcelona of the Games
The end of the Franco regime and theintroduction of democracy into localcouncils made it necessary to provide ananswer to the problems created by thelack of an urban planning policy:massifïcation and the shortage of landfor infrastructure and leisure activities inthe city.
Therefore, in 1980 a programme ofconstructing public spaces was launched.During the period of the transition todemocracy old industrial andwarehousing sites had been acquired. Theprogramme took the form of convertingthese sites into sports and leisure areasand at the same time beginning theconversion of some historic buildings forpopular use.
The new projects were situated mainly inthe old city and the suburbs, the areasmost affected by the waves ofimmigration. The intention was to givethe projects a specific style and their ownaesthetic forms. This idea was borne inmind in the commissioning andexecution of the projects and was alsogiven expression in the placing ofsculptures by well-known artists in thenew parks. Some examples are thespectacular work by Eduardo Chillida inthe Parc de la Creueta del Coll, theemblematic Dona i ocell by Joan Miró inthe Parc de l'Escorxador and the originaldesign for the Parc de l'Espanya Industrial.
Clearance and restoration projects invarious areas in the centre of Barcelonarevived and beautified public spaces.Some of the more important examplesare the Plaça Reial, the Plaça de laMercè and the Plaça de Sant Agustí Vellin the old city and the Places de Rovira iTrias and Trilla in the district of Gràcia.
Dona i ocell. Sculpture byJoan Miró in the Parc del'Escorxador.
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A spectacular view ofBarcelona can be had fromthe Hotel de les Arts, nextto the Olympic Village.
The Rovira tunnel. Thisproject, begun at the end ofthe nineteen eighties,connects the middle andouter ring roads, below theCarmel district.
The Plaça Reial, heart ofthe old part of the city.Many of the streets andsquares in this part ofBarcelona have beenrenovated.
This activity led to the School of UrbanDesign at Harvard University awardingBarcelona the 1991 Prince of Wales Prizefor architecture in recognition of themodernity and rationality which hadguided the planning of the new spacescreated during the first years ofmunicipal democracy.
Large scale projects
Despite the limited resources available,at the beginning of the nineteen eightiesa series of projects designed to improvecommunications within the city werestarted. Some infrastructure work wasresumed, such as the second ring road,which had been in abeyance for morethan thirteen years, the connectionbetween the first and the second ringroads through the Rovira tunnel, the areaof the Vallvidrera tunnel throughTibidabo and the Valldaura -Llucmajor-Via Julia axis. These projects were
accompanied by improvements in the useof the existing road system.
A number of specific plans were alsodrawn up for the transformation of thegeneral urban infrastructure systems(transport, communications, lighting,sewerage, etc), which were put intooperation immediately, so that theywould not affect the more ambitiousprojects, which in many cases requiredan agreement between the various publicadministrative bodies or the interventionof the private sector.
The designation in 1986 of Barcelona asthe site for the 1992 Olympic Games wasto be a upheaval for the city similar tothat of the exhibitions of 1888 and 1929.The Games have been the catalyst forimprovements in the generalinfrastructure of the metropolitan areaand for large scale planning projectswhich, because of their location and theirsize, will alter the shape of the growth ofthe city. This was a situation whichBarcelona had not faced for half a century.
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The Moll de la Fustacontains various open-aircafes, examples of theinnovative spirit of the cityin new leisure areas.
One of the office buildingsin the Olympic Village. Thedifferent buildings havebeen designed by winners ofthe Premi del Foment de lesArts Decoratives, as part ofan. overall project designedby the Martorell/ Bohigas/Mackay/ Puigdomènechteam.
The coastal ring road atthe Moll de la Fusta. Partof the road passesunderneath the wide avenueof palm trees, open-airrestaurants and terraces.
The former MagatzemsGenerals del Comerç at theMoll del Dipòsit, the workof Elies Rogent. Theirrestoration is part of thegeneral redevelopment ofthe old port.
The new seafront
In 1987, the redevelopment of the Boschi Alsina wharf -popularly known as theMoll de la Fusta- and its connection tothe area of the old city was the first stepin the renovation of the central area ofBarcelona's seafront. It was the beginningof an extensive redevelopment of the oldport of Barcelona with the object ofturning it into a recreational and sportingarea. This process of renewing the city'sseafront was complemented byimprovements to the district ofBarceloneta and the conversion of theold industrial and warehousing zone ofPoblenou into a residential area.
The Parc de Mar Area, the proposedlocation of the Olympic Village for theGames, was undergoing a process ofdeindustrialisation; the beaches were inan extremely degraded state and railwaylines separated the district from the sea.
The redevelopment of the area changedall this.
An alteration in the route of the railwaylines was already envisaged in a projectto reorganise the Barcelona railwaysystem, with two new stations plannedon the outskirts of the city. The designfor the residential area was to follow thepattern of streets in the Eixample,something which would also allow theDiagonal to be extended as far as the seaand would integrate the new area of theOlympic Village into the fabric of thecity.
Finally, the development of the Poblenouseafront and the construction of thecoastal ring road entailed the redesign ofthe system of main drains. A plan wasdrawn up in 1988 which covered themunicipality of Barcelona and its entirehydrographic area and provided for a100 kilometre extension of the sewernetwork.
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Previous page.The bridge designed bySantiago Calatrava whichunites the Carrer Bac deRoda and Carrer Felip II,and facilitatescommunication between thedistricts of Sant Andreu dePalomar and Sant Martide Provencals.
Section of the outer ringroad at the intersection ofVia Favència and Via Júlia.
The Parc de la Guineueta,an extensive green area inthe north of the city, beginat the Plaça Llucmajor.
Intersection of the Diagonaland the Ronda del Mig.This is one of the mostimportant commercial andservices areas in Barcelona.
The ring roads
In 1988, with the impetus of theOlympic Games, the construction of thering roads was speeded up. This workfollowed the provisions of the 1976General Metropolitan Plan, butabandoned the concept of "urbanmotorways", adopted when some sectionswere to be constructed during thenineteen seventies.
The new ring roads were designed tofacilitate entry and exit from the city andto improve the connections between themain road network and the various areasof Barcelona. The new ring roads wouldalso be a fundamental element in thelinks between the different Olympic areasduring the 1992 Games.
The second, or "mountain", ring roadwas to absorb between 130,000 and140,000 vehicles a day, while the coastalring road would take between 80,000 and
90,000. Both were designed with adouble structure: a central sectionconnected with the regional road networkand lateral sections with the localnetwork. They were also to be providedwith traffic control systems, especially atintersections, and their impact on theenvironment was to be minimised.
In this last case, the delay whichBarcelona had experienced in reinitiatingthe construction of its ring roads hadallowed time for other experiments to bestudied. An assessment was made of theimpact which various types of roadconstruction had had on the environmentin other cities around the world. This ledto the adoption of measures to diminishthe barrier effect which ring roads haveon the areas which they pass through.The Barcelona ring roads have thereforebeen designed principally as high densityand relatively high speed routes (80kilometres per hour in the centralsection), but with the ability to also takelocal traffic.
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Services gallery. Theconstruction of the ringroads made it possible tomodernise the utilitiesrunning under the city.
The Vallvidrera tunnel. In1991, the historic projectlinking the city with thewestern Vallès district via atunnel under the Serra deCollserola was implemented.
Section of the outer ringroad. The new ring roadshave eased the passage oftraffic through the centre ofthe city
It was also thought essential to takeadvantage of the investment in theconstruction of the ring roads to installservice galleries providing independentaccess to the the underground gas, water,electricity and telephone networks, whichwould make the disruption of the normalfunctioning of the new roads unnecessary.
The utilities companies -the majority ofwhich were undertaking extensivemodernisation of their networks-contributed to the financing of thegalleries and were involved in theplanning which their constructionentailed. The galleries also have space forthe expansion of services in the future.
Telecommunications
The economic upturn which took placein the second half of the nineteeneighties produced a sudden increase in
demand for new telecommunicationslines which greatly exceeded theprovisions which had been made andquickly saturated the existing network.
The telephone company was forced tospeed up its investment plan to completethe necessary modernisation andextension of the network. As a result by1991 30% of the telephone exchanges inBarcelona were digital, a 40,000kilometre fibre optic network had beencompleted, the system oftelecommunications masts had beenextended, and a number of specialisedinstallations had been built, such as theInternational Exchange, the new mobiletelephone switchboards and the Montjuïctelecommunications mast designed bySantiago Calatrava.
However, the most ambitious projectsundertaken for 1992 are the Granada delPenedès Satellite CommunicationsComplex, the Barcelona teleport inCastellbisbal and the Barcelona
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The Passeig de Luci MiniciNatal, in the MontjuïcOlympic Ring with theredesigned OlympicStadium and the PalauSant Jordi.
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The Trade buildings, builtin 1969 in the Diagonalarea, are the work of JosepAntoni Coderch.
Collserolatelecommunications tower.Designed by Norman Fosterand situated near thesummit of Tibidabo, theviewing platform on thetenth floor gives awonderful panoramic viewof Barcelona and the wholeof the Vallès.
Zona Universitària.Faculties of the Universityof Barcelona are situatedalong the final section ofthe Diagonal.
telecommunications tower situated on theSierra de Collserola. The tower, the workof Norman Foster, is complemented by a7,500 square metre service buildingwhich has been placed half undergroundto minimise its impact on thesurroundings. The tenth floor of the 115metre high tower houses a public viewingpoint. This construction, which risesfrom the crest of the Collserola range-the backdrop to the city- has becomeone of the most spectacular symbols ofthe new Barcelona.
The definition of the city centre
Over time the services district ofBarcelona has shifted from the CiutatVella to the Eixample and more recentlyto the upper part of the Diagonal. Forthis reason, the large scale projects for1992 have been concentrated in theperipheral and relatively inactive areas of
the city to counteract the tendency foractivity to concentrate in the south westof the city, starting from the Diagonal.
The Barcelona Candidature Dossierproposed a number of projects in fourareas strategically located around thecity: Montjuïc, Diagonal, Vall d'Hebronand Parc de Mar. These so-calledOlympic Areas, which will contain themain facilities for the 1992 Games, havebeen the subject of extensiveredevelopment for use after the event.
The planning of the Parc de Mar Area,entailing as it does conversion toresidential use and opening up to the sea,has been the most innovative of all thetransformations which Barcelona hasexperienced in preparation for theOlympic Games, because the changeswhich it has brought cover such a largesection of the city -more than seventyhectares.
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The two towers constructedat the end of the Passeig deCarles I are a gateway tothe Olympic Harbour andprovide the coastline with anew profile.
The Velòdrom, the idealsetting for cycling events.
Aerial view of the OlympicRing. The Olympic projectwas always designed to belocated primarily onMontjuïc.
Aerial view of the DiagonalArea, with the Real Club dePolo in the foreground onthe right.
The development of theParc de Mar Area hasmade possible thecontinuation of the PasseigMarítim, which links thebeaches along the coast.
The plan for the Diagonal Area, which isspread over the municipalities ofBarcelona, l'Hospitalet and Esplugues,centres on the provision ofinfrastructures to complement and ordera group of existing sports facilities, aswell as new services, hotels and officeand commercial areas. The CarrerTarragona gives this area direct andrapid access to the Plaça Espanya andthe Montjuïc Area. Altogether, thisdevelopment constitutes what has beencalled the Eix de Ponent.
The development of the Vall d'HebronArea has produced an extensive park outof a zone previously occupied by terracesand slopes which separated the districtsin this sector from the rest of the city; anumber of sports facilities and residentialareas have been built, and a number ofservices linking the districts of LaTeixonera, Els Penitents, Horta, Montbauand Carmel have been installed.
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The Sala Oval in the PalauNacional de Montjuïc. ThePalau has been redesignedby Gae Aulenti to becomethe permanent home of theNational Museum of Art ofCatalonia.
Sculpture by C. Oldenburgin the Vall d'Hebron Area.A significant number ofwell-known artists havehelped to beautify the citywith their works.
The campaign slogan"Barcelona, més que mai"(more than ever), which hasfigured in variousmunicipal advertisingcampaigns.
Graffiti on the ventilationshafts on the Via Julia.
Model of the cityAuditorium, designed byRafael Moneo, and theNational Theatre ofCatalonia, by Ricard Bofill.
The cultural infrastructure
As a consequence of Barcelona'sdesignation as the site for the OlympicGames, a number of cultural projectswere launched, some of which will becompleted after 1992. These included therenovation of the National Museum ofArt of Catalonia, the MunicipalAuditorium, the National Theatre ofCatalonia, the Centre of ContemporaryCulture, the Museum of ContemporaryArt and the new Botanical Garden in theParc del Migdia on Montjuïc.
In December 1990, the Italian architectGae Aulenti was commissioned toundertake the project for the renovationof the Palau Nacional in Montjuïc,converting it into the permanent home ofthe National Museum of Art ofCatalonia. In June 1990 the CityCouncil, the Generalitat and the Ministryof Culture reached an agreement on thefinancing of the work.
An agreement was made for the jointfinancing of the Auditorium inSeptember 1989 and in December of thefollowing year work was started near thePlaça de les Glòries, based on a designby the architect Rafael Moneo. Theconstruction of the National Theatre ofCatalonia, designed by the architectRicard Bofill, is planned for theneighbouring site. Responsibility for thisproject has been taken on by theGeneralitat.
In 1980 the Regional Government andthe City Council agreed to devote theCasa de la Caritat, a former charitableinstitution, to a cultural purpose. It wasdecided to convert it into the home ofthe Centre of Contemporary Culture andthe Museum of Contemporary Art. Thedesign for the first of these was producedby Helio Piñón and Albert Viaplana andthe work started early in 1991.Meanwhile, in 1988 the Generalitat, theCity Council and the Museum ofContemporary Art Foundation formed a
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Building work on the newCentre of ContemporaryCulture.
The rehabilitation of thebeaches has provided newleisure areas for young andold.
Gallery in the Casa de laCaritat. This building,previously a convent, is thesite of the new Centre ofContemporary Culture andMuseum of ContemporaryArt.
Montjuïc, as well ascontaining museums andfunfairs and providingfacilities far sportingactivities, is also anopen-air art area.
consortium to begin the building. InOctober of that year Richard Meier wascommissioned to undertake the projectand the work began the following year.
Finally, in 1989, as part of the newlayout of the Parc del Migdia onMontjuïc, a project was drawn up tomove the Botanical Garden there. Acommission was set up to carry out theplan made up of representatives from theGeneralitat, the City Council, theCatalan universities and the BotanicalInstitute. Work started in 1991.
Montjuïc will also be home to the TeatreLliure when it moves to its new site inone of the buildings of the old Mercat deles Flors.
circumstances would have taken severaldecades.
In general terms, as a consequence of thepresentation of the Candidature and thedesignation of Barcelona as the site forthe 1992 Olympic Games, the city hasundergone a spectacular change in nomore than ten years which under normal
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Municipal office for urbanredevelopment in the oldpart of the city.
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Scene showing two boxers.The one on the left israising his index finger toacknowledge defeat. Greekornamental and votiveceramics show scenes of thevarious gymnastic,equestrian and artisticcontests, known as agon,which made up theprogramme of the Games.
The Olympic Games andclassical Greece
Myth and legend have attributeddifferent meanings to the origin of theOlympic Games, but everything points toa ritual ceremony of some kindcelebrated in honour of Zeus, father ofthe gods, at the shrine at Olympia. Manydifferent dates have been given for thefirst Games, but the most widelyaccepted is 776 BC.
This occasion gradually increased inimportance until the Olympic Gamesbecame a focal point for the wholeHellenic world. The calendar was basedon the four year periods which separatedthe Games and became the Olympiads.It is highly probable that in thebeginning the Olympic Games weresimply an encounter for young peoplefrom neighbouring cities who came toattend the religious ceremonies anddisplay their sporting skills. As Greecegrew, the Games grew with it andathletes from all around the shores of theMediterranean came to take part. Threemonths before the festival a sacred trucewas declared and all wars between thecity-states ceased for the duration.
But although the Olympic Games werethe most ancient sports festivals, theywere not the only ones in Hellas. Therewere three others in which the wholeHellenic world took part and which werealso considered sacred because they tookplace at important shrines: the IsthmianGames at the shrine in Corinth; theNemean Games in the city of Nemea;and the Pythian Games in Delphi. TheOlympic and Pythian Games were heldevery four years, whilst the Nemean andCorinthian were biennial. Apart fromthese pan-Hellenic festivals, there weremany local ones organised by cities onspecial occasions.
The Isthmian Games were held in springand the others in summer and thecompetitions were divided into threedisciplines: equestrian, gymnastic andmusical. The prizes awarded at the foursacred festivals were purely honorary: anolive crown at Olympia, laurel at Delphi,pine branches at Corinth and wild celeryat Nemea. But the winners' greatestrewards came with their return to theirnative cities, where they were oftenreceived in triumph and rewarded withsums of money. Some sculptors, such asMyron, or poets such as Pindar orBachillides made a living from carvingbronze statues of the triumphant athletesor composing odes in their honour. Thepan-Hellenic Games were mainly
reserved for men, though some women'scompetitions were held. At Olympia,only one woman was allowed to bepresent: the priestess of Demeter, whooccupied the place of honour.
The shrine of Olympia was located in theregion of Elis in the north-east of thecentral Peloponnese at the confluence ofthe rivers Alpheus and Cladeus, 340kilometres from Athens. From theremains discovered in the archaeologicalexcavations which began in 1875, it hasbeen possible to reconstruct the originalappearance of the buildings which madeup the setting for the Olympic Games.They all lay within the sacred perimeter,the Altis, from which rose theOlympieium, the temple which housedthe monumental statue of Zeus. Thestatue of the god was the work of thesculptor Phidias and was one of theseven wonders of the world. The mainsports facilities were the stadium, thepalaestra, the gymnasium and thehippodrome.
The stadium was a flat rectangle 211metres long and 32 metres wide. Freshwater flowed along a channel which wasbuilt all around it. Across the stadiumfrom east to west ran a ridge of marblefurrowed by two parallel grooves wherethe athletes placed their feet to launchthemselves into the race. It was dividedinto twenty sections, one for eachcompetitor. There were no stands: thespectators stood or sat on the grass on aseries of terraces alongside the stadium.There was only one platform, on thesouthern side: we suppose it was wherethe judges and the people presiding theGames sat.
The palaestra was the building where thedifferent kinds of wrestling competitiontook place. It was an almost perfectsquare 66 metres along the sides. Insidethere was another square area about 40metres along the sides. In the spacebetween the inner columns and the outerwall were a series of compartments androoms used for different purposes.
The gymnasium was the place where therunners and the competitors in thepentathlon trained. The pentathlon was acompetition consisting of five events:long jump, wrestling, discus, javelin andsprint. The gymnasium was rectangularwith columns all around the edge. Inside
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there were two race tracks 192 metreslong. The building was covered by awooden roof supported by two rows of66 Doric columns.
The equestrian competitions and chariotraces took place at the hippodrome. Itwas a great esplanade with two pillarsseparated by a distance of two stadii (1stadium = 192.27 metres). The pillarsmarked the starting line and the placewhere the turns were made when therace involved various laps of the circuit.The equestrian events always closed thecompetitions of the Olympic Games.
Messengers were dispatched to the citiesto announce the sacred truce and theopening of the Games, which were heldbetween July and August and lastedseven days. On the first day would-becompetitors had to swear an oath thatthey were free men and of Hellenicblood. They also had to declare that theywere under no penalty for crime or
sacrilege and that they would not useillicit methods to triumph.
The rules for each event were preciseand clear and the judges made sure thatthey were observed to the letter. If anathlete disagreed with the outcome of anevent, he could appeal to the OlympicSenate, which would look into the case.
Altogether, 293 Games were held atOlympia: 194 before the birth of Christand 99 after. This speaks eloquently ofthe depth to which group feeling andappreciation of the sporting traditionwere rooted in Greek culture.
The crisis of the Hellenic world alsoaffected the Olympic Games, which wentinto decline, particularly under Romandomination. At last, when Christianitybecame the official religion of theRoman Empire, the emperor Theodosiusissued an edict in 393 AD abolishing theGames and all other pagan events.
The Greek world inthe fifth century B.C.The area influenced by Greekcivilisation is in yellow
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Remains of the cryptpassage or secret door inOlympia. Built in themiddle of the secondcentury AD as part of thereconstruction carried outunder the Romans, it ledfrom the sacred Altis to thestadium.
Representation of a charioton a panathenaic amphorafrom the sixth century BC
Panoramic view of theancient stadium atOlympia. In the foregroundis the grooved marble ridgewhich marked the startingline for the runners.
Model of the ancientsanctuary at Olympia. Inthe centre, the temple ofZeus, which sheltered amonumental statue of thegod by Pheidias.
Runners with torches. Theritual use of fire was linkedwith the Olympic Gamesfrom the beginning.
The return of the Games: theModern Era
The coming of the Enlightenment andthe publication of the Encyclopaedia inthe eighteenth century, events whoseorigins can be traced back to theRenaissance two hundred years before,were decisive in establishing values basedon a knowledge of man. In this context,there was renewed interest in discoveringand studying the Hellenic world.Excavations began to reveal the way oflife of the ancient civilisation. In theclassical texts, especially the works ofPausanias, there was mention of theshrine of Olympia. More documents weregathered and in 1875 a group ofarchaeologists began to dig systematicallyaround the site of the ancient Greekshrine. Their discoveries told them agreat deal about the exact location ofOlympia and re-awoke interest in theGames which had been held so long ago.
The industrial revolution which wassweeping Europe, involving massmovement of people to the cities andnew forms of social organisation, broughtabout reforms in the educational systems.In the mid-nineteenth century amovement emerged which advocateduniversal schooling and the adaptation ofthe curriculum to the social conditions ofthe time. At the same time, varying inextent from one country to another,interest in sport grew. Books about sportwere published and private associationsto encourage the practice of certainsports were founded.
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These two factors -the rediscovery ofOlympia and the rise of sport- triggeredan extraordinary interest in the OlympicGames. Among all the people and groupswho became involved, the outstandingname, on grounds of sheer tenacity, wasthat of a French thinker andeducationalist, Pierre de Fredy, Baron deCoubertin.
On 25 November 1892 at the Sorbonnein Paris, Coubertin made a formalproposal to the French Association ofAthletic Sports: to re-establish theOlympic tradition of ancient Greece inthe modern world. Fifteen hundred yearshad passed since they disappeared, butthe recovery of classical ideals which wasa feature of European thought at the turnof the century coincided with the socialand educational value of sportpropounded by Coubertin himself.
Coubertin's perseverance led to theconstitution of the first InternationalOlympic Committee (IOC) on 23 June1894. The first members were fifteenpeople chosen by de Coubertin fromoutstanding figures of the aristocracy orthe military establishment of thirteencountries.
Since the foundation of the IOC, themembers have not been representativesof their countries, but representatives ofthe organisation in their countries. Thefirst ones to have members on this newinternational body were Argentina,Belgium, Bohemia, France, Germany,Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy,New Zealand, Russia, Sweden and theUnited States. The members' first taskwas to approve the Olympic Charter, thedocument which contains the rules andbye-laws of the Olympic movement andall information and instructions requiredfor the organisation of the Games.
Some of the fifteenmembers of the firstInternational OlympicCommittee which organisedthe first modern OlympicGames in Athens in 1896.From left to right, standing,Wilhelm Gebhardt fromGermany, JiriGuth-Jarkovsky fromBohemia, Ferec Kemenyfrom Hungary and theSwede, General VictorBalck; sitting, Pierre deCoubertin from France,Demetrius Vikelas fromGreece (first president ofthe IOC, from 1894 to1896) and the RussianGeneral Von Boutowsky.
The Cháteau de Vidy, inLausanne, has been theheadquarters of the IOCsince 1915, when it waschosen by Pierre deCoubertin.
Pierre de Coubertin(1863-1937), the Frenchteacher and thinker, wasthe prime mover in therestoration of the OlympicGames. Coubertin also laidthe foundations of the
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Olympic Movement andcreated the Olympicideology, which heexpounded and developed inhis many works. He waspresident of the IOC from1896 to 1925.
Although Coubertin had been thepromoter of the Olympic movement, hedeclined the presidency of the IOC infavour of the Greek Demetrius Vikelas.
The IOC president's officein Lausanne.
An old edition of theOlympic Charter, thedocument which containsthe rules and by-laws of theOlympic Movement and allthe instructions regardingthe organisation of theGames.
In Paris on 23 June 1894,before two thousand leadingcitizens and delegates fromthirteen countries, Pierre deCoubertin publiclyproclaimed his desire torestore the Olympic Gamesof ancient Greece. Twoyears later, the Games ofthe I Olympiad of themodern era were held inAthens, with 295 athletesand 13 countriesparticipating.
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Not a single poster waspublished for the firstOlympic Games of themodern era; as their usewas still not widespread.On the left is the cover ofthe Official Report. Itshows the goddess Atheneholding the winner's olivecrown, the rebuiltpanathenian stadium, withthe Acropolis in thebackground and the figures776-1896, which refer tothe year in which the firstknown Olympic Gameswere held in ancient Greece(776 BC) and the year oftheir restoration.
Athens 1896(I Olympiad)
The first aim of the newly formedInternational Olympic Committee was tomake the dream which had inspired itcome true and organise an OlympicGames. The debate centred on the choiceof venue. Although the father of theproject wanted to have the Games inParis, it was finally decided to hold themin the country where they had been born.The city of Athens had the honour ofbeing the first Olympic city of themodern era.
The organisation of those first OlympicGames was still rudimentary, but theywere the incarnation of the original idea:to bring together athletes from differentcountries and focus the eyes of the worldon the competitions. The ancientstadium in Athens, built in 350 BC, wasreconstructed to be the Olympic stadiumwith private donations, particularly fromthe Greek banker George Averoff, wholived in Alexandria. This patron gave amillion gold drachmas for theorganisation of the Games. Thepan-Athenian stadium was built in white
marble in the shape of an elongated U,with a 250 metre track and a capacity of60.000.
Although the invitations were sent outlate and the newness of the occasionmeant that the number of internationalathletes attending was smaller thanhoped, the Games were opened onWednesday, 6 April 1896, by KingGeorge I. They lasted ten days. 295competitors, all men, from 13 countriestook part. The largest delegation, 197,was from the host country, followed byGermany and France with 19 each. Thecountries taking part were Australia,Austria, Bulgaria, Chile, Denmark,France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece,Hungary, Sweden, Switzerland and theUnited States. The teams wereheterogeneous and the competitors oftenchosen at random. There were noqualifying events and some competitorswere students on holiday who entered atthe last moment. The winner of thediscus, for example, was a student fromPrinceton, Robert Garrett, who had
A set of commemorativestamps was issued to markthe Athens Games. Therewere twelve values, witheight different designs,based on scenes from theancient Games. The tendrachma stamp (2) showedthe Acropolis and theParthenon; while the 25and 60 lepta stamps (3)featured a chariot drawn bywhite horses and a wingedVictory, inspired by anancient Greek coin whichalso commemorated avictory in the OlympicGames. These stamps werethe work of the teachersSvoronos and Guilleronand the engraver EugeneMouchon. The medalsawarded at those firstOlympic Games of themodern era, which weresilver, bore an allegoricalrepresentation of Olympiaon one side (4) and theAcropolis on the other (5).
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handled the discus for the first time justthree days before the competition.
At these first Games there were 43events in 9 sports; many of them havesince vanished from the programme. Thesports on the programme were athletics,cycling, fencing, gymnastics, weightlifting,tennis, wrestling, swimming and shooting.The first Olympic champion was JamesBrendan Connolly of the United States,the winner of the triple jump with adistance of 13.71 metres. The UnitedStates carried off the prizes for most ofthe athletics events. The Marathon, theevent closest to the hearts of the Greeks,was won by one of their athletes, theshepherd Spyridon Louis, who ran thelast few metres escorted by the heir tothe throne, Prince Constantine, amidstgeneral rejoicing. In recognition of histriumph, the winner was presented witha complete wardrobe, a shaving kit and afree room at a hotel in Athens for a year.
The swimming and cycling events at theAthens Games bear scant resemblance tothe competitions today: the swimmingevents were held out to sea, thecompetitors plunging into the water fromboats at anchor. The cycling, in whichthe French distinguished themselves, washeld at the New Phaleron velodrome onthe outskirts of the city.
In the 100 kilometre cycling event therewas a demonstration of thesportsmanship advocated by the Olympicprecepts: when the French cyclist LéonFlameng realised that his Greek rival washaving mechanical problems, he stoppedand waited for him to finish the repairsbefore continuing with the race, fromwhich Flameng eventually emerged thevictor.
At the Athens Games, the winners ineach event received silver medals, asthere was not enough money left to mintthem in gold. All in all, the mostimportant feature of the Games was the
The start of the firstOlympic 100 metres final,which was won by theAmerican Thomas Burke.The regulation startingposition had still not beenlaid down and the laneswere divided by ropes.
Rope climbing wasoccasionally included in thegymnastics competitionuntil the 1932 Games. Thefirst winner was the Greekgymnast NicolaosAndriakopoulos.
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The French cyclists LéonFlameng, winner of the 100km track event, and PaulMason, winner of the333.33 m, the 2000 m andthe 10000 m races.
Robert Garrett, winner ofthe discus event. Garrett,an American student whowas on holiday in Athens,entered for the Games eventhough he had never seenan official discus untilthree days before thecompetition.
revival of the Olympic spirit. In spite oftheir technical shortcomings, they were aresounding success in terms ofparticipation and were the key to therebirth of the Olympic movement. Theinternational press gave them amplecoverage.
The closing ceremony at Athens markedan unexpected triumph, which was not tobe repeated for some years, and thereturn of the Olympic Games.
The rebuilt panathenaicstadium was the mainvenue for the 1896 Games.Like the original,constructed in 350 BC, itwas built of white marbleand held some sixtythousand spectators. It wasalso used for thePan-Hellenic Games in1906.
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No poster was published forthe Paris Games, but therewere posters for some of thesports in the ConcoursInternationaux d'ExercicesPhysiques et de Sports, asthe 1900 Games wereknown. An emergingartistic genre gave theposter reproduced on theleft, for fencing, a periodfeel. It shows a femaleathlete as women took partfor the first time in theOlympic Games, althoughthey were not officiallyrecognised.
Paris 1900(II Olympiad)
In 1900 the founder of the modernOlympic Games, Baron de Coubertin,saw his wish to hold them in his owncountry fulfilled. The principle ofdifferent countries and continents takingturns to host them was also established.
However, the second Games weresomewhat uneven. They coincided withthe Universal Exhibition in the Frenchcapital, which meant that the Gameswere eclipsed by the variety of eventsand settings. This, combined with thedecision of the organisers to spread thecompetitions over six months from 20May to 28 October, with no opening orclosing ceremony, cast a pall over theOlympic event. Many of the participantswere not even sure that they werecompeting in the Olympic Games, asthey were called Concours Internationauxd'Exercices Physiques et de Sports. Thefirst Games of the century are the onlyones with no official results. Anotherdetail is that the medals were sent bypost years later.
Nevertheless, there were morecompetitors than in Athens. 1,077athletes from 21 countries entered andwomen's events were held for the firsttime -though they were not officiallyrecognised- in golf and in tennis, wherethe British player Charlotte Coopershone. The Games failed to draw thenumber of spectators who had flocked toAthens. The largest turnout was under3,000, for an athletics competition, whileeliminating rounds in the other sportstook place in front of much smallercrowds. Competitions were held in 17sports altogether, 8 more than at the firstGames.
Paris had no Olympic stadium toconcentrate the athletics events, whichwere scattered around more than fifteenvenues, some of them hardly suitable forthe practice of sport. The racing track atthe Racing Club de France in the Boisde Boulogne was very hard and the highand long jumpers had to dig the pits fortheir competitions. The swimming eventswere held at Asnières, a suburb on the
Unlike in Athens, nocommemorative stamps wereissued for the Paris Games.In fact, they went almostunnoticed amongst thefestivities surrounding theUniversal Exhibition, twoof the designs for which arereproduced here. No-oneattending the 1900 Games,which were poorlyorganised and spread over along period, could haveguessed the significancethat the modern OlympicGames would achieve.
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River Seine; yachting at Meulan; fencingat the Tuileries; tennis at the Île dePuteaux; gymnastics at Vincennes; theequestrian sports at Breteuil; and cyclingin the Parc des Princes. This dispersaldetracted from the lustre of the Olympicoccasion. However, thanks to thepersonal efforts of many athletes theseobstacles were overcome and the Gameswere held.
A noteworthy feature was that theswimming and water polo competitionswere held in the River Seine. The waterpolo match between France and Englandwas an eventful occasion, as the twoteams were playing to different rules,thereby demonstrating the need to laydown sports regulations which would bevalid internationally. In rowing Hollandwon the coxed event; what made thisremarkable was the fact that thecoxswain was a ten-year-old boy who hadbeen chosen from the spectators a fewminutes before the race began. Othersports were included on the official
programme but had little future there:cricket, croquet and even fishing in theSeine.
Some famous names stand out in Paris.Alvin Kraenzlein of the United Stateswon four individual events (the 60metres, the 110 and 200 metres hurdlesand the long jump), a feat which hasnever been equalled since. Ray C. Ewry,his fellow countryman, won three goldmedals in the standing high jump, longjump and triple jump, in spite of the factthat as a child he had been paralysed inthe legs. Ewry carried off three moremedals at the Games in St Louis in 1904and two in London in 1908. Altogether,the US competitors took home seventeenof the twenty-three titles.
The cycling events wereheld at the Parc desPrinces velodrome. In thebackground is a giantballoon, one of theattractions at the UniversalExhibition. For theorganisers of the ParisGames, the sporting eventswere always subsidiary tothe great spectacle of theExhibition.
The American athlete AlvinKraenzlein, the only personto win four gold medals inindividual athletics eventsat the same Games (60 m,110 and 200 m hurdles andlong jump).
While running in theMarathon, the Frenchathlete Émile Championdrinks from a bottle offeredby a following cyclist.
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Two participants in the golfcompetition finishing theirround. Eleven women tookpart in the Paris Games,although not officially.
The shooting competition.Many of the participantswere professional soldiers.At these second OlympicGames, no attention at allwas paid to the amateur orprofessional status of thecompetitors.
After Paris, Coubertin retired toLausanne to prepare the next Games ingreater calm and with fewer pressures.He had fought hard for the Games tochange venue in the face of oppositionfrom the Greek members, who wanted tokeep them in their country.
The American athlete RayC. Ewry was a legendaryfigure in early twentiethcentury sport: in the Gamesof 1900, 1904 and 1908 hewon eight gold medals forthe standing start jump.The achievement wasespecially remarkableconsidering Ewry had hadpolio as a child.
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There was no poster for theSt Louis Games either and,as at Paris, they coincidedwith the staging of aUniversal Exhibition in thesame city. The programmecover, reproduced here, wentagainst the trends of theday by deliberatelyadvertising the Exhibitionrather than providing asimple decorative addition.
St Louis 1904(III Olympiad)
In 1904 the Olympic Games crossed theAtlantic for the first time. Coubertin,who was now president of the IOC,wanted to hold each Games in adifferent part of the world and his wishcame true. In spite of the signs of crisisin the Olympic movement which wereapparent after the Paris Games, thefour-yearly event was duly held again,this time in St Louis. Chicago had alsobeen a candidate to host the Games, butthe president, Theodore Roosevelt,intervened to secure the nomination forthe city on the Mississippi.
The situation in St Louis was practicallya re-run of Paris. The Games coincidedwith the World Fair held tocommemorate the centenary of Louisianajoining the United States. Once again thecompetition calendar spanned a longperiod, from 1 July to 23 November.And just as in Paris four years before,there was no opening ceremony.
The distance from Europe also meant aconsiderable drop in the number of
participants: only 554 from 12 countriesentered. The only European countries toattend were Germany, Great Britain(with just one representative), Greece,Hungary and Norway. In many eventsthe only competitors were athletes fromAmerican universities and sports clubs.Nor was there any unifying criterion formeasuring scores. Whilst the metricsystem was used for the athletics events,other competitions used yards, feet andinches.
There were 15 sports on the officialprogramme. The St Louis Games broughtin basketball roque and lacrosse asexhibition sports and boxing andwrestling became official for the firsttime. However, there were no yachtingevents. Innovations were introduced intomany Olympic sports. In athletics it wasdecided to include a combined event-the direct ancestor of the decathlon-and the 56 pound weight throw event,which was only to be held once more, in1920. The team event was brought back
The Universal Exhibitionovershadowed the St LouisGames. The two events weremixed even on the winners'medals, as demonstrated bythe two sides of this bronzemedal.
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in gymnastics and more modes wereintroduced into fencing.
The hero of this encounter was ArchibaldHahn of the USA, known as "theMilwaukee Meteor". He won three goldmedals in the 60, 100 and 200 metres,with a time of 21.6 seconds in the last,an Olympic record which was not brokenfor twenty-eight years. The Marathon wasmarred by the scandal provoked by FredLorz. also of the USA. Having beenacclaimed victor and congratulated by noless a person than Alice Roosevelt, thedaughter of the president, it wasdiscovered that he had done part of theroute by car. The real winner, ThomasHicks, another American, reached thefinishing line in a state of intoxicationdue to the brandy and strychnine whichhe had been consuming along the way.
Another winner at the St Louis Gameswas James Lightbody, a middle distancerunner. He was the victor in the 800 and1500 metres and in the 2500 metres
steeplechase. Harry Hillman won the 400metres and the 200 and 400 metreshurdles, the latter with a time of 53seconds, a new world record. It was notmade official, however, as the athleteknocked over the last hurdle; at the time,this meant that the record could not berecognised. It should be pointed out thatthe hurdles were then 76 centimetreshigh, as opposed to 90 today.
The small group of European competitorsshone in the form of the Germanswimming team, who won three goldmedals. The only medallists in theathletics events who were not from theUnited States were Thomas Kiely ofIreland in the combined event and theCanadian Etienne Desmarteau in the 56pound weight throw.
The shot put was won by Ralph Rose, agiant weighing 115 kilograms, who threw adistance of 14.8 metres. Rose won thegold medal again at the London Games in1908 and a silver at Stockholm in 1912.
The American athlete RalphRose beat his compatriotsto take the gold medal forthe shot put. Rose,nicknamed "ElephantBaby" because of his babyface and sturdy build,dominated this event at the1904, 1908 and 1912Games. His career wasbrought to an untimely endby his death in 1913 at theage of only twenty-eight.
Harry Hillman of theUnited States, who took thegold medal in the 400 mand the 400 m hurdles.
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The Marathon wassurrounded by controversy.The first runner to crossthe finishing line, FredLorz of the United States,had covered part of thecourse by car. When thefraud was discovered, themedal went to the athletewho had come second,Thomas Hicks (in thephotograph), also of theUnited States.
The German swimmer EmilRausch, winner of the mileand 880 yards freestyle,was one of the fewnon-American swimmers towin a gold medal.
So-called AnthropologicalDays were held during theSt Louis Games. Thesewere parallel events fornon-white competitors,outside the officialcompetitions. The protestsof some Olympic leaderswere not enough to stopthese events from being held.
At the St Louis Games, however, theOlympic spirit was dimmed by thecelebration of the Anthropology Days, aseries of events off the programmereserved for athletes of all races exceptthe white. The participants were pygmies,Ainu from Japan, Patagonians, Turks,Philipinos and Sioux Indians, some ofwhom worked on the stalls at theExhibition. The protests of the IOC, ofCoubertin himself (although he did notattend the Games) and some journalistswere unable to prevent these events fromtaking place.
Nevertheless, the press paid littleattention to the Games of the IIIOlympiad. The reporters had their eyesglued to the Russo-Japanese conflictwhich was then monopolising theheadlines in all the newspapers.
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The organisation of theLondon Games was farmore thorough thanprevious editions, andmeant a great step forwardin the development of theOlympics. The programmecover features the name ofthe Shepherd's BushOlympic stadium, the sceneof most of the competitionsand the first to be builtspecially for the Games.
London 1908(IV Olympiad)
The 1908 Olympic Games were to havebeen held in Rome, but the eruption ofVesuvius, serious economic problems andthe resentment of other cities, such asMilan and Turin, drove the Italiancapital to withdraw 2 years before theGames. In spite of the lack of time,which almost led to the postponement ofthe Games, London offered to be a lastminute candidate.
Great Britain had been the cradle ofmodern sport. It had drafted most of therules, had launched distinguishedsportsmen and women onto the worldscene, created a large number ofinternational federations and had thebest facilities of the day. Everythingsuggested that these Games would besplendid and, indeed, their arrival inLondon was of great benefit to theOlympic movement. Links were forgedbetween the IOC and the emergingnational Olympic committees (NOC) andthe international federations of the sportson the Olympic programme.
The London Games, which opened on 27April 1908 and closed on 31 October,brought about a crucial change in thenature of the Olympics. For the firsttime a stadium was built specially for theGames with a concrete track for cycling.A swimming pool and a diving towerwere built nearby. The stadium was theWhite City in Shepherd's Bush, a suburbin west London.
The London Games were notable fortheir meticulous organisation. For thefirst time the teams and competitorswere representatives of countries and notof clubs or just individuals. The paradeof countries at the beginning of theopening ceremony was introduced. Onefeature of most of the events at thestadium was the rivalry between GreatBritain and the United States.
The number of competitors alsoincreased substantially: 2,034 from 22countries. There were 21 sports on theprogramme, which was far more
Originally, the Games ofthe IV Olympiad had beenawarded to Rome, but in1906, during thePan-Hellenic Games inAthens (intended, in part,to erase the bad memory ofthe St Louis competitions),the Italian organisersrenounced their claim tothem. The IOC turned toLondon, and the Britishcapital was designated hostcity for the Olympic Gamesat the last moment. Thanksto the long British traditionof organising sportingevents, the London Gameswere a great success,providing the definitivespirit in which the Gamesshould be held. Shown hereare the two sides of thegold medals awarded at theGames.
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coherent, and the venues were closetogether. These were also the first Gamesat which women took part in an officialcapacity.
There was some debate about whichsports should be included. Athletics,swimming, boxing, fencing, gymnastics,rowing, yachting and football wereretained. Others, such as tennis, archery,polo, rugby and motor canoe racesdisappeared after the Games in London,though some of them were to be revivedlater. Even equestrian sports, so Britishin their roots, were not held, while figureskating, the precursor of the WinterOlympic Games, hockey andGreco-Roman wrestling, made theirdebut. The women's event in archery,one of the few sports to admit womencompetitors, was won by Sybil "Queenie"Newell of Britain. Once again theMarathon was the centre of attention: theItalian Dorando Pietri ran the last lap atthe White City stumbling and staggering;some of the judges stepped forward to
help him across the line, which provokedthe United States, whose runner JohnHayes came second, to challenge theresult; they succeeded in having himdisqualified. Nevertheless, QueenAlexandra awarded him a gold cup as aspecial distinction, unaware of the factthat the Italian runner had druggedhimself before the race with a strychninecompound. The Organising Committeeset the Marathon at 42 kilometres 195metres, the distance from Windsor Castleto the finishing line, which became theofficial figure from 1924 onwards.
There were many other remarkableincidents at the London Games. ForrestSmithson, who won the gold medal inthe 110 metres hurdles, ran with a biblein his hand as a protest against theholding of competitions on Sunday.Reginald Walker, a last-minute additionto the South African team, won the 100metres. The final of the 400 metres wassomewhat lacking in sporting appeal: itwas won by the English runner,
Many of the athleticsevents which were held inLondon were still notorganised in accordancewith modern rules. Thephotograph shows someathletes negotiating thewater jump in thesteeplechase, which was runover a distance of 3200 m.
The rowing events were heldon the Thames at Henley,and they attracted largecrowds. This river had beenthe scene of the traditionalOxford versus Cambridgeboat race since 1829.
The women's archerycompetition, in which onlyBritish archers took part,was won by Sybil"Queenie" Newall. Thewomen -36 in all- weretaking part officially in theOlympic Games for thefirst time, albeit only intennis, archery and figureskating.
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Figure skating was one ofthe demonstration sports.
The Italian runnerDorando Pietri, on thepoint of collapse, finishedfirst in the Marathon, yetthe help he received fromofficials a few momentsbefore crossing the line ledto his being disqualified.Queen Alexandra, however,rewarded him for his effortswith a cup.
The French cyclistsMaurice Schilles and AndréAuffray, winners of the2000 m tandem race, whichwas removed from theOlympic programme afterthe 1972 Games.
Wyndham Halswelle, literally on his own:the final was a repeat of the day beforewhen Carpenter of the USA had blockedhim several times during the race. WhenCarpenter was disqualified, two of hisfellow countrymen, Robbins and Taylor,failed to turn up for the re-run and soHalswelle ran in solitary splendour. Themiddle distance specialist Mel Sheppardwon the 800 and 1500 metres. Therewere more British triumphs in rowing,water polo and swimming; Henry Taylordistinguished himself in the 400 and1500 metres freestyle.
On balance the London Games were atremendous success. The Olympic ideahad taken shape. The IOC was morethan satisfied and a brilliant future waspredicted for the Games. At a mass heldat St Paul's Cathedral as a prelude to theopening, the archbishop of Pennsylvaniaspoke the most famous words of theOlympic Movement: " The importantthing in the Olympic Games is notwinning but taking part".
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This is the first realOlympic poster. It is by theSwedish artist OlleHjortzberg (1872-1959), ateacher at the RoyalAcademy of Fine Arts inStockholm, of which hebecame director. The postercaused something of a stir,as it was considered a littletoo daring. Hjortzberg'sposter is an excellentexample of the early periodof this artistic genre (atwhich painters such asToulouse-Lautrec hadexcelled), and which wasbeginning to be widely usedfor advertising purposes.
Stockholm 1912(V Olympiad)
The Games of the V Olympiad were heldin Stockholm from 5 May to 22 July1912. A century and a half before,Sweden and other Scandinavian countrieshad started a gymnastics movementwhich had made a considerable impactand this helped the Swedes win theconfidence of the IOC in their ability toorganise the Games of 1912.
Important technical innovations wereintroduced in Stockholm and theregulations established by the IOC wereobserved far more scrupulously. It wasthe first time that electric time-keepingand the photofinish were used. Thequality of the tracks and teams wasrising steadily and this was reflected inthe improvement in the times and scores.
Stockholm also had a stadium builtspecially for the Games, the Djungarden,which still stands today. It was raised onthe grounds of the royal zoologicalgardens, donated by King Gustav V, whoopened the Games. It was built in
reddish stone in a very Scandinavianarchitectural style and held 30,000 people.
The Stockholm Games were a success inevery way. The number of athletes takingpart was higher than at earlier OlympicGames: 28 countries from the fivecontinents -among them a newcomer,Japan- sent a total of 2,504 competitors,including 57 women. The organisersexcluded boxing from the officialprogramme and introduced women'sevents in the swimming competition.
Moreover, the Games made a profit forthe host city and the Swedes won mostof the medals. In Stockholm the IOCauthorised the participation of teamsfrom Finland and Bohemia, although theGrand Duchy was still subject to Russiaand Bohemia was part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire.
Among the outstanding performers werethe American Indian Jim Thorpe, whosetribal name was Wa-Tho-Huck (Shining
No commemorative stampswere issued for theStockholm Games. Instead,they produced an officialpostcard with the words"Stockholm OlympicGames 1912" and apromotional postmark.Shown here are the twosides of one of thetwenty-six gold medalsawarded at the Games.
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Path): he won the pentathlon anddecathlon -both newly introduced- withgreat authority. Nevertheless, thefollowing year the Amateur AthleticUnion informed the IOC that Thorpehad been a professional baseball playerand he was obliged to return his medals.His rivals, it should be said, refused toaccept them. In 1982, nineteen yearsafter his death, the IOC decided toreinstate him and restore the medals tohis heirs. Thorpe's feats wereimmortalised in the film Man of Bronze,directed by Michael Curtiz with BurtLancaster in the leading role. Thorpe'scountryman, Avery Brundage, futurepresident of the IOC and a champion ofamateurism, also competed in thepentathlon.
One of the three Finnish Kolehmainenbrothers, Hannes "the Strong", won the5000 and 10000 metres, the 3000 metreteam event and the cross-country. TheHawaiian "Duke" Kahanamoku, the kingof the crawl, made his entry in the
swimming events. In Greco-Romanwrestling, which had made its debut inLondon, a curious episode took place:two wrestlers, the Estonian Martin Kleinand the Finn Alfred Asikainen fought atrue battle of the Titans in one of thesemi-finals, which lasted eleven hourswithout a break. In the end Asikainensuccumbed, but Klein was too exhaustedto fight in the final.
The Marathon was back in the headlinesin Stockholm, as the Portuguese runnerFrancisco Lázaro, unable to endure thefierce heat, collapsed and died -the firstdeath in a modern Olympic Games. Atribute was organised at the OlympicStadium to collect money for theathlete's family.
Pierre de Coubertin sought the union ofsport and culture and with that aim heinaugurated competitions in music,painting and poetry inspired by sport.These were the forerunners of what wasto be the Olympic Arts Festival, held at
The American athlete PlattAdams in the standing startlong jump, in which he wonthe silver medal. AfterStockholm this type ofjump was dropped from theOlympic programme.
The semi-final of themiddleweight Greco-Romanwrestling competitionbetween Martin Klein, anEstonian member of theRussian team, and AlfredAsikainen, of Finland. Thematch was won by Kleinafter eleven hours, but hewas so exhausted that hedeclined to take part in thefinal. Hence, the goldmedal went to the Swedishwrestler Claes Johanson.
Avery Brundage, of theUnited States, who was tobe president of the IOCfrom 1952 to 1972.Brundage took part in thedecathlon, alongside hiscompatriot Jim Thorpe, oneof the heroes of theStockholm Games.
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Judges at the finish line inthe Olympic stadium.Electronic chronometersand the photo-finish systemwere used for the first timeat Stockholm. Until then,times had been measuredmanually. The Gamesprovided an important boostfor the use of technology insport.
The British women'sswimming team won thegold medal in the 4 x 100m freestyle. This was thefirst time that women hadtaken part in the swimmingcompetition. Coubertin wasnot keen on women takingpart in the Olympic Games.
The Swedish shooting teamin action.
the same time as the Games. Curiouslyenough, the winner of the two poetryprizes was Baron de Coubertin himself,who had entered under a pseudonym. Inpainting, the first prize went to GiovanniPellegrini for his oil Winter Sports; inmusic the gold was won by RiccardoBarthelemy for his composition OlympicTriumphal March.
The Stockholm Games marked theconsolidation of the modern Olympics.The technical foundations which werelaid have survived to our time. At theseGames the International AmateurAthletics Foundation (IAAF) wasconstituted, with a strict code whichmade it possible to judge and classifyathletes.
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The First World Warmeant that the Games werenot held again until 1920in Antwerp (Belgium). Theywere promoted by a posterby the Belgian artistsMarth van Kuyck andWalger van der Ven, whichis based on the samethematic elements as theposter for the 1912 Games:the naked athlete and thebillowing flags. The effectis less audacious, however,and the poster did notprovoke the samecontroversy as at theStockholm Games.
Antwerp 1920(VII Olympiad)
Eight years had gone by since Stockholm,as the Games planned for Berlin had tobe suspended because of the First WorldWar. Antwerp, which had already been acandidate in 1914, was nominated tohost the Games in 1920 in recognition ofthe suffering of the city during theconflict. Because of the recent war, theIOC did not invite Germany, Bulgaria,Hungary, Austria or Turkey, the nationswhich had instigated hostilities and theirallies. Russia did not take part either andwas not to do so again until 1952 as "theUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics.
As the country's economy had beenbadly damaged by the war, the AntwerpGames ran into severe financialproblems, in spite of the decisiveintervention of King Albert I and thesupport of private patrons who madecash contributions. To ensure that asmany athletes as possible took part, thecompetitors were given special facilities,but the spectators were charged highprices. No more than 6,000 peopleattended any of the events. Many
sportsmen were unable to competebecause they were still enlisted in armies,which reduced the number of records,well below the previous Games
At the Antwerp Games the Olympic flagand oath were first introduced. The ideaof Coubertin, the five coloured ringssymbolising the five continentsinterlinked on a white backgroundrepresented the peace which governed theOlympic ideals. The honour of swearingthe first oath fell to the Belgian poloplayer and fencer Victor Boin, futurepresident of the Olympic Committee ofhis country and of the InternationalSporting Press Association. This historicoath was sworn on behalf of 2,591athletes from 29 countries. Anotherinnovation at Antwerp was the releasingof thousands of white doves at theopening ceremony as a symbol of peaceamong nations.
Weightlifting, boxing and freestylewrestling became permanent features ofthe programme in the Belgian city and
Three stamps were issuedfor the Games of the VII
Olympiad. As in Athens in1896, various ancient Greekelements were used, such asMyron's Discobolos (2) forthe 5 centime stamp and avictorious chariot (3), forthe 10 centime stamp. Thefinely-engraved gold medal(4), shows an athlete withthe winner's crown and palm.
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several rather strange events, such astug-of-war and swimming with hurdles,were eliminated.
Finland provided the big surprise of theGames. Still exhausted by the war it hadfought to win its independence, thecountry carried off fifteen medals. Twoof their great athletes were the longdistance runners Hannes Kolehmainen,who won the Marathon and had takenpart in Stockholm and London, andPaavo Nurmi, "the human stopwatch",who won the 10000 metres. Anothernotable achievement was that of EthelBleibtrey, the swimmer from the USA,who won three gold medals. Among theother outstanding figures of the Gameswere Philip Noel-Baker of England,runner-up in the 1500 metres, who wasto win the Nobel Peace Prize forty yearslater, and John Kelly, who had beenbarred from the Henley regatta becausethe rules only allowed "gentlemen", asamateurs were called, to take part. Hewas proclaimed Olympic champion in
single and double sculls. His son Johnwas also to become an Olympic athleteand, years later, president of the USOlympic Committee, while his daughterGrace became princess of Monaco.
The American runners dominated thesprint events, particularly CharleyPaddock, who was famous for hisunorthodox leap just before crossing thefinishing line. The Hawaiian "Duke"Kahanamoku was still speed king in theswimming pool, just as he had been atearlier Games.
The Antwerp Games were also the sceneof Spain's official debut. The footballand polo teams won silver medals anddelegations were also sent to compete inswimming, shooting, athletics and tennis.
Two of the most importantsymbols of the OlympicGames-the flag with thefive rings and the Olympicoath- were introduced atAntwerp. The first Olympicoath was spoken by theBelgian fencer andwater-polo player VictorBoin, who was later tobecome president of hiscountry's OlympicCommittee.
Suzanne Lenglen, ofFrance, one of the besttennis-players of her time,won three medals at theAntwerp Games, two goldsin the singles and mixeddoubles and a bronze medalin the women's doubles.
Paavo Nurmi, "the HumanStopwatch", becamelegendary in long-distanceraces in the twenties.Antwerp was the beginningof a sensational series ofvictories and second placeswhich brought him ninegold medals and three silvermedals in three consecutiveGames.
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Patrick Ryan of the UnitedStates won the hammerevent.
The British team-consistingentirely of policemen-beatthe United States in thetug-of-war. This was thelast time this curious eventappeared at the OlympicGames.
At a time when peace seemed to havereturned to Europe, the OlympicMovement left Antwerp with excellentprospects for the future, far greater thanCoubertin had imagined in 1916.
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The poster for the 1924Paris Games was selectedafter a competition held bythe French Committee, forwhich there were 150entries. The winner was theFrench artist Jean Droit(1884-1961). The Games ofthe VIII Olympiad wereheld in the French capitalat the express wish of theBaron de Coubertin, whowanted to efface thememory of the somewhatunsuccessful 1900 Gamesbefore he retired from thepresidency of the IOC.
Paris 1924(VIII Olympiad)
In 1924, for the first time, the Gamesreturned to a former venue. Coubertin'swish was for the French city to wipe outthe bad memories of the II Olympiad,which it managed to do, though notwithout difficulty. Only one year before,no agreements had been reached and nobudget drafted; the possibility that theGames might be transferred to LosAngeles drove the president to concedethe credit for the Olympic stadium at theeleventh hour.
The Paris Games marked a majorincrease in participation: 44 countriesand 3,075 athletes, of whom 136 werewomen. There were competitions in 17sports. Many countries were now anxiousto take part in a competition which hadbecome a-fully-fledged event on theinternational calendar and had inspiredother similar, but more local,championships, such as the LatinAmerican or the Far Eastern Games. Inspite of the winds of peace that wereblowing through Europe, Germany wasstill excluded.
On 5 July the president of France,Gaston Doumergue, opened the firstGames to adopt the slogan "Citius,altius, fortius". Some competitions hadalready started early in May. The officialprogramme was modified as the Gameswent along: events which had been heldbefore were excluded and the rules ofothers were modified. The 3000 metresand the 56 pound weight throw wereeliminated from the programme, tennisdisappeared until 1988 and the numberof events in gymnastics and swimmingwere increased.
The Paris Games were the first to havean Olympic Village for the athletes.Coubertin thus achieved one of hisideals: for sportsmen and women to livetogether in pursuit of the solidarity andmutual awareness which the Olympicmovement hoped to foster. Furthermore,the Games began to be a motive formajor town planning activities in thehost city. Paris built the Colombesstadium on land ceded by the RacingClub de France. The swimming
To commemorate thesecond Games to be held inParis, France issued fourOlympic stamps, includingthe 30 centimes (2),showing Milon of Croton, afamous ancient Greekwrestler, and the 10centimes (3), which shows avictorious athlete saluting.Uruguay also issued threestamps, showing the Victoryof Samothrace (4), tocommemorate their team'striumph in the footballcompetition at the Games.The gold medal features anathlete aiding a companionon one side and anallegorical motif on theother.
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competitions took place in an Olympicpool specially built for the occasion, LesTourelles. Technology was also a feature:the Games were broadcast for the firsttime by radio, a recent invention, whichallowed people all over the world to havethe results of the sporting events as theyhappened every day.
One of the outstanding performers wasJohnny Weissmuller, who won three goldmedals for swimming and became thefirst man to swim the 100 metresfreestyle in under a minute. He was laterto become famous in the cinema asTarzan. But once again the Finn PaavoNurmi was the star of the Games. Heachieved a feat which has never beenequalled, to win five of the hardestevents in athletics in seven days: the1500 metres, the 5000 metres, the 10000metres cross-country, the 3000 metresteam event and the 10000 metrescross-country team event. Hisfellow-countryman Ville Ritola won thegold medal in the 3000 metres
steeplechase, the 10000 metres, the 3000metres team race and the 10000 metrescross-country team event. Some teamsports sprung a few surprises: the USrugby team beat the powerful Frenchfifteen and in football an unknown team,Uruguay, defeated Switzerland in the final.
The 1924 Games were recalled in thefilm Chariots of Fire, which tells thestory of the open rivalry between theScot Eric H. Liddell and the EnglishmanHarold M. Abrahams. The former, whowas a theology student, refused to runhis speciality, the 100 metres, on aSunday. Abrahams ran in his place andwon the gold medal from the Americanfavourites. Nevertheless, Liddell ran the400 metres, the race which in theory histeam-mate should have run.
The Paris Games continued theexperiment of 1912 and integrated artand sport: many outstanding literaryfigures, painters and musicians of theday went to Paris.
The 1924 Games were thefirst for which a Villagewas built to accommodatethe athletes, constructedfrom prefabricated woodenunits. Paris also saw theadoption of the Olympicmotto: "Citius, altius,fortius".
The American swimmerJohnny Weissmullershaking hands with anothergreat swimmer, theHawaiian DukeKahanamoku. Weissmuller-later to become famous inthe role of Tarzan- won the100 m freestyle. Two yearsearlier, in 1922, he hadbeaten the world record forthis event, with the firsttime under one minute.
The British athlete Eric H.Liddell won the 400 m witha new Olympic and worldrecord. Liddell'sparticipation in this eventinstead of his teammateHarold M. Abrahams, whocompeted in the 100 m, isdramatised in the filmChariots of Fire.
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The Austrian weightlifterFranz Aigner, silvermedallist in theheavyweight category,demonstrates his strengthby lifting 97 kg with onehand.
The British runner HaroldM. Abrahams was first,unexpectedly, in the 100 mfinal. Abrahams, who raninstead of Liddell, beat theAmerican Jackson Scholzand the New ZealanderArthur Porritt.
The gold medal-winningUruguayan football team.The Uruguayans, who beatthe Swiss in the final, alsowon the gold at thefollowing Games inAmsterdam.
The 1924 Games saw technicalimprovements in both athletes andvenues and the growing complexity ofthe organisation of an event of this kind.They were a resounding success in termsof attendance: over 625,000 spectatorsand 1.000 journalists went to see themlive. The increase in the number ofathletes taking part and in the number ofevents on the programme made itessential to strictly define the word"amateur". In fact some of the athletesin Paris had been paid as trainers orinstructors, though rarely as competitors.
The IOC Congress in Prague in 1925tackled the problem. It also elected thenew president Henri de Baillet-Latour.
Coubertin, now sixty-two years old, hadresigned from his post with theorganisation a year before. He had seenhis wish for a brilliant Games in thecapital of his country fulfilled, but heabandoned the presidency of the IOCsomewhat demoralised as he felt that the
Olympic Movement had lost its way."The common enemy is professionalism",he affirmed on his retirement.
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The poster for theAmsterdam Olympic Gamesby the Dutch artist JosephJohannes Rovers, born inUtrecht in 1893. In thedistance, behind the figureof the striving athlete, isthe tower of the stadium inthe Dutch capital where theOlympic flame burned forthe first time. Amsterdamrepresented theconsolidation of theOlympic Movement, whichhad spread sportthroughout the world.Athletes from Europe,America, Asia, Africa andOceania all won medalsthere.
Amsterdam 1928(IX Olympiad)
After two frustrated attempts,Amsterdam finally hosted the OlympicGames in 1928. It had been chosen atthe IOC Session in 1920, when the nexttwo Games were awarded to Paris andthe Dutch city.
The organisation of the Games ran intoserious difficulties. The Dutchgovernment refused to subsidise themand Queen Wilhelmina, who wasdecidedly lukewarm about the idea, evendeclined to preside over the opening.This situation was in marked contrast toprevious occasions when the royalfamilies had worked closely with theorganisers, fully convinced of the benefitsthe Games would bring to the country.The financial restrictions forced theorganising committee to carry out ahighly imaginative marketing programme.The US team arrived on board a shipwhich they also used as a hotel duringthe Games. The photography rights weresold to a commercial firm; as a result thespectators were searched for hidden
cameras, which was naturally anextremely unpopular measure.
The Amsterdam Games offered variousnovelties. For the first time the Olympicflame burned for the duration of theGames. The torch that lit it was broughtdirectly from Olympia overland.
A notable feature was the participationof 290 women. At last the InternationalOlympic Committee, which had a newpresident, allowed them to compete inthe athletics events. Coubertin hadalways been reluctant to allow women totake part in the Olympic Games. "TheGames", he pronounced, "must be asolemn, periodic exaltation of maleathletics, based on internationalism,loyalty as a method, art as a frameworkand the applause of women as a reward".The women's athletics events consisted of100 metres and 800 metres races, a4 x 100 metres relay, high jump anddiscus. The women athletes were sounaccustomed to running 800 metres
The Netherlands issued aset of eight stamps withdesigns representing variousOlympic sports, includingyachting (2), fencing (3)and equestrian sports (4).At Amsterdam the medaldesigned by the Florentineartist Cassioli was adoptedfor the first time, showingan allegorical figure (5).This design continued to beused in subsequent Games.
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-many of them arrived at the finishingline exhausted- that the eventdisappeared for twenty-five years.
For the first time, the organisers installeda large board to keep the spectatorsinformed of the results of the events, anecessary invention in view of thegrowing numbers of people attending andthe increase in the capacity of thestadiums. The athletes suffered from thelack of training and the fact that thetrack was only completed forty-eighthours before the opening ceremony.There was a tense incident at theceremony when the French delegationrefused to parade because the day beforean over zealous porter had barred theirway when they tried to visit the stadium.
There were less sports on the programmethan in Paris; polo, rugby, tennis andshooting had gone, but others, such ashockey, were back. 46 countries entereda total of 2,971 athletes. Among thecountries were Germany and Austria, for
the first time since the war. This made aconsiderable difference to the Games,with the Germans winning 31 medals.Some countries, such as Haiti, Cuba andPanama sent a single representative.
Paavo Nurmi continued to add to histriumphs by winning the 10000 metres.He had won nine gold and three silvermedals at three successive Games. Theswimmer Johnny Weissmuller won hislast Olympic medal at Amsterdam. TheUS athletics team was generally lesssuccessful than at earlier Games. One ofthe competitors in Amsterdam was oneof the most important sportsadministrators of the future, the Marquisof Exeter, Lord David Burghley, whowon the 400 metres hurdles; he was laterelected president of the IAAF and twicevice-president of the IOC.
The presence of new countries spread theOlympic glories around a little moreevenly. The Canadians arrived in forcein the sprint events and put an end to
An aerial view of theAmsterdam stadium duringthe opening ceremony of theGames of the IX Olympiad,which involved 2,971athletes - 290 of whomwere women- from 46different countries.
Lord Burghley, Marquess ofExeter, was the winner ofthe 400 m hurdles.Burghley, who was amember of the team whichcame second in the 4 x 400m relay in Los Angeles in1932, was twicevice-president of the IOC.
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In the cauldron of theAmsterdam stadium, theOlympic flame burnedthroughout the Games forthe first time.
At Amsterdam the ridersJosé Alvarez de las Asturias(in the photograph), JoséNavarro Morenés and JulioGarcía Fernández., all threeof them cavalry captains,were the first Spaniards towin a gold medal, whichcame in the equestrian teamjumping championships.
the domination of the United States. Infootball the South American teams hadentered their Golden Age: theUruguayans beat the Argentinians in thefinal. In hockey India began its reign,which was to last for six successiveOlympic Games. The Spanish delegationwon a gold medal in the team jumpingevent in the equestrian competition.
The start of the 10000 m.The first on the right isPaavo Nurmi (who won onegold and two silver medalsat these Games), on his lastOlympic appearance: theInternational AmateurAthletics Federation wouldnot let him compete at LosAngeles in 1932, claimingthat he was a professional.
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The poster for the LosAngeles Olympic Games isvery different both fromthose that preceded it andthose for later Games. Thevictorious athlete, or theathlete in the heat ofcompetition, is replaced bya gentler figure, with alaurel garland-symbol ofpeace- announcing theGames and pleading for anend to wars. The poster isby the Hungarian-bornAmerican artist JuliusKilenyi.
Los Angeles 1932(X Olympiad)
In 1932 the Games returned to America.Just as in St Louis, the distance fromEurope meant a considerable drop in thenumber of countries and athletesentering. Only 38 countries with 1,331competitors went to the Californian city.The number of official sports was kept at14 with 117 competitions.
There had been fears that the LosAngeles Games would not be held, as thestock market crash of 1929 was still veryrecent. However, the United States hadnow entered a phase of unstoppablerecovery. As in Paris in 1924, the LosAngeles Games were an attempt to wipeout the bad image left behind by theGames in St Louis in the III Olympiad.The Olympic Village was verycomfortable, with prefabricated chalets inthe colonial style. The organisersprovided the competitors with thingswhich had never been provided before:soap, towels, saunas, massages, a laundryand dry-cleaning service and a busservice. But the Olympic Village wasonly for men; the women wereaccommodated in hotels.
Massive publicity campaigns weremounted across the States to promote theGames. Over a million people went tosee the events live at a stadium, theColiseum, which seated 105,000. Thenautical stadium in Long Beach held17,000. All the facilities and installationsincorporated the technological advancesthat the sports required. The openingceremony, with 300 musicians and 150singers, set the standard for later Games.Remember that the Games of LosAngeles were the Games of the countryof the Hollywood stars, of stagecraft andshow business, of cinema as a form ofcommunication with tremendous impactand the radio with an ever-increasingaudience.
The guiding spirit of the Games was thebusinessman William May Garland. Hemanaged to secure the help ofindustrialists and politicians, who were inno doubt of the potential profits of theproject. At the end it was calculated thatthe Organising Committee had a surplusof one million dollars. These were the
The United States postalservice issued two stamps tocommemorate the 1932Olympic Games. The 5cents (2) shows Myron'sDiscobolos and the 3 cents(3) a runner in the startingposition. The design of theofficial medals (4) was thesame as that for theAmsterdam Games.
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first Games that produced such a highlevel of profit.
New technologies appeared in LosAngeles. The finishes of the competitionswere filmed, thus allowing the order ofcompetitors to be decided with nochance of error. This was also when thefamiliar three-level podium for themedals ceremony made its appearance.
Various anecdotes have survived fromLos Angeles. In the steeplechase thetime-keeping judges made a mistake inthe distance and the runners covered 460metres too many. When the mistake wasdiscovered, it was agreed that the placeswould be calculated from the correctdistance of the race: 3000 metres, whichaltered the second and third places: thesilver medal was given to JosephMcCluskey of the USA, but he refused iton the grounds that it belonged to theBritish runner Tom Evenson. In the 5000metres Ralph Hill, also of the USA,appeared to have been blocked by the
winner. Lauri Lehtinen of Finland, whichprovoked the crowd to an extremelyaudible protest. Once back in hiscountry. Lehtinen cut the gold medal intwo and sent half to Hill. There was alsocontroversy in the 100 metres: EddieTolan and Ralph Metcalfe, two blackrunners, broke the tape together. Therules were not clear in such a case andthe gold medal went to Tolan for thesole reason that as he was slimmer hewas considered to have crossed thefinishing line first. This was thebeginning of the domination of the sprintevents by black runners.
The home athletes took their revenge forAmsterdam. Their supremacy in theshort events was quite clear. A notablename was Mildred "Babe" Didrikson,who won the 80 metres hurdles and thejavelin and was runner-up in the highjump.
The Japanese, who had made their firstappearance at the 1912 Games, were the
A publicity shot from theLos Angeles Games of1932, typically American instyle.
The American runnerEdward Tolan won the 100and 200 m. Technicalresources were still verylimited, so it was difficultto establish whether he hadreally beaten his fellowcountryman Ralph Metcalfein the 100 m.
The Los Angeles OlympicVillage was built fromprefabricated colonial stylechalets.
The British athlete ThomasHampson took the goldmedal and broke the worldrecord in the 800 m.Behind him came theCanadians AlexanderWilson and Philip Edwards.
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Mildred Didrikson of theUnited States, nicknamedBabe, was only eighteenwhen she won the javelinand the 80 m and took thesilver in the high jump.
The Finn Lauri Lehtinenwon the 5000 m, beatingthe American Ralph Hill.Lehtinen later sent half thegold medal to Hill. TheFinnish athlete had beenaccused of obstructing theAmerican at the finish.
The Los Angeles Coliseumwas the scene of the firsttruly spectacular Games inthe history of the Olympics.The photograph shows the105,000 capacity stadiumfull to bursting on the day
of the opening ceremony.
victors in swimming, collecting five ofthe eight gold medals. The Americanswimmers saved face in the springboardand platform events and the 400 metresfreestyle, which was won by Clarence"Buster" Crabbe. the second cinemaTarzan. India won the hockey again andHungary the water polo. The winner ofthe Marathon was the Argentinian, JuanCarlos Zabala. The great name missingwas Paavo Nurmi. who had beendisqualified for professionalism.
The small Spanish delegation (oneyachtsman and five pistol shooters) wona bronze medal, that of Santiago Amatfrom Barcelona, in the Snowbird classafter seven regattas.
Los Angeles had organised a greatGames. The mild climate of Californiawas ideal and the facilities were firstrate, which helped to produce excellentfinal results: sixteen world records andover thirty Olympic records.
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The poster for the Games ofthe XI Olympiad was byFranz Würbel, born inBerlin in 1896. It shows aforeshortened view of thechariot which crowns theBrandenburg Gate, with alaurel-crowned athletebehind. The work expressesartistically both the colossalscale of the Games (whichhad not previously been afeature) and theorganisational rigour whichcharacterised them. In spiteof the sporting successeswhich were achieved there,in Berlin the delicatebalance between sport andpolitics was upset.
Berlin 1936(XI Olympiad)
The Games returned to Europe for theXI Olympiad. The 1936 Games in Berlinwere a turning point in the history of theOlympics; their colossal scale and thepolitical use that was made of them werenot entirely new, but under the Naziregime of Adolf Hitler they found theirfullest expression. It cannot be deniedthat the Germans' organisation wasperfect, but the National Socialistsymbols were all pervasive.
The opening ceremony was carried outwith full pomp and circumstance.Thousands of Germans hailed the Führerwith their arms raised in the Nazi salute.Two thousand doves were released andflew up towards the airship Hindenburg,which was flying over the stadium whilethe music of Wagner, conducted byRichard Strauss, accompanied the paradeof athletes. The official film of theGames, Olympia, directed by LeniRiefenstahl, was another cleardemonstration of the Nazi interpretationof this sporting event. After an idea ofCarl Diehm, secretary general of the
Organising Committee, the Olympicflame was brought from Olympia by aseries of athletes as if it were a baton ina kind of relay, over a total of 3,000kilometres through six countries.
The United States was on the point ofnot attending the Games because of thepressure brought to bear on the sportingauthorities by the Jewish community, butthe guarantees given to Avery Brundage,then president of the American AthleticUnion and future president of the IOC,by the German Chancellor finallyconvinced them. Nevertheless, in spite ofthe brutality of later events, in Berlin theOlympic spirit imposed itself on political,racial and religious discrimination. TheGermans included Jewish athletes intheir teams, such as the fencer HeleneMayer, who won the silver medal.
Other political events were stirring uptension on the international scene: Italyhad invaded and conquered Ethiopia;Japan had invaded Manchuria andresigned from the League of Nations;
At Berlin, not only was theOlympic Flame carried tothe stadium from Olympiaby runners, as it has eversince, but for the first timethe sacred flame wasritually lit. The torch (2)was conceived by theGerman Olympic executiveCarl Diem, inspired bydesigns on ancientceramics. It was designedby the artist Lemeke andmanufactured by Krupp.The German athlete FritzSchilgen was chosen tolight the cauldron (4).Eight stamps were issued tocommemorate the BerlinGames, and the four belowshow the javelin, thecarrying of the torch,fencing and rowing (3). Thedesign of the medals (5)was again the same.
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Greece was living through a tense period;Austria was threatened by Anschluss andChancellor Dolfuss had just beenassassinated; France was ruled by thePopular Front and Spain was on thebrink of a civil war which was to lastthree years.
Barcelona had presented its candidaturefor these Games. As they were given toBerlin, a People's Olympiad wasorganised in Barcelona, but was neverheld owing to General Franco's militaryrising against the government of theRepublic. There was therefore no Spanishdelegation at the Games of the XIOlympiad.
The Berlin Games broke all records ofparticipation, with 3,980 athletes and 49national delegations. The number ofsports was also increased to 19 with thesignificant incorporation of basketball,canoeing, football, handball and polo.
But the most important new element interms of the future was that in 1936television made its first appearance atthe Olympic Games, though with theresources available at the time thebroadcasts were confined to the city ofBerlin. In places specially prepared forthe purpose, thousands of spectatorsgathered to watch broadcasts of thesporting events filmed by cameras withtelephoto lenses.
The triumphs of Jesse Owens at theGames are famous; four gold medals inthe 100 and 200 metres, the 4 x 100metres relay and the long jump. Anothernotable competitor in Berlin wasMarjorie Gestring, also of the USA, whoat the age of thirteen was -and still is-the youngest person to win an Olympicmedal: a gold in the springboard divingevent. With a world record set by JackLovelock in the 1500 metres, NewZealand founded a tradition of successesin the middle distances. In women'sswimming Hendrika W. Mastenbroek of
For the first time, theOlympic Flame was broughtfrom Olympia to thestadium by relays ofathletes. Before beingcarried through Berlin-between ranks ofuniformed youths- it hadpassed through Athens,Thessaloníki, Sofia,Belgrade, Vienna andPrague.
Leni Riefensthal wascommissioned to make thefirst official film of theGames (The Triumph ofthe Will). In spite of thefilm's ideologicalconnotations, it is a greatwork of cinema.
The Latvian team comingout of the sports hall. Thiswas the last time that thisBaltic country was to takepart in the Olympic Gamesuntil their reappearance in1992.
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The Italian fencer FrancoRiccardi (on the left) beathis team-mate ValeriaRagno in the sabre final.Fencing has been part ofthe Olympic programmesince the first Games of themodern era.
The American athlete JamesCleveland "Jesse" Owens,at the start of the 200 mfinal. Owens, who won fourgold medals (100 and 200m, long jump and 4 x 100m relay), was the star ofthe Berlin Games.
Argentina defeated Britainin the polo final by aresounding 11-0. This wasthe last time this sport wasincluded in the OlympicGames.
The 1936 Games werebroadcast on television.However, the technologicallimitations of the timemeant that the broadcastscould be received only inthe German capital.
the Netherlands reigned supreme withthree gold medals. The Germans carriedoff most of the medals; they wereparticularly outstanding in rowing,equestrian sports and gymnastics. Sixteennew records were set in athletics.
Other records were broken at the BerlinGames. One million people watched theMarathon. Four and a half milliontickets were sold over the fifteen days ofthe competition. The spectators paid2,800,000 dollars at the turnstiles. Aspecial Olympic stadium with a capacityof 110,000 was built, as well as acomplex for the nautical events with20,000 seats. Dietetics, medicine,technique and even psychology enteredthe world of sport and opened up newfrontiers in all the disciplines.
The next host city for the Games was tohave been Tokyo in 1940. Once againBarcelona had presented its candidature,for the third time. But the Second WorldWar broke out and opened the second
parenthesis in the history of theOlympics, which was to last for twelveyears.
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The poster for the LondonGames of 1948 -which werecharacterised by post-warausterity- was by theBritish artist Walter Herz,born in 1909. It combinesthe five Olympic rings withtwo symbols chosen for theoccasion: Myron'sDiscobolos and the Housesof Parliament, one of theLondon's most famousbuildings. In spite of thedifficulties of the period,the organisation of theLondon Games wasimpeccable.
London 1948(XIV Olympiad)
In 1945 peace had finally returned toEurope. After the armistice the IOCratified the choice of London, which hadbeen appointed to organise the Games of1944 which never took place, to host theXIV Olympiad. As in Antwerp in 1920,the city chosen had been severelypunished by the war and once again acity was selected for the second time.The president of the IOC, Henri deBaillet-Latour, had also died during thewar. He was replaced by the SwedeSigfrid Edström, a former athlete andorganiser of the 1912 Games andvice-president of the IOC since 1931.
Once again the record for participationwas broken: 58 countries and 4,062sportsmen and women. London was in aprecarious position, busy with rebuilding;there was food and clothes rationing. Butin spite of these difficulties, the level oforganisation was very high.Unfortunately, this was not reflected inthe standards of the competition; Theaftermath of the war and post-war
shortages took their toll on the resultsand not one Olympic record was broken.
Both Germany and Japan were absentfrom the Games although Italy attended.Germany had no recognised committeeand Japan made no attempt to attend.The USSR was invited by the IOC, butdeclined. The new State of Israel tookpart with two athletes, but did notdisplay the star of David, as theOrganising Committee wanted to avoidaggravating the Arab-Israeli conflict.
The number of women was still rising:385 came to London to take part.Outstanding among them was FannyBlankers-Koen of the Netherlands who,at the age of thirty, won four goldmedals (100 and 200 metres, 80 metreshurdles and 4 x 100 metres relay).
There were some legendary names amongthe male competitors. In only his thirddecathlon Bob Mathias, aseventeen-year-old runner from
Two torches were used atLondon, one for the lastrunner and another lighterone; both were the sameshape (2). The cauldron atWembley stadium was moremodest than on previousoccasions (4). The torchtravelled 3,160 km and wascarried by 1,688 runners;for the first time, part ofthe journey was by sea(Corfu-Bari). Four stampsof different values wereissued to commemorate theLondon Games; the £1stamp shows the goddessVictory with an olive crownand a portrait of KingGeorge VI (3). The medals(5) bore the same design asthose for previous Games.
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California, won the gold medal andobliterated his rivals. Only themagnificent performance of the Czechlong-distance runner Emil Zatopek couldhold a candle to him. His tormentedstyle, the grimace of pain on his face, hisway of clutching his sides or doubling upas if under an unbearable weight whichmade it almost impossible for him tomove, had the spectators in constantagony. Zatopek won the gold medal inthe 10000 metres and the silver in the5000. Once again the king of the sprintswas a black athlete: Harrison Dillard ofthe United States.
The Spanish delegation in London wasmade up of one hundred athletes. Theywon another medal in the equestrianteam jumping events, a silver this time,with a team formed by Jaime GarcíaCruz, José Navarro Morenés, MarcelinoGavilán y Ponce de León.
The London Games were the Games ofausterity, only overcome by the sporting
spirit that has always moved the Britishand by the will to put a country back onits feet, taking advantage of the benefitsthat the Games might bring. RAF nissenhuts were used to accommodate the menwhile the women stayed in colleges. Foodwas provided by a daily air shuttle ofbasic necessities from the USA. TheItalians brought a ton of pasta asciutta.
On 29 July 1948, when theOlympic Flame enteredWembley stadium carriedby the British athlete JohnMark, the Olympic Gamesbegan again after the long,sad hiatus caused by theSecond World War.
The very young Americanathlete Bob Mathiasbecame one of theoutstanding figures of theLondon Games when hebecame Olympic decathlonchampion, well ahead of hisrivals.
The closing ceremony.Sigfrid Edström, presidentof the IOC, hands theOlympic flag to the mayorof Helsinki, who was tokeep it until the nextGames, held in the Finnishcapital in 1952.
The Dutch athlete FannyBlankers-Koen, in the finalof the 80 m hurdles (on thefar right of thephotograph.) At thirtyyears of age, she was one of
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the stars of the LondonGames. She took four goldmedals: the 100 m, the 80m hurdles, the 200 m andthe 4 x 100 m relay.
The Jamaican athleteArthur Wint carried off thegold medal for the 400 m.In spite of their success interms of participation, noimportant records were setat the London Games.
The Hungarian László Pappwas the first boxer to win agold medal in threeconsecutive Olympic Games(1948, 1952 and 1956)
Wembley Stadium was the main venuefor the competitions. The openingceremony was watched on television byhalf a million people. One of the athleteswho had fought in the war read theOlympic oath: his name was DonaldFinlay and he was a wing commander inthe RAF. The swimming competition washeld at the Empire Pool, which was builtby a private firm next to the Stadium.King George VI opened the gardens ofWindsor for the cycling events.
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The poster for the OlympicGames of Helsinki in 1952was the same as the onewhich had been issuedtwelve years earlier, for the1940 Games, which shouldhave been held in theFinnish capital. Thisaspiration was frustrated bythe outbreak of the SecondWorld War. The artist,Ilmari Sysimetsä (1912-1955) wanted to payhomage to a national hero,the great long-distancerunner Paavo Nurmi who,at the age of 55, carriedthe Olympic Flame into thestadium during the openingceremony.
Helsinki 1952(XV Olympiad)
The Helsinki Games symbolised the endof the antagonism left over from the war.Germany and Japan returned to theOlympic palaestra. The USSR sent itsfirst official delegation; the IOC hadrecognised its Olympic Committee in1951. The IOC also passed a motion inorder to allow both the People's Republicof China and Taiwan to attend. Only theformer actually went, not to return until1984.
In spite of the climate of the Cold War-the Korean War had broken out twoyears before- Finland prepared a Gamesdistinguished by meticulous organisationand the cordiality among everyoneinvolved: athletes, spectators andorganisers. The Finns demonstrated thatthe success of a Games does not dependon the grandiosity and luxury of thefacilities but on the atmosphere amongthe participants. This was clear in thefraternization between the Sovietcompetitors and the other delegations,although the Soviets were lodged, at their
own request, outside the OlympicVillage, well away from the Western teams.
Helsinki was the first city to have fourofficial languages, the IOC officiallanguages, French and English and thetwo languages of the host city, Swedishbeing a co-official language with Finnish.The organisers approached this aspect ofcommunication with great sensitivity.
The number of participants continued togrow and a new record for attendancewas set. The final figure was 5,867athletes. 518 of them women, and 69national Olympic committees. Themembers of the IOC still limited thenumber of sports according to theprinciples of Coubertin; on this occasionthere were 17.
If the last lap of the Olympic torch relayis customarily reserved for athletes ofparticular distinction, this time, asFinland was the host country, it had tobe Paavo Nurmi and Hannes
The Olympic torch (2) wasmade of silver alloy and thehandle was of birch-wood.Two sets of stamps wereissued for the HelsinkiGames, each of two values(3). For these Games,commemorative coins wereminted for the first time;there were two issues of thesame value (500 marks), insilver (4). The great Finnishathlete HannesKolehmainen lit thecauldron, amid theenthusiasm of the public(5). The medals bore thedesign which had by thenbecome traditional (6).
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Kolehmainen. The secret was kept untilthe last moment and when Nurmientered the stadium, the spectators wentwild. This national hero, who had beenprevented from taking part in the 1932
Games by the IOC for his supposedprofessionalism, had not been forgotten.Kolehmainen lit the flame in thecauldron which presided over theOlympic Stadium and it burned therefrom 19 July to 3 August.
Like all Olympic Games, Helsinki had itsheroes. Emil Zatopek, who was now alieutenant-colonel in the Czech army,came into full flower. He won three goldmedals and broke three Olympic records,in the 5000 and 10000 metres and theMarathon, an event in which he wasrunning for the first time. But there wasanother Zatopek among the Olympicchampions: his wife, Dana, who won thegold medal for the javelin on the sameday that her husband achieved victory inthe Marathon.
The Soviet athletes emerged from theirfirst Olympic Games with flying colours,winning twenty-two gold medals. The USathletes won fourteen victories in thetwenty-four athletics events and, as usual,they did well in swimming, basketballand rowing.
The outstanding performer in the men'ssprint events was Harrison Dillard, whowon two gold medals, one in the 110metres hurdles and the other in the 4 x100 metres relay. In the women's events,Marjorie Jackson from Australia wonboth the 100 and 200 metres. But in therelay race, when victory was within thegrasp of her team, the baton fell fromher hands. In the decathlon the winnerwas Bob Mathias, who had triumphed inLondon. After Helsinki he retired andwent into films. Joseph Barthel carriedoff the first gold medal for Luxembourgin the 1500 metres.
The Czechoslovakian athleteEmil Zatopek (on theright), in the final of the5000 m. This long-distancerunner became the hero ofHelsinki. He won the 5000and 10000 m and theMarathon. His torturedrunning style concealedgreat technical skill.
The Italian walkerGiuseppe Dordoni, winnerof the 50 km event, settinga new Olympic record. Hebeat the Czech JosefDolezal (silver) and theHungarian Antal Róka(bronze).
Marjorie Jackson, ofAustralia, who took thegold medal in the 200 m.In Helsinki a new recordwas set for the number ofwomen competitors: 518took part.
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The final of the 110 mhurdles. The winner of thisevent, Harrison Dillard ofthe United Stales, also wona gold medal in the 4 x100 m relay.
Joseph Barthel, ofLuxembourg, is first acrossthe finishing line, smiling,in the 1500 m. This wasLuxembourg's first evergold medal.
Undoubtedly the mostcurious incident at Helsinkiconcerned Gaston Boiteux,who did not take part inany event. He was thefather of the Frenchswimmer Jean Boiteux, thesurprise winner of the 400m freestyle. Without asecond thought, and stillwearing his beret, he leaptinto the water to be thefirst to congratulate thechampion.
A French swimmer, Jean Boiteux, wonthe gold medal in the 400 metresfreestyle, the first time for his country. Acurious scene took place in the final ofthe event: as Boiteux touched the wall ofthe pool with his last stroke, his fatherjumped into the water fully clothed,overcome by emotion, to be the first tocongratulate him. The Hungarianswimmer Eva Szekely was the goldmedallist in the 200 metres breaststroke;her style, arms above the level of thewater, which was perfectly legal at thetime, was the precursor of the butterfly.
There was a most unusual incident in theboxing competition: in the heavyweightfinal Hayes Edward Sanders of theUnited States beat the Swede IngmarJohansson, who was disqualified for "notgiving of his best". Johansson went on tohave a professional career and becomeworld heavyweight champion.
In cycling Jacques Anquetil of Francehad a disappointing run; he was later tohold the record for victories in the Tourde France. In fencing his fellowcountryman Christian d'Oriola won thegold medal in the individual and teamfoil events. The Spanish athlete AngelLeón won the silver medal in the freepistol event.
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The poster for theMelbourne Olympic Gamesin 1956 made a completebreak with those forprevious Games. Based on afusion of the five Olympicrings with the host city'scoat of arms, it was adeparture from thesymbolism which hadcharacterised the posters forprevious Games andfollowed the trend ofcontemporary graphicdesign, influenced byabstract painting. It wasdesigned by the Britishartist Richard Beck.
Melbourne 1956(XVI Olympiad)
It had seemed in Helsinki in 1952 thatthe political conflicts which had doggedthe Olympic movement were a thing ofthe past, but this was not the case at theXVI Olympiad. It was the first time thatthe Games had been held in theSouthern Hemisphere. Australia was acountry with a great Olympic tradition,which had decided the IOC to awardMelbourne the nomination. AnotherOlympic ring was to take up thechallenge. It should be said, however,that the city had won by just a few votesfrom Buenos Aires and that there hadbeen no European candidature.
The fifties were a thorny period ininternational politics. The Cold War wasapproaching a climax. The recentinvasion of Hungary by Soviet troopswas condemned by many Westerncountries, Spain, Holland andSwitzerland withdrawing from the Gamesin protest. Nor was that the onlyflashpoint: the Suez war had increasedinternational tension and China did notcome to Melbourne because of the
presence of a team from Taiwan. TheLebanon, Egypt and Iraq also boycottedthe Games, in their case because of theAnglo-French intervention in the SuezCanal dispute.
All in all 67 countries took part with3,342 athletes. As on other occasionswhen the Games took place outsideEurope, the number of participantsdropped perceptibly. The MelbourneGames marked the beginning of thesports rivalry between the Soviet Unionand the United States, which was thefocus of attention in many competitions.There were 17 sports on the officialprogramme in 1956.
The Games were held from 22November to 8 December -not July andAugust, as had become traditional-coinciding with the Australian spring,and there were two venues. The strictlaws governing quarantine imposed byAustralia meant that the equestrianevents had to be held in Stockholm. Theheroes in Sweden were the German
Two torches of the samedesign were used atMelbourne (2); the lighterof the two was used for therelays. To mark the Gamesof the XVI Olympiad a setof four stamps was issued,with Olympic motifs andviews of Melbourne (3).The cauldron at theOlympic stadium in theOlympic city, theMelbourne Cricket Ground(4), burned from 22November to 8 December1956. Captain Hans Wilke,of Sweden, lit the cauldron(5) in Stockholm, where theequestrian events were heldin June, because of the sixmonth quarantine imposedon horses enteringAustralia. There was aspecial poster for theequestrian competition (6).
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Hans-Günter Winkler, who rode with abroken rib, and the Italian brothers Pieroand Raimondo d'Inzeo, who dominatedthe Nations Grand Prix.
The athletics events were contested in avast stadium, the Melbourne cricketground, which held 110,000. TheOlympic Park swimming pool, builtspecially for the Olympic competition,was elegant and extremely comfortablefor the public, who had high hopes fortheir swimming team. The OlympicVillage consisted of 841 small huts witha very cosy atmosphere. This time all theathletes lived there, with no exceptions.
At the closing ceremony there was anovelty, the result of a suggestion by aChinese schoolboy: the sportsmen andwomen all paraded together, with nogrouping in teams and no flags. Thisinformal close has been incorporated intoall subsequent Games.
Among the outstanding figures of thoseGames was the Soviet long-distancerunner Vladimir Kuts, who won the 5000and 10000 metres, demonstrating thatSoviet athletics was alive and well. Twonotable figures from the US team werethe sprinter Robert Morrow in the 100and 200 metres and the 4 x 100 metresrelay and the pole-vaulter Bob Richards.The Marathon was won by AlainMimoun who, in the twilight of hissporting career, finally wrote his name inthe annals of the event after threesuccessive attempts at previous Games.
Romantic interest was provided byHarold Connolly of the USA and OlgaFikotova of Czechoslovakia, who fell inlove during the Games. He won the goldmedal in the hammer and she in thediscus. A year later, having overcomevarious political obstacles, they weremarried in Prague.
The Australian swimmers did notdisappoint their public and won five of
The Brazilian AdhemarFerreira da Silva, executingone of his spectacular triplejumps. He won the goldmedal in Melbourne, as hehad in Helsinki four yearsearlier.
The German riderHans-Günther Winklertook the gold medal in theindividual jumping event inStockholm, where theequestrian events were held,in spite of competing withan injury.
The Czech discus championOlga Fikotova, togetherwith the hammer championHarold Connolly of theUnited States, provided theromantic touch inMelbourne. One year afterthe Games they weremarried in Prague afterovercoming a variety ofpolitical obstacles.
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Bob Richards of the UnitedStates, training for the polevault in the MelbourneOlympic Village. Unlike inHelsinki, the Soviet athletesalso stayed in the village,in spite of seriousinternational politicaltensions.
Unquestionably one of theoutstanding figures atMelbourne was theUkrainian long-distancerunner Vladimir Kuts,winner of the 5000 and10000 m. His great rival,the British athlete GordonPirie (directly behind theSoviet athlete in thephotograph), took the silvermedal in the 5000 m.
The Indian team won thegold medal for hockey,beating Pakistan 1-0. Thecaptain of the winning teamsalutes the crowd from thepodium on 6 December 1956.
the seven finals in which they took part.Dawn Fraser won the women's 100metres freestyle; Murray Rose won themen's 400 and 1500 metres freestyle. Inthe 100 metres freestyle events theAustralians won all six medals.
The final of the water polo competitionbetween the USSR and Hungaryprovoked serious incidents in the pool.Vyacheslav Ivanov was outstanding inrowing, establishing a domination in thesculls that was to last for many years. Inhockey India finally met a rival of itsown calibre, neighbouring Pakistan.
The holding of the Games in thesouthern hemisphere and on a newcontinent was a great success for theOlympic Movement. The technicalimprovements in all the sports and therecords (eighteen Olympic records andtwo world records were broken) usheredin the new era of sport.
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Armando Testa, born inTurin in 1917, won thecompetition for the officialposter for the Rome Gamesin I960. Testa managed togive artistic expression toone of the main themes laiddown for the competition:the union between Olympicsport and Rome. It includesthe wolf of the Capitolinehill, which was the officialsymbol of the Games. Thesuccess of this poster canbe attributed to itssuggestion of the reunion ofthe two Romes: ancientRome, which saw theabolition of the ancientGames, and modern Rome,site of the Games of theXVII Olympiad in 1960.
Rome 1960(XVII Olympiad)
The city which had been the heart of anempire which was split in two whenTheodosius I abolished the OlympicGames of antiquity, prepared itself tohost the Games of the XVII Olympiad.There was a new record for the numberof countries entered (84) but notparticipants (5,396). The 610 womennow accounted for more than ten percent of the total. The Rome Games werethus a truly universal event, even moreso because of the hundred televisionnetworks which broadcast thecompetitions.
1,567 years after Theodosius' edict,Rome organised Games which wereartistically superb. Naples shared thehonours by hosting the yachtingcompetitions. Besides the MarmoriStadium with its imposing white statuesof the 60 sporting disciplines, the Italiancapital provided other competitionvenues: the Baths of Caracalla forgymnastics, the Basilica of Maxentius forwrestling. Lake Albano for rowing and anew sports palace for boxing. Before the
opening, 300,000 people gathered in StPeter's Square in the Vatican. Athletes,officials and spectators mingled with thepeople of Rome to listen to the speech ofwelcome by Pope John XXIII. At theopening ceremony all the bells of the citypealed when the president of theRepublic declared the Games open.
It is difficult to single out one man orwoman from the five thousand who tookpart; so many of them shone. Onenotable performance was by theEthiopian Abebe Bikila in the Marathon:he was the first to pass beneath the Archof Constantine after running the 42kilometres barefoot. That was thebeginning of African domination in thelong distance events. Wilma Rudolph ofthe United States, "the black gazelle",won the 100 and 200 metres and ran inthe victorious team in the 4 x 100metres relay. The greatness of thisachievement is even more striking if webear in mind that she had suffered frompolio as a little girl. The gold medal inthe men's long jump went to Ralph
The torch for Rome (2),conceived by ProfessorMaiure and his team at theNational ArchaeologicalMuseum in Naples, wasinspired by designs onancient ceramics. On theoccasion of the Games a setof stamps was issuedshowing the new sportsfacilities, ancient Romanmonuments (3) andclassical sculptures ofathletes (5). The officialmedal was the same as atprevious Games (4). Therewere no special coins, butcommemorative medalswere minted (6).
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Boston, also from the USA, who brokeJesse Owens' Olympic record. In themen's 100 metres Armin Hary ofGermany won the gold medal, bringing itback to Europe for the first time sinceParis in 1924.
Death carried off a competitor duringone event: the Danish cyclist KnudEnemark succumbed to the effect of thestimulants he had taken in the 100kilometre team time trial. Thisunfortunate incident led the organisers offuture Games to pay more attention todrug tests.
Explosive incidents were not lacking ineither sport or politics. The problem ofthe two Germanies loomed over allinternational forums. The IOC found anequitable solution, however. All theGerman athletes were integrated into asingle team with one uniform and oneflag, red and yellow with black edges,common to the two states, but with thefive Olympic rings in white in the centre.
The anthems of the two countries werereplaced by Beethoven's Ode to Joy. Thedifferences between the IOC and thenationalist China of Taiwan also becamepatent; the Olympic organisation obligedthem to parade under the name ofFormosa, despite the protests of theTaiwanese competitors. At the parade atthe opening ceremony they hung a noticebeneath the name Formosa which read"By imposition".
At the Rome Games a legend of the ringwas bom: Cassius Clay, who beat thePole Zbigniew Pietrzykowski in thelight-heavyweight final. In hockey theSpanish team managed to win a bronzemedal. Pakistan won the tournament,relegating India to second place. In oneof the swimming events the victory wasawarded to a swimmer who, when thefilm was shown, turned out not to havebeen the first to finish. Since thenelectronic time-keeping has becomestandard at all Olympic events. TheAustralians once again displayed theirsuperiority in this sport.
The Ethiopian athlete AbebeBikila runs barefootthrough the streets ofRome. After winning theMarathon it was discoveredthat it was only the thirdtime he had run thisdistance. In Tokyo, fouryears later, he repeated histriumph, but this timewearing running shoes.
The Soviet gymnast LarisaLatinina achieved greatsuccess in Rome, winningthree gold medals, twosilver and one bronze.During her career she wonnine gold medals, five silverand four bronze. The Sovietgymnasts dominated theRome games.
The South African team,without any black athletes,in the opening procession.It was to be the last timethis country took part inthe Olympic Games until itwas readmitted by the IOCin 1991.
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The Soviet sisters Tamaraand Irina Press. Tamara(right) came first in theshot put and second in thediscus; Irina won the 80 mhurdles.
Ralph Boston, of the UnitedStates, broke the Olympiclong jump record, beatingthe legendary jump by JesseOwens in Berlin.
As is usual with the host nation, Italyemerged with honour: thirteen medals inall. The Italian public entered fully intothe Olympic festivities. At the closingceremony, during the final parade, thecrowd lit matches and lighters, creating amost moving atmosphere.
Cassius Clay on thepodium after taking thelight heavyweight title.
Aerial view of the RomeOlympic stadium
The lithe and agile WilmaRudolph, the black gazelle,during a race.
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The many advancesavailable to sport in Tokyomade these Games the firstat which technology playeda major role. As far asarchitecture -and even townplanning- were concerned,the Japanese far surpassedwhat had been achieved atprevious Games. The simpleand straightforward officialposter for the TokyoGames, by UusakiKemejura, also reflects therenewal, modernisation andopening to the outsideworld which the TokyoGames implied for Japanesesociety.
Tokyo 1964(XVIII Olympiad)
Tokyo was meant to have organised theGames in 1940, the 26th centenary ofthe foundation of Japan, but hadwithdrawn because of the Sino-Japanesewar of 1936. In the end, those OlympicGames were never held because of theoutbreak of the Second World War.
With the organisation of the Games in1964, the Japanese did not want to letslip an opportunity of showing theWestern world the progress they hadmade since their defeat at the hands ofthe allied armies in 1945.
The Japanese city underwent a thoroughtransformation to host the Games of theXVIII Olympiad. The architect KenzoTange and his team designed an indoorswimming pool, a sports palace and ahall for judo, which were warmly praisedby the European and American visitors.One member of that team was a youngarchitect called Arata Isozaki, who waslater to be the designer of one of theemblematic buildings of the OlympicRing for the 1992 Barcelona Games: the
Palau Sant Jordi. The Olympic stadiumwas renovated and Tokyo provided aVillage for the journalists for the firsttime. The athletes' village was a modelof Japanese hospitality and style: smallchalets with gardens linked by broadpaths lined with flowers.
Once again the record for participationwas broken: 94 countries and 5,586athletes. New African nations joined theOlympic celebration. However there weretwo notable absences: South Africa,banned for its racist policy, and China,which refused to attend as long asTaiwan was still among the participants.The international situation was hardlyencouraging. China had just exploded itsfirst atom bomb and tensions betweenChina and the Soviet Union werespiralling. The missile crisis betweenCuba and the USA had flared up notlong before and war was breaking out inVietnam. Tokyo was to be the last timeuntil reunification that the twoGermanies would take part under asingle flag.
The torch for Tokyo (2),made of stainless steel, wasvery simple. YoshinoriSakai, nineteen years of ageand born in Hiroshima onthe day the atomic bombwas dropped, was chosen tolight the flame (3). Forthese Games special coinsof 100 and 1000 yen wereminted (4). Commemorativestamps were also issued (5).
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The most moving event at the TokyoGames was the entry into the stadiumduring the opening ceremony ofYoshinori Sakai, nineteen years old, whohad been born in Hiroshima on the daythat the city was destroyed by the atomicbomb. The gesture had a doublesignificance: Japan wished to show that ithad risen from the ashes and that itsought international reconciliation. Justbefore, a squadron of planes had drawnthe five Olympic rings in their colours inthe sky.
The Ethiopian Abebe Bikila won theMarathon for the second time; this time,however, wearing shoes. In the pole vaultthe fibreglass pole was used for the firsttime. The new technique had no effecton the supremacy of the United Statesand Fred Hansen won his country'sfifteenth consecutive victory in the event.
Peter Snell won the middle distances,800 and 1500 metres. As at theMelbourne Games, a new couple was
formed among the medal winners. AnnPacker, who won the gold in the 800metres, married her British team-mateRobbie Brightwell, who won a silvermedal in the 4 x 400 metres relay.
The most brilliant page was written bythe sprinter Bob Hayes from the USA. Inthe 100 metres he won the gold medaland set a new world record at 10 secondsflat. It should be remembered that inTokyo the event was run on a cindertrack and at sea level.
As usual there were some strangeincidents at the Games. The Sovietweightlifter Alexei Vakhonin celebratedhis victory in the 56 kilogram categorywith a display of strength: he lifted thebarbells while standing on one leg.Another outstanding figure was thediscus thrower Al Oerter, who won histhird gold medal in a row in spite ofhaving dislocated his neck. He was towin yet again in Mexico, thus retaining acrown that no-one else has ever been
The national stadium, thescene of the main events atthe Tokyo Olympic Games.
The Soviet high jumperValeri Brumel clears thebar at 2.18 m; this jumpwon him the gold medal.Brumel was the last greathigh jumper to use thebelly-flop technique.
Bob Hayes, of the UnitedStates, crosses the finishingline in the 4 x 100 m relay.Hayes also won the 100 m,with a time of 10.0seconds, thus equalling theworld record and setting anew Olympic record.
Final of the 1500 m. Thewinner of this event, theNew Zealander Peter Snell,also came first in the 800m.
The American pole vaulterFred Hansen broke therecord with a jump of 5.10m. Fibreglass poles wereused for the first time inthe Olympic Games.
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Dawn Fraser, of Australia,was the first woman toswim the 100 m freestyle inunder one minute. This washer third victory in thesame event at consecutiveOlympic Games.
The men's athletics inTokyo was dominated bythe United States, even inthe long-distance events. Asurprise came in the 10000m, when Billy Mills, aSioux Indian from SouthDakota, won unexpectedly.
The Dutchman AntoniusGeesink beat the JapaneseAkio Kaminaga in the judofinal. It was said that theresult caused a number ofsuicides in Japan.
able to keep for so long. In the highjump Valeri Brumel of the Soviet Unionwas the victor; he was the supremeexponent of the straddle style. A newstar rose in boxing: Joe Frazier. Thefights between him and Cassius Clayreached epic proportions in the seventies.In swimming Dawn Fraser won her thirdOlympic medal at the age oftwenty-seven in the 100 metres freestyle.And in under a minute. This was thefirst time that a woman had equalledJohnny Weissmuller's feat in 1922 andshe was the only woman swimmer tocarry off the prize for the same event atthree consecutive Games.
The Japanese met with a greatdisappointment in their national sport,judo. Undisputed masters of thediscipline, they saw their idol AkioKaminaga, the favourite in the opencategory, defeated by Antonius Geesinkof the Netherlands.
By the end the USSR had won thelargest number of medals. In second andthird places were the USA and Japan.But the most important thing was thatathletes from 42 countries won medals.
The Games were becoming trulyinternational in terms of results.
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The striking poster for theMexico Olympic Gameswas created by the presidentof the OrganisingCommittee of the Games,the Mexican architectPedro Ramirez Vázquez,Eduardo Terrazas, alsofrom Mexico, and theAmerican Lance Wyman.From the pop art school,the poster has another veryunusual characteristic: it issquare. The world wasgoing through a period ofupheaval and the Gameswere not lacking in incidenteither. Nevertheless, theorganisers managed toprovide a few originaltouches, notably in the fieldof visual communication.
Mexico City 1968(XIX Olympiad)
In 1968 the world was still racked byregional conflicts, whether wars orpolitical and social disturbances. It wasthe year of the assassination of MartinLuther King and Robert Kennedy. Soviettanks had entered Czechoslovakia andput an end to the Prague Spring. Francewas in turmoil with the workers' andstudents' movements in the famous Mayof 68. which inspired students aroundthe world. Ten days before the Games,on the orders of President Díaz Ordaz,the army brutally crushed ademonstration of thousands of studentsin the Plaza de las Tres Culturas inMexico City, causing thirty deathsaccording to official figures and overthree hundred according to eyewitnesses.
Mexico City had been chosen to host theGames at the IOC assembly inBaden-Baden in Germany in 1963, wherefor the first time each candidature waspresent with a promotional stand.
The question that was raised was whateffect the altitude (2,250 metres above
sea level) would have on performance. Infact, the height favoured short intensebursts of effort, under two minutes, whilemore sustained ones were more difficult.But the teams of the great powersmanaged to prepare well beforehand atvenues located at similar altitudes. Inspite of the fears, the Mexico CityGames closed with seventeen worldrecords and twenty-nine new Olympicrecords.
The Games opened on 12 October andclosed fifteen days later. The competitorsnumbered 6,626, of whom 781 werewomen, from 113 countries. Gendercontrols were carried out for the firsttime.
The Mexico City Games are alsoremembered for several notable events.The first was at the opening ceremonyitself, where Enriqueta Basilio was thefirst woman to light the Olympic flame.For the first time the two Germaniessent separate delegations. The mostimpressive sporting feat, without any
The Mexico torch (2)weighed 780 g andmeasured 52.3 cm. In 1965Mexico issued a set ofstamps devoted to the 1968Games, with pre-Columbianmotifs (3). A Mexicanathlete, Enriqueta Basilio,lit the flame in thecauldron (4); the firstwoman to do so. To markthe Games a special coinwas minted (5) and severalsets of stamps were issued;the 5 pesos (6) showed thelogos of the Olympic sports.
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doubt, was that of the athlete BobBeamon, who set a record of 8.90 metresin the long jump, which stood fortwenty-three years.
Another athlete from the States rousedthe Olympic Stadium with a jump, thistime the high jump. Dick Fosburycarried off the gold by jumping the barbackwards, head first and back parallelto the ground. A new style had beenborn and was baptised with the athlete'sname: the Fosbury flop. It was possiblethanks to the introduction of latex matsto break the fall. In the 100 metres JimHines won the gold medal with a time of9.95 seconds, a new Olympic record. AlOerter won the gold medal for the fourthtime in the same event: the discus. OnlyVictor Sanejev of the Soviet Union inthe triple jump, Gyula Zsivotsky ofHungary in the hammer and Janis Lusis,also of the Soviet Union, in the javelin,managed to break US domination in theathletics events.
The black athletes from the States werein the news for an act of racial defiancerather than for their performances. Atthe medals ceremony, Tommie Smithand John Carlos, gold and bronze medalwinners in the 200 metres, raised theirclenched fists in black gloves and bowedtheir heads when the national anthem oftheir country was played in an act ofprotest against the racial tension that wasprevalent in the United States. Theirattitude led to their expulsion from theOlympic Village. The sprinters in the 4 x400 metres relay also stood on thepodium wearing black berets and gavethe black power salute, but when theanthem was played they stood to attention.
The height favoured some of the Africanlong distance runners, who wereaccustomed to running in similarconditions. Naftali Temu from Kenyawon the 10000 metres. MohamedGammoudi from Tunisia won the gold inthe 5000 metres and the bronze in the10000 metres, while another Kenyan,Kip Keino, won gold medal in the 1500
This is doubtlessly thesporting moment of theMexico Olympic Games:Bob Beamon of the UnitedStates jumped 8.90 m inthe long jump. This recordwas not to be broken foranother twenty-three years.
At Mexico the Americanhigh-jumper Dick Fosburyintroduced a revolutionarystyle -which wasimmediately adopted by thegreat majority ofhigh-jumpers- with whichhe won the gold medal.
The black AmericansTommie Smith and JohnCarlos, first and third inthe 200 m, raise clenchedfists and lower their headson the podium while theAmerican national anthemis played: in this way theysought to protest before thewhole world about theracial tension which existedin the United States.
The Czech gymnast VeraCáslavská, "the sweetheartof Mexico", won four gold
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and two silver medals. Thatwas two months after theSoviet tanks had enteredPrague.
The Mexico OlympicGames were the fourth inwhich Al Oerter, the greatAmerican discus thrower,competed. Oerter achievedwhat had seemedimpossible: he won a fourthgold medal.
The altitude of Mexico City-2,250 m above sea level-was favourable to eventsinvolving quick bursts ofenergy, but a disadvantagefor those involvingsustained effort. Thisexplains the avalanche ofrecords -as someremarked- more appropriateto the twenty-first centurythan to the year 1968.
At 12.51 on 12 October1968, Enriqueta Basiliostrode into the Aztecstadium. The photographshows her climbing thesteps of the central tower tolight the flame in thecauldron.
and the silver in the 5000. In the 3000metres steeplechase the winner was also aKenyan, Amos Biwott, who two monthsearlier had not been aware that it was anobstacle race.
Colette Besson of France won the 400metres and Wyomia Tyus of the USAwon the gold medal in the 100 metresfor the second time, after Tokyo.
There were new events in the swimmingcompetition, four for men and six forwomen. The swimmers from the Statesonce again demonstrated their mastery inthe water. The Mexican public watchedone of their own sportsmen, FelipeMuñoz, "El Tibio", take his place on thepodium to collect the gold medal for the200 metres breaststroke.
Gymnastics consolidated its position asthe third most important Olympic sportin Mexico City. The Czech VeraCaslavska won four gold and two silvermedals, in spite of the competition fromthe Soviets, who completely ignored her
on the podium. That was two monthsafter the Prague Spring.
In the exhibition sports, Santana andOrantes dominated the singles in thetennis event, winning the gold and silvermedals, and were runners-up in thedoubles.
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Of the 2,333 entries for thecompetition for the officialposter for the Munich 1972Olympic Games, the winnerwas the one designed by theGerman graphic artist OtlH. Aicher, born in Ulm in1922. It is a work of greatformal refinement, whichplays with the transparencyof the suspended roof of theOlympic stadium and theadjacent buildings, and thesilhouette of thecommunications tower, inthe background.
Munich 1972(XX Olympiad)
The Bavarians used the old Munichairport, the Obenweissenfeld, to build theOlympic facilities. The silhouette of theOlympic Stadium with the translucentplastic suspended roof has passed intothe annals of the history of sportsarchitecture. The organisers built a sportshall and a swimming pool. An OlympicVillage for 12,000 athletes was builtaround the venues along with a presscentre for 4,000 journalists, equipped ingreat comfort and with unprecedenteddata-processing resources. The specialcorrespondents had a central computerwith sixty terminals to gather and orderthe data. Sixty television networksrelayed live pictures of the competitions,filmed by a hundred colour cameras.And the 7,894 athletes who entered from122 countries set a new record forparticipation.
The city lavished resources on theGames. They built a subway andextended the airport. Also, as was thecustom, they organised an interestingprogramme of artistic and cultural
events. Munich had the first Olympicmascot, Waldi the dachshund.
A week before the opening, the IOCdecided to withdraw the invitation toRhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in view of theboycott announced by several Africancountries against the racist regime of theformer British colony. Other countriesabsent from the Games were Libya,Jordan, South Africa and China.
The German sprinter Heidi Schüller,twenty-two years old, swore the Olympicoath, the first time that a woman haddone so at a Summer Games. For thelast lap of the torch relay the bearer wasGünther Zahn, accompanied by fourathletes from other countries as a symbolof the union of the five continents.
The Munich Games included 21 sports.Water skiing and badminton weredemonstration sports and archery, absentsince 1920, returned to the officialprogramme. So did judo, omitted sinceTokyo in 1964, and handball, which had
The Munich torch (2) wasmade by the Kruppcompany, as was the onefor the Berlin Games in1936. It was of stainlesssteel and contained a liquidgas cartridge which enabledit to burn for 20 minutes.The German Günther Zahn,who lit the flame in thecauldron with the torch (3),entered the Olympicstadium escorted by fourathletes representing theother four continents:Africa, America, Asia andOceania. For the first time,the Olympic Games had anofficial mascot; it proved tobe a very effectivecommunications andcommercial element. AtMunich, the mascot wasWaldi (4), a friendlydachshund. Outstandingamongst the stamps issuedfor the Games of the XXOlympiad was a block ofvarious values, eachrepresenting one of themain Olympic facilities (5).They also appear on thecommemorative coins (6).The medals awarded atMunich had a very stylizeddesign (7).
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only appeared once before, in 1936.Before the opening of the Games, AveryBrundage, now eighty-five, left thepresidency of the IOC in the hands ofLord Killanin.
A new Finnish runner also appeared atMunich: Lasse Viren, who won a doublein the 5000 and 10000 metres. TheUSSR won two golds in the sprints,thanks to Valeri Borzov, considered tohave the ideal physique for a sprinter.
But the laurels this time were reservedfor a swimmer, Mark Spitz fromCalifornia. He won four gold medals inindividual events and three in relays:seven medals altogether and sevenOlympic records.
The Soviet gymnasts Olga Korbut andLudmila Turitscheva captivated thespectators and audiences around theworld by their skill on the mat and theapparatus. In athletics the outstandingwomen were the East German sprinterRenate Stecher, winner of the 100 and
200 metres, and the West Germans HeidiRosendahl, gold medallist in the longjump, and Ulrike Meyfarth who, at theage of sixteen, beat the world high jumprecord with 1.92 metres. The EastGerman Wolfgang Nordwig was the firstathlete not from the United States to winthe gold medal for the pole vault.
In basketball the USSR took the goldfrom the USA with a controversialbasket in the last three seconds, when theUS team were celebrating their victory inthe belief that the match was over. Theywere in such a huff that they did not goto collect the silver medal.
The Spanish team won a bronze medalin boxing: Rodríguez Cal in the lightflyweight. The long distance runnerMariano Haro came fourth in the 10000metres. There was a notable Spanishparticipant at the Games: Prince JuanCarlos, a member of the yachting team.
But Munich was the most dramaticGames in history. At the height of the
The Olympic sportsfacilities built on the site of
the city's old airport, theObenweissenfeld, were ofadmirable architecturalquality; especially notablewas the Olympic stadiumwith its plastic canopy.
The Soviet runner ValeriBorzov (in lane 5) brokethe supremacy of theUnited States in the sprintevents by winning the 100and 200 m. The USSR andthe United States, greatrivals at the MunichOlympic Games, won 101medals (50 golds) and 91(33 golds) respectively.
The famous Sovietweightlifter VassiliAlekseyev celebrates a goodlift. Alekseyev dominatedSuper Heavyweightweightlifting during theseventies.
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The American swimmerMark Spitz was theindisputable star ofMunich. He won sevenmedals (four of them inindividual events), andbroke seven world records.
Closing ceremony at theMunich stadium. The highstandards reached, therecord number ofparticipants and thetechnical resourcesemployed made the MunichGames -in spite of thetragic massacre of Israeliathletes by Palestinianterrorists- a point ofreference for futureOlympic Games.
The Soviet gymnastLudmila Turischeva on thebalance beam. Ludmila andher team-mate Olga Korbutenchanted everyone in thegymnastics events at theMunich Games.
competition, a Palestinian commandobelonging to the terrorist organisationBlack September kidnapped part of theIsraeli delegation inside the OlympicVillage itself. They demanded the releaseof two hundred prisoners of the Israeligovernment led by Golda Meir inexchange for the hostages, but Israelrefused to meet their demands.Negotiations bore no fruit and theincident ended in a bloody shoot-out atthe airport. The final result of thetragedy was seventeen dead: elevenIsraeli athletes (two of whom had alreadybeen killed at the Olympic Village), fiveof the eight terrorists and a Germanpoliceman. Israel demanded the closureof the Games, but they continued afterthe funerals: in all, a twenty-four houradjournment. In addition to Israel,Egypt, Syria and Kuwait decided towithdraw.
When the Games closed everyone feltthat, in spite of the tragic events, Munichhad been a milestone in the history ofthe Olympic movement. Fine facilities,record participation, first rate electronicand technical resources and a largetelevision audience had pointed the wayfor future Games.
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The official poster for theGames of the XXIOlympiad in Montreal wasnotable for its simplicityand even austerity; theOlympic rings -symbol ofthe five continents and theunion of nations throughsport-are the only feature.The rings fade into thewhite background; a visualdevice which gives theposter a certain kineticdimension. It was designedby Ernst Roch and RolfHarder, members of thegraphic design team headedby Georges Huel andPierre- Yves Pelletier.
Montreal 1976(XXI Olympiad)
The Montreal Olympic Games sufferedthe first block boycott by a group of theNational Olympic Committees which aremembers of the IOC. The presence ofNew Zealand provoked the withdrawal oftwenty-seven countries from the Africancontinent after the delegations hadarrived in Canada. The reason was that aNew Zealand rugby team had touredSouth Africa. Only the Ivory Coast andSenegal did not join in. Some Africanathletes even asked the IOC if they couldtake part individually, but the Olympicorganisation was unable to meet theirrequest. In addition, the prime ministerof Canada, Pierre Trudeau, opposed theparticipation of Taiwan in the Games ifit did so using the name of China. Theathletes and officials of the islandtherefore also withdrew from thecompetition.
Montreal had held a universal exhibitionin 1967, the same year that the capital ofQuebec had won the Olympicnomination in Teheran. The force behindthe exhibition and the 1976 Olympic
Games was one and the same: themayor, Jean Drapeau. The city tookadvantage of the Games to carry outextensive redevelopment, with no supportfrom either the central government orthe province of Quebec. They built asubway, a new airport, opened newaccesses to the motorways and made anew city underground with warm,comfortable shops and other commercialpremises, a desirable amenity in acountry where winter does not encouragea stroll down the road. The OlympicVillage, the stadium, the velodrome andseveral sports halls were also built by theCity Council. The organisers faced twomajor problems: the increase in costs,which had originally been estimated at310 million Canadian dollars and whichfinally rose to 1,500 million, and thelabour conflicts with the building unionswhich threatened strikes unless theirmembers were given a wage increase.
Finally, on 17 July 1976, the openingceremony of the Games of the XXIOlympiad was held. Two young athletes,
The Montreal torch (2),conceived by Georges Hueland Michel Dall, was ofaluminium and was fuelledby olive oil, treated in aspecial way to enable it towithstand the wind and therain. The Canadian postalservice issued several sets ofstamps to celebrate theevent, and of specialinterest are those whichshow statues of athletes (3).The medals which wereawarded were specific toeach sport (4). The torchcovered some of its journeyby canoe, on horseback andby bicycle (5). Canadaminted 31 coins to markthe Games (6). A beaver(famous for its patient andhard-working nature) calledAmik, was the officialmascot (7).
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a boy and a girl, carried the torch on thelast lap of the relay and lit the flame inthe cauldron. They symbolised thebrotherhood of the two languagecommunities in Quebec: the French andEnglish speakers. Queen Elizabeth ofEngland (whose daughter Anne hadentered as a competitor) declared theGames open in both languages, therebyrecognising the importance of the twolanguage communities. 6,189 athletes, ofwhom 1,251 were women, from 88countries came to Montreal.
Exhaustive drug tests were carried out atthe Games: 1,500 in fifteen days by anintegrated, automatic system. Someathletes who had taken one of the ninetypharmaceutical products banned by theIOC were stripped of their medals. Arather unsporting detail in the fencingevent of the modern pentathlon was thediscovery of an electric device on thepommel of the epee of the Sovietpentathlete Boris Onischtschenko, whohad been silver medallist in Mexico City
and Munich, which lit up his adversary'stouch light at a distance.
The star of the Games was theRomanian gymnast Nadia Comaneci. Atthe age of fourteen, 1.53 metres tall andweighing 39 kilograms, she was theprecursor of a new style in gymnastics.Comaneci had been entering forcompetitions since she was twelve. Shenot only won five medals -three of themgold- but brought up two tens on theScoreboard with her performance, a scorewhich judges have always been mostreluctant to give in competitions. Theswimming pool was also the scene ofgreat deeds of prowess. Kornelia Enderof East Germany broke the record forthe 100 metres freestyle, making hercountry's supremacy patent. In the men'sevents John Naber and JamesMontgomery from the USA wereoutstanding. Montgomery broke the 50second barrier in the 100 metresfreestyle. Between them and the rest of
The stadium in Montreal,on 17 July 1976. The lastminute boycott by theAfrican countries did notdetract from the openingceremony of the Games ofthe XXI Olympiad, whichwere presided over byQueen Elizabeth II.
The Cuban AlbertoJuantorena (217), winner ofthe 800 m final. He wasalso the winner of the 400m, an unprecedentedachievement in the historyof the Olympic Games.
Heidi Rosendahl, of WestGermany won the goldmedal in the long jump.
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Nadia Comaneci, on thebeam. The lithe andextremely young Romaniangirl, creator of a new styleof gymnastics, was the firstathlete ever to be awardedthe maximum of 10 points.Comaneci was theunquestioned star of theMontreal Games.
The Finnish athlete LasseViren, winning the 5000 min front of the NewZealander Dick Quax andthe West GermanKlaus-Peter Hildenbrand.Viren also won the 10000m gold medal.
The last relay of theOlympic torch. TwoCanadian athletes, a youngFrench-speaking man and ayoung English-speakingwoman, were to light theflame in the cauldron; asymbol of the Olympicdesire for harmony.
the team they carried off twenty-seven ofthe thirty-nine medals at stake.
In athletics a new figure emerged: theCuban Alberto Juantorena, "El Caballo",who won the 400 and 800 metres, a featwhich no other runner has equalled. Butother winners must not be forgotten:Edwin Moses in the 400 metres hurdles;the discus thrower Mac Wilkins; theHungarian javelin thrower MiklosNemeth; the Polish runner IrenaSzewinska, who won the gold medal forthe 400 metres at her fourth OlympicGames; Lasse Viren from Finland,winner of the 5000 and 10000 metres;the Cuban boxer Teófílo Stevenson,winner of the gold in the heavyweightcategory; or Bruce Jenner of the USA,the decathlon champion. In basketballthe US team won the gold medal inrevenge for their humiliation at Munich.The surprise winners of the hockeycompetition were the New Zealand team.The sport was played on artificial turffor the first time.
The Spanish delegation won two silvermedals: in yachting in the 470 class,thanks to Antonio Gorostegui and PereLluís Millet, and in canoeing, in the K-41000 metres, with a team made up ofLuis Gregorio Ramos Misioné, HerminioMenéndez, José Esteban Celorrio andJosé Díaz Flor.
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Of the 26,000 entries from8,500 designers, VladimirArsentiev's effort waschosen as the official posterof the 1980 MoscowGames. Born in 1951 inGuriev, Kazakhstan,Arsentiev studied at theFaculty of Applied Arts inRezekne in Latvia. Thework is highly schematic inconception, employinggeometric patterns: itrepresents the five Olympicrings and the lanemarkings of an athleticstrack which converge on afive-pointed red star.
Moscow 1980(XXII Olympiad)
At the 75th Session of the IOC inVienna in October 1974 the Moscowcandidature was chosen for the Games ofthe XXII Olympiad. For the first timethe Games were to be held in an Easternbloc country. But the choice, years later,had serious repercussions for theorganisers.
On 20 January 1980, the president of theUSA, Jimmy Carter, announced hiscountry's decision to boycott the MoscowGames unless Soviet troops withdrewfrom Afghanistan within a month. Thedecision, taken in election year with thesupport of 85% of the population, foundan echo in other countries, such as theFederal Republic of Germany, Japan,China -whose national Olympiccommittee had been recognised by theIOC the year before, along with that ofChinese Taipei (Taiwan)–, Canada andKenya. Thirty-eight countries were absentin all. Others, such as Great Britain,Italy, Australia and France took part inthe parade without their flag or anthem,for which they substituted the Olympic
ones. Spain, which did not join theboycott either, paraded under a whiteflag with the shield of the SpanishOlympic Committee. The other countriesof Western Europe marched with aplacard bearing their name behind theOlympic flag. Naturally, participation inMoscow was smaller than at earlier Games.In the Soviet capital 81 national Olympiccommittees entered with a total of 5,923athletes. The Olympic truce, which hadbeen a feature of classical Greece, wasignored once again.
The opening ceremony was spectacularand lasted over four hours. Six thousandsoldiers with coloured scarves composedhighly artistic patterns on the grass.Sergei Belov, the basketball player whohad won the gold for the USSR inMunich with the controversial lastbasket, lit the Olympic flame. To reducethe impact of the boycott to a minimum,the organisers paid for the travel andaccommodation of the representatives ofvarious African and South Americancountries.
The Moscow torch (2) wasconceived by a group ofLeningrad engineers led byBon's Tuchin and was madeof aluminium alloy. Theseries of commemorativecoins minted on theoccasion of the Games wasthe largest and most variedissued by any Olympic hostcountry until then (3). Thebear Misha (4), the mascotof the 1980 Games, was byViktor Tshichikov. ViktorSoneiev was the last athletein the Olympic torch relayand the basketball playerSergei Belov was chosen tolight the great cauldron inthe stadium (5). The USSRwas also the country toissue the largest number ofstamps on the occasion ofthe Games (6).
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Three days before the opening JuanAntonio Samaranch was chosen as thenew president of the IOC. That was on16 July 1980. Born in Barcelona, amember of the IOC since 1966 andambassador to the USSR at the time, hereplaced the diplomat Lord Killanin, whohad been president of the Olympicorganisation for eight years.
Without the United States and otherWestern countries the Games weredominated by the Soviets and EastGermans, particularly in the swimmingevents. Vladimir Salnikov won three goldmedals. Barbara Krause of East Germanywas the first woman to swim the 100metres freestyle in under 55 seconds andher fellow countrywoman Rica Reinischwon three golds. There was one Soviethero, the gymnastics teacher AlexanderDitjatin, who won a total of eight medals.
On the track Soviet and East Germandomination was broken by a British duelbetween the long distance runners
Sebastian Coe and Steve Ovett. Coe wonthe gold for the 1500 metres and Ovettthe 800. Another British athlete, AllanWells, won the 100 metres, but PietroMennea of Italy beat him into secondplace in the 200 metres. Anothersensational performance at the Moscowstadium was by the Ethiopian MirutsYifter who, at the age of thirty-sevenwon the gold medal in the 5000 and10000 metres. Without the opposition ofWest Germany or the USA, DaleyThompson of Britain had no difficultywinning the decathlon with 8,495 points,far behind his own personal best of 8,743.
Nadia Comaneci, who no longer had thechildish figure that had captured thelimelight at Montreal, won two goldmedals and two silvers despite thepressure of being the focus of everyone'sattention. In Moscow a new starappeared, a formidable young gymnast:Nelli Kim of the Soviet Union, who wonthe gold for the floor exercises.
The opening ceremony ofthe Moscow OlympicGames was then the mostspectacular ever staged. Theabsence of 38 of thecountries who hadoriginally entered did notdetract from the sportingachievements of thecompetitors.
The Soviet gymnast NelliKim, who had beenComaneci's great rival inMontreal in the floorexercises. At the MoscowGames, the two athletesshared the gold medal forthis event.
Miruts Yifter, during arace. This Ethiopianathlete's thirty-seven yearsof age did not prevent himfrom winning the goldmedal in the 5000 m and10000 m.
The British athlete DaleyThompson came first in thedecathlon, although withoutapproaching his bestperformance. In 1984 inLos Angeles, he was torepeat his triumph.
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The Soviet swimmerVladimir Salnikov won the400 m, the 1500 m freestyleand the 4 x 200 m freestyle.
The figure of Misha thebear appeared in the standsduring the openingceremony. As at otherOlympic Games, the mascotwas to be seen everywhere.
Sebastian Coe (254) wonthe 1500 m. The battlebetween the British runnersCoe and Steve Ovett (279)was one of the high pointsof the 1980 Games. Ovettwon the 800 m.
Teófilo Stevenson inMoscow. This Cuban boxeris, undoubtedly, the mostoutstanding figure inOlympic boxing history,taking the heavyweight goldat three consecutive Games:1972, 1976 and 1980.
The 1980 Games were marked by thefavouritism of the referees and the use ofstimulants and anabolics by manyathletes. Later analyses showed that 15%of the athletes tested had takentestosterone or some other productbanned by the IOC.
In Moscow Spain performed with merit.The supreme garland was won by thepair formed by Alejandro Abascal andMiguel Noguer in yachting, in the FlyingDutchman class. There were three silvermedals: for Jordi Llopart in the 50kilometres walk; for the canoeing teamformed by Herminio Menéndez andGuillermo del Riego in K-2 500 metres;and the hockey team, which lost to Indiain the final. There were two bronzemedals: for David Lopez Zubero in the400 metres butterfly, the first medal wonby a Spanish swimmer at the Games;and Luis G. Ramos Misioné andHerminio Menéndez, also in canoeing, inthe K-2 1000 metres. These six medals
were the best Spanish performance atany Olympic Games.
The Games mascot, the bear Misha, wasreproduced everywhere. On 3 August theOlympic flame was quenched at thegrandiose Lenin Stadium. On theelectronic Scoreboard appeared the phrase"Goodbye until Los Angeles 1984". Tothe strains of Beethoven's Ode to Joy, theflags of the USSR, Greece and the city ofLos Angeles were hoisted on the mainflagpole. The decision of the Sovietleaders whether or not to attend the1984 Games was left hanging in the air.
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1
The poster for Los Angelesbroke with tradition, as hadthe one for Mexico City:while the poster for the1968 Games was square,the 1984 poster wasatypical because of itselongated shape. It iscompletely dominated bythe American starrepresenting all the statesof the Union. The brokenlines give an impression ofmovement and express thedynamism of the OlympicGames. The poster is by thepainter RobertRauschenberg, born in PortArthur (Texas) in 1925,and one of the leaders ofthe pop art movement.
Los Angeles 1984(XXIII Olympiad)
As some journalists had predicted, theUSSR and the countries of the Easternbloc returned the boycott that theMoscow Games had suffered in 1980.The reasons advanced were the lack ofsecurity they had observed for theirathletes and the invasion of Grenada bythe United States. Romania andYugoslavia decided to take part. In spiteof the absence of the Soviet bloc, theGames of the XXIII Olympiad had thehighest number of countries taking part:140 delegations and 7,055 athletes. Forthe first time, countries such as theSolomon Islands, Mauritius, Gambia andQatar took part and the People'sRepublic of China returned after anabsence of twenty-eight years. Libyaabandoned Los Angeles three days beforethe start of the Games when threeLibyans accredited as journalists wererefused visas.
The organisation of the Games was leftin the hands of private enterprise, asneither the city nor the federal
government paid a penny from theirbudgets. Existing facilities were used,including the Olympic Stadium whichhad been built for the Games in 1932.Only the swimming pool and velodromewere built new by a hamburger chainand a supermarket respectively. With thismodel of organisation a new path in theworld of the Olympics opened up. At theLos Angeles Games the television rights,one of the main sources of income,reached the record sum of 276 milliondollars. One novelty was the creation ofa body of Olympic volunteers as soon asthe city had been awarded the Games.Altogether 28,742 of the 45,000 who hadpresented entry forms took part. Thevolunteers helped with many tasks,particularly the competitions and areassuch as health, press, hosting andaccreditations. Their civic spirit andenthusiasm sounded an original note atthe 1984 Games. The organisingcommittee made a profit of 225 milliondollars after deduction of expenses ofaround 650 million.
The torch for Los Angeles(2), conceived by Newhart,Turner Industries Inc. andmade of aluminium andbronze, had sufficient fuelfor 45 minutes. To markthese Games, a number ofcountries minted coins:Jamaica issued one for 10dollars (3). The UnitedStates postal service issuedfive sets each of fourstamps, representing twentyOlympic sports (4). Themascot of the Los AngelesGames was the eagle Sam(5) designed by C. RobertMoore and produced byWalt Disney ProductionsInc. The lighting of thecauldron (6) was highlyoriginal: Rafer Johnson,gold medallist in thedecathlon at Rome 1960,was handed the torch byGina Hemphill,grand-daughter of JesseOwens, the hero of theBerlin Games of 1936.
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The opening and closing ceremonies hadall the glitter of a Hollywood productionand all the television coverage of a greatevent. A choir of 1,000 voices, anorchestra of 100 musicians, 84 pianists,2,500 doves and a man flying over thestadium at the opening ceremony werejust some of the elements which werepart of the show. The Californian city,with about 12 million inhabitants,already had all the necessaryinfrastructure. However, the urban sprawlmeant that long distances had to betravelled between the venues, sometimesas much as 200 kilometres. The securityof athletes, journalists, referees andofficials was in the hands of 20,000police and 100 helicopters spread aroundthe three Olympic Villages.
A nervous Edwin Moses was chargedwith speaking the Olympic oath.However, in the 400 metres hurdles herecovered his nerves and won decisively.
Carl Lewis was predictably the centre ofattention during the Games. Everyone,including him, felt that he had no rivals.And such was the case. He won goldmedals in the 100 and 200 metres, thelong jump and as a member of the 4 x100 metres relay team. With thesevictories he equalled the feat of JesseOwens at the Berlin Games in 1936.
Daley Thompson of Britain showed onceagain that he was the perfect all-rounder.In the decathlon he repeated his successin Moscow over his eternal rival JürgenHingsen of Germany. Sebastian Coe wonthe gold medal in the 1500 metres andthe silver in the 800. In the Marathonthe victory went unexpectedly to CarlosLopes of Portugal, who thus won the firstever gold medal for his country.
In the women's Marathon, on theOlympic programme for the first time,the spectators at the stadium witnessed amoving scene. Gabriela Andersen ofSwitzerland staggered into the Memorial
The opening ceremony ofthe Games of the XXIIIOlympiad. In spite of theabsence of the USSR andthe majority of the EasternEuropean countries, the LosAngeles Games were a greatsporting success and alsothe most financiallyrewarding in the history ofthe Olympics.
Edwin Moses, who sworethe Olympic oath, was thewinner of the 400 m hurdles.
Luis Doreste and RobertoMolina were first in the470 class in yachting. TheSpanish team did well atLos Angeles, obtaining fivemedals.
Final of the 5000 m. TheMoroccan runner SaidAouita eventually took thegold medal for this event.
A spectacular jump by aPakistani player in thehockey match betweenBritain and Pakistan.
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A moment from thebasketball final between theUnited States and Spain.
Final of the 100 m. TheAmerican runner CarlLewis (915) was the star ofLos Angeles. He wasunrivalled in the sprints,winning the 100 m, 200 m,and 4 x 100 m relay, aswell as the long jump.
A moment from a waterpolo match between Spainand Australia.
The unmistakeablyAmerican closing ceremonyof the Los Angeles Gameswas just as spectacular asthe opening ceremony.
Coliseum. Everyone could see the terribledifficulty she was having in movingnormally. Her legs bent, her face twisted,hardly knowing which way to go andabout to collapse to the ground fromexhaustion and dehydration, she wasmaking unmistakable signs that no-onewas to help her to the finish. She madeit. She collapsed at the line, having puther life in considerable danger. She didnot win a medal, but she gave a lessonin Olympic courage.
In the pool fifteen-year-old TracyCaulkins of the USA distinguishedherself: she won the 200 and 400 metresmedley and helped her country to winthe gold in the 4 x 100 metres relaymedley. In the men's events the WestGerman Michael Gross burst on thescene; he was nicknamed "the albatross"because of the breadth of his stroke.Gross won the gold medal in the 200metres freestyle and the 100 metresbutterfly. In both cases he set anOlympic record. Greg Louganis of the
USA stood out in the diving events,springboard and platform. His last dive,a three and a half turn somersault, was adirect defiance of the law of gravity.
The Spanish team had one of their mostsuccessful Games. Luis Doreste andRoberto Molina won the gold medal inthe 470 yachting class. The basketballteam, defeated in the final by the hostcountry, won the silver. In canoeing, inthe C-2 500 metres, with Enrique Míguezand Narciso Suárez, and in rowing, withFernando Climent and Luis Lasúrtegui,there were medals: one bronze and onesilver. Lastly, José Manuel Abascal wonthe bronze in the 1500 metres, behindSebastian Coe and Steve Cram.
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1
The attractive design of theofficial poster for Seoul wasmatched by the highstandard of organisationand sporting achievement atthe 1988 Games. The fearswhich some had voicedabout possible politicalconflicts or culturalconfrontations proved to begroundless.
Seoul 1988(XXIV Olympiad)
Seoul was chosen to host the Games atthe 84th Session of the IOC inBaden-Baden in September 1981. In spiteof the forecasts about the internationalconflicts which the choice of Seoul mightprovoke, the Games of the XXIVOlympiad had the highest number ofparticipants in the history of theOlympics, both in terms of the numberof countries and the number of athletes:9,417, of whom 2,471 were women, from160 countries.
North Korea aspired to organise theGames jointly with the South. JuanAntonio Samaranch offered the neutralitysymbolized by his post to resolve thepolitical differences in favour of theOlympic movement. In spite of hismediation, North Korea did not takepart in the end and was joined byAlbania, Cuba, Ethiopia, Madagascar,Nicaragua and the Seychelles.
The Games were organised basically bythe State and South Korea carried out awide-ranging operation to present its
image to the world. The opening andclosing ceremonies were beautiful towatch and attempted to convey theculture and the sensibility of the country.
The Games were held from 17September to 2 October. The accreditedjournalists who attended, almost 5,000,were housed in a press village. Thetelevision rights reached a record figure:407 million dollars. It has been estimatedthat 3,000 million viewers all around theworld watched the Games on the smallscreen.
The major facilities -stadium, swimmingpool, sports palace, baseball stadium androwing canal- were concentrated in theChamsil area on the banks of the RiverHan. The stadium held 100,000 peopleand was completely covered by a circularroof.
During the XXIV Olympiad the TOP(Olympic Programme) was introduced.Invented by the IOC and managed byISL (International Sports Leisure) it
The Seoul torch (2), by LeeWoo-Song, professor at thewomen's university ofSookmyung, was made ofleather and plastic. Bothbefore and during theGames, South Korea issuedseveral special sets ofstamps, with designsshowing all the Olympicsports (3). The Seoulmascot was the tigerHodori (4), a symbol ofcourage and greatness. Itwas designed by Kim Hyun.Twenty-five countries,including the host, minteda total of 162 differentcommemorative coins (5).The athletes responsible forlighting the flame at theSeoul Games ascended tothe cauldron in a lift (6).This spectacular image hasbeen engraved on thememory of everyone whosaw it.
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allowed a group of companies tocommercialise a product categoryworldwide with an exclusive for the useof the symbols of the organisingcommittees of the Summer (Seoul) andWinter (Calgary) Olympic Games and theOlympic rings for the four years of theOlympiad. This first, TOP-1, programmehad a total of nine companies.
At Seoul table tennis and tennis becameofficial, whilst taekwondo, baseball andwomen's judo were demonstration sportsand badminton and bowling exhibitionsports. In taekwondo the Spanish teams,men and women, won a total of ninemedals.
Florence Griffith of the USA with threegold medals and one silver in athletics,Kristin Otto of East Germany with sixgold medals in swimming and MattBiondi, the swimmer from the States,with five gold medals, one silver and onebronze medal were the outstandingfigures of Seoul.
One of the sports which aroused unusualemotion was women's gymnastics. ElenaChouchounova of the USSR and DanielaSilivas of Romania battled out acompetition which was no lessspectacular than the performance ofNadia Comaneci in Montreal.
At the 1988 Games the Canadian runnerBen Johnson won the 100 metres with aworld record time of 9.79 seconds.Seventy-two hours later there was acommotion at the Olympic Village: inthe analysis of the drug test he wasfound to have been taking anabolics andwas stripped of his gold medal, whichwas given to Carl Lewis, who had run atime of 9.92 seconds.
The Spanish team won four medals. JoséLuis Doreste won the gold in yachting.Emilio Sánchez Vicario and Sergio Casalwon the silver medal in tennis. SergiLópez won the bronze for the 200 metresbreaststroke and Jorge Guardiola did thesame in shooting.
The opening ceremony. Theestimated 3,000 millionviewers who watched thebroadcast were treated toan extremely beautifulspectacle in the Olympicstadium.
A taekwondo contest. Oneof the innovations at Seoulwas the inclusion oftaekwondo as ademonstration sport.
The Chinese weightlifter HeYingqiang, silver medallistin the 56 kg category.Weightlifting has formedpart of the Olympicprogramme since the Gamesof the I Olympiad.
The Soviet gymnast ElenaChouchounova, on thebeam. Once again, thegreat Eastern Europeangymnasts attracted thepublic's attention andobtained the best results.
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Qualifying match in thefootball tournament betweenWest Germany andTunisia. In this competitionthe gold medal went to theSoviet Union, the silver toBrazil and the bronze toWest Germany.
The Catalan swimmer SergiLópez, third in the 200 mbreast-stroke, was thewinner of one of the fourmedals obtained by Spanishathletes at Seoul.
Catalan dancers taking partin the closing ceremony ofthe Games of the XXIVOlympiad in Seoul. Withthis spectacle and thehanding over of theOlympic flag to the mayorof Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, the OlympicMovement parted until thenext meeting, in Barcelonain 1992.
The closing ceremony at the SeoulGames marked the start of the XXVOlympiad, the four years during whichBarcelona had to guard the Olympiccolours. After the performance of a groupof Catalan dancers before millions ofviewers around the world, PasqualMaragall, the mayor of Barcelona,received the Olympic flag from the handsof the president of the IOC, JuanAntonio Samaranch. The OlympicMovement bade farewell to the Koreancity and arranged to meet in Barcelonain 1992.
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191
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
6.IV-15.IV
20.V-28.X
1.VII-23.XI
27.IV-31.X
5.V-22.7
20.IV-12.IX
4.V-27.VII
17.V-12.VIII
30.VII-14.VIII
1.VIII-16.VIII
29.VII-14.VIII
19.VII-3.VIII
22.XI-8.XII
10.VI-17.VI
25.VIII-11.IX
10.X-24.X
12.X-27.X
26.VIII-11.IX
17.VII-1.VIII
19.VII-3.VIII
28.VII-12.VIII
17.IX-2.X
Athens 1896
Paris 1900
Saint Louis 1904
London 1908
Stockholm 1912
Not held
Antwerp 1920
Paris 1924
Amsterdam 1928
Los Angeles 1932
Berlin 1936
Not held
Not held
London 1948
Helsinki 1952
Melbourne 1956
Stockholm 1956 (1)
Rome 1960
Tokyo 1964
Mexico 1968
Munich 1972
Montreal 1976
Moscow 1980
Los Angeles 1984
Seoul 1988
295
1,066
546
1,998
2,447
2,527
2,939
2,681
1,204
3,652
3,677
5,349
2,958
4,786
4,903
5,845
6,824
4,938
4,835
5,435
6,946
0
11
8
36
57
64
136
290
127
328
385
518
384
610
683
781
1,070
1,251
1,088
1,620
2,471
295
1,077
554
2,034
2,504
2,591
3,075
2,971
1,331
3,980
4,062
5,867
3,342
5,396
5,586
6,626
7,894
6,189
5,923
7,055
9,417
13
21
12
22
28
29
44
46
38
49
58
69
67
84
94
113
122
88
81
140
160
9
17
15
21
13
21
17
14
14
19
17
17
17
17
19
18
21
21
21
21
23
Summer Olympic Games
1. The equestrian competition washeld in Stockholm from 10 to 17June. 29 NOCs, 145 men and 13women took part.
Source: Repertoire du mouvementolympique, IOC, 1991.
192
Olympic cities of the modern era
123456789
10111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334
Athens, 1896Paris, 1900 and 1924St Louis, 1904London, 1908Stockholm, 1912Antwerp, 1920Chamonix,1924Amsterdam, 1928St Moritz, 1928 and 1948Los Angeles, 1932 and 1984Lake Placid, 1932 and 1960Berlin, 1936Garmisch-Partenkirchen, 1936Helsinki, 1952Oslo, 1952Melbourne, 1956Cortina d'Ampezzo, 1956Rome, 1960Squaw Valley, 1960Tokyo, 1964Innsbruck, 1964 and 1976Mexico City, 1968Grenoble, 1968Munich, 1972Sapporo, 1972Montreal, 1976Moscow, 1980Sarajevo, 1984Seoul, 1988Calgary, 1988Barcelona, 1992Albertville, 1992AtlantaLillehammer
Summer Games cities in red
Winter Games cities in green
193
Athletics
Baseball
Basketball
Boxing
Canoeing
Cycling
Equestrian sports
Fencing
Football
Gymnastics
Handball
Hockey
Judo
Modem pentathlon
Rowing
Shooting
Swimming
Table tennis
Tennis
Volleyball
Weightlifting
Wrestling
Yachting
Cricket
Croquet
Figure skating
Golf
Ice hockey
Jeu de paume
Lacrosse
Olympic Programme. Men
CityYear
Archery
Badminton
Polo
Racquette
Roque
Rugby
194
Motor canoeing
Archery
Badminton
Basketball
Boxing
Canoeing
Cycling
Equestrian sports
Fencing
Football
Gymnastics
Handball
Hockey
Modem pentathlon
Rowing
Shooting
Swimming
Table tennis
Tennis
Volleyball
Weightlifting
Wrestling
Yachting
Lacrosse
Motor canoeing
Roque
Rugby
Source: Wallechinsky, David.The Complete Book of theOlympics.Londres: Aurum Press Ltd.,1992.
Olympic Programme. Women
Baseball
Judo
Cricket
Croquet
Figure skating
Golf
Ice Hockey
Jeu de paume
Polo
Racquette
195
Athletics
1
Detail of a Roman mosaicof the fourth century BC,found in Barcelona andpreserved in theArchaeological Museumthere, which shows achariot race in a circus.
Greek amphora fromEmpúrìes, sixth centuryB C. The decorationrepresents two athletestaking part in a race at theOlympic Games.
Monument dedicated toLucius Minicius Natali. Itcontains his testament andmentions his Barcelonaorigin: "To the Barcelonacolonists of HispaniaCiterìor amongst whom hewas born". LuciusMinicius, who held publicoffice in several posts in thetime of the EmperorTrajan, won the laurelcrown at Olympia in thechariot races of theCCXVII Olympiad, in 129AD.
Barcelona is a city with a notablesporting record, dating back to Romantimes.
The Romans who settled on the IberianPeninsula kept up the sporting traditionof the founders of the Olympic Games,the Greeks, who had sailed to theCatalan coast in the fifth century BC andfounded the small colony of Empúries.The mosaics and ceramics which havesurvived from Roman times give us anidea of how the founders of Barcinoplayed sport. There is evidence that somecitizens made donations of money to beinvested in sporting competitions. Onesuch person was the centurion CeciliusOptatus in the second century AD, whogave 7,500 denarii so that the yearlyinterest could be used to hold wrestlingcompetitions in the city amphitheatreevery tenth of June.
One of the leading families in Barcino inthe second century AD was that ofLucius Minicius Natali. The father was awell-known politician and soldier whobecame a Roman senator during thereign of the Emperor Trajan. TheMinicius Natali family founded baths inBarcino.
The son, Lucius Minicius NataliQuadroni Ver, was a tireless traveller. Hewas also the only citizen of Barcino whois known to have taken part in anOlympic Games. When he was onlyseventeen he was made a tribune in thearmy. At nineteen he was already anofficer and embarked on a militarycareer in Africa at his father's side. Heheld the posts of quaestor and augurbefore being appointed tribune of thepeople in Rome at the age of thirty-two.He was also governor of the provinces ofLower Moesia and Africa. He alwaysstressed that he had been born inBarcino, as the five surviving monumentsto him bear witness. These monumentsare in Libya, Bulgaria, where he wastribune of the legion, London, Rome andOlympia itself, where there is a stonecommemorating his victory in the chariotrace at the CCXVII Olympiad in 129AD. This feat is also recorded on aplaque which can be seen in theArchaeological Museum of the city ofBarcelona.
In the Middle Ages, arms and thepractice of sport were closely linked, aswe can read in works such as theRegistre d'Ordinacions, dating from thefourteenth century. This book governed
all questions arising from neighbouringestates and rural or urban buildings andthe rights and duties involved. Obviousdifferences apart, mediaeval tournamentswith different weapons were the sportingcompetitions of the time. In the MiddleAges crossbow contests were held outsideBarcelona at the monastery of SantaClara in what today is the Ciutadellapark. In Don Quixote, when Cervantesdescribes a combat between his hero andthe Knight of the Black Moon on thebeaches of Barcelona, he is parodying thetournaments which were held in the cityin the sixteenth century and wereextremely popular with the inhabitants.
The practice of sport as we understand ittoday did not reach Barcelona until thesecond half of the nineteenth century.Individuals, such as a sailor calledFornells who taught rowing andorganised competitions in the port ofBarcelona in the eighteen-fifties, andcollective ventures, such as thefoundation of the Garcia Alsinagymnasium in 1868, prepared the city forthe proliferation of sports associationsaround the turn of the century.
Clubs and gymnasiums sprang up in thecity in obedience to the new educationalprecepts which arrived from otherEuropean countries and advocated theintroduction of gymnastics into schoolsand the practice of sport outdoors. Thesetrends intermingled with the walking andnature study movement, which had beenwell established in Catalonia for aquarter of a century, when the AssociacióCatalanista d'Excursions Científïques wasfounded (1876). A few years later it wasreplaced by the Centre Excursionista deCatalunya (1890), which is stillflourishing today.
The gymnasiums were the cornerstonesof many of the new sports clubs. TheGarcía Alsina gymnasium producedmonitors who themselves set up newcentres: Vila, Motiño, Tiberghien, Bricall,Solé, Ramis, Gibert or Tolosa, amongothers, all frequented mostly by membersof the well-to-do classes, students andforeign technicians who lived in Barcelona.
Sea sports also began to make theirappearance: the Club Català de Regates(1879) and the Reial Club Nàutic (1881)were founded. In 1907, Bernat Picornell,a friend of the man who had revived the
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Olympic Games, Baron Pierre deCoubertin, and some of his friendsfounded the Club Natació Barcelona. Awater polo section was opened andmatches were played off the beach atBarceloneta until a pool was built, one ofthe first in Spain.
One of the most popular sports in thecity was football, which started its careeras an association sport in 1899 whenJoan Gamper, a Swiss who had settled inBarcelona, founded the Futbol ClubBarcelona, which has done more thananything else to make the city famousaround the world and has over 100,000members today. A year later RCDEspanyol was founded and then Europa(1907), Martinenc (1909), Júpiter (1909)and Sant Andreu (1910).
Those were also the days of the firstmotor racing competitions on theesplanade which is the present dayPasseig de Sant Joan. The ReialAutomòbil Club de Catalunya (RACC)
was founded in 1906 and promoted thefirst motor racing competition to be heldin Spain on the Sitges-Vallmoll-Vilafrancacircuit in 1908. There were othercompetitions, such as the Copa deCatalunya in 1908 and 1910. In 1916 anew organisation, the Penya Rhin,appeared and organised variousmotor-racing events, sometimes jointlywith the RACC. Among them were thefirst car race on Montjuïc in 1921 andthe inauguration of the motor racingcircuit in Sitges in 1923.
The sporting infrastructure was roundedoff with the addition of clubs such as theUnió Esportiva de Sants (1882), and theEsport Ciclista Barcelona (1929) forcycling; the Real Sociedad Colombófilade Catalunya (1890); the Club de TennisBarcelona (1899) and the Tennis Barcino(1917) for tennis; the Real Club de Polo(1900) for equestrian sports; theBarcelona Boxing Club (1913) for boxing;the Sociedad de Sport Vasco (1903), thenucleus of the Club Vascònia (1924) for
A pupil of the GarcíaAlsina gymnasium takingthe first steps on a balancebeam. This gymnasium,founded in 1868, was theprecursor of a series ofcentres of this type whichsprang up in Barcelona atthe end of the nineteenthcentury.
Professor Tolosa, founder ofa gymnasium which borehis name, surrounded by agroup of pupils. Pupils fromthe early Barcelonagymnasiums often founded,in turn, other centres forthe practice of sport. It isnot surprising, therefore,that early in the presentcentury Barcelona had avariety of clubs andfacilities for the mainsports of the time: tennis,swimming, cycling, footballand boxing, amongst others.
A tennis match at the Clubde Tennis Barcelona in thetwenties. Tennis, the lawsof which date from 1877,soon appeared on theBarcelona sporting scene.
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Cover of the first issue ofthe magazine Los Deportes,which appeared on 1January 1899. The style ofthe illustration reflects theartistic taste of the day,dominated by the modernistmovement.
Reproduction of a drawingfrom the mast-head of thefirst issue of the magazineEl Ciclista, of 16 July1891, the organ of theSociedad Velocipédica(Union VelocipédicaEspañola). It was one ofthe first Spanish sportpapers and it waspublished, like many others,in Barcelona.
First issue of El MundoDeportivo, which appearedin 1906. Of all the sportsdailies which are stillpublished in Europe, this isthe second oldest, afterMilan's La Gazetta delloSport.
pelota. After the pioneering Club NatacióBarcelona, other swimming clubs werefounded, such as the Fèmina NatacióClub (1912), the Natació Atlètic (1913),the Barceloneta (1929), the Mediterrani(1931) and the Catalunya (1931). Someof these clubs had athletics, cycling,basketball or rugby sections and many ofthem are still active today. They werethe cornerstone of the Catalan sportingmovement.
Overall, therefore, at that time Barcelonawas equipped with various sportsfacilities, among them a racecourse, acycling track, a swimming pool, tenniscourts and football pitches, which showhow receptive Catalonia had been tosporting innovations. Simultaneously,especially in the last quarter of thenineteenth century, the people ofBarcelona also began to take an interestin the sporting press. Journalists andfinanciers promoted publications such asEl Cazador (1856), El Ciclista (1891), LaVelocípeda (1892), La Bicicleta (1896), El
Pelotari (1896) and Los Deportes (1897).Altogether, at the beginning of thetwentieth century twenty-four sportspapers were published in Catalonia. Oneof them, El Mundo Deportivo (1906), isthe second oldest surviving sports journalafter La Gazzetta dello Sport of Milan.
And so, at the turn of the century, aspeople enjoyed more leisure time,sporting activities became increasinglypopular. A good example of theprinciples that were being assimilated bysociety is the motto proposed for schoolsby the Mancomunitat de Catalunya inthe twenties: "A boy who jumps, runsand swims is not only guaranteeing hisgood health but is also becoming a goodcitizen."
It is not surprising, therefore, thatBarcelona was at the heart of thesporting boom in Spain at the end of thenineteenth century. Later on, thefoundations that had been laid createdthe conditions for famous sportsmen in
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Barcelona and Catalonia to emerge onthe scene: Bernat Picornell in swimming;Joan Serrahima and Pere Prat inathletics; Santiago Amat in yachting;Eduard Flaquer or the Sindreu brothersin tennis; Josep Canudas in aviation;Marià Cañardo in cycling; RicardZamora and Josep Samitier in football;Joaquim Blume in gymnastics.
On the managerial side this breedingground was no less fruitful. Men such asJosep Elies Juncosa, "Corredisses", asporting journalist who worked on LaVeu de Catalunya and La Publicitat andwas editor of the Boletín de la UniónVelocipédica and Stadium, was one of theleading promoters of Spanishparticipation in the 1920 Olympic Gamesand the Barcelona Candidature to hostthe Games of 1924. Other members ofthe sporting movement were Josep MariaCo i de Triola, one of the promoters ofthe Minyons de Muntanya and theAeroclub de Catalunya; Eusebi Bertrand,golf promoter and president of the firstMotor Show; Antoni Martinez Domingo,
mayor of Barcelona in 1919; JoanVentosa i Calvell; Jaume Messalles andNarcís Masferrer, all figures from theintelligentsia, industry or Catalannationalist politics.
As the sporting spirit spread to all levelsof society, it awoke an ambition to takepart in the Olympic Games, even toorganise them in Barcelona. And so in1913 a group of distinguished journalistsand citizens decided to take steps toensure that sportsmen from Barcelonacould compete in the Games. After theFirst World War, during which theproject was adjourned, these Olympicaspirations were renewed. At that timesport was already well established in thecity. In 1918, for example, the firstCongress on Physical Education inSchools was held. Many notable peopletook part: August Pi i Sunyer, RosaSensat, Narcís Masferrer, Eladi Homs,Josep Elias i Juncosa and Francesc Cantoi Arroyo. It was a manifestation of theconcern to incorporate sport into theschool curriculum.
Finish of the Jean Bouinrace of 1928. The JeanBouin, one of the oldestraces in the city, wasfounded in 1920 in memoryof the French athlete whohad died six years earlierduring the First World War.
The walker Guerau Garcíaaccompanied through thestreets of Barcelona by fanson bicycles. García was agreat walker: he was seniorchampion of Spain between1927 and 1943.
Since the middle of thenineteenth century, the portof Barcelona has often beenused for rowing andcanoeing. As with mostsports, women took partright from the early days.
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Santiago Güell, Baron deGüell, member of the IOCfrom 1922, was the firstpresident of the SpanishOlympic Committee,founded in Barcelona in1924.
The motorcyclist FernandoAranda with his mobileworkshop in the Diagonalin Barcelona in 1927.Aranda was Europeanchampion six times.Motorcycling has a longtradition in Spain and isextremely popular.
A motor race in 1923 atthe Terramar track inSitges. The track was oneof the first to be built inSpain.
A great goal by the FCBarcelona player JosepSamitier, at the old LesCorts ground in 1925. Thisfootball club, founded in1899, now has over ahundred thousand members.
Finally, in 1924, in response to repeateddemands by the sporting press, theSpanish Olympic Committee (COE) wasfounded in Barcelona. The president wasBaron Santiago de Güell, who had beena member of the IOC since 1922.Moreover, a large number of Spanishfederations were founded in the city.
During those years, workers'organisations began to include sportamong the activities of their membersand to form their own clubs. The mainone was the Centre Autonomista deDependents del Comerç i de la Indústria(CADCI), which gave its members anopportunity to play almost all the sportsof the time. Another notable one, thoughshorter lived, was the Club Femeníd'Esports. The strength of the sportingmovement was such that in 1934 thepresident of the Generalitat of Catalonia,Lluís Companys, signed a decreeconstituting the Unió Catalana deFederacions Esportives.
In 1939, when the Civil War which hadbroken out three years before came to anend, this state of affairs changed. Thedirection that sport had to take wasdecided by the Franco regime rather thanthe associations or individual initiative.Nevertheless, there were some notablesporting events at that time, such as thetwo world roller hockey championships(1951 and 1954) and the SecondMediterranean Games (1955), all held inBarcelona.
By the sixties a certain liberalisation ofthe regime and a more amenabledisposition on the part of the sportingauthorities allowed civil society torecover its role little by little. The clubscould work practically without hindranceand the federations were graduallyrestored to their former importance.
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With the return of democracy in the lateseventies, the administrations initiated apolicy of building new facilities andproviding equipment to introduce youngpeople to the practice of sport. Thesefacilities were built to be used to the fulland for durability and easy maintenance.The result of this is that today thirtypercent of the population of Cataloniaregularly practise some sport or other.
In the seventies and eighties, all thiswork and the task carried out by clubsand federations with the support of newtechniques and improvements in theequipment of the facilities bore fruit andBarcelona and the whole country saw asubstantial increase in the quantity andquality of sport. This progress reachedmany parts of Catalonia with a longsporting tradition and they becameleaders in their particular sports orconsolidated the status they already had.
In some cases, clubs in Catalan townswon European titles: hockey (Terrassa),roller hockey (Reus, Sant Sadurníd'Anoia and Igualada), basketball(Badalona), handball (Granollers) andswimming (Sabadell).
During those years Barcelona maintainedthe prestige which it had won throughthe organisation of major sporting events,some of which dated back many years:the Tour of Catalonia cycle race (1911),the Jean Bouin race (1920), thetraditional Christmas swim across thePort of Barcelona (1927), the Reis(Epiphany) hockey tournament (1948),the Comte de Godó tennis trophy (1953),the Barcelona-Sitges vintage car rally(1959), the uphill cycle race to MontjuïcCastle (1965), the Joan Gamper footballtrophy (1967) and the Joaquim Blumegymnastics memorial (1968).
The institutions have also taken aninterest in top level sport. One practicalmanifestation of this is the High
A striking image of the epicmatch between the BasquePaulino Uzcudun and theGerman Max Schmelingfor the Europeanheavyweight championshipat the Montjuïc Stadium in1932, before more thanforty thousand spectators.
The Volta Ciclista aCatalunya in 1920. TheVolta is the third oldeststage race in Europe, afterthe Tour de France and theGiro d'Italia.
A moment from a women'sbasketball match in theforties between RCDEspanyol and the women'ssection of the Falange. Thegame was introduced intoSpain via Barcelona in theearly twenties. In 1924, inconnection with thefounding of the CatalanFederation, the first officialmatches were held inCatalonia.
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The great champion TazioNuvolarì in one of themotor races which wereheld at the Montjuïc circuitin 1936. This urban circuitwas the scene of Formula 1World Championship racesin 1969, 1971, 1973 and1975. Catalonia did notagain have a permanenttrack for races of thiscategory until 1991, whenthe Circuit de Catalunya atMontmeló was opened.
Finish of the traditionalChristmas swim across thePort of Barcelona, whichthe Club NatacióBarcelona, founded byBernat Picornell in 1907,organised from 1927onwards.
Performance Centre (CAR) in SantCugat, one of the most extraordinarynew facilities, which was set up by theGeneralitat of Catalonia and the HigherSports Council to foster top-level sport.Inaugurated in October 1987, it isequipped with high quality technical,scientific and educational resources totrain the sportsmen and women who willtake part in the leading competitions andact as a spur to the practice of sport bythe general public. The CAR has athleticstracks, an indoor pool, a grass pitch,tennis courts, grounds and halls for oneor various sports. In 1991 there were 180boarders, 150 day students and 50members of staff: teachers, trainers,doctors and technicians.
Over the last few years, with theOlympic Games in view, federated sporthas gone from strength to strength.Assistance from institutions, federationsand clubs has led to a dramatic increasein the number of people playing sport ofone kind or another. In 1986 the Catalan
sports federations had a total of 5,079affiliated bodies, which by 1990 hadrisen to 8,617.
In short, the improvement in economicand social conditions and the increase inthe popularity of sport -due largely tothe boost given by the media, televisionin particular- have been decisive factorsin the growth and spread of the practiceof sport in Catalonia.
The Olympic calling
At the 18th Session of the IOC held inAntwerp during the 1920 Olympics,Barcelona made a formal request toorganise the Games in 1924. The othercandidate cities were Amsterdam, Rome,Los Angeles, Prague and Paris.
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Josep Eliàs i Juncosa and SantiagoGarcia Alsina attended the session, butthe host city was not chosen: the decisionwas adjourned to the session planned forJune 1921 in Lausanne.
While waiting for the year to pass, thecity created a candidature committeeheaded by King Alfonso XIII ashonorary president and work began onLa Foixarda Stadium, which was finishedin 1923. Today it is used as a rugbyground.
However, the Barcelona Candidature wasfaced with a decisive setback: Pierre deCoubertin wrote a letter to the membersof the IOC asking them to vote for Paris.The argument he advanced was thethirtieth anniversary of the revival of theGames, though he also wished to wipeout the bad memory left behind by theway the event had been organised in thecity in 1900. In the letter he recognisedthe quality of the Amsterdamcandidature and asked for a vote for the
city for 1928. Shortly afterwardsCoubertin's recommendation (no lessthan a coup d'état, as he himselfacknowledged) proved its effectiveness:Paris and Amsterdam were chosen toorganise the Games of the VIII and IXOlympiads. The president's letter read:"The choice of the city which will takeon the organisation of the next Games isparticularly important on this occasion,as the VIII Olympiad coincides with thethirtieth anniversary of the revival of theOlympic Games. Many attractivecandidatures have been put forward. Ifwe weigh up the qualities of the citiesthe name of Amsterdam seems to standout. But, on the other hand, as therenewer of the Olympic Games isapproaching the end of his labours,no-one will deny his right to ask aspecial favour for his native city. Pariswas the place where, on 23 June 1894,the revival of the Olympiads wascarefully prepared and solemnlyproclaimed. I must therefore advise youin all honesty, dear colleagues, that at
Coubertin with severalpersonalities and officers ofthe Club Gimnàstic deTarragona, one of theoldest in Catalonia,founded in 1868. In 1926,Pierre de Coubertin, drivingforce behind the revival ofthe Olympic Games andpresident of the IOC untilthe previous year, visitedBarcelona and other partsof Catalonia. He made hisfirst visit because yearsearlier Barcelona had madeits first application toorganise the Games.
This poster announcing thesports competitionsorganised in connectionwith the BarcelonaUniversal Exhibition in1929 shows that Cataloniahad some fine sports posterdesigners.
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The third president of theIOC, Henri deBaillet-Latour fromBelgium, during his visit toBarcelona for the openingof Montjuïc Stadium in1929. Two years earlier thisOlympic leader had beenpresent at the laying of thefoundation stone of thestadium, restored for the1992 Games.
Montjuïc Stadium in 1929.In the foreground, one ofthe two equestriansculptures by Pau Gargallowhich crowned the facade.
our next meeting I shall be asking you toset aside your preferences and yournational interests under these greatcircumstances and to accept the award ofthe Games of the IX Olympiad toAmsterdam (1928) and to proclaim Parishost city for those of the VIII Olympiad(1924)."
Of the candidate cities for theorganisation of the 1924 Games, LosAngeles was the one to voice its disgustat the IOC's decision most strongly as,like Barcelona, it had already begun tobuild various Olympic facilities. Inrecognition of the tenacity shown by theBarcelona sports managers, theAssociació Esportiva de Catalunyareceived the Olympic Cup in the sameyear.
In March 1922, things in Paris were notgoing too well and the French OlympicCommittee considered the possibility ofwithdrawing. Coubertin contacted LosAngeles to see about the possibility of an
impromptu change of site. When theParis organisation finally got off theground, the Games of the X Olympiadwere awarded to Los Angeles, nine yearsin advance.
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After these nominations Barcelonapresented its second candidature, for theGames of 1936. The Barcelona of thesecond decade of the century, amanufacturing and sporting centre whichhad consolidated the ties between thecity and the Olympic movement,received a visit from Baron Pierre deCoubertin in 1926. He left behind aphrase which has become famous:"Before I had visited Barcelona, Ithought that I knew what a sporting citywas like" (7 November 1926).
The second application by Barcelonaaroused great enthusiasm and coincidedwith an economic and cultural boom. In1929 the International Exhibition washeld and two sports facilities wereinaugurated for the occasion onMontjuïc, bearing fresh witness to thecity's determination to hold the Games:the stadium (now the Estadi Olímpic)and the swimming pool, the only one at
the time large enough for Olympiccompetitions.
On 5 April 1927 the foundation stone ofthe Montjuïc Stadium was laid. CountHenri de Baillet-Latour, president of theIOC, was present as part of anexhaustive visit to Barcelona. On thefirst day he went from Miramar to LaFoixarda, the Palau Nacional and officesof the 1929 Exhibition, where he saw theplans for the stadium. The next day hevisited the Club Marítim, then took aboat trip to the Club Natació Barcelonaand visited the courts of the Reial Clubde Tennis Barcelona and the Club deTennis del Turó. To finish off he went tothe Real Club de Polo, the CercleEqüestre and the Real Sociedad deCarreras de Caballos.
Alexandria, Berlin, Budapest, BuenosAires, Cologne, Dublin, Frankfurt amMain, Helsinki, Nuremberg, Rome andBarcelona were the candidates on theshort list for the Games of 1936. The
On 20 May 1929, KingAlfonso XIII officiallyopened Montjuïc Stadium.
Mountain sports, closelyassociated with thediscovery of nature andleisure, have long been verypopular. The mountainsports section of the CentreExcursionista deCatalunya, formed in 1890as a result of theamalgamation of theAssociació Catalanistad'Excursions Científiques(1876) and the AssociacióCatalana d'Excursions(1878), organised skiing,skating and bobsleighchampionships in thePyrenees in 1912.
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Poster for the car andmotorcycle races at theTerramar track in Sitges in1923.
On 24 April 1931 the 29thIOC Session was held inBarcelona. This meetingwas to decide the Olympiccity for the 1936 Games. Inhonour of the president ofthe IOC, Henri deBaillet-Latour, a footballmatch was organised atMontjuïc Stadium betweenthe Irish Free State and theSpanish Republic,proclaimed a few daysearlier. Present, amongstother figures, were NicetoAlcalá Zamora, president ofthe Republic, FrancescMacià, president of therevived Generalitat ofCatalonia and LluísCompanys, mayor ofBarcelona.
nomination was to be decided inBarcelona on 24 April 1931 at the 29thSession of the IOC and the prospects forthe city could not have been brighter.
But at the time the political situation inSpain was very tense: ten days earlier theSecond Republic had been establishedand King Alfonso XIII had gone intoexile. In spite of everything, nineteen ofthe sixty-seven members of the IOCcame to Barcelona. The Olympicdelegation were pleasantly surprised bytheir reception by the Catalan authoritiesand by the response of the people of thecity. The mayor of Barcelona, JaumeAiguadé, and the president of theGeneralitat, Francesc Macià, spared noeffort to make the visitors feel welcome.After a football match between the teamsof the Irish Free State and the SpanishRepublic at a packed Montjuïc Stadium,Count Baillet-Latour stated at a pressconference: "The Olympic calling ofBarcelona is beyond any doubt. I havebeen to the splendid Montjuïc Stadium,
the pride of Spanish sport, and I have nodoubt that the city has the strength, thecapacity and the spirit to organise theOlympic Games. The presence of thepresidents of the Second Republic ofSpain and the Generalitat of Catalonia inthe box shows that the whole countryparticipates in these sporting events."
Because of a lack of quorum, thedecision about the site for the 1936Games was adjourned and it was agreedthat there would be a postal vote. Thecount was made in Lausanne one monthlater: Berlin, the winner, obtained 43votes; Barcelona 16; and there were 8abstentions.
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With the disappointment of 1931 andthe political events of the time in Spainand the rest of Europe, the idea oforganising an athletics event inopposition to the Berlin Games graduallytook shape. It was to be a counterblast tothe concept of sport held by the NationalSocialist regime of Adolf Hitler, whichhad been in power since 1933.
The government of the Spanish Republicdeclined to take part in Berlin andgroups emerged from various quartersprepared to promote an alternativemeeting to the official Games. Theinfluential American Amateur AthleticUnion made its participation conditionalon an official declaration from theGerman government about the Jewishathletes. The president of the IOC, Henride Baillet-Latour, took a similar line,demanding that the German OlympicCommittee adhere strictly to the rules ofthe Olympic Charter. In many European
countries, particularly in France, theforces of the left and the trade unionsadvocated a boycott of the Berlin Games,though in the end the government ofLéon Blum decided to take part.Nevertheless, they granted a subsidy of600,000 francs to the delegation whichwas to attend the alternative event. On 6and 7 June 1936 an InternationalConference for the Defence of theOlympic Spirit was held in Paris;alternative competitions were organisedin Prague and an exhibition called TheOlympiad under the Dictatorship was heldin Amsterdam.
The sporting competitions of the People'sOlympiad, the name given to thealternative Games, were to be held inBarcelona in the week of 19 to 26 July1936. The Generalitat had promoted anorganising committee, the facilitiesinaugurated on Montjuïc in 1929 wouldbe used as the venues for thecompetitions and accommodation andthe writer Josep Maria de Sagarra was
January Reis (Epiphany) International HockeyTournament
Start of the Monte Carlo Rally Sports competitions heldannually in Barcelona
Source: Sports department.Barcelona City Council
The People's Olympiad
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Solo Moto Indoor Dirt Track Trial
International Winter Polo TournamentBarcelona-Sitges International Vintage CarRallyLloret-Costa Brava Car Rally
Comte de Godó Tennis Trophy
Barcelona Equestrian Grand PrixEl Corte Inglés Popular RaceCiutat de Barcelona Athletics ChampionshipInternational Tennis Tournament
Ciutat de Barcelona International PetanqueTournament
Ciutat de Barcelona Athletics TrophyCiutat de Barcelona Archery Trophy
International Springboard Diving TournamentBarcelona Mediterrani InternationalWindsurfing Regatta
Tour of Catalonia (Cycling)Formula Motorboat Grand Prix
Segura-Viudas RallyCiutat de Barcelona Table Tennis Tournament
Ciutat de Barcelona Judo CupCiutat de Barcelona InternationalTaekwondo ChampionshipSupercross
Catalonia International Women's ArtisticGymnastics Trophy Jean Bouin Grand Prix
Ciutat de Barcelona Swimming Grand Prix
Catalana Cycling WeekBarcelona Clay Pigeon ShootingChampionshipCatalonia Cycling WeekCiutat de Barcelona Fencing Trophy
Roller-skate raceCiutat de Barcelona Rythmic GymnasticsChampionshipCiutat de Barcelona Squash Tournament
Catalunya Polo ChampionshipInternational Junior Hockey Tournament
Ciutat de Barcelona Modern PentathlonTrophyCiutat de Barcelona Yachting Trophy
Joan Gamper Football TrophyCiutat de Barcelona Football Trophy
Open Golf TornamentLa Mercè Race
Montjuïc Castle International Cycling Climb
"Joaquim Blume Memorial" Ciutat deBarcelona Men's Artistic GymnasticsInternational Criterium
Christmas Swimming CupCiutat de Barcelona Handball Tournament
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On 19 July 1936 the paperswere still announcing theopening ceremony of thePeople's Olympiad. Thisevent had been organised inresponse to the growingpoliticisation of the BerlinOlympic Games, whichwere to take place thefollowing month.
The People's Olympiad wasto have taken place between22 and 26 July, but therising against thegovernment of the Republicby troops in Barcelona on19 July, the day after thestart of the Spanish CivilWar, caused its cancellation.
commissioned to write an anthem, whichwas set to music by the German exileHans Eisler. According to latercalculations, about 6,000 competitorsentered for the events; they were mostlySpanish (4,000) and French (1,500), butthere were delegations from Algeria,Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia,Denmark, Finland, Germany, GreatBritain, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy,Morocco, the Netherlands, Norway,Palestine, Sweden, Switzerland, the USAand the USSR. About 20,000 visitorswere expected.
The whole event was organised in arecord time of two months and enjoyedwide popular support. On 19 Julyeverything was ready for the openingceremony of the Games and the People'sFolklore Week that was to accompanythem. But General Franco's uprising inMorocco against the legitimategovernment of the Republic two daysbefore marked the outbreak of the CivilWar and prevented the competition from
being held. On the day the newspaperheadlines still read "Today the People'sOlympiad begins". Given the turn thatevents were taking, there was only timeto make the opening speech and for theathletes to form Picasso's dove of peaceon the turf at the Montjuïc Stadium. Assoon as the uprising in Barcelona hadbeen smothered, the foreign athletes wereevacuated. However, some of themstayed on in the city and enlisted in theInternational Brigades, which defendedthe Republic during the Civil War.
At the 30th Session of the IOC in LosAngeles during the 1932 Games,Barcelona had again presented itscandidature for 1940, in spite of itsearlier disappointment. The site was tobe decided in Berlin in July 1936 beforethe opening of the Games. The othercities competing were Alexandria,Budapest, Buenos Aires, Dublin,
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Helsinki, Montreal, Rio de Janeiro,Rome and Toronto.
Constancy and tenacity were the cardsplayed by two of the European cities,Barcelona and Rome. Nevertheless,another unexpected competitor emerged:Tokyo, which sent representatives toRome to talk to Mussolini and explaintheir plans to him. Rome withdrew andTokyo presented its candidature. Thearguments were that the Games hadnever been held in Asia and that 1940would mark the commemoration of the26th centenary of the foundation ofJapan. The Tokyo City Council haddecided to grant a credit of a million yento cover the athletes' travelling expenses.
In spite of the power of the Tokyocandidature, Barcelona forged ahead withits attempt, but the outbreak of the CivilWar fifteen days before the nominationprevented the Spanish delegation, led byAugust Pi i Sunyer, president of theCOE, from going to Berlin to formalisethe petition.
In the end Tokyo was chosen, but in July1938 it withdrew because of theSino-Japanese War. The Games werethen hastily given to Helsinki, but theonset of the Second World War broughtabout the cancellation of the event.
The Olympic Games, adjourned for twoconsecutive Olympiads because of thewar, returned in London in 1948.
In 1951 Barcelona organised the WorldRoller Hockey Championship, the firstinternational sporting event held in thecity since the Civil War, and repeated itin 1954.
In July 1955 Barcelona hosted theSecond Mediterranean Games. On thatoccasion, the city demonstrated itsorganisational capacity and itsinhabitants' love of sport: they filled notonly the Montjuïc Stadium but all the
The first internationalcompetition to be held inSpain after the Civil Warwas the World RollerHockey Championship,which was held inBarcelona in 1951. Threeyears later, thechampionship returned tothe Catalan capital, withthe triumph of the hostteam, whose coach wasJuan Antonio Samaranch(second on the right).
Poster for the SecondMediterranean Games,which were held inBarcelona in the summer of1955. With the holding ofthese Games, the city onceagain demonstrated itscapacity to play host tointernational sportingcompetitions.
The Stadium in a ferment
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The Palau d'Esports deBarcelona, on Montjuïc,was built for the SecondMediterranean Games.
A novelty in the streets ofBarcelona: illuminatedsigns in the city centreduring the SecondMediterranean Games.
Opening of the SecondMediterranean Games, atMontjuïc Stadium. Anamphora full of sea waterfrom the ancient Greek port
of Empúrìes on the CostaBrava was carried to thestadium by relays of runners.
competition venues for the 21 sports onthe programme, such as the Palaud'Esports or La Foixarda Stadium. Thiswas the first opportunity for themembers of the IOC to visit the citysince the session of 1931.
The idea of applying to host the SecondMediterranean Games had come fromEpifani de Fortuny i de Salazar, Barond'Esponellà. A crucial part was played byJuan Antonio Samaranch, whoencouraged the involvement of theOlympic federations of the sports on theprogramme.
The opening of the Games was heraldedby the arrival of an amphora with waterfrom the Mediterranean brought from thebeaches of Empúries, the ancient Greekcolony. From there it was carried byrelays of athletes to Barcelona inimitation of the traditional Olympictorch route. This original idea, attributedto Carles Pardo, press officer for theGames, has been carried on at later
Mediterranean Games, which have beenheld in Beirut, Naples, Tunis, Smyrna,Algiers, Split, Casablanca, Latakia andAthens.
At the closing ceremony, ArmandMassard of France, the officialrepresentative of the IOC, spoke thesewords: "After living with you for twoweeks, I can state that Barcelonadeserves to organise the Olympic Games.Your managers, the athletes of thecountry, the enthusiasm of the public,the sports facilities, everything hasdemonstrated that Barcelona is a citycapable of carrying out the organisationof the leading Olympic event. I shall putthis in my report."
In 1965 Barcelona City Councilpresented a new application to organisethe Olympic Games, this time in 1972.The proposal was sent to the IOC. At the
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end of December, the president of theCOE, José Antonio Elola Olaso, for noapparent reason, changed the candidaturefor Madrid, with a proposal to hold theaquatic and nautical sports events inBarcelona. Juan Antonio Samaranch,now national delegate for Sport inCatalonia, was on a trip to Australiawith the Spanish Davis Cup Team. OtherCatalan members of the COE were ontrips or on holiday and so missed themeeting at which the change was decided.
Madrid formalised its candidature to theIOC on 30 December 1965, a few daysbefore the official deadline. The otheraspiring cities were Detroit, Montrealand Munich. At the 64th Session of theIOC in Rome in April 1966, the Gameswere awarded to Munich.
At the Munich Olympic Games, LordKillanin was elected president of theIOC. On a visit to Barcelona in October1972, he declared: "The sports facilitiesof this great city place Barcelona among
the most privileged cities to organise,when required, an Olympic Games. Ithas been well accredited to do so formany years".
The Catalan gymnastJoaquim Blume performingon the rings, on which hewas a consummate expert.Blume, senior Spanishgymnastics championbetween 1949 and 1958 andEuropean champion in1957, could not take partin the Melbourne Games in1956, at which he was acertain candidate for amedal, because of aSpanish boycott. Threeyears later he died in aplane crash.
The torch which took theOlympic flame to Mexicoin 1968 passed through thecity of Barcelona on itsway from Olympia to theMexican capital. FromBarcelona it was carried byrelays of athletes to Palosde la Frontera, where it wastaken on board ship for thejourney to the host country.
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Opening ceremony of theWorld Cup in June 1982 atthe FC Barcelona stadium.On the turf, hundreds ofvolunteers formed Picasso'sdove of peace, from whichthe flags of the competingcountries emerged.
On 31 January 1981 at thedinner organised annuallyby the daily El MundoDeportivo to announce thesportsmen and women ofthe year, mayor ofBarcelona Narcís Serramade public for the firsttime, before the president ofthe IOC, Juan AntonioSamaranch, his wish topresent Barcelona'sCandidature for theorganisation of the 1992Olympic Games.
A lithograph from thestudio of the painter AntoniTàpies, reproduced on thecover of the City Council'sfirst publication relatedwith the BarcelonaCandidature, Barcelonapretén els Jocs de 1992.
In mid-1980, the mayor of Barcelona,Narcís Serra, and the deputy mayors,Josep Miquel Abad, Josep Maria Cullelland Pasqual Maragall, began to carry outa study of the possibility of holding theOlympic Games in the city. On 31January 1981, at a dinner to celebratethe awards for the sportsmen and womenof the year organised annually by ElMundo Deportivo at the Hotel PrincesaSofía, Narcís Serra announced in publicthat he wished to offer the city as thesite for the 1992 Olympic Games. JuanAntonio Samaranch was also present: hehad been appointed president of the IOCin July of that year. The dinner wasattended by about a thousand people,including sportsmen and women anddirectors of sports federations and clubs.They all received the proposal withenthusiastic applause. This piece of newswas more than just an idea, as wasconfirmed by later events.
The next step was to have a plenarysession of the City Council agree tomake an official application for theorganisation of the 1992 OlympicGames. The city council, democraticallyelected for the first time in forty years,had councillors from five parties: PSC,PSUC, CiU, UCD and ERC. From thedebate which took place on 30 June 1981among the representatives of theseparties came the first agreement adoptedunanimously by the new democraticcouncil: to present the BarcelonaOlympic candidature again.
Just a month before, in the Saló de Cent,the mayor had taken advantage of theking's visit to Barcelona on the occasionof the Armed Forces Week to present tohim the proposal to apply for theorganisation of the 1992 OlympicGames. Although King Juan Carlos didnot give an official reply, he did expresshis sympathy with the Olympicaspirations of the city.
A decree from the mayor's office on 14January 1982 put the official seal on thework that Romà Cuyàs had been doingsince the summer of 1981. He was alsocommissioned to direct a viability studyfor the Games and to produce a dossierfor the reporters who would be travellingto Barcelona for the World Football Cupon 12 June 1982. This was the birth ofthe publication Barcelona pretén els Jocsde 1992, which was produced with coversspecially designed by the painter Antoni
Tàpies; it explained the reasons whyBarcelona deserved to host the OlympicGames. Reactions to the book were veryfavourable; it was published in fivelanguages and presented to the journalistswith a key-ring, post cards, writing paperand envelopes. The City Council alsobrought out the Guia de l'Esport, whichcontained an exhaustive list of the 1,300facilities and 250 areas which could beused for sport, as well as the 1,200sporting bodies in the city.
At the same time, a study of the worksto be done in the city and the realchances it had of winning thenomination was prepared. The report,entitled Projecte de Jocs OlímpicsBarcelona 1992. Primeres aproximacions,was presented to reporters on 11November 1982. It appraised theusefulness and the possibilities of thecandidature and posed five questions:
1. Is it desirable for a country toorganise the Olympic Games?2. Is the project in the interests ofBarcelona, Catalonia and the rest of Spain?3. Is it possible for Barcelona to win thenomination?4. Are we ready to take on the Games?What are we lacking?5. Can we assume the economicresponsibility?
The answer to the first question wastotally positive; the city would be thefocus of world attention for fifteen days,with all the spin-offs of an Olympicevent: crowds of visitors, improvementsto telecommunications, a boost for thepractice of sport. The report alsoaffirmed that the Games were the mostimportant peaceful event in the world.
For the second question, the reportstated that the commitments involved inthe organisation of the Games could be auseful instrument for political decisionmaking and a way of speeding upimprovements to the city and the qualityof life of the people who lived there. Italso defended the thesis that the OlympicGames would make it possible to provideamenities and plan the promotion ofsport globally for the city and the country.
As far as the third question wasconcerned, the report evaluated the realpossibilities of Barcelona winning thenomination. Conditions for 1992 were
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The first estimates
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ideal, as neither of the previous Gameshad been held in Europe. Furthermore,in spite of repeated applications, Spainhad never been awarded the Olympics.
Moreover, the report mentioned that thenew president of the IOC had been bornin Barcelona, which was an excellentletter of introduction for the candidature.It also recalled that this was the fourthapplication to host the Games andpointed out that the infrastructure of thecity was appropriate for an event of thisscope and that there was a fund ofaccumulated experience in theorganisation of international sportingcompetitions and tournaments.
For the fourth question the reportdescribed the basic scheme for thepreparation of the Games, based on aspecific project for the city which couldbe applied and remain valid for the nextten years. The areas requiringdevelopment were identified; theintention was to restore the balance of
the city and open up the mainthoroughfares. It pointed out thattwenty-seven of the thirty-two venuesrequired for the competitions alreadyexisted. Furthermore, the occasion shouldbe used to carry out a series of buildingworks which, without the deadline of theGames, would be unlikely to be completed.
Bearing in mind the sporting tradition ofMontjuïc, there was a proposal to build asports hall beside the Stadium which, inturn, would be renovated. Athleticstraining tracks would also be laid, theBernat Picornell swimming pools and thePalau d'Esports would be refurbished andnew car parks and accesses would becreated.
During a visit to Barcelonaby the king and queen ofSpain in May, 1981, themayor of Barcelonarepeated the city's intentionto apply to organise theGames, and asked for royalsponsorship for theCandidature.
On 11 November 1982 thestudy Projecte de JocsOlímpics Barcelona 1992.Primeres aproximacions.was released to the press.This report examined forthe first time the city'schances of submitting asound application to holdthe Games.
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Projecte de Jocs OlímpicsBarcelona 1992. Primeresaproximacions. This reportproposed the location of theOlympic areas of Barcelonaand the participation ofother cities as Olympicsubsites.
The Plaça de FrancescMacià, one of the maincommercial and servicecentres of the city, islocated at the mainentrance to the DiagonalOlympic Area.
The report emphasised the importance ofthe Diagonal area and the heavyconcentration of private sports facilitieswhich could be used during the Games.It also recommended eliminating therailway line which crossed Poblenou,which would leave a large plot of landfree for the site of the Olympic Village.
The report also proposed that othertowns around Barcelona should be usedfor Olympic competitions. The process oftransforming the city was conceived interms of the whole metropolitan area,with a series of town planning measures,roads and transport systems. Mentionwas made of constructing the Llobregatdual carriageway, a coastal ring road andthe Vallvidrera and Rovira tunnels, ofcompleting the second ring road, ofextending the Avinguda Diagonal towardsthe sea, of enlarging the airport andextending the subway to Montjüic.
Lastly, the report weighed the questionof the financing of the organisation. Itproposed to follow a similar model tothe one to be used for the Games in LosAngeles, where private enterprise playedan important part. Later, most of thefinancial forecasts were more than realised.
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On 12 November 1982 the mayor ofBarcelona, Narcís Serra, and the directorgeneral of Sport at the Generalitat, JosepLluís Vilaseca, the representative of thegovernment of Catalonia, which hadgiven its support to the Barcelonaventure from the very early stages,presented the first estimates to JuanAntonio Samaranch, president of theIOC. They travelled to Lausanne,accompanied by the councillor for Sportfor Barcelona, Enric Truñó, and theauthor of the report, Romà Cuyàs.
The Piscines BernatPicornell, in the MontjuïcArea, were built for theEuropean SwimmingChampionships in 1970.The early reports on theviability of organising the1992 Games consideredrefurbishment to makethem suitable as anOlympic venue.
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Aerial view of the coastaldistrict of Poblenou in thelate seventies. TheBarcelona Candidatureproposed the rebuilding ofthe whole of this section ofthe city to accommodatethe Olympic Village, whichwould house all the athletesand accompanying personswho would attend the 1992Games. The demolition ofthe old factories andwarehouses, many of whichwere already disused, andthe removal of the railwaylines that ran parallel tothe coast, has meant thatBarcelona has recoveredfour and a half kilometresof beach and put an end tothe centuries-old expressionthat the city "lives with itsback to the sea".
On 2 December 1982, themayor, Narcís Serra, theinitial promoter of theOlympic Candidature, leftoffice and was succeeded byhis deputy, PasqualMaragall.
The Olympic Office and the ManagingCouncil
The presentation of the report Primeresaproximacions, which demonstrated theviability of the Olympic project, was thestarting signal of a race to reach the dateof the nomination, four years later, withmaximum guarantees of success. The firststep was to establish and formalise theorganisational structures for theadministration of the Candidature.
On 26 November 1982, the BarcelonaCity Council approved the setting up ofthe Olympic Office, with Romà Cuyàs ascommissioner. That was one of the laststeps taken by Narcís Serra, as after theelections that year he was summoned tobe minister of Defence and left themayor's post to his deputy for theTreasury, Pasqual Maragall. The newincumbent was no less enthusiastic aboutthe idea than his predecessor had been.Indeed, at one of the first events that heattended, just a few days after hisappointment, he personally presented theking with the book Barcelona pretén elsJocs de 1992.
The operational framework for theCandidature was formally established inJanuary 1983, when the Barcelona CityCouncil and the Generalitat of Cataloniasigned the agreement constituting theManaging Council for the BarcelonaCandidature for the 1992 OlympicGames. The Managing Council, whichhad to bring together all the institutionswhich were to make the Games of theXXV Olympiad possible, became thehighest representational and decisionmaking body. Its main function was toset out the guidelines for the Olympicproject and coordinate the measures tobe taken.
The Olympic Office was to be the organresponsible for implementing thedecisions of the Managing Council andits mediator and technical adviser in allthe actions planned. It therefore took ona double role. First, it had to coordinateprojects and studies, both thoseconnected with town planning anddevelopment and those relatedspecifically to the organisation of theGames, and prepare the PreliminaryProject and the Candidature Dossier.Second, it had to promote the Games tothe public, institutions and the Olympicauthorities with the aim of creating themost favourable conditions for thenomination.
On 4 February 1983 Armand Carabénwas appointed commissioner for theCandidature, replacing Romà Cuyàs, whohad been appointed secretary general forSport in the Spanish government on 15December 1982. Armand Carabén onlyoccupied the post from February to May1983, when Joan Mas Cantí replacedhim until the nomination. At the sametime, the post of director of the OlympicOffice was created and Jordi Serra wasappointed. In the last months of 1983,the Olympic Office left its headquartersin the Barcelona City Council andmoved to a building belonging to theConsorci de la Zona Franca.
At the start, the Office was financed bythe municipality, but soon its incomewas increased by contributions from theother institutions represented on theManaging Council and from the businesssector.
In November 1983, Pasqual Maragallmet a group of businessmen under theaegis of the Barcelona Chamber ofCommerce, Industry and Navigation andasked them to take part in themanagement and financing of theCandidature. This was the first time thata joint venture of this kind had beensuggested to local firms; precedents hadto be sought in the steps taken by MayorFrancesc N. Rius i Taulet to finance theUniversal Exhibition in 1888. Thebusinessmen welcomed the idea andfrom that first encounter there emerged acommitment to economic cooperation onthe Candidature budget and the inclusionof a representative of the sector on thegoverning bodies.
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The presentation of a candidature for theorganisation of the Olympic Gamesrequired action on two fronts which wereclearly differentiated in terms ofimplementation. First, all theorganisational and functional aspectswhich would make the Games possiblehad to be planned, described anddesigned; in other words, the PreliminaryProject had to be prepared. However, themost critical projects, such asinfrastructures and the main facilitieswhich would provide the framework forthe Olympic event and which were notready, had to be got underwayimmediately. Rapid action was called for;planning had to begin and, in somecases, the implementation of certainprojects, well before the Olympicnomination. From the moment that the
aspirations of the city to host the Gamesof the XXV Olympiad were made publicthe first technical and legal studiesexamining the adaptation of the city tothe urban and sporting demands of theGames were set in motion.
There were two very positive facets tothis. First, the Candidature acted as aspur to contending with certain historicaldeficits in infrastructures and amenitiesin the city and triggered off a burst ofactivity which was not dependent on theeventual success of the application.Second, the Candidature woulddemonstrate to the IOC that the city waswilling to prepare and that not only wereplans being made, but measures werebeing taken in the sectors crucial to theGames.
The Velodrome, in the Valld'Hebron Area, was thefirst Olympic-standardvenue to be built inBarcelona before thenomination. It was openedon the occasion of theWorld CyclingChampionships, which wereheld there in the summer of1984.
Future projects and immediate measures
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Model of the OlympicStadium. The Candidatureproposed the preservation,because of its symbolicvalue, of the facade of theold stadium which had beenopened in 1929 for theInternational Exhibitionand the reconstruction ofthe entire interior, with anew stand and a largercapacity.
The agreement for theconstitution of theManaging Council of theBarcelona Candidature forthe 1992 Olympic Gamesand the creation of theOlympic Office was signedby the Generalitat ofCatalonia and theBarcelona City Council inJanuary 1983. Later, theywere joined by the Spanishgovernment and the COE.
Montjuïc Stadium beforethe rebuilding work began.
Barcelona had no facilities for high leveltrack cycling competitions, somethingwhich would be indispensable for theOlympic events. The idea of building avelodrome was put forward when theidea of the Barcelona Candidature wasjust emerging.
In July 1981 the preliminary studies hadbeen carried out with the idea of holdingthe 1984 World Cycling Championshipthere.
In this way the Barcelona Candidaturecould show the Olympic Family one ofthe most modern facilities of its kind,which would be ready for the Games in1992. The new velodrome, designed bythe architects Esteve Bonell and FrancescRius, is a fine building located in thenorth of the district of Horta andbecame the central sports venue of theVall d'Hebron Olympic Area.
One of the first decisions taken duringthe embryonic stage of the Candidaturewas to locate the venues for the leadingevents on the Olympic programme inMontjuïc. Both its proximity to the seaand the city centre and its long sportingtradition -several facilities had alreadybeen built there- carried decisive weightwhen it came to making the choice.
Montjuïc already had an OlympicStadium which had been inaugurated in1929, but it had deteriorated throughlack of use and maintenance. Part of theBarcelona Olympic plan was to recoverthe Stadium, to complete thedevelopment of Montjuïc Park and tointegrate it into the city as a public spacewhich could be exploited to the full. Theemblematic nature of the Stadium andthe wish to restore it to the function forwhich it had been built were thearguments advanced in support of theimplementation of this plan. On 6
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October 1982, the Barcelona CityCouncil announced its intention to throwopen an international competition for therenovation of the Stadium and thedevelopment of the Montjuïc OlympicRing.
The Olympic Office began to draft theMontjuïc Olympic Ring Master Plan,which was completed in April 1983. Itwas approved by the Managing Councilat a meeting in July and later ratified bythe City Council.
The Master Plan established exactlywhich sports facilities would be built inthe Montjuïc Olympic Ring: the OlympicStadium, the new sports hall (the futurePalau Sant Jordi), the Bernat Picornellswimming pools and the InstitutNacional d'Educació Física de Catalunya(INEFC ) headquarters, and suggested acertain way of laying them out -along awide avenue which would act as alinking element. It also provided for alarge park and set out a system of
accesses to the hill and particularly tothe facilities of the Ring.
In August 1983, the Managing Councilinvited eight teams of leading architectsto present a general plan for laying outthe Olympic Ring in such a way that theuse of the facilities and public areas forthe Games would be compatible with theuse to be made of them afterwards. Theteams invited were those of RicardBofïll, Josep Antoni Coderch, FredericCorrea/Alfons Milà/Joan Margarit/CarlesBuixadé, Francisco Sainz de Oiza/RafaelMoneo, Vittorio Gregotti, Arata Isozaki,James Stirling and Richard Weidle.Coderch and Stirling declined theinvitation; the other groups submittedtheir proposals at the end of the year.
On 16 January 1984, a technicalcommittee delegated by the ManagingCouncil announced the results of thecompetition: it was decided to share outthe different elements of the OlympicRing among the majority of the
The various parts of theOlympic Ring were sharedamongst some of thearchitects who had takenpart in the internationalcompetition organised bythe Managing Council inJanuary 1984. The teamconsisting of FredericCorrea, Alfons Milà, JoanMargarit and CarlesBuixadé were commissionedto execute the overalldesign of the Ring and tocooperate in the rebuildingof the stadium.
The model of the project byArata Isozaki shows adaring, avant-garde design.It was chosen for anextremely importantbuilding: the sports hall.
Ricard Bofill's architecturalstudio presented aneoclassical design, chosenfor the University of Sport,later the INEFC.
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Project presented by theItalian architect VittorìoGregotti, who was finallyentrusted with rebuildingthe Olympic stadium, inconjunction with theCorrea/Milà/Margarìt/Buixadéteam.
On the basis of the projectsof the various groups ofarchitects, the OlympicOffice prepared this initialdrawing of the OlympicRing. Later, a baseballstadium was added, locatednear the INEFC, and anathletics track, adjacent tothe new Pau Negre rugbystadium, behind the sportshall.
competitors: the Correa/Milà/Buixadé/Margarit team wascommissioned to produce the generaldesign of the Olympic Ring; the sameteam with Vittorio Gregotti, to carry outthe restoration of the Olympic Stadium;Arata Isozaki was to construct the newsports hall and Ricard Bofïll theheadquarters of the INEFC. The planspresented were exhibited at the Collegeof Architects in April 1984. Theexhibition was called "Montjuïc Olímpic"and was complemented by a cycle oflectures by the authors of the projects,which were included in the catalogue.
From May to July, the different teamsdelivered the preliminary projects foreach of the buildings to the OlympicOffice and in October the architectsagreed with the City Council on thedrafting of the definitive versions.
The detailed studies were made but thefirst building works, the restoration ofthe Olympic Stadium and the laying of
the foundations for the sports hall, didnot begin until February 1985. However,the unanimous opinion was that progresswas faster than in most of the othercities which aspired to be candidates forthe 1992 Olympic Games.
Apart from the facilities in the MontjuïcOlympic Ring and the Vall d'Hebron, theBarcelona Candidature had made plansfor urban development in what was to beanother large Olympic area for theBarcelona of 1992: the Parc de Mar, inPoblenou, where the Olympic Village forthe athletes and team officials who wouldbe coming to the Games was to be built.
Initially the sheer size of thisdevelopment aroused doubts andreticence and it was suggested thatalternatives should be sought to cover theOlympic accommodation. In the end,however, it was decided to forge ahead
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with the studies and the planning of Parcde Mar, which would open up the city toalmost five kilometres of coastline.
The Barcelona Candidature proposed todemolish all the obstacles which stood inthe way of this opening to the sea. To doso they had to draft a wide-ranging planto restructure the area, to modify therailway network and to modernise thesewage system.
In order to proceed with the new layoutof the seafront, all the administrationsinvolved, the city, the metropolitan area,the autonomous community and the statehad to reach an agreement. Furtherarrangements had to be made withservice companies, such as RENFE, andthe land occupied by old industries, mostof them obsolete, as well as somedwellings, had to be expropriated.
The precedents for this town planningproject go back to December 1981:coinciding with the projects which
RENFE was drafting to rationalise andmodernise the Barcelona train services,the mayor, Narcís Serra, and thepresident of the railway company,Alejandro Rebollo, agreed on the basesfor cooperation to solve the urbandevelopment problems created by thecity rail network. At that time the CityCouncil purchased the land on which theold Estació del Nord stood in order toconvert it into amenities. No-one couldhave foreseen then that during the 1992Games these facilities were to be thesetting for the Olympic table tenniscompetition.
The Preliminary Project for theCandidature, which was being drafted atthe time, dealt with the proposal in moredetail: it consisted of putting the part ofthe Glories branch line which crossed thePoblenou area underground andremoving the line along the coast.
One of the Candidature'sgreat challenges was therecovery of the Barcelonacoastline for leisureamenities. After the Gamesthe apartments which formthe Olympic Village ofPoblenou were to become anew residential area of thecity.
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In March 1983 theOlympic Office began topublish the bulletinBarcelona Olympic Newsin four languages, to keepthe Olympic Familyinformed about the progressof the Candidature.
The first poster publishedby the Olympic Officecombined, with tremendousvisual impact, the silhouetteof Montjuïc with theOlympic rings standing outfrom the seaward horizon.
Although these projects were considerednecessary and seemed feasible on paper,it was not possible at the time to findpractical ways of carrying them out.
Promotion and popularisationof the idea
Meanwhile, the Olympic Office set itsadministrative structure in motion anddivided up its activity on several fronts.The main objective was to draft thePreliminary Project. The Los AngelesGames would be an ideal opportunity topresent the Barcelona Candidature to theOlympic Family, but for that the Projecthad to be completed and approved bythe Spanish government and the COE.
In the summer of 1983 coordinationmeetings between the Olympic Officeteam and the members of the publicadministrations, the sports federations
and clubs were held to prepare thePreliminary Project. The report Primeresaproximacions was used as a startingpoint for the drafting.
At the same time the Olympic Officecarried out a series of initiatives to makeits work public and to move theCandidature beyond the original idea,with the twofold aim of popularising itin the city and bringing it closer to themanagers of the Olympic Movement. Theidea and the contents of the Barcelonaproject were therefore explained fully totown councils, districts, political partiesand sports associations in Catalonia andall over Spain.
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In the summer of 1982, that is, beforethe Olympic Office was set up, the CityCouncil had published a book entitledBarcelona pretén els Jocs de 1992. In1984 another one called Barcelona'92appeared; it was a summary of thePreliminary Project in which the initialideas were made more specific. TheOlympic Office continued to issuereports, bulletins and works for publicconsumption. In March 1983 BarcelonaOlympic News was founded; it was aperiodical written in what would be thefour official languages of the Games:Catalan, Spanish, French and English. In1984 the first video with the generic titleBarcelona'92 was produced and presentedat the Los Angeles Olympic Games.
In March 1983 the exhibition "Què ésBarcelona?" opened, the first of a serieswhich explained the progress made bythe candidature. They often coincidedwith important sporting events, such as
the World Cycling Championship held inBarcelona in 1984.
On 16 June 1983 the First Olympic Daywas held. An exhibition was mounted atthe Saló de Tinell with the 33 officialposters for the Summer and WinterOlympic Games up to 1984. This wasthe first time that the IOC had loanedthe posters; moreover, the president lent144 more from his own privatecollection. During the Session in the Salòde Cent at the City Council, thepresident of the Mexico City OrganisingCommittee, Pedro Ramírez Vázquez,gave a lecture on the organisation of the1968 Games and in the Palau de laMúsica Catalana the Olympic anthemwas played. It was the work of the Greekcomposer Spyridon Samaras with wordsby his fellow-countryman, the poet CostisPalamas.
The Second Olympic Day was held on 6June 1984. The torches of the twelveprevious Olympiads, including the
The official posters for theOlympic Games wereexhibited in the Saló delTinell on the occasion ofthe first Olympic Day, 16June 1983.
The Candidature invited thepresident of the OrganisingCommittee of the MexicoOlympic Games, PedroRamírez Vázquez, toBarcelona, where during thefirst Olympic Day he gavea speech in the Saló deCent in the city hall aboutthe organisation of thoseGames.
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The president of the IAAFand the ASOIF, PrimoNebiolo, lent his support tothe Candidature. While hewas in Barcelona on theoccasion of the secondOlympic Day on 6 June1984, he gave an address inthe Saló de Cent in the cityhall.
The Candidature logotype,by the designer AmericaSánchez. With this logotypethe Candidature acquired aspecial graphic image.
The second Olympic Daywas attended by LouisGirandou-N'Diaye, thenfirst vice-president of theIOC. The Olympic leaderwas present at the openingof the exhibition ofOlympic torches at thePalau de la Virreina.
Summer Games from Berlin to LosAngeles and the ones used at the WinterOlympics, were on show. The exhibition,at which the book La flama olímpica waspresented, was held at the Palau de laVirreina and was opened by LouisGirandou-N'Diaye, first vice-president ofthe IOC. At the Saló de Cent, thepresident of the International AmateurAthletics Federation (IAAF) and theAssociation of Summer OlympicInternational Federations (ASOIF), PrimoNebiolo, who expressed his sympathy forthe Barcelona Candidature, gave a lectureentitled "Athletics as a basic sport of theOlympic Games". The Ciutat deBarcelona orchestra, accompanied by theOrfeó Gracienc, also gave a rendering ofthe Olympic anthem at the Palau de laMúsica.
During the Candidature phase two moreOlympic Days were held, in 1985 and1986.
The image of the candidature
At the beginning of 1984, the ManagingCouncil decided to provide theCandidature with a graphic image whichwould identify it and give it its own seal.In April a committee was constituted todraft the bases for a competition tochoose it. In essence the image soughtwas not specifically local, but one whichwould communicate the Barcelona'92concept and would be as understandablein the city as in an international context.Before the competition, other temporarydesigns had been used, such as the posterwhich showed the outline of Montjuïcwith the five Olympic rings rising overthe coastline.
The bases of the competition specifiedthe various applications for which thefuture logotype would be used, bothinternal for the Olympic Office(stationery, exterior signposting,publications) and external (sports events,
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advertising campaigns, facilities,transport, decoration). Of the variousdesigns presented, the one chosen was byAmérica Sánchez, who popularised aparticular aesthetic linked to theCandidature. It was based on the fiveOlympic rings flattened and inperspective. Below them, like a cushion,was an elongated, curved, silver shapewhich, according to the author,represented the outline or horizon of thecity from the sea. The phrase"Barcelona'92" was written on it. Thelogotype was rapidly incorporated into allthe Olympic Office publications and thevarious activities in which theCandidature took part.
The image soon became popular with thepublic, perhaps because of itsadaptability and neutral character. Thegrowing relationship between theCandidature and the people of the cityand Catalonia as a whole helped with therapid assimilation of the symbol.
Besides appearing on cars, the logotypewas adapted to many objects: T-shirts,towels, pencils, pens, lighters, eyeshades,watches, maps, ties, postcards,handkerchiefs and badges. It was alsoused for promotional purposes inpublications, on murals, advertisementsand signs both in institutional andprivate publicity.
The Candidature logotypeapplied to severalpromotional and everydayobjects, created by theOlympic Office.
Barcelona subway carriagewith the promotionalsticker of the Candidature.The graphic image of theCandidature soon becamepopular amongst the peopleof Barcelona, who exhibitedit everywhere.
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Aerial view of the MontjuïcArea in 1985. Theconstruction of the OlympicRing and the landscapingof the Parc del Migdiacompleted the plans forMontjuïc, begun in 1929on the occasion of theInternational Exhibition.
The location of the Olympicareas in different outlyingareas of the city was aresponse to the planners'desire to correctBarcelona's tendency togrow towards the west.
The preliminary project ofthe Candidature, preparedin late 1983, laid down thegeneral criteria for thetransformation the city wasto undergo over thefollowing years. It definedthe four Olympic areas andthe venues for the sports onthe Olympic programme.
The Preliminary Project listed the venuesfor the competitions and described theBarcelona Olympic Games. In the firstphase, the general criteria had to bedeveloped and the process oftransformation of the city to host theevent specified.
The Candidature Preliminary Project wasfinished in 1983. It took six months todraft, and during that time a team ofspecialists outlined the matters whichwould have to be dealt with: the sportingand technological requirements, the townplanning, the residences and thefinancing. Experiences from previousOlympics and contacts with theorganisers of the Los Angeles Gameswere a primary source of informationand comparison.
The conclusions of the PreliminaryProject followed the line traced inPrimeres aproximacions. The figures forthe budget, though it was stressed thatthey were merely indicative,corresponded to detailed estimatescompared with data from previousGames. They were therefore a usefulreference point for the administrationsinvolved when it came to estimating thefinancing for the infrastructures requiredto organise the Games. There was alsoan analysis of the cost to the city incomparison with that of host cities onearlier occasions and the conclusionreached was that it was within its means.
The Preliminary Project definedfundamental questions for the laterdevelopment of the Candidature and theBarcelona'92 organisation: thedemarcation of the four Olympic areas,Montjuîc, Diagonal, Vall d'Hebron andParc de Mar (where the Olympic Villagewas to be located); the participation ofother cities as venues for sportscompetitions; the establishment of amixed model of financing, whichincluded contributions from publicadministrations and the support ofprivate enterprise; and the programmingof a cultural Olympiad lasting four years.
The sports programme and calendar
The Preliminary Project provided forevents in the 23 official sports referred
to in the Olympic Charter, the same onesthat had been included in the LosAngeles programme. The dates proposedwere early summer, between the end ofJune and the beginning of July, over aperiod of sixteen days which would beginon a Saturday and finish on a Sunday, ashad been the custom since the Games inMunich in 1972.
The sports facilities
As the sports facilities in the host cityare one of the basic aspects of theplanning of the Olympic Games, it wasnecessary to analyse the sportinginfrastructure in Barcelona at the timeand see how it compared with thegeneral requirements of the IOC. For thispurpose the Preliminary Project teammade an analysis from which specificproposals for action were drafted.
The Candidature extended the number ofsports facilities required ex professo sothat the subsequent selection would beeasier. Moreover, the criterion forchoosing the facilities gave preference toexisting ones. Of the 46 consideredsuitable for tournaments and finals, only13 had to be newly built (including theOlympic Stadium, which was restored).The idea of building a singlemonumental sports facility complex wasdiscarded from the outset, as in the longrun it would be an excessively onerousoperation for the city.
The Preliminary Project stated that beingchosen to host the Games would justifyconstructing unique amenities whichBarcelona did not possess (Olympicstadium, sports hall, Olympic swimmingpool, velodrome). But for the sportswhich, however relevant to the OlympicGames, were not widely practised(archery, weightlifting, wrestling),temporary constructions would bechosen. In these cases it was consideredmore suitable to use existing buildings ortake advantage of spaces which could beeasily adapted.
Lastly, the proposed new facilities andthe policy of improving existing oneshelped to correct the deficits and torefurbish districts in the city, thusencouraging an increase in the practice ofsport by the public.
1 The plan
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Accommodation for the participants
The Preliminary Project expected amaximum of 15,000 athletes and teamofficials, of whom about 3,000 would bewomen, to come to Barcelona to takepart in the Games. These participantswould have to be housed in speciallyprepared dwellings.
To accommodate the athletes there was aproposal to build an Olympic Village onthe Barcelona seafront, specifically in theeastern sector near the River Besòs. Thisoperation would involve the recovery ofthe area facing the sea and theconstruction of a new district whichwould be part of the city after theGames. On the reclaimed land newsports and leisure areas could be built aswell as the residences.
It was proposed that the judges andreferees would be lodged in an area ofCerdanyola del Vallès on land near the
campus of the Barcelona AutonomousUniversity. Later on the proposal wasmodified and the space in question wasused to accommodate the security forces.
The Preliminary Project suggestedbuilding a special village for thejournalists, though without deciding alocation. Moreover, it recalled that thehotels in the city and along the coastcould absorb a large part of the demand.
For the remainder of the OlympicFamily the plan was to take advantage ofthe preparatory activity to build newhotels in the city, particularly topcategory. As an unusual detail, there wasa suggestion that it would be quite viableto anchor deep draught luxury liners inthe port of Barcelona to make up thesupply of rooms during the Games.
The Preliminary Project also took up theinitiative of previous Games inorganising an International Youth Camp.
Of the four plannedOlympic areas, theDiagonal Area had thelargest number of existingsports facilities. It was alsoplanned that the membersof the IOC would stay there.
The planning of the Valld'Hebron was to fill animportant gap in the urbanfabric and to provideseveral districts withmuch-needed sportsfacilities. Furthermore, theconstruction of the outerring road ended theisolation of this sector ofthe city.
The Estació de França wascompletely refurbished forthe 1992 Olympic Games,as the terminal forinternational trains and thefuture high speed train.
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A ship moored at one of thewharfs of the Port ofBarcelona. The preliminaryproject provided for itsenlargement.
The new infrastructures
The preparation of the city to receiveand transport the large number ofparticipants and visitors was examinedfrom a list of the different transportsystems existing at the time andspeculation as to how they could beused; moreover, the adaptations whichwould have to be made in theintervening years were taken intoaccount. A first conclusion of the studywas the need to enlarge the airportterminals by 9,400 square metres and itwas proposed to provide 5,000 newparking spaces and bring a third runwayinto operation to allow an increase in airtraffic.
It would also be necessary to extend theport to the west to have more berths andallow the vessels providing the extraaccommodation to be moored at acentral point between the Montjuïc andParc de Mar areas.
The Preliminary Project included plansto dismantle the stretch of railway linefrom the Estació de França to the Plaçade les Glòries and to put the coastal linefrom the Estació de França to Badalonaunderground where it crossed Poblenou.The possibility of building a halt for thenew Olympic Village was also mooted.
Taking advantage of the provisions ofthe Barcelona Subway Plan, thePreliminary Project proposed to extendthe cross-city lines to connect the centrewith the neighbouring towns and finallyopen Line 2, for which work on theinfrastructure had begun in 1975 andhad still not been finished.
The proposed transformation of the roadsystem would allow though traffic toavoid the city centre. This would involvetwo ring roads and the junctions andlinks between them. The proposal toimprove the thoroughfares included anextension to the Diagonal as far as thesea and the completion of several
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pending projects, such as theconstruction of the Rovira andVallvidrera tunnels, the new layout of thePlaça de les Glòries and the provision of3,000 extra parking places.
With these measures the PreliminaryProject considered that traffic within thecity could be relieved and connectionsbetween the districts, particularly theOlympic areas, improved. In this waytransport for the Olympic Family wouldbe punctual, rapid, safe and efficient.
Telecommunications
The Preliminary Project paid specialattention to the technological aspects.The underlying idea was that through theOlympic event the city had to face up tonew challenges and use the Games tooffer the world a demonstration of theapplication of the latest technological
advances in the fields of computers,broadcasting and telecommunications. Tothis end it was considered necessary forthe Candidature to sign agreements withthe Spanish ministries and the industrialsectors involved so that they wouldcooperate on research into the newtechnologies required for the Games.
All the technological functions needed forthe Games were identified. Moreover,there was a proposal to build atelecommunications mast to coverbroadcasting requirements. To coordinatethe tasks of radio and television, bothoperational and technological, a specialbody was to be created: the OlympicRadio and Television Organisation(ORTO), which was finally calledOlympic Radio and Television (RTO).
The outer ring road at thePlaça Karl Marx, one ofthe first sections of thisimportant link to befinished before thenomination. The proposedroad network was intendedto enable through traffic tobypass the city rather thancross the centre.
The OrganisingCommittee's initial budgetpresupposed that a largepart of the income wouldcome from television rights,which had grown steadilyover previous OlympicGames.
Model of the newCollserola communicationstower. In view of thetremendous importance oftelecommunications in theorganisation of the OlympicGames, the BarcelonaCandidature expected thatmore than three thousandmillion people would watchthe competitions live ontelevision.
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The budget and financing
In 1983 the first budget of theOrganising Committee was estimated at73,250 million pesetas.
58% of the budget, 42,640 millionpesetas, was set aside for the organisationof the Games. The remaining 42% wasdistributed over the OrganisingCommittee's share in the facilities,mostly sports (18%), adaptation of areas(14%) and miscellaneous (10%).
The aim of the economic modelproposed for the Games was to achievethe maximum degree of self-financing.The internal revenue section wasequivalent to 58% of the total, notablytelevision rights, which could reach32,500 million pesetas. Although thisfigure was enormous, it was not at allrash, as it was known that the samerights had brought in 281.5 milliondollars (about 42,225 million pesetas at
the time) for the Los Angeles OlympicGames Organising Committee.
Revenue from the exploitation of theOlympic symbols was prudentlyestimated at about 2,000 million pesetas.The remainder of the income came froma share of lotteries and issues of coinsand stamps (20% of the total budget);transfers and subsidies (15%) and sale ofassets (7%).
To evaluate the cost of organisation ofthe Games, the compilers of thePreliminary Project divided the differentelements into twelve broad areas:administration, technology, services, pressand publications, image, urbandevelopment, security, Olympic villages,sports, ceremonies, cultural activities andInternational Youth Camp. The cost ofstaff, goods, services and equipment tobe contracted and acquired for eachdepartment was analysed. There was alsoa preliminary estimate of the number ofstaff who would be required: 1,100
Initial budget of theOrganising Comittee*
* In thousands of millionsof pesetas 1983 value.
Source: Olympic Office:Preliminary Project forthe Candidature, 1984.
Organisation of the GamesStaffPurchase of goods and servicesEquipment
Sites (participation quota)Competition venuesTraining facilitiescomplementary (Press)complementary (Accomodation)
Actions in specific areasBasic costsConversion costs
Unforeseen
10.2621.1511.23
7.922.970.970.94
0.0010.34
42.64
12.80
10.34
7.47
Own incomeTicketsAccomodation at the Olympic VillageProgrammes, posters and lithographsSponsorshipBroadcasting rightsProvision of serviceInterest and other income
Participation in incomeLotteriesPoolsCoinsPostage stamps
Transfers and subsidiesFrom the private sectorFrom the public sector
Sale of assets
2.451.200.152.00
32.501.632.50
2.108.103.001.00
3.008.00
42.43
14.20
11.00
5.62
Pro memoriaQuota from the public administrations: 14.94
Pro memoriaCollateral from the public administrationdirect investment quota 14.94
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permanent members and 40,000 externalcontributors.
The first budget of the OrganisingCommittee was calculated by adding theinvestment quota assumed by the publicadministrations for facilities and actionsin specific areas, which was set at 14,940million pesetas, to the general budget ofthe Games. In the Preliminary Projectthe set of actions on facilities and areasnecessary for the Games and thedistribution of costs among the investorsin both the public and private sectorswas decided.
Lastly, the Preliminary Project concludedthat the Olympic Games were wellwithin the reach of Barcelona, Cataloniaand Spain. They would serve to project amodern image of the city and thecountry abroad. They would also act as aspur to the economy, catalyse investmentand have a multiplying effect on thelocal and regional economy and onSpain's presence on the international
scene. In short, the economic and socialincentives which would be generated bythe Candidature were valued positivelyeven if the city was not chosen in theend.
On 27 November 1984,King Juan Carlos I gave anaudience to the members ofthe Managing Council. HisMajesty took advantage ofthe occasion to reiterate hissupport for the Candidature.
A room in the old Museumof Modern Art inBarcelona, where some ofthe most representativeworks of Catalanmodernism were exhibited.As part of the restructuringof the city's museums, thiscollection has become partof the National Museum ofArt of Catalonia onMontjuïc.
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Montjuïc also contains theJoan Miró Foundation,designed by the architectJosep Lluís Sert, whichhouses an importantcollection of work by thepainter.
The Gran Teatre del Liceu,a world famous opera housewhere the most prestigioussingers and companiesfrequently appear. The artsin Barcelona endorsed theorganisation of the fouryear Cultural Olympiad,which had been providedfor in the preliminaryproject.
Homenatge a Picasso,sculpture by Antoni Tàpies.Two names intimatelyrelated with the artistic lifeof Barcelona.
The cultural programme
Although the reason for organising theGames is primarily to do with sport,since the origins the artistic and culturalaspects of the Olympics have alwaysplayed a prominent part. In thePreliminary Project, the Candidature hadexpressed a wish to organise a culturalOlympiad which would last for fouryears. Work on the programme wouldbegin as soon as Barcelona was officiallydesignated host city.
The first official approval
The Preliminary Project of the BarcelonaCandidature was approved by theManaging Council on 12 December 1983.The Assembly of the Spanish OlympicSports Federations gave its approval on21 December the same year. Last, on 28
February 1984, the Spanish OlympicCommittee also gave the go-ahead, aftersome reticence at the beginning. Withthis approval, the Candidatures of Jacaand Granada to organise the WinterGames in 1992 were discarded so as toconcentrate all efforts on securing thenomination of Barcelona as host city forthe Summer Games.
The Higher Sports Council received thefavourable reports from the SpanishOlympic sports federations and passed onthe Preliminary Project to thegovernment. At a meeting of the Councilof Ministers on 28 March 1984 theproject was approved and theCandidature given official support. InNovember the same year, PasqualMaragall appeared before the Cultureand Sports Committee of the Parliamentof Catalonia to ask for the support of allthe Catalan parties and institutions. Afew months later, in May 1985,he didthe same before the Education andSports Committee of the Congress of
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Deputies. At both forums theCandidature received the formal supportof all the parliamentary groups.
The international debut in an Olympicyear
Early in 1984, the Barcelona Candidaturehad already secured substantial supportfrom the institutions and had anorganisational and technical plan toimplement the project. It began toconsider what international promotionwould be necessary to make the city andits aspirations to organise the Gamesknown.
1984 provided an excellent occasion tolearn at firsthand from the experience oftwo Olympic cities, Los Angeles andSarajevo, and to introduce Barcelona andits ambitions to the world.
In February that year a delegation fromBarcelona travelled to Sarajevo to attendthe Winter Games and promote theBarcelona Candidature. Representativesalso began to make appearances atmeetings of the Olympic organisations; inthe same year the Candidature went toMexico for the annual assembly of theAssociation of National OlympicCommittees (ACNO).
Nevertheless, it was not until July, onthe occasion of the Games of the XXIIIOlympiad in Los Angeles, that Barcelonaformally introduced itself to the OlympicMovement and presented theCandidature and its new logotype to theOlympic Family.
The Hotel Biltmore was the headquartersof the Organising Committee of the LosAngeles Games and the residence of themembers of the IOC. The Candidaturemounted a small exhibition showing themore technical aspects of the Olympicproject by means of panels and models.
A colourful image of theopening ceremony of theLos Angeles OlympicGames in the summer of1984. The BarcelonaCandidature attended inorder to collect informationabout the organisation ofthe Games and to promotethe Catalan capitalamongst the Olympicleaders who had travelled toCalifornia.
The representatives of theBarcelona Candidature whowent to Los Angeleswatched the basketball finalin which the Spanish teamwon a silver medal.
A moment from the pressconference given by theBarcelona Candidature forthe international press atLos Angeles. TheCandidature was very wellreceived and made anexcellent impression on themembers of the OlympicFamily.
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At Los Angeles, the Spanishdelegation stayed at ahouse which was christenedCasa Barcelona, and whichbecame a pleasant meetingplace far the members ofthe delegation and for therest of the Olympic Family.
It held a reception at the hotel for 500people, among whom were the mayor ofLos Angeles and many members of theIOC. The Candidature delegation whichtravelled to the city set up an operationscentre at a residence located nearHollywood, which was christened the"Casa Barcelona". It became arendezvous for many members of theOlympic Family who were curious toknow more about the Barcelona proposal.
Other cities which were aiming for the1992 Games were also present in LosAngeles, among them Amsterdam, whoseCandidature drew special praise from thelocal press. All in all, the BarcelonaCandidature, for which the visit to theCalifornian city was a highly positiveexperience in terms of its future actions,made an excellent impression ofseriousness and enthusiasm on both themembers of the Olympic Family and theinternational press. The mayor of
Barcelona also took the opportunity tomake contact with the Games organisersto glean further information.
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Aerial view of theBarcelona waterfront, fromthe port to Badalona. Thevarious stages of the growthof the city can bedistinguished: the perimeterof the Roman nucleus, theshape of the mediaevalwalled area, the grid ofstreets of the Eixample andof Barceloneta, and thestructure of some of the oldfactories, such as those ofPoblenou, an area which,thanks to the impulse of theOlympic Games, hasundergone a spectaculartransformation.
Institutional support
With a year to go before the IOCdecided which of the candidate citieswould organise the 1992 OlympicGames, the Barcelona Candidature hadsecured all the promises of institutionalbacking which it had been asked for. Tothis could be added an increasing level ofpublic awareness and support, not onlyin Barcelona but also in the rest ofSpain; an initial survey of public opinioncommissioned by the Olympic Officeshowed that 64% of the populationbelieved that the choice of Barcelona forthe Olympic Games would be beneficialfor the whole of the country.
1985 was a key year in the consolidationnot only of an idea and a project, butalso of the institutional and socialframework which would bring it tofruition.
On 9 March an agreement was signedbetween the mayor of Barcelona, thepresident of the Generalitat of Cataloniaand the minister of Culture, restructuringthe Managing Council which had beencreated two years before by the CityCouncil and the Generalitat. Inaccordance with this agreement theSpanish government joined the ManagingCouncil on 2 April 1985.
The COE, which a year previously hadexpressed its approval of the PreliminaryProject, reaffirmed its support on 22March. Some months later, on 13 June,it also joined the Managing Council, thusensuring that the decision-making bodyof the Candidature included all theinstitutions that would need to beinvolved in the organisation of theGames. In May, the king made anofficial visit to the Olympic Office inBarcelona and accepted the presidency ofthe Council of Honour for theCandidature.
This institutional support wasaccompanied by backing for theCandidature from the world of business,expressed in significant financialcontributions. Early in 1985 this wasreinforced by a joint venture betweenBarcelona City Council and businesscircles which led to the setting up of theassociation Barcelona Olímpica'92,composed of 92 companies, eachcontributing ten million pesetas to theCandidature. On 25 March Carles FerrerSalat, who had been the prime mover of
this support from the business sector,was elected president of BarcelonaOlímpica'92, with Leopold Rodés asvice-president. Shortly afterwards, inJune, Ferrer Salat was appointed amember of the IOC at its 90th Session inBerlin.
The participation of business was notconfined to the provision of financialcontributions. It also played a decisiverole in the promotion of the Candidaturein the outside world and in theimpression of solidity and cooperationwhich it conveyed to the IOC. Theassociate companies demonstrated theircommitment by incorporating thelogotype of the Candidature into theiradvertising and on their products,something which also helped to make itfamiliar.
The formal application and thereinforcement of the structure
On 13 May 1985 the president of theCOE, Alfonso de Borbón, and theCandidature commissioner, Joan MásCantí, formally presented the Barcelonaapplication to organise the 1992 OlympicGames to the IOC. The City Council hadunanimously approved the presentationof the Candidature a month earlier, on11 April, and the COE had recentlytaken the decision to join the ManagingCouncil. Meanwhile, a second survey hadconfirmed the sense of expectationcreated by the Olympic project and thegrowing support it enjoyed among theSpanish public.
The increasing complexity and scale ofthe work undertaken by the Candidaturecalled for a strengthening of theorganisational structure. Therefore, on 15July 1985, Pasqual Maragall proposedJosep Miguel Abad as chief executiveofficer, the senior executive post in theCandidature. At the time Abad wasdirector general of the Barcelona TradeFair and had been associated with theOlympic project from the outset asdeputy mayor of Barcelona City Counciland a member of the first ManagingCouncil for the Candidature.
Shortly afterwards, at the instigation ofthe chief executive officer, two otherorganisations were created: the ExecutiveBoard and the International RelationsCommittee. The Executive Board, on
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King Juan Carlos listensclosely as the mayor ofBarcelona, PasqualMaragall, explains themodel of the Olympic Ringduring a visit to theOlympic Office in May1985.
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3Enrique Tierno Galván,then mayor of Madrid, alsovisited the Olympic Office,accompanied by RamónMendoza and VicenteCalderón, the presidents ofthe two most importantfootball clubs in theSpanish capital. All threewished to make known theirsupport for the BarcelonaCandidature.
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which all the organisations making upthe Managing Council were represented,was responsible for following up theagreements made by that body. Thenature and scope of the tasks to becarried out by the Executive Boardrequired that it meet at weekly intervals.
The International Relations Committeehad the task of promoting theCandidature abroad, above all among themembers of the IOC: providing themwith information about the project andaccompanying them on their visits toBarcelona. Carles Ferrer Salat, who wasnamed president of the new organisation,and Leopold Rodés took on thisresponsibility.
In November 1985 the Olympic Officemoved from the Zona Franca to theInstitut Nacional d'lndústria (INI)building in the Montjuïc trade fairprecinct, situated in the Plaça de la FontMàgica. At 1,600 m2, the newheadquarters was twice the size of the
one in the Zona Franca. It was an idealplace in which to undertake the rapidlyaccelerating amount of work to be facedin the final stage of the process.
Work goes ahead on the Olympic venues
In January 1985 the final Master Planwas drawn up for the Montjuïc OlympicRing, differing from the original proposalin the siting of the Palau Sant Jordi andthe INEFC. For technical reasons theposition of these two buildings wasreversed, allowing a better arrangementof the esplanades which formed part ofthe Olympic Ring. A baseball trainingfield was also added, replacing the onesituated to the east of the OlympicStadium, and the Pau Negre hockey fieldwas moved to a position next to the
The king and queen ofSpain, accompanied by stafffrom the Olympic Officeduring their visit toBarcelona in May 1985.
The rebuilding of theMontjuïc Olympic Stadiumbegan in February 1985, ata time when the Olympicnomination was still a mereaspiration, Barcelonawanted to show theOlympic world that it wastaking advance action incrucial aspects of theorganisation of the Games.
In November 1985, theOlympic Office moved tonew premises. From theoffices in the Zona Franca,it moved to the formerInstitut Nacionald'Indústria building,overlooking the FontMàgica (Magic Fountain)in the Montjuïc OlympicArea.
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The first phase of work onthe Montjuïc Area beganwith the erection ofscaffolding all round thestadium, thus enablingwork to begin on therebuilding of the venue. Itwas carried out under theauspices of the HigherSports Council.
athletics warm-up track, in front of thesouthern facade of the stadium.
The complexity of the work on theOlympic Ring and the desire to link it tothe Candidature led to the creation of abody with specific responsibility foroverseeing its progress. In March 1985 aplenary session of Barcelona City Councilapproved the constitution of a companywith the name Anella Olímpica deMontjuïc, S.A. (AOMSA), which wouldalso have Josep Miquel Abad as its chiefexecutive officer.
In February 1985, with finance from theHigher Sports Council, demolition workbegan on the old stadium, afterscaffolding had been placed around theexterior to protect the facade. This workand the excavations to lower the interiorlevel of the stadium by 11 metres inorder to increase seating capacitycontinued until the following October.The sculptures by Pau Gargallo were alsoremoved from the main facade forrestoration.
Preparatory work also began on the sitefor the sports hall. This consisted ofmoving the municipal nurseries,demolishing some shacks which were stillstanding in the area and levelling andclosing off the site. In fact, the work toinstall the municipal nurseries in the areaof Tres Pins was the first step in turningthe previously undeveloped part ofMontjuïc into a park.
In the summer of 1985 excavation workfor the new sports hall began, includingthe removal of the solid refuse that hadaccumulated on the site. In October ofthe same year earth moving work wasstarted to create platforms for the pilings.
In June 1986 the plenary session of theCity Council incorporated the provisionsof the Olympic Ring Master Plan intothe Montjuïc Special Development Plan,which took in the Olympic venues andthe whole of the Ring. In the samemonth the Barcelona Provincial Councilsigned an agreement with the City
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Council under which it would takeresponsibility for the sports hall, whichwas to be given the name of Palau SantJordi. Meanwhile, work had started onthe pilings. On 18 September thefoundation stone was laid for the sportshall which would later become one of theoutstanding buildings of OlympicBarcelona.
With construction of the OlympicStadium and the Palau Sant Jordi inprogress the Olympic Ring began to takeshape, notably with the construction of awater tank with a capacity of 160,000m3 and an area of 1,350 m2, replacingan existing one. The construction of alarge square -the future Plaça d'Europa-on top of this tank, situated at the endof the Avinguda de l'Anella Olímpica,was planned.
The decision to place the railway linebetween the Estació de França and thePlaça de les Glòries underground wastaken in February 1985. Barcelona CityCouncil and the Barcelona MetropolitanCorporation (CMB) followed this up byordering technical studies to be made forthe reorganisation of the railway networkin Barcelona.
This decision removed the mostimportant question mark over theCandidature, the location of the OlympicVillage, and the City Council was able togo ahead with the planning of the Parcde Mar Area. The work was undertakenby the architectural firm Martorell/Bohigas/ Mackay/ Puigdomènech, whichpresented its project on 18 October ofthe same year. Several successiveversions were produced, each improvingon the initial project in accordance withrecommendations from variousgovernment and council departments,
The sculptural groups byPau Gargallo whichcrowned the main facade ofthe old Montjuïc Stadium,seriously deteriorated overthe course of the years,were temporarily removedin May 1986 forrestoration. They were laterreturned to their originalposition.
The first stage of therebuilding of the MontjuïcStadium involveddemolishing all the interiorstructures and lowering theinternal ground level byeleven metres in order toincrease the seating capacity.
The laying of thefoundation stone of the
Palau Sant Jordi in August1985. This building wasfinanced by the BarcelonaProvincial Council.
Planning the Parc de Mar Area 1
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especially those from the Ministry ofPublic Works and Planning.
The final project, the SpecialDevelopment Plan for the BarcelonaSeafront, approved by the City Councilon 26 June 1986, contained a number ofcentral, interlinked proposals for one ofthe most important steps in the creationof the Barcelona of the future: theconstruction of a new area which wouldserve as the Olympic Village and wouldthen be destined for residential use afterthe Games, the opening up of the city tothe sea, and the reorganisation of theroad system. All this would have to takeplace on a site which, until then, hadbeen occupied by industrial buildings,workshops and, to a lesser extent,housing, whose occupants would have tobe provided with alternativeaccommodation.
To supervise the whole project and inaccordance with the Coastal Plan beingdrawn up by the CMB for the whole of
the coastline in the metropolitan area,the City Council set up the Special Unitfor the Redevelopment of the PoblenouSeafront, an executive body with powersto manage, coordinate and implement allmeasures related to the Olympic Villageand the seafront. Once this body hadbeen set up the process of acquiring theland was begun, one of the first plots tobe appropriated being the 40,000 m2 siteowned by the Crédito y Docks company,situated on the Avinguda Icària.
The foundation stone of the OlympicVillage was laid on 21 January 1986. Atthe same time the CMB, which wasresponsible for the sewage system, startedwork on the main drains which wouldmake it possible to construct theunderground section of the Plaça de lesGlòries branch line. Further plots of landwere acquired from the companyCatalana de Gas, among which was a sitecalled L'Arenal, which made it possiblefor work to start at the perimeter of thefuture Village.
Companies forming the BarcelonaOlímpica'92 Business Association
Source: Olympic Office: Official Report, 1986.
Abengoa, S.A.Aceros Boixareu, S.A.ACESAAntonio Puig, S.A.Arthur Andersen & Cia.ASEPEYO
Banc de SabadellBanca CatalanaBanco AtlánticoBanco CentralBanco de BilbaoBanco de EuropaBanco de ProgresoBanco de SantanderBanco de VizcayaBanco Exterior de EspañaBanco HispanoamericanoBamices Valentine, S.A.Basi Hermanos, S.A.BBC Brown Boveri, S.A.Belloc EscutéBodegas Torres
Caixa de BarcelonaCaixa d'Estalvis de CatalunyaCaixa de PensionsCAMUNSACasinos de Catalunya, S.A.Catalana de Gas i ElectricitatCementos Asland, S.A.Cementos UnilandCEPSACOBEGA, S.A.Compañía Telefonica Nacional de EspañaCOMSA
Construcciones Núñez y Navarro, S.A.Control y Aplicaciones, S.A.Cubiertas y Mzov, S.A.
DAMM, S.A.Danone, S.A.Dragados y Construcciones, S.A.
El Corte Inglés, S.A.El PaísENHERENASAEMTEEnrique Masó, E.D.S.Entrecanales y Tavora, S.A.
FECSAFerrer Internacional, S.A.Ferrocarril Metropolitano de BarcelonaFerrovial, S.A.Fichet, S.A.E.FOCSAForet, S.A.Francisco Quintana Ylzarbe, S.A.Freixenet, S.A.Fujitsu-España, S.A.
Galerias PreciadosGrupo Asegurador Catalana
OccidenteGrupo RamelGrupo Z
HECSAHenry ColomerHispano Alemana de Construcción, S.A.Hispano Olivetti, S.A.
HUSA
IBMIndicesaIberia, S.A.Industrias BurésIsolux, S.A.
J. Uriach & Cia, S.A.
La Maquinista Terrestre y Marítima, S.A.La VanguardiaLaboratorios Dr. Esteve, S.A.Leche Pascual
Maquimpres, S.A.Material y Construcción, S.A.Med Playa HotelsMestre i Ballbé, S.A.Motor Ibérica, S.A.
Nestle, A.E.P.A.Nutrexpa, S.A.
Obras y Construcciones, S.A.
Philips Ibérica, S.A.E.Rank Xerox Española, S.A.Roca Radiadores, S.A.
SanyoSiemens, S.A.Sintel, S.A.
Torras HostenchTorres Herrería y Construcciones
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While this work was beginning theinstitutional agreements were beingfinalised. In February 1986 theGeneralitat of Catalonia, the CityCouncil, the CMB, the Ministry ofTransport and the railway companyRENFE signed the official agreement tore-route the lines in Poblenou, which inturn followed an agreement between theCMB and the Ministry of Public Worksover the redevelopment of the seafront inthe area.
In September 1986, the allocation ofwork on the restructuring of the railwaywas signed by the mayor of Barcelonaand the president of RENFE, JulianGarcia Valverde. This provided for theremoval of the lines running parallel tothe coast and the burying of the line tothe Plaça de les Glòries, which skirtedthe area. It was followed soon afterwardsby an agreement on an overhaul of theBogatell sewage system.
Both the Olympic Village, which waslocated beside the sea and extended theline of the streets of the Eixample, andthe whole operation in the Parc de MarArea of which it was part were designedto put an end to the isolation of a largepart of Poblenou in the north of the city.The redevelopment of the triangleformed by the Passeig de Carles I, theAvinguda Bogatell and the coastlineentailed work on 47 of the 100 hectareswhich made up the so-called Parc deMar. The name "Nova Icària" wasproposed for the new district in memoryof the utopian Icària, which had takenroot in the working class tradition ofPoblenou.
The Olympic Village was the mostimportant urban development connectedwith the Candidature. For the first timethe operation to provide accommodationfor the athletes at the Games would leadto the transformation of an importantsector of the host city. The Village isonly 6 kilometres from the Olympic
The route taken by therailway through the districtof Poblenou madenumerous level crossingsand bridges necessary. Theconstruction of the OlympicVillage and therestructuring of the wholeof the city's railwaynetwork has meant that thisimage is now only a memory.
The Barcelona Trade Fairprecinct, adjacent to thePlaça d'Espanya, in theMontjuïc Area. TheCandidature proposed thatthe Press Centre should belocated here.
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View of the Vall d'Hebronarea, with the Velodrome inthe foreground. The projectproposed that this zone betransformed into one of thefour Olympic areas.
Stadium, 5 kilometres from the MainPress Centre, 6.5 kilometres from thehotel which would serve as the IOCheadquarters, 7 kilometres from theDiagonal area, 6.5 kilometres from theVall d'Hebron area and 600 metres fromthe Hospital del Mar, which would bethe Olympic hospital during the Games
Olympic project gave the final push tothe extension of the long postponedsecond ring road, part of the 1976General Metropolitan Plan, which was inturn based on an initial idea from the1917 Road Links Plan. The new ringroad would finally provide this area withbetter access from the centre of the city.
In April 1985 the Olympic Office drewup a master plan for the Vall d'HebronArea, one of the four Olympic areascontaining the main venues for the 1992Games.
Located in the north-west of Barcelona,the Vall d'Hebron Area was a triangle ofmore than 160 hectares surrounded bydistricts with serious deficiencies inaccesses and services. The constructionof the velodrome in 1984 had been thefirst step in the recovery of the largestgap in the city for public use. The
The Candidature around the world
Alongside these town planning anddevelopment measures, the BarcelonaCandidature abroad was making itselffelt through a presence at internationalsporting events and meetings of the IOCand other organisations in the OlympicMovement.
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A successful presentation
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The reception which Barcelona receivedat the 90th Session of the IOC, held inEast Berlin from 1 to 5 June 1985, wasespecially favourable. The Candidatureattended the meeting with the object ofshowing the changes that had taken placein the city since its first formalpresentation abroad at the Los AngelesOlympic Games the year before. A reportentitled From Los Angeles to Berlin,1984-1985 was distributed to everyoneattending the Session. It was divided intochapters with forceful titles: "Barcelonamoves forward", "Barcelona spreads theOlympic spirit", "Barcelona plans andbuilds", "Barcelona guaranteesaccommodation", "Barcelona will providetransport" and "Barcelona can financethe Games".
All the cities which aspired to host the1992 Summer Games were present inBerlin. At a press conference after the90th Session of the IOC, PasqualMaragall declared: "Barcelona andBrisbane are the Candidatures which
have brought the most added value intheir presentations. The AustralianCandidature, because it was an unknownquantity and projected a favourableimage, and ours, because we havepresented a progress report which hasmade a great impression."
A stand was constructed to display thetechnical project. The design minted themodern, creative, Mediterranean imagewhich was to become associated with theBarcelona Candidature. The floor of thestand was blue perspex, lit from beneath,with a wooden platform in the shape ofthe map of Catalonia. One of the panelsheld a model of Barcelona on which thesites of the sports venues and otherplaces of interest were picked out bylaser. A metal tower was installed withvideo monitors offering graphicinformation in eight languages. Theluminosity, combined with the dynamismof the technology used, gave animpression of the finest aesthetic quality,and this was an aspect in which
The Candidature presenteda lengthy report to the 90thSession of the IOC, whichwas held in East Berlin in1985. At that Session,Carles Ferrer Salat waselected a member of theinternational organisation.Until then, Ferrer Salathad been head of theBarcelona Olímpica'92Association, which lentsignificant support to thecity's Olympic aspirations.
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Albertville, candidate toorganise the 1992 WinterOlympic Games, exhibitedthis sober and functionalstand at Berlin.
The stand of the ParisCandidature. In 1985, thecities of Brisbane,Amsterdam, Paris andBirmingham had joined therace to organise the 1992Games. Belgrade was lateradded to the number.
At the BarcelonaCandidature stand at the90th Session of the IOC,visitors could obtaininformation about facilitieswhich formed part of theproject using a computerterminal; at the same time,they could see a photographand find them on a modelof the city, where they werepicked out by a laser beam.The stand was designed byJosep A. Pols and AntoniRosselló.
Barcelona was to be the leaderthroughout the campaign. The stand wasvisited by 8,000 people.
The presence of the BarcelonaCandidature in East Berlin wasconsidered a great success as apromotional exercise abroad. Thesynthesis between serious organisationand aesthetic quality produced anexcellent result with a unique style basedon a balanced projection of the contentand the form of the Barcelona Olympicproposal.
The first "decalogue", which summed upthe message of the Candidature and waspresented in the German city, was asfollows:
1. By land, sea and air, all roads lead toBarcelona.2. The Games with short journeys.3. Rapid and easy communicationbetween the different areas.4. Sites full of the magic of the city.
5. Barcelona'92: an architectural stylecombining tradition and modernity.6. A Mediterranean style: the OlympicVillage by the sea.7. A first class location for the OlympicFamily.8. The press at the heart of the Games.9. A project for the city of the future.10. With everyone's support, we are ready.
After Berlin the stand also appeared atthe meeting of the IOC Executive Boardwith ACNO, held at the Hotel Alfa inLisbon from 14 to 19 October 1985.Delegations from Albertville, Anchorage,Belgrade, Birmingham, Cortinad'Ampezzo, Lillehammer, Paris and Sofiawere also present at the meeting.
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The delegation from Barcelona also tookadvantage of meetings of the Olympiccommittees from one of the continents toestablish personal and institutionalcontacts.
One example of this was the 4th GeneralAssembly of the Asian OlympicCommittees held in Bahrain on 4 and 5December 1985. Although somedifficulties were encountered in bringingthe promotional material into thisPersian Gulf country, an exhibition wasmounted in the Hotel Diplomat, wherethe meeting was held. In Bahraincontacts were established with membersof the IOC from South East Asia andfrom other countries on the continent,many for the first time. TheCandidatures from Amsterdam,Anchorage, Albertville, Birmingham,Falun, Lillehammer, Paris and Sofia werealso at the Assembly and each was giventime to make a brief presentation to themeeting.
In December 1985 the 5th GeneralAssembly of the African OlympicCommittees was held in the capital ofEthiopia, Addis Ababa. Here theBarcelona delegation established furtheruseful contacts with Olympic executives.Apart from Barcelona, the meeting wasattended by the delegations which hadbeen present in Bahrain and those fromCortina d'Ampezzo and Berchtesgaden.
While the Candidature was beingpresented at the various forums of theOlympic Movement, the Olympic Officealso organised exhibitions at otherinternational fairs and shows. Those inMilan, Stockholm and Buenos Aires inthe first quarter of 1985 were particularlyimportant.
The occasion in Milan was the TouristFair held in the Palazzo di Brerabetween 20 and 25 February 1985 andthe exhibition was opened by thepresident of the Generalitat, Jordi Pujol.
The president of theGeneralitat of Catalonia,Jordi Pujol, at the openingof the International TouristFair in Milan. The publicbodies associated with theCandidature took everyopportunity to publicise itabroad.
The Candidature waspresent at the meetings ofall the internationalassociations which make upthe Olympic Movement. AtBuenos Aires, RaimonMartínez Fraile, deputymayor on the BarcelonaCity Council, explained theOlympic project to Jo-oHavelange, member of theIOC and president of FIFA.
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In Stockholm the exhibition wasmounted as part of Barcelona Week,organised in March by the MetropolitanTourist Office. It was accompanied by aGaudí exhibition and a Catalan cookeryshow. In Buenos Aires the exhibition wasinstalled in the headquarters of theArgentinian Olympic Committee between17 and 24 April, where it made a greatimpact, despite coinciding with themassive public demonstrations whichwere taking place in Argentina at thetime.
The decisive year
In 1986, the year in which the IOC hadto decide which city would organise the1992 Olympic Games, Barcelona wasgetting ready, spurred by a Candidaturewhich had become a long-awaited sourceof hope and renewal. The drafting of theCandidature Dossier was in its final
stages, work had started on the OlympicVillage and was progressing on theOlympic Ring. Furthermore, the first ofthe new sports venues destined for use atthe Games, the velodrome, had alreadybeen in operation for two years.
On 27 December 1985, a plenary sessionof the City Council ratified the Barcelonaapplication to organise the Games andundertook to respect the OlympicCharter. Soon afterwards, on 24 January,the Council of Ministers passed a similarresolution and a month later the COEtook the same step.
On 1 March 1986, Pasqual Maragall andother members of the Managing Councilpresented the Candidature Dossier to theIOC at its headquarters in Lausanne, theother candidate cities having done soseveral days before, following an orderestablished by lot. The Dossier was thenunveiled to the press on 14 March.
Public opinion in the Barcelonametropolitan area concerningthe Barcelona Candidature
Source: Olympic Office:Official Report, 1986.
Do you think that the Olympic Games will be beneficial to the city of Barcelona?
VeryFairlyNot veryDon't know
77.016.03.04.0
82.411.74.61.3
84.07.63.25.2
Personal interviews carried out among people between 16 and 65 resident in the Barcelona metropolitan area.
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The presentation of the Dossier was thedecisive step in the application process;the Barcelona Candidature was now inthe final straight. A few days later thepresident of the Spanish government,Felipe González, made an official visit tothe Olympic Office and was followedsoon afterwards by the minister ofCulture and Sport, Javier Solana. Thepresident of the Generalitat, Jordi Pujol,also came and registered as an Olympicvolunteer.
With the handing in of the Dossier theOlympic project was complete and nofurther modifications could be made.Nevertheless, several months stillremained before the voting in October,during which time the Candidature couldbe further promoted and explained.Presentations of the Candidature all overthe world, the competitions organised inSpain during the period, the campaign forOlympic volunteers, the Olympic Buswhich visited the capitals of all theautonomous communities and the answers
given to the committees of inquiry sentby the IOC, the ACNO and theInternational Federations were the bestmeans of reasserting the Olympic projectand maintaining the institutional andpopular support which underpinned it.
In March 1986, thepresident of Spain, FelipeGonzález, paid an officialvisit to the Olympic Officeto give his support to thecity's Olympic aspirations.
The president of theGeneralitat, Jordi Pujol,registered as an Olympicvolunteer during his visit tothe Olympic Office in June1986.
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The Candidature Dossierwas the document whichcontained Barcelona'sproposals for theorganisation of the 1992Games. The originality ofBarcelona's presentation ofthe Dossier -after an ideaby the designer AndréRicard- was highly praisedby the press and television,who soon re-christened itthe Magic Box.
The mayor of Barcelonaand president of theManaging Council, PasqualMaragall, and the chiefexecutive officer of theCandidature, Josep MiquelAbad, present theCandidature Dossier to theBarcelona press.
The commitment of the city
A few months before the Olympicnomination, the cities aspiring toorganise the Games have to present afinal report to the IOC. This is called theCandidature Dossier.
The Candidature Dossier is a formalcommitment made by a city applying tohost the Olympic Games. Basically it isthe answer to a detailed questionnaireprepared by the IOC and theinternational federations. The questionsrefer to all aspects of the organisation ofthe Games: infrastructures, facilities andservices, human resources and financingand all legal and contractual relationsestablished by the IOC with the citychosen in order to guarantee observanceof the rules and regulations of theOlympic organisation.
The candidate cities have to send copiesof the dossier to IOC headquarters inLausanne, to all members of theorganisation, to all the internationalfederations and the NOCs. Theinformation in the dossier has to bechecked by three committees of expertssent by the IOC, the ASOIF and theACNO to the candidate cities. After theirvisit, these fact-finding committees haveto report on their conclusions to theorganisations they represent so that themembers of the IOC can take them intoaccount when making their final decision.
Besides Barcelona, five other cities hadapplied for the Summer Games:Amsterdam, Belgrade, Birmingham,Brisbane and Paris. The growing interestin sport and the increase in revenue fromthe sale of television rights and the profitmade by the Los Angeles OrganisingCommittee had raised the number ofcandidate cities. In its CandidatureDossier, therefore, Barcelona had to showthat it was capable of undertaking theorganisation of an event of this scale,which meant that the answers had to beabsolutely precise.
The Barcelona'92 organisation strategyand the progress made on the earlypreparations for the Olympic Games hadbeen set out in various publications: TheBarcelona'92 Preliminary Project,presented in Los Angeles in 1984; theProgress Report, presented in Berlin in1985; and the periodical, BarcelonaOlympic News. The presentation of theCandidature Dossier was the end of a
process which had begun in mid-1980and which had to be tied up in afeasible, coherent proposal.
The drafting of the Dossier
On this basis, in mid-1985 a team beganto study the requirements of the IOCand the international federations and tocompare them with the solutions that thecity and the Candidature had alreadyfound. This revealed all possible gaps inthe project. Previously the team hadmade an exhaustive analysis of thedossiers presented by the Olympiccandidatures which had been successfulin earlier years: Los Angeles (1984),Calgary (1988) and Seoul (1988).
The final version of the BarcelonaCandidature Dossier consisted of sixvolumes and complementary elements.The title of the first volume was"Request to the International OlympicCommittee by the Barcelona Candidaturefor the hosting of the Games of the XXVOlympiad". The volume opened withletters of support from the king, thepresident of the Spanish Government,the president of the Generalitat ofCatalonia, the president of the SpanishOlympic Committee and the mayor ofBarcelona and contained a list of themembers of the Candidature. The bodyof the volume provided the answers tothe twenty-three questions posed by theIOC; there were comments on theconditions required of the candidatecities by the IOC and the proposedcontract between the OrganisingCommittee, the IOC and the COE if thecity were chosen; and there was anexplanation of the plan to organise theInternational Youth Camp. The volumeclosed with the answers to thequestionnaire about organising the IOCsessions which would coincide with theOlympic Games.
The second volume referred to theminimum requirements for coverage ofthe Games by press, photographers andbroadcasters. The third, fourth, fifth andsixth volumes contained the sportsprogramme and answers to the questionsof the international federations abouteach of the official Olympic sports,which were arranged in groups of six.
In addition to all the printed material,there was an audio cassette, a video and
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a diskette with general information aboutthe city and the Olympic project.
In the copies addressed to the membersof the IOC there was a personal letterfrom the king, the book Ara Barcelonaby the journalist Carles Sentís and apersonal greeting from the mayorrecorded on video tape.
The drafting of the Candidature Dossierinvolved a process of selection from over100 preliminary projects, 3,000photographs, 2,000 plans and 150illustrations. There were 50 hours ofaudio and video recording. Altogether thepreparation of the Dossier represented500,000 hours work over four years andinvolved 750 professionals from differentdisciplines.
No city had ever presented a candidaturereport resembling the Barcelona Dossier,either in terms of exterior appearance orcontents, as the international presspointed out at the time. The Barcelona
Dossier became both symbol and fruit ofthe tenacity and determination of thecity to be chosen to host the OlympicGames.
Special attention was paid to the externalappearance of the Dossier for maximumimpact at the presentation. In November1985, the designer André Ricard wascommissioned to produce a container forthe materials and books which werebeing prepared.
The detailed nature of the contents ofthe Candidature Dossier conditioned thedesign of the container, since it wasnecessary to be able to add informationor modifications which would improveBarcelona's tender up to the lastmoment. As André Ricard commented,"This need for flexibility andopen-endedness was the basicconditioning factor in the structure of the
The Dossier amounted tomore than seven hundredpages of information andmulti-media material. Itspreparation, directed byFèlix Àrias, was arduousand intense, and lastedmore than four years. Some750 professionals from agreat variety of disciplineswere involved in it.
A delegation of theManaging Council presentsthe Candidature Dossier tothe president of the IOC atthe organisation'sheadquarters in Lausanne.
The Magic Box
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Barcelona's proposalincluded twenty-four sports:the twenty-three whichmade up the officialprogramme at the Games inSeoul in 1988, plusbadminton. After thenomination had been won,a twenty-fifth sport,baseball, was added. Threedemonstration sports werealso included: Basquepelota, roller hockey andtaekwondo.
Barcelona Dossier. We were looking foran original, convenient and prestigioussolution and we found that the best waywas to group the documents in a seriesof open containers which would make itpossible to move them around right upto the last day."
The solution which was adoptedconsisted of a dark grey filing box, withplastic drawers fitted with handles whichmade them slide on rollers. The index ofthe contents of each drawer was printedon the outside. The container wasdesigned in such a way that itsappearance suggested tradition andmodernity, quality and technique.
The Dossier was presented in a specialedition addressed to the members of theIOC by name and another to bedistributed amongst the internationalfederations and the NOCs. 100 of theformer and 900 of the latter were made.The Dossier addressed to members of theIOC was contained in a special box
made of bubinga wood, fastened with agilded brass fastener bearing theCandidature emblem and the name ofthe person to whom it was addressed,which created a subtle link between thecity and the recipient. The result wassoon christened the Magic Box.
The whole Dossier weighed nearly twelvekilos. A packaging for mailing and acontainer which would make it possibleto move it around conveniently andwhich fitted in with the general conceptwere designed. The container was a whitecardboard box with canvas straps andwooden handles. When the lid wasremoved, the sides dropped down toreveal the wooden box. The idea was tomake an immediate impact on therecipient.
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Prior guarantees
The Candidature Dossier began byexplaining how the Barcelona OlympicGames Organising Committee would beconstituted and at what stage. TheOrganising Committee would haveindependent legal status and would bestructured in two governing bodies, theAssembly and the Executive Board. Thefirst organisation chart and its probableevolution until 1992 also appeared. TheCity Council and the COE undertook toconstitute it no later than six monthsafter the nomination.
The Dossier stated that under Spanishlaw there were no obstacles to holdingthe Games and recalled that Articles 30and 31 of the law governing physicaleducation and sport, of 20 March 1980,provided a framework for the promotionof the functions of the COE and thepropagation of Olympism throughoutSpanish territory. It also pointed out that
at the Council of Ministers in January1986 the Spanish Government had givenexplicit guarantees that everyone takingpart in the Games would be able to enterthe country freely and that theOrganising Committee, in accordancewith the Olympic Charter and thenumerical criteria of the IOC, wouldaccredit everyone with an OlympicIdentity Card.
Within the framework of the SpanishConstitution, the Candidature ManagingCouncil guaranteed that no politicaldemonstrations which might distort theGames would be allowed within theOlympic sites or the surrounding areas.Furthermore the Barcelona City Councilundertook not to authorise any politicalevent at the Olympic venues for a periodbeginning one week before and endingone week after the Games.
Bearing in mind that the IOC is theexclusive owner of broadcasting rights tothe Games, the Candidature promised to
Plan of the Barcelonasubway network. The cityhas more than seventykilometres of subway line,used every year by 270million passengers.
For the football World Cupin 1982, signposting for theBarcelona subway wasredesigned by Josep M.Trias.
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Plan of the OlympicStadium. The CandidatureDossier described thecompetition and trainingfacilities to be used by eachsport during the OlympicGames. It also included adetailed study of theseating, within each venue,of the groups which makeup the Olympic Family.
Plan of the RCD EspanyolStadium, one of the venuesselected from the beginningfor the football competition.
respect its rights and prerogatives and tomanage all the tasks connected with thebroadcasting of the Games properly andefficiently. This declaration was backedby letters from the director general ofRadio Televisión Española, José MariaCalviño, and the director general of theCorporació Catalana de Ràdio iTelevisió, Joan Granados, whoacknowledged formally that the IOCowned the exclusive broadcasting rightsfor the Games. However, the budgetestablished the distribution of televisionrights as set out in Clause 33 of theOlympic contract with the citynominated. In accordance with thatcontract, which had to be signed on theday of the nomination, the IOC grantedto the Organising Committee 20% of theincome from television, to cover theproduction costs; of the remaining 80%,one third was to be retained by the IOCand the other two thirds would be paidto the Organising Committee as acontribution to the financing of the Games.
In the Dossier, the Candidatureundertook to give the Olympic symbolsand emblems protection under the lawbefore the Games: use of them was theexclusive prerogative of the IOC. It alsoreferred to Spanish law, which explicitlygranted this protection under Article 32of the law governing physical educationand sport, which attributed themanagement of the Olympic symbols onSpanish territory to the COE.
Through the commitments assumed bythe Barcelona City Council, it wasguaranteed that the Games would beheld in the candidate city and eventswould only be held outside it with theexpress authorisation of the IOC. It alsoguaranteed that the OrganisingCommittee would provide facilities forthe IOC to hold a session during theGames and that every one of theeighteen clauses of the Olympic contractwould be observed.
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In accordance with the contract betweenthe IOC and the city appointed, theDossier affirmed that although the objectwas to achieve a balanced budget, if theBarcelona Games generated a profit, itwould be distributed as follows: 10% forthe IOC, 10% for the COE and theremaining 80% to be invested for thegeneral benefit of Spanish sport. TheDossier also stated that the IOC wouldbe entitled to 3% of the contracts for thecommercial exploitation of theBarcelona'92 symbols.
The calendar and the sports
Barcelona proposed that the sixteenconsecutive competition days for the1992 Games should be from 25 July to 9August. They would begin on a Saturdayand end on a Sunday, as had become thecustom at earlier Olympics.
The choice of dates had taken account ofvarious factors. As far as the climate wasconcerned, the fortnight selected was thebest for open-air sports, as statisticsshowed that during that period theaverage temperature in Barcelona was24° C, with daily maximum andminimum variations of no more than 6°C. Rainfall was sparse -over the lastthirty years it had only rained six timesand those just light showers- and thewinds were gentle. Moreover, studiesrevealed that July and August are themonths with the lowest levels ofatmospheric pollution owing to thefavourable meteorological conditions andthe reduction of contaminating elements.Furthermore, summer -and especially thelast days of July and the whole month ofAugust- is the time when traffic flowsmost freely in the city centre, as many ofthe inhabitants have gone away on theirholidays and companies are closed orworking a short timetable, which meansa fall in goods transport activities, andschools and universities are enjoying thelong vacation.
On 14 November 1985, theIOC chose the laboratoryof the Barcelona MunicipalInstitute for MedicalResearch to carry outdoping control tests forinternational competitions.
The canoe slalom wasincluded in the competitionprogramme which theBarcelona Candidaturepresented to the IOC. Thesport had not been seen atthe Olympic Games since1972.
According to the proposedprogramme forBarcelona'92, for the firsttime badminton would bean official sport at theOlympic Games.
Taekwondo was one of thethree demonstration sportsprovided for in the Dossier.The Spanish team had hadgreat success at the SeoulGames, where the sport hadalso formed part of thedemonstration programme.
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Basque pelota, of whichthere is a great tradition inBarcelona, became ademonstration sport for thefirst time at the OlympicGames. At the LondonGames in 1908, a verysimilar sport -jeu depaume- had formed part ofthe competition programme.
Roller hockey wasintroduced into Cataloniain 1915. Many Catalanroller hockey teams havewon internationalcompetitions, and theSpanish team have beenworld champions ten times.Roller hockey was chosenas one of the three sportswhich, according to theOlympic Charter, may beincluded in the programmeof demonstration sports atthe Olympic Games.
Lastly, the programme suited theinternational sporting competitioncalendar and the traditional cycle of thepractice of Olympic sports and so theathletes would have plenty of time toprepare for the Games, as had beendemonstrated by a survey sent to theinternational federations and variousNOCs.
The Barcelona Candidature kept thetwenty-three sports and their eventsplanned at Seoul on the programme. Inaddition, in accordance with therecommendations and observations of theIOC and the international federations, anew official sport would be included(badminton) and some new events (the3000 metres women's walk in athletics,the women's events in judo, the 50metres freestyle in swimming and theslalom events in canoeing, which had notbeen held since the Munich Games in
1972). Once Barcelona had beennominated, baseball was added as anofficial sport and roller hockey,taekwondo and pelota as demonstrationsports.
There were to be some changes to thecompetition organisation due to theoverall increase in the number ofcompetitors: there were more women'steams in basketball, handball and hockey,though the number of wrestlers wasreduced. Nevertheless, the Candidatureremained open to modifications and thesuggestions of the internationalfederations and the IOC.
The Dossier went into great detail -fourvolumes- about the sports programmefor the Barcelona Games and answeredthe international federationquestionnaires for each of the Olympicsports. There were general guidelineswhich would cover them all and thespecific criteria for each one were setout. There were also details of all kinds
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about the location and characteristics ofthe facilities which would be used forcompetition and training. Then came theaccommodation for the competitors, thecoaches, the federation staff andtechnical staff. The organisation of themeetings and congresses which the IOCand the international federations usuallyhold during the Olympic Games was alsomentioned. There was ample informationabout accesses, parking spaces andtransport. Last, there was generalinformation about the competitioncalendar and the distances between theOlympic areas.
The Olympic areas
To carry out the programme proposedfor the Games of the XXV Olympiad,the Barcelona Candidature chosedifferent facilities concentrated in theso-called "Olympic areas". These grouped
together competition venues and trainingfacilities, parks, gardens and leisurespaces, cultural buildings and OlympicFamily residences.
The "areas" were an attempt toconcentrate a series of activities at siteswhich, in the tradition of the Olympicparks, would provide suitable conditionsfor holding the great festival which is theGames. At the same time, the intentionwas to avoid packing all the sportsfacilities into a single place, which wouldhave meant that they were useful for thesixteen days of the Olympic competition,but would have been of little social valueafterwards. Another consideration wasease of access to all the venues, whichwere located at reasonable distances toavoid transport problems and otherinconveniences for the Olympic Familyand the spectators.
The competitions in nineteen of thetwenty-four sports planned would be heldin the four areas chosen (Montjuïc,
Map of the venues Includedin the Candidature Dossier.Apart from a few smalldifferences, it is the sameas the definitive map.
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Facilities for shooting atMontjuïc. Subsequently, itwas decided to construct anew facility for the 1992Olympic Games: the Campde Tir Olímpic at Mollet,one of the most advancedin the world. Shooting hasbeen part of the Olympicprogramme since the veryfirst Games of the modernera.
Diagonal, Vall d'Hebron and Parc deMar). The areas were all near junctionswith main city thoroughfares and easilyaccessible by public transport. All fourwere within a circle with a radius of fivekilometres and travelling time betweenthem would not exceed twenty minuteseither by public or private transport.
The remaining sports on the officialprogramme would be played at varioussites in the metropolitan area or in otherparts of Catalonia, chosen either for theirlong tradition in the sport and the largenumber of people playing or becausethey had ideal facilities and naturalsettings. In short, the Games would beheld in four areas of the city, wellconnected with each other and theneighbouring towns, and in other placesin Catalonia.
The Dossier stated that of the 37competition venues required for theGames, 27 were already built (of which 5would need to be converted and 7
adapted for the occasion), 5 were underconstruction and 5 more at the planningstage. As far as the training facilitieswere concerned, the city could provideabout 1,300.
To make clear the location of thecompetition venues the Dossier includedmaps showing them all and a sheet foreach one -with the name, town, capacity,events to be held, distance from theOlympic Village, state of building work,owner and ground plan- a photographand a detailed description of eachOlympic area.
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Montjuïc was to be the main setting forthe competitions of the 1992 OlympicGames. The sports to be held there wereathletics, boxing, fencing, gymnastics,modern pentathlon, swimming, tabletennis, water polo, weightlifting andwrestling and the finals of basketball,handball and volleyball. Some of thesesites were changed later; this was thecase with basketball, boxing and tabletennis.
Montjuïc Park already had a largenumber of sports venues, which had beenbuilt over the years. Many of them hadappeared in earlier applications to hostthe Games: the Estadi de la Foixarda(1920), the Olympic Stadium (1929), theMontjuïc swimming pools (1929) and theBernat Picornell swimming pools (1969).Some of them would have to beconverted for the 1992 Games.
The development of the Olympic Ring,which had begun in 1984, included themain sports buildings of the Games: theOlympic Stadium, the Palau Sant Jordi,the Bernat Picornell swimming pools andthe INEFC, to which could be added theconversion and renovation of existingfacilities.
Some of the Barcelona Trade Fairpavilions were also to be adapted for useas the Media Centre (MC), as they wereadjacent to the Olympic Ring and atdistances of between 100 and 1000metres from the competition venues.Connections with the city and the otherOlympic areas were provided by twosubway lines and six bus routes; theywere near the Plaça d'Espanya, a carpark and direct access to the coastal ringroad.
Plan of the MontjuïcOlympic Area. The OlympicRing is constructed along abroad avenue; at one endstands the OlympicStadium and, at the other,the INEFC. On one side ofthe avenue is a new sportshall, and on the other, thePiscines Bernat Picornell.
The moats of MontjuïcCastle provide a populartraining area for archers.
Interior of the Palau de laMetal-lúrgia. It wasintended that many of theBarcelona Trade Fairfacilities would be used forthe 1992 Games.
The Palau de Congressos,thanks to its location andthe facilities it possesses,was considered highlysuitable for use as theMain Press Centre.
Model of the structuresupporting the roof of thePalau Sant Jordi.
The Montjuïc Area 1
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Tennis courts in theDiagonal Area, proposed astraining facilities for tennis.
Plan of the Diagonal Area,which already hadimportant sports facilities,such as the FC BarcelonaStadium, the RCDEspanyol Stadium, the RealClub de Polo, the CELaietà, the Club de Tennisdel Turó and the ZonaUniversitària.
Aerial view of the DiagonalArea.
Around the perimeter of the DiagonalArea, one of the main gateways toBarcelona, were many of the sportsfacilities of the city. Among the privateones were the football grounds of FCBarcelona and RCD Espanyol, the CELaietà, the Real Club de Polo or theClub de Tennis del Turó; and the publicones, the Zona Universitària andrecreational areas such as the Parc deCervantes and the Palau de Pedralbes.Moreover, there was a large public space,so far undeveloped, for which theCandidature designed a master plansetting the boundaries of most of thesports venues, which had been builtwithout any overall order. It also revivedan old plan to build a new amenity: thePubilla Casas sports complex inl'Hospitalet de Llobregat, a townadjoining Barcelona, where developmenthad begun a year before the Olympicnomination. The aim of the master planwas to give an overall pattern to the
zone, build new roads and takecomplementary measures, such as a newpark between the Real Club de Polo andthe university buildings, and develop theempty spaces between the faculties.
According to the Dossier the Olympiccompetitions to be held in this areawould be equestrian sports, football,judo, modern pentathlon and tennis,although in the end tennis wastransferred to Vall d'Hebron. TheDiagonal area was the second mostimportant in terms of concentration ofOlympic activities, after Montjuïc. Someof the facilities there were to be thevenues for competitions which were alsoheld in other areas, such as football andmodern pentathlon, and others would beused for training, as was the case withhockey.
Besides being the site for those sports,the Diagonal area was to be the zone forthe residences for members of the IOCand the NOCs, the technical delegates of
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The Diagonal Area
The Real Club de Polo, inthe Diagonal Area, waschosen as the ideal venuefor the equestrian events.Later, for the endurancetest and dressage sectionsof the three-day event, thefacilities of the Centred'Hípica del Montanyàwere added.
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Panoramic view of the FCBarcelona stadium. TheDossier proposed that thefinal of the footballcompetition be held there.
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the international federations, referees'committees and other technical staff. Itwould also have suitable premises for thecongresses or sessions of Olympicorganisations coinciding with the Games.
In the Vall d'Hebron Area, theCandidature Dossier could point to anOlympic venue completed well before thecity was nominated to host the 1992Games: the velodrome, which had beeninaugurated on the occasion of the WorldCycling Championship in 1984.
The area, which occupies 160 hectares,has other facilities, such as the LlarsAnna Gironella de Mundet, the ClubEsportiu Hispano-Francès and the UnióEsportiva d'Horta. The Llars Mundet,between the Velodrome and the CiutatSanitària, is a residential complex with avariety of spaces designed for thepractice of sport, where the Dossier
planned to set up the InternationalYouth Camp.
The events planned for this area in thedossier were archery, the track cyclingcompetitions and some of the handballevents, though it was decided later thatthese would be held in Granollers. In theend, tennis, volleyball and Basque pelotawere also included.
Plan of the Vall d'HebronArea.
Sculpture by Joan Brossa,close to the Velodrome.Barcelona has beennoteworthy, in recent years,for the sculptures byfamous artists which havebeen erected in the streetsand squares of the city.
Plan of the Velodrome, inthe district of Horta,chosen as the venue for theOlympic track races.
The Vall d'Hebron Area
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Definitive model of theOlympic Village and theParc de Mar area, designedby the team of architectsJosep Martorell/OriolBohigas/DavidMackay/JosepPuigdomènech.
Plan of the Barcelonawaterfront, included in theCandidature Dossier.
The Barcelona yachtharbour in the old port.The Olympic nominationalso brought with it therenovation of the old portto convert it into animportant service area forthe city.
The Parc de Mar Area was to be the siteof the Olympic Village, but it was alsoproposed to hold the badminton andyachting competitions there, thoughPalma de Mallorca was suggested as analternative location for the regattas. Thevenues would be complemented bytraining facilities.
The main axis of the area was theextension of the marine parade,eventually five kilometres long includingthe kilometre which already existed inthe district of Barceloneta. Thispromenade would run all along theseafront and link the new beaches in thereclaimed spaces between the sixbreakwaters. The creation of the Parc deMar and Vall d'Hebron Areas was anexpression of the wish of theCandidature to adapt the location of thevenues to the structure of the city. Inthis way Barcelona would benefit fromthe new sports facilities and the Games
would contribute to the renewal of thewhole city.
Competitions in other sports would beheld at sites outside the four main areas,but as near to Barcelona as possible:Badalona (basketball), Banyoles (rowing),Castelldefels (canoeing), Granollers(handball), L'Hospitalet (volleyball),Palma de Mallorca (possible venue forthe yachting competition, with the portof Barcelona), Sabadell (football), La Seud'Urgell (slalom canoeing), Terrassa(hockey) and Viladecans (equestrian).After the city had been nominated, otherplaces were added: Mollet del Vallès(shooting), Reus, Sant Sadurní d'Anoiaand Vic (roller hockey), and Zaragozaand Valencia (football).
The Dossier, therefore, had defined therole that the Barcelona'92 subsites wouldfinally play. Their participation would
4 The Parc de Mar Area
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The cities of 1992
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spread the impact of the Games.Moreover, as was the case withBarcelona itself, the Olympic nominationwould provide an opportunity torevitalise the subsite towns, build modernsports facilities and improveinfrastructures and communications.
The Olympic residences
The Barcelona Candidature proposedthat the Olympic Village, the residencefor the sportsmen and women, shouldoccupy part of a newly built residentialdistrict in the Parc de Mar area inPoblenou.
The Dossier gave a detailed explanation,by means of a plan, of the location of allthe services that the Olympic Villagewould provide and its general layout.The ground floors would be set aside forcommon services and the five others,
with a total surface area of 225,000square metres, would be residences forathletes and team officials. Altogetherthere would be 2,500 dwellings for15,000 people, in line with the estimatesof the international federations. TheOrganising Committee of the BarcelonaGames would take charge ofaccommodation, catering and medicalcare for all the athletes staying at theVillage, as well as laying on all othernecessary services.
The Olympic Village buildings were laidout simply by means of precincts withsubdivisions. There was to be a trafficcontrol centre and an internal transportsystem. The Candidature Dossierspecified the security measures which theresidents would have to observe withinthe Olympic precinct. Along the avenuewhich crossed the Village was the Parcde Mar, ten hectares of gardens forstrolling and recreation.
View of part of oldPoblenou. The old factoriesand warehouses were to bedemolished to make way forthe new apartments of thefuture Olympic Village,forming part of theresidential area of NovaIcària.
Thanks to the Olympicproject, which has meantthe removal of the railwaylines which crossedPoblenou, the city has beenopened up to the sea.
One of the factories on theAvinguda d'Icària whichwas still in use. Some ofthe factories and workshopsin this section of Poblenou,transformed as a result ofthe Olympic Games, havecarried on their activities inother industrial areas ofBarcelona.
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View of Banyoles Lake, 130kilometres from Barcelona:a beautiful setting for watersports.
La Nova Creu AltaStadium in Sabadell.
The Olympic Village had to be open toall participants with all the services inoperation at least two weeks before theGames. The precinct would have a men'szone, a women's zone and a mixed zonewith common services. There would be aspace for reporters, for whom theOrganising Committee had reserved acertain number of passes, to holdinterviews with the athletes and officials.The primary medical care services wouldbe in the Village and specialisedmedicine would be available at theHospital de Mar on the old marineparade, which would be the officialOlympic hospital during the Games. TheVillage would be equipped with aheliport and in the outer precinct therewould be a car park for 1,000 vehicles,constantly attended, for the NOCs, guestsand staff.
To provide athletes and officials withmaximum comfort, it was decided toprovide residences at Banyoles and LaSeu d'Urgell as well. In Banyoles, on the
shores of the lake where the rowingcompetitions would be held, there wouldbe an Olympic Village for 1,200 people,included in a residential project for theParc de la Draga. As with the PoblenouVillage, the new dwellings would be puton the market after the Games. TheBanyoles Olympic Village would havetraining facilities and support services.The canoeists and their officials wouldstay at a luxury hotel in La Seu d'Urgell.In both places there would be a heliportfor athletes who wished to go toBarcelona. The dossier also discussed thepossibility of adapting a luxury hotel inthe port of Palma if the city wereeventually chosen to host the yachtingcompetitions.
For accommodation in Barcelona, theDossier pointed out that the city's hotelcapacity was more than sufficient for themembers of the Olympic Family and thevisitors to the Games. Besides the hotelsin Barcelona, there were others in nearbytowns, which had coped with 28 million
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tourists over the last five years. Theestimates in the Dossier were about750,000 beds available less than ninetyminutes from the Olympic Stadium.
Among the accommodation provisionswere the 6,000 places on luxury linerswhich would anchor in the port duringthe Games. In the Diagonal Area weretwo hotels for the senior Olympicexecutives. Some of the buildings aroundthe Olympic Village would be used tohouse journalists, with a total capacity of4,100 people. The press and broadcasterswould also have 5,000 hotel rooms.
The Dossier gave an account of thedifferent means of transport available inthe city and explained the specialadaptations which would be made before1992. There was an account of therailway network, the motorway systemand the port. There was also information
about the airport and the conversion itwould require to cope with the volumeof passengers over the coming decades.
As in the Preliminary Project, theDossier reported on the capacity of thedifferent city transport systems (bus,subway, taxi and rental cars) and, inparticular, the connections between thefour Olympic areas. The central locationand compactness of the competitionvenues and training facilities was clearfrom the table of distances and times.The Olympic Family would have goodconnections through the city transportsystems: bus, subway and fast roads. Theairport and railway stations were alsoclose to all four areas with excellentconnections.
The Olympic Office studied theadaptation of a special transportprogramme for the days of the Games. Itcontained different initiatives, some ofwhich had been sketched in thePreliminary Project: to create a lane for
The members of the IOCwould, acccording to theDossier, reside in the hotelsof the Diagonal Area.
In recent years, as a resultof the Olympic project, thecity of Barcelona hassignificantly increased itshotel capacity thanks to theconstruction of modernestablishments.
Barcelona possesses manyrestaurants which havehelped give Catalan cuisinethe prestige it enjoys.
The Barcelona proposalconsidered the possibilitythat some luxury linersmight be moored in the.port to provideaccommodation during theGames.
Mural by Joan Miró in theold terminal building atBarcelona airport.
Efficient transport
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Plan of the renovatedBarcelona airport,according to the design byRicard Bofill. The newterminals came into servicebefore the Games,increasing the capacity ofthe airport to 16 millionpassengers per year.
Barcelona buses also lenttheir support to theCandidature.
Barcelona taxis, with theirtypical back and yellowlivery, are an unmistakablefeature of the city streets.
Olympic Family transport; to restricttraffic in certain areas to authorisedvehicles and to prohibit it altogether inothers; to provide car parks on theoutskirts and a combined ticket forpublic transport; to ask companies toshorten the working day and time theholidays to overlap with the Games. TheDossier guaranteed transport for thewhole of the Olympic Family and statedthe number of drivers, cars with andwithout driver, minibuses and coacheswhich would be available to them.
The Estació de Franca,from which the first trainto run in the IberianPeninsula left in 1848, wasrefurbished thanks to theimpetus provided by theOlympic Games. In April1992 it became theterminal for long-distancetrains.
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Information technology andtelecommunications
The interest aroused by the OlympicGames in thousands of millions ofpeople across the five continents duringthe sixteen days of competition lays anobligation on the organising city toprovide the necessary technical facilitiesto satisfy this demand. On 14 May 1984,five months after the Preliminary Projectfor the Candidature was approved, theBarcelona City Council announced acompetition for the design andpreparation of the project forinformation technology andtelecommunications requirements for the1992 Olympic Games. This study, whichwas finally entitled BIT'92 (BarcelonaInformàtica i Telecomunicacions 1992),pursued two objectives: first, to meet therequirements of the IOC, that is, to showthat Barcelona was technically capable oforganising the Olympic Games and, atthe same time, to draft plans suited to
the future needs of the city and thesurrounding area.
BIT'92 set out to plan the technologicalneeds of the Barcelona Games in thefields of information technology,telecommunications and broadcasting. Itanalysed information requirements,which it divided into six groups: businessmanagement, event organisation,communication and information,services, support and security. Thefunctions, main specifications and mostimportant inputs and outputs for eachsystem were described.
Four types of hardware architecture weredefined according to the characteristicsof the various systems: one largecomputer for general management,another for Olympic management, anetwork of minicomputers forinformation and communication services,and a scattered network of integratedterminals, work stations and personalcomputers.
Barcelona City Council'straffic control room. Theopening of the new ringroads is expected to reducetraffic density in the citycentre by 15%.
In July 1986 the studyBarcelona Informàtica iTelecomunicacions 1992(BIT'92) was released tothe press. It described thecity's computing andtelecommunicationsrequirements, thepossibilities for innovationopened up by the OlympicGames and the road to befollowed in the future.
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Television control room.Technological renewal ofthe audio-visual media wasa watchword of theOlympic project.
The logotype of TelevisionEspañola.
The logotype of Televisió deCatalunya. TheCandidature assumed thatthe two channels wouldcooperate on the televisioncoverage of the OlympicGames.
View of the premises ofTelevisió de Catalunya atSant Joan Despí.
A schedule was proposed as part of thefinal information and communicationsplan and a series of estimates forfinancial and human resources weremade for the following sectors:information technology, broadcasting,telecommunications, score-boards andtrack instruments. Recommendationswere also made for the recycling of allthe resources and systems after theGames, and a support and promotionplan for applied research was described.The study advised that three projectsshould be set in motion as soon aspossible, regardless of whether or not theGames were awarded: thecommunications mast, an experimentalwide-band network and the definition oftechnological standards andrecommendations.
Many of the recommendations includedin BIT'92, which was presented on 2July 1986, had already been included inthe Candidature Dossier which Barcelonahad presented in March of that year.
BIT'92 demonstrated to the IOC and themedia that Barcelona was able toguarantee the communications andcomputing services needed for theOlympic Games.
Most of the proposals contained inBIT'92 went beyond the basicrequirements imposed by the Games; forthis reason the drafting of the study hadto provide the necessary impulse toenable public bodies and companies tomodernise information technology in ashort period of time.
BIT'92 specified the services andnetworks which had to be created so thatBarcelona could provide, with an amplemargin, the telecommunications whichjournalists and broadcasters from all overthe world would need at the Games. TheDossier, however, had stated that thefacilities and communications servicesrequired could not be assessed in detailuntil the exact needs of the televisionand broadcasting organisations had been
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determined. This assessment was to bemade, in the event that the city wasawarded the Games, when thebroadcasting rights for each country werenegotiated and the Organising Committeeknew what the demand would be.However, the Dossier did set out aspectsof the telecommunications plan whichwould have to be taken into account: theprovision for output to the internationalvideo and sound circuits by land line orby satellite, telephone and telex circuits,and local telecommunications facilities.In order to make clear what the variouscircuits and proposals meant, thetechnical explanation was accompaniedby a series of diagrams representing thearchitecture of the maintelecommunication systems.
The Barcelona Candidature called for thecreation of an Olympic broadcastingorganisation which would be directlyresponsible to the Organising Committee,an arrangement which had never beenadopted at any previous Olympic Games.
The Dossier calculated that during the1992 Games some 9,000 radio andtelevision journalists and technicianswould be in the city. A Media Centrewas to be set up in the Barcelona TradeFair precinct. This facility was to coveran area of between 10,000 and 21,000square metres and would be divided intothree areas: the Main Press Centre(MPC), the Photography Centre and theInternational Broadcasting Centre (IBC).The services to be provided by each andthe technical provisions required weredescribed: camera, commentators' andphotographers' positions at the venues,the nature of the lighting, technicalsupport and general services. Therewould also be a common services areawith interview rooms, medical care,banking services, cafeterias andrestaurants, amongst others.
A television studio.
Telefónica commissionedthe engineer SantiagoCalatrava to design atelecommunications towerto be built in the middle ofthe Olympic Ring to helpwith the broadcasting of theGames and to contribute tothe improvement oftelecommunications in theBarcelona area.
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A balanced budget The financial model
One of the most important studies madeby the Candidature was the forecast forthe cost of staging the Games and thesources of finance. From the PrimeresAproximacions and the PreliminaryProject to the Dossier, Barcelona'92proposed a model of balance betweenincome and expenditure.
The principles governing the definitivefinancial model for the Games devisedby the Candidature were the following:
1. No new taxes were to be introduced asa result of the Games.2. No profit was to be expected. If therewere any, it would be ploughed back intosport.3. The investment as a whole was to beapproached in such a way as to obtainthe maximum socio-economic benefits.
The economic possibilities and thesocio-political situation of Barcelona, itsmetropolitan area and Catalonia as awhole made a mixed model of financingadvisable. Thus, the model adopted wasnot one based totally on privateenterprise, as was the case with LosAngeles in 1984 (where there was nocivic project and therefore no need forthe public sector to intervene), nor oneof state finance, as was the case withMoscow in 1980. The money was to beraised by a joint effort by the OrganisingCommittee, whose income was to bederived mainly from the sale oftelevision rights and the marketing of theOlympic symbols, and by all the publicadministrations involved in the Games(the state, the autonomous governmentand the local authorities), who were toundertake specific investments infacilities and areas. Once the guidelineshad been laid down, business criteriawere to be applied.
Organising Committee Budget*
* 1985 value.
Source: Olympic Office:Candidature Dossier, 1986.
Organisation of the GamesStaffPurchase of goods and servicesInversions
SitesCompetition venuesTraining facilitiesComplementary
Actions in specific areasBasic costsConversion costs
MiscellaneousInterest, unforeseen, etc.
70,25413,70642,15614,392
18,23510,3807,125
730
9,294
9,294
8,9388,938
439.185.6
263.590.0
114.064.944.54.6
58.1
58.1
55.855.8
Own incomeTicketsAccommodation at the Olympic VillageProgrammes, posters and lithographsSponsorshipRTV rightsProvision of services
Participation in incomeLotteriesPoolsCoinsPostage stamps
TransfersFrom the State
Other incomeSale of assets
70,2122,895
735225
15,00046,9004,457
20,7107,0007,7504,970
990
9,5009,500
6,2996,299
438.818.14.61.4
93.7293.127.9
129.443.748.431.1
6.2
59.459.4
39.439.4
283
The Candidature undertook a study ofthe evolution of the budgets of previousOlympic Games in order to determinewhat costs had been generated and howthe resources were obtained. This studyshowed that, since the Games in Munichin 1972, the proceeds from both the saleof television rights and the marketing ofthe symbols had increased progressively.On the other hand, traditional sources ofincome such as the issue of coins andlotteries, which had covered 45% of thecost of Munich in 1972, had become lessand less important, except for theMoscow Games in 1980. It alsotranspired that Games-generated incomehad risen while the contribution from thepublic sector had shrunk. Combined withthese other factors, this meant that therewas an ever greater incentive for a cityto aspire to organise the Olympic Games.
In order to err on the side of prudence,the Dossier assumed that for 1992 theincome from television rights would notincrease significantly with respect to the
1988 Games, that is, that the amountpaid by the North American networkswould remain at a high level and that ofthe European networks would rise.
It was intended that the OrganisingCommittee budget would be balanced,that is, the income generated was to besufficient to cover the total costs. At1985 values, the budget which wasproposed amounted to 106,721 millionpesetas. Adding to this the publicinvestment in sports facilities and urbanimprovements, the final total was170,000 million pesetas. It should beremembered that at that time, the USdollar was worth about 180 pesetas, andeven though it was expected to maintainits value or even rise, the Candidatureteam worked with a moderate estimate ofabout 150 pesetas/dollar.
The opening of the OlympicGames in Moscow in 1980.1,500 million peoplewatched the Games ontelevision. This figure hasincreased for all theOlympic Games since then,up to 3,500 million viewersfor the Barcelona Games.
A new approach tofinancing and organisingthe Olympics was taken atLos Angeles, where theGames were held in 1984.
At the Montreal OlympicGames in 1976 the incomefrom the sale of televisionrights was US$34.895million, a figure which hasincreased spectacularly eversince to reach more thanUS$600 million for theBarcelona'92 Games.
The Organising Committee budget
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The budgeted cost of organising theOlympic Games was divided into threemain headings: organisation, facilitiesand urban renewal.
The expenditure provided for in theOrganising Committee budget wasclassified under twelve headings:administration, technology, services, pressand publications, image, town planningtechnical control, security, OlympicVillage, sports, ceremonies, culturalactivities and International Youth Camp.This calculation took into account theservices of volunteer staff and the freeuse of services and equipment providedby companies and institutions sponsoringthe Organising Committee.
The budget also included investment insports facilities and the cost ofpreparation of the Olympic areas. Thecost of the construction of some of themost important facilities was to be metby the public administrations, as was
that of road infrastructure,telecommunications and transport. In themajority of cases, this meant adaptingthe plans and projects which needed tobe carried out in the city and itsmetropolitan area to the requirements ofthe Games.
To finance the construction ofcomplementary facilities, essentiallyresidential (Olympic villages), theCandidature counted on the cooperationof private enterprise, since these facilitieswould subsequently be used for privatehousing.
As regards the third main section underthe heading of expenditure - work inareas - the cost of adaptation of theOlympic areas was to be met by theOrganising Committee, while the basiccost of urban infrastructure would be theresponsibility of the local authority, or ofthe private developer if the works inquestion affected a residential area forprivate use.
Publications of theOlympic Office
Source: Olympic Office:Official Report, 1986.
Books
Studies
Magazines
Barcelona pretén els Jocs de 1992 (1982)Barcelona'92 (1984, 2nd edition 1985)Montjuïc Olímpic. Barcelona 1992 (1984)Barcelona'92. Preliminary Project presented inLos Angeles 1984(1984)Progress Report to the 90th Session of the IOC.From Los Angeles to Berlin 1984-1985 (1985)Història de I'Estadi Olímpic de Montjuïc (1985)
Avantprojecte de Candídatura. Jocs OlímpícsBarcelona 1992(1983)Candidature Dossier (1986)
Barcelona Olympic News (7 numbers,March 1983-March 1986)
BAYÉS, P. and PERIS, F. Petita història dels JocsOlimpics(1985)Barcelona, un deseo unánime. Gimnasia (1986)Barcelona, un deseo unánime. Atletismo (1986)DURÁNTEZ, CONRADO. Olimpia y los JuegosOlímpicos antiguos (1986)Lausana, 10 arguments (1986)La Guía de Barcelona'92 (1986)
BIT'92. Proyecto de Planificación de lasnecesidades informáticas y detelecomunicaciones de los Juegos Olímpicos de1992(1986)
Barcelona'92 (3 numbers, July 1986-September1986)
Expenditure
285
The income the Organising Committeewould obtain was divided into two mainclasses: that which the Committee wouldraise on its own account and that whichwould require the authorisation orcooperation of the Spanish government.
Regarding the first class, the greater partof income generated would be fromsponsorship and the sale of broadcastingrights. The cession of the right to use theOlympic emblems and symbols, includingthe mascot, would raise 15,000 millionpesetas. It was estimated that the sale ofbroadcasting rights would bring in a totalof 293.1 million dollars.
Another important source of incomewould be the sale of tickets. It wasestimated that there would be a total of4,800,000 tickets, ten per cent of whichwould be reserved for the requirementsof the Olympic Family. The averageprice of tickets was set at 825 pesetas, a
third of the sum fixed for the LosAngeles Games and, taking inflation intoaccount, half that of the Munich andMontreal Games. The sale ofprogrammes, posters and prints and therental of accommodation in the OlympicVillage would provide comparativelylittle, in the latter case since it wasintended that athletes' accommodationshould be free.
Even though the greater part of theincome was to be raised by theOrganising Committee on its ownaccount, it was to be supplemented byrevenue of the second type: a share inthe proceeds of the issue of stamps andcoins and in lotteries and pools. Theseoperations would be carried out by thecentral government. Finally, transfersfrom the central government to theOrganising Committee were regarded assupplementary and the amount woulddepend on the increase in tax revenuegenerated by economic activity related tothe Olympic Games.
AfricaLatin America2
AsiaAustraliaCanadaArab countriesUnited StatesWestern EuropeEastern EuropeJapanHong KongPhilippines
_628
9590
289-
13.5001.700
3001.050--
1001
6352.1003
_360150
23.0006.5502.000---
421.080
4504
1.3601.000
30085.0005.9501.5004.500--
1102.2544.775
10.6003.000
410225.500
19.8002.500
18.500325400
1703.4325.7957.0004.200
420302.11028.0003.000
52.0001.000
550
Income from television rightssince the Munich Gamesin 1972*
* In thousands of US dollars.
1. Including South Africa, which did not buy TV rights in 1980, 1984 or 1988.2. Including the Caribbean and Puerto Rico.3. Including Australia, Japan, Hong Kong.4. Including Hong Kong.
Source: Official Reports of the OlympicGames of 1972, 1976, 1984 and 1988.
Income
286
Exhibition by the painterMiquel Barceló at the oldCasa de la Caritat. Thebuilding has beenrefurbished to accommodatethe Centre of ContemporaryCulture, designed by HelioPiñón and Albert Viaplana,and the Museum ofContemporary Art, on thebasis of a plan by RichardMeier.
A show at the cabaret ElMolino, a typical Barcelonanight-spot. Theatrical lifein the city is very varied.
Picasso, Miró and Dalí,three renowned painterswho are closely associatedwith the artistic traditionof the city.
The cultural project
All Olympic Games since Munich havebeen accompanied by an arts festival, aprogramme of activities parallel to thecompetitions designed to show off theartistic and cultural assets of theorganising city.
The Barcelona proposal went beyond thetradition of previous Games, since itconsisted of a wide-ranging, ambitiousprogramme of cultural events lastingthroughout the four years of theOlympiad. This programme had twoaims: first, to convey the culturalpotential of Barcelona and the Olympicspirit and, second, to increase theattractions of the city for visitors.
The cultural programme revolved aroundthree axes:
1. The 1992 Olympic Arts Festival. As acomplement to the Games in the summer
of 1992, Barcelona proposed to organisea programme of cultural events andactivities. This programme would includeexhibitions, folk entertainment, concertsof classical and popular music and opera,dance and theatre.
2. The Olympic Barcelona InternationalFestival. This was to consist of a varietyof events and programmes which were totake place in the years leading up to theGames, as follows: 1988 was to be theGateway to the Olympiad, when theOlympic flag would be brought to thecity; 1989, the year of Culture and Sport;1990, the year of the Arts, and 1991, theyear of the Future. In each of theseyears, important exhibitions would beorganised related to the chosen themes.
3. The Barcelona'92 International Prizesas a prologue to the Olympic ArtsFestival. These prizes would beannounced in 1990 and would be outsidethe sphere of the Nobel prizes. Theywould be: Juan Antonio Samaranch, for
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sport; Joan Miró, for the plastic arts; PauCasals, for classical music; Antoni Gaudí,for architecture and town planning;Narcís Monturiol, for technologicalinnovation in the urban environment;and El Brusi, for journalism. Barcelona'scultural plans also included theproduction of a film chronicle and therewas to be a special programme for theathletes who would be in Barcelonaduring the Games, including activitieswithin the Olympic Village and artisticevents produced in the city. Theprogramme would be accompanied bythe issue of special stamps.
In the Dossier, the Candidature proposedthe route to be followed by the torchwhich would light the Olympic flame atthe opening ceremony. It would linkcities on the five continents, many ofwhich had been the scene of the OlympicGames on previous occasions, beforereaching Spain, where it would passthrough all the autonomous communities.
In Barcelona, the torch would be carriedaround all the districts of the city beforearriving at the Olympic Stadium.
Musicians and artistscreate a special atmospherein the streets and squaresof the Gothic Quarter.
One of the rooms in theMiró Foundation onMontjuïc.
A performance of thespectacle La Nit, by thetheatre company ElsComediants. Catalantheatre has achieved notablesuccess around the world.
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The ACNO fact-findingcommittee, which visitedBarcelona from 19 to 24March 1986. It was madeup of Arne B. Mollen ofNorway, Mbogo WaKamau of Kenya andJacques Rogge of Belgium.Its report was presented tothe members of the IOC,who the following Octoberat Lausanne were to choosethe city to hold the 1992Games.
The fact-finding committees
The most important Olympicorganisations, the ASOIF, the ACNO andthe IOC itself, sent delegations to each ofthe candidate cities to check all theinformation contained in their dossiers inminute detail and in the field and tocollect the maximum amount ofsupplementary information regarding theplans of each of the cities for theorganisation of the Olympic Games.These are known as the fact-findingcommittees and the submission of theirreports is one of the last proceduresbefore the IOC nominates the nextOlympic city.
The three fact-finding committees, whichhad submitted a questionnaire in whichgeneral questions alternated with specificones posed by their constituentorganisations, visited Barcelona betweenJanuary and April 1986, coinciding withthe final preparation and presentation ofthe Candidature Dossier.
The Olympic Office designed a commonprogramme for the three visits, in whichmeetings with the people in charge of theorganisation and administration of theCandidature were combined with visitsto the proposed venues andsupplementary cultural or leisureactivities, so as to give the members achance to know what the city was reallylike and to get a feel for its people. Pressconferences and formal events wereorganised with the presence ofrepresentatives of the publicadministrations, such as the officialreceptions at the invitation of thepresident of the Generalitat and themayor of Barcelona.
The three fact-finding committees werereceived by the Managing Council andthe technical staff from the OlympicOffice, with Josep Miquel Abad, Alfonsode Borbón, Carles Ferrer Salat andLeopold Rodés at the head. Pere Sust,Jordi Serra, Fèlix Arias, Lluís Millet,Jordi Carbonell, Pedro Palacios and
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Andreu Mercé Varela responded to allthe questions which the representativesof international sport wanted to put tothem.
The ASOIF committee visited Barcelonafrom 23 to 25 January. It was made upof Ruben Acosta, from Mexico, presidentof the International Volleyball Federation(FIVB); Tamas Ajan, from Hungary,secretary general of the InternationalWeightlifting Federation (IWF), andNigel Hacking, from Great Britain,secretary general of the InternationalYacht Racing Union (IYRU). TheASOIF report, which was not binding,had to provide the IOC with a technicalassessment, especially with regard to thesports organisation and facilities offeredby the candidate cities. Before meetingthe candidatures, the Committee sentthem a questionnaire to be completedand then discussed during their visit. Theanswers to the questionnaire werediscussed not only with the members ofeach candidature, but also with national
organisations, such as the sportsfederations.
The ACNO fact-finding committeevisited Barcelona from 19 to 24 March.It consisted of Arne B. Mollen, presidentof the Norwegian National OlympicCommittee; Samuel Mbogo Wa Kamau,president of the Kenya National OlympicCommittee; and Jacques Rogge,vice-president of the Belgian NationalOlympic Committee. Unlike the ASOIF,the ACNO had to judge the candidatecity's potential for organising the Games,rather than to obtain detailed repliesregarding aspects of the competitions orthe various sports. The report consideredthe problems which might be faced bythe competing teams, the press and thespectators of the Games.
After the ASOIF and ACNO committeeshad visited the city, the IOC sent its ownfact-finding committee, which was inBarcelona from 1 to 4 April 1986. Themembers were Gunnar Ericsson, from
The ASOIF fact-findingcommittee, which visitedthe city from 23 to 25January 1986, was the firstof those the IOC sent to allthe candidate cities tocheck the state of affairs ineach of them and theprogress which had beenmade before the finalselection. It consisted ofRuben Acosta of Mexico,Tamas Ajan of Hungaryand Nigel Hacking of theUnited Kingdom.
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The committee which theIOC sent to Barcelonafrom 1 to 4 April 1986 wasmade up of GunnarEricsson of Sweden, NikosFilaretos of Greece andMohamed Zerguini ofAlgeria.
Sweden; Nikos Filaretos, from Greece;and Mohamed Zerguini, from Algeria.The IOC members were receivedpersonally by Felipe González, a furtherdemonstration of the support of the headof the Spanish government for theBarcelona'92 project. The aim of theIOC committee was to report on thecity's capability for organising the Gamesand the extent to which the requirementsof the Olympic Charter were met. Thisreport was sent to the president of theIOC and all its members to be studiedbefore 17 October 1986, when theorganising city of the 1992 OlympicGames was to be designated by ballot.
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On 28 August 1986, aCatalan expedition led byConrad Blanch reached thesummit of Everest. In thephotograph, Òscar Cadiach,one of the climbers whoreached the summit alongwith Antoni Sors andCarles Vallès, accompaniedby three sherpas, unfurls abanner with theCandidature logotype.
Everyone's goal
The nomination of Barcelona as the siteof the 1992 Olympic Games dependedlargely on the unanimity of allinstitutions with a part in theCandidature and on majority supportwithin Catalan and Spanish society.From the first day, one of the objectivesof the Olympic Office was to popularisethe project. With only a few months togo before the decision, this organisationset out to stimulate interest and approvalamong all sectors of society.
The support of institutions such as theParliament of Catalonia, the BarcelonaProvincial Council, the CMB and a largenumber of autonomous communities andtown councils throughout Spain wasadded to that of the mainstays of theCandidature: the City Council, theGeneralitat of Catalonia, the Spanishgovernment and the Spanish OlympicCommittee. The commitment of thecentral government was expressed invarious initiatives and operations, carriedout by the Ministries of Culture,Education, Foreign Affairs, Industry andFinance, aimed at enhancing the viabilityof the Olympic project and promoting itboth within Spain and abroad. The worldof business, which had lent its support tothe Candidature from the start and hadparticipated in its financing, alsoincreased its cooperation at this time.
The outburst of joy among the people ofBarcelona on the day the city wasawarded the Games was the culminationof five years of growing popular support.One of the clearest demonstrations ofthis was in the identification with theOlympic project by people, organisationsand groups through the logotype of theCandidature, which was to be seen oncar stickers, in shop windows andcommercial establishments, on publictransport and in the media.
The sporting world also providedindispensable technical support to theBarcelona project. Representatives of theCatalan and Spanish Olympic sportsfederations worked with members of theOlympic Office to prepare the technicalaspects of the competition organisationand adapt them to the requirements ofthe international federations. Sportingbodies and leading sports personalities
throughout Spain expressed theirsympathy for the Candidature.
This support culminated in the decisionby the Higher Sports Council to set theappointment of Barcelona as the site forthe 1992 Olympic Games as its leadingobjective for 1986.
One of the most important occasions formeeting and cooperation between theOlympic Office and the representativesof Spanish sporting institutions was theThird Olympic Day, held on 18 June1985. This was devoted to a detailedpresentation of the progress whichBarcelona had made since it had decidedto present itself as a candidate toorganise the 1992 Olympic Games, forthe benefit of members of the Spanishand Catalan Olympic sports federationsand the members of the COE StandingCommittee.
This meeting had precedents in theOlympic Days held in 1983 and 1984. Ason those previous occasions, a number ofdifferent events were organised, such asthe "Sixty Olympic Medals" exhibition inthe Saló del Tinell and the talk given bythe president of the InternationalAssociation Football Federation (FIFA)and member of the IOC, João Havelangeof Brazil, who expressed his support forthe Barcelona Candidature.
As part of the Fourth Olympic Day, heldon 19 September 1986, shortly before theIOC chose the city as the site for the1992 Games, the Spanish institutional,sporting and cultural world expressed itssupport for the Barcelona Candidature ata ceremony held in the Saló de Cent inthe Town Hall in which the Council ofSupport for the Candidature, composedof 300 leading figures, was formallyconstituted.
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Beyond Barcelona
The Barcelona Candidature arousedinterest throughout Spain and increasingamounts of information were beingdemanded. For this reason the OlympicOffice launched a project to promote theCandidature all over the country: it wascalled the Olympic Bus.
The Olympic Bus was a large trailerfitted out specially to hold a mobileexhibition with photographs, models,audio-visual displays and various othersorts of material which would introducethe Barcelona Olympic project anddisseminate the values of sport andOlympism. When the vehicle arrived at aparticular place it was converted into alarge exhibition hall.
This exhibition travelled to the capitalsof all the Spanish autonomouscommunities, staying in each one for aweek, and institutional, social andcultural events in support of theCandidature were organised to coincidewith the visits. The Olympic Officeenjoyed the cooperation of institutions atlocal, provincial and autonomouscommunity level in all the places on theroute. These institutions were responsiblefor promoting the events among localbodies, sports clubs, territorial sportsfederations, leisure and culturalorganisations and schools. Thisinstitutional cooperation, and above allthe response of the people, made theproject a success.
The Olympic Bus campaign was givenwide coverage by the press in theautonomous communities, which therebyalso lent their support to a project thathad gone beyond Barcelona andCatalonia to be shared with the majorityof the people of Spain.
The Olympic Bus in thePlaza Mayor in Madrid.The interest which theBarcelona Candidaturearoused throughout Spainprompted the OlympicOffice, in February 1986,to organise a mobileexhibition to show theBarcelona project to each ofSpain's seventeenautonomous communities.
Poster for the campaign"The important thing is totake part. Become anOlympic volunteer". Withthis campaign, theCandidature sought to signup the largest possiblenumber of volunteers readyto help with the Games.
The Olympic volunteersagreed to help with theorganisation of the Gameswithout pay, if Barcelonawere designated as the 1992Olympic city.
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Drawing by Núría Pompeiaillustrating the typicalOlympic volunteer on thebasis of the data collectedat the end of the campaign.
By the end of the volunteerscampaign, 102,000 peoplehad enrolled.
When the Candidature waspresented at Lausanne on17 October 1986, Barcelonacould be proud of the factthat the number ofvolunteers obtained by theLos Angeles'84 organisationhad been surpassed duringthe eight months of thecampaign.
On 10 February 1986, thevolunteers campaign waspresented in Barcelona.Well-known sportspersonalities and figuresfrom public institutionsrepresented on theManaging Council attendedthe event.
After the designation of Barcelona asorganiser of the 1992 Games, theOlympic Bus had still to travel throughthe towns of Catalonia and themetropolitan area of Barcelona. When itfinally reached the future Olympic site ittoured the ten districts into which thecity is divided.
The most significant demonstration ofpopular support for the BarcelonaCandidature was the number of Olympicvolunteers who registered to take part inthe organisation of the Games. On 10February 1986, several months before thenomination, the Managing Council of theCandidature approved the launching of acampaign called "The important thing isto take part. Become an Olympicvolunteer", which was aimed at securingthe highest possible level of registrationand thus giving the Olympic Family ademonstration of the popular
commitment and expectation which theBarcelona Olympic project hadawakened. There had been Olympicvolunteers at previous Games; they hadhad an especially important role in LosAngeles, when the Organising Committeehad managed to mobilise some 40,000.
The objectives of the campaign fell intotwo groups: on the one hand, topopularise the Barcelona'92 Candidaturethroughout Spain, to offer those peoplewho wished to become involved a meansof participating, and to have 40,000volunteers registered by the end of thecampaign; and on the other, to makeclear that the Barcelona Candidature wasprogressing rapidly -solving problemswhich other cities competing to organisethe Games had so far only looked atbriefly- to demonstrate that theCandidature commanded widespreadpopular support and to promote theimage of a Candidature which wasactive, organised and open to everyone.The campaign defined the Olympic
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volunteer as a person who, withoutseeking any financial or other reward,was committed individually, and in acompletely altruistic way, to offering hisor her abilities and time to the BarcelonaCandidature and, if the city wasnominated, to the organisation of theGames.
There was an immediate, positiveresponse. The announcement of thecampaign, which was covered extensivelyby the media, produced an avalanche ofregistrations in Catalonia and in thecities where the Olympic Bus had been.On 5 April, only 56 days after the startof the campaign, 8,924 people hadregistered in Catalonia and theautonomous communities of Valencia,Murcia and Andalucía. On 15 July, fivemonths after the start of the campaign,55,610 volunteers had been registeredand on 6 September the figure hadreached 61,547.
The success of the volunteer recruitmentcampaign received favourable commentin sections of the international press,such as Le Monde, The InternationalHerald Tribune, Le Matin and Newsweek.
The large number of volunteers gave theBarcelona Candidature great moralstrength and was a powerful argumentwhen the time came to take the decision.After the nomination, the campaigncontinued to produce a high rate ofregistration so that when it closed inDecember 1986, there were 102,000registered volunteers.
Apart from the Olympic workingsessions, the Olympic Bus and thevolunteer recruitment campaign, theOlympic Office organised other publicitycampaigns and promotional events andproduced literature and audio-visualmaterial to maintain the contact betweenthe Olympic project and society.
On 25 May 1986, 53,145runners took part in theC'ursa Popular deBarcelona in solidarity withthe organisation Sport Aid,as part of the campaignagainst hunger in Africa.
Princess Elena onhorseback with the Olympicflag, yet anotherdemonstration of the royalhousehold's support for theBarcelona Candidature.
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On 23 December 1985, agroup of 150 scouts startedOperation Petrol Station,which consisted ofdistributing stickers withthe Candidature logoaround the service stations.In 1992, many cars stillsport them.
Opening parade at the XXIWorld RhythmicGymnastics Championships,which took place inValladolid in October 1985.The logotype of theBarcelona Candidature wasvisible throughout thecompetitions.
Exhibitions were mounted periodically-the first having taken place in 1983- toshow the public what stage work on theCandidature had reached. They coincidedwith sports events, such as the WorldRhythmic Gymnastics Championships inValladolid in October 1985, the Aid forAfrica race which took place inBarcelona in 1986, and the WorldBasketball and Swimming Championshipsin Madrid, also in 1986. Sometimes theywere mounted at events which werefirmly established on the calendar of thecity: the Saló Nàutic, the Fira deMostres, the Saló Construmat and theFira ciutat de l'Hospitalet. Others wereorganised in Palma de Mallorca and LasPalmas.
In the field of publications andaudio-visual productions, there was anew edition of Barcelona'92 (1985) andwith the following works: Montjuïcolímpic (1985, in association with theBarcelona College of Architects), Olímpiay los juegos olímpicos antiguos (1986)
and Guia i Plànol Barcelona'92 (July1986). A new version of the videoBarcelona'92 was made; it was entitledBarcelona'92. Everyone's goal.
Apart from the publications andaudio-visual material, a large number ofother graphic materials were created andhelped to spread the dream of anOlympic Barcelona: from Christmascards to lithographs, such as The CosmicAthlete by Dalí and works by Tàpies, andincluding posters, magazines andbrochures.
The Olympic Office also undertook otherpublicity campaigns such as theadvertising hoardings or the "Olympiccountdown", aimed at the press inBarcelona who, as well as incorporatingthe logotype of the Candidature on theirfront pages, counted off the days to gobefore the designation of the city whichwas to organise the 1992 Games. InNovember 1985, with the aim of takingthe Candidature into the schools, the
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"Mascot Competition" campaign waslaunched; boys and girls of school agewere invited to design a mascot topersonify the city. Twenty thousandschoolchildren took part. The winningdrawing was a dragon by Xavier Martí.
The campaign
Towards the end of 1985 theCandidature drafted the dossier whichthe competing cities had to present tothe IOC seven months before thedecision was to be taken. At the heightof the campaign, with many of theinfrastructure projects already under wayand institutional unanimity assured, theorganisers continued working to reinforcethe impression that Barcelona was thebest candidate to host the 1992 Games.
The Candidature contacted the membersof the IOC personally to promote theOlympic project: they were visited intheir home countries or welcomed inBarcelona so that they could be given themaximum possible information about theplan. Sixty-five members of the IOCvisited the city, which was especiallyimportant as the majority did not knowit at first hand or had received hardlyany information. They were shownvarious aspects of Barcelona, rangingfrom sport to culture to the people. Eachvisit included a helicopter flight over thesports venues, a meeting with thepresident of the Generalitat of Cataloniaand another with the mayor, togetherwith other tourist and social activities.
Apart from visits by the members of theIOC to get to know the city on the spot,the International Relations Committeemade personal visits to members of thegoverning body of the OlympicMovement in their home countries. Thepresident of the businessmen's
Some entries for thedrawing competition for themascot, organised by theOlympic Office amongst allchildren of school age.
The Barcelona Associationof Confectioners also lenttheir support to theOlympic project, making achocolate replica of theOlympic Ring.
The Candidature logotypeat Barcelona Airport. TheOlympic Office installed acomputer terminalproviding generalinformation about the cityand the Olympic project forinterested passengers.
The ship which took theparticipants in the 1986Volta Ciclista a Catalunyato Alghero in Sardinia leftthe port of Barcelona witha giant Candidature banner.
Informing the electors
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Xavier Martí, the boy whowon the drawingcompetition for the mascot,with a reproduction of hisentry.
Some castellers unfurl theOlympic flag during theFestes de la Mercè, (thefeast of the patron saint ofBarcelona) in September1986. The great majority ofpeople of Barcelona wantedthe city to be designated forthe 1992 Olympic Gamesthe following month.
association Barcelona Olímpica'92, CarlesFerrer Salat, visited the other candidatecities and a total of twenty-fourcountries, the majority of which were inEurope. The vice-president of this sameorganisation, Leopold Rogés, alsotravelled to twenty-four countries aroundthe world. The secretary of theInternational Relations Committee,Ignasi Masferrer, visited ten, mostly inAsia and Africa. Masferrer had beenappointed by the Ministry of ForeignAffairs to establish links between theCandidature and Spanish embassiesaround the world. Andreu Mercé Varelaalso visited ten countries. Finally, thepresident of the COE, Alfonso deBorbón, visited various South Americancountries. Numerous official visits weremade by the mayor, Pasqual Maragall.
During the spring of 1986, after theDossier had been presented, the
Candidature continued to attend all theimportant meetings of the OlympicMovement and in the few months beforethe nomination of the future Olympicsite it intensified its promotionalcampaign.
Between 4 and 6 April 1986 the 4thGeneral Assembly of the ASOIF was heldin the Hilton Hotel in Rome. Themeeting was attended by representativesof the IOC and the Seoul OlympicGames Organising Committee (SLOOC),and by the Summer Olympicinternational federations. All the citieswhich were candidates to organise the1992 Games were there, includingBelgrade, making its first publicappearance. On the Barcelona stand wasa photograph of Baron de Coubertin,commemorating a visit he had made toBarcelona in 1926. On that occasion thefather of the modern Olympic Movementhad praised the city with the phrasewhich the Candidature had rediscovered:"Before I had visited Barcelona, I
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thought that I knew what a sporting citywas like." The use of the photograph ofthe Baron in the promotion of theCandidature provoked criticism fromtheir opposite numbers from Paris, thecity which had provided the fiercestcompetition which Barcelona had had toface during the promotion campaign.
Shortly afterwards, between 21 and 26April, there was another encounterbetween the candidate cities and thesenior executives of the OlympicMovement, at the 5th General Assemblyof the ACNO in Seoul. This was the lastopportunity which the variouscandidatures had before the nominationto present their projects to a meeting ofthe Olympic management. It alsoprovided an opportunity to establishcontacts with members of the OrganisingCommittee of the Seoul Games, twoyears before the event. The Barcelonacase was presented by the president ofthe COE, Alfonso de Borbón, and itfocussed on the points of the new
decalogue with which the Candidaturesummed up its plan at this final stage. Atthe end of the speech, the CandidatureDossier was presented to the members ofthe IOC who had still not received acopy.
The new decalogue of the Candidaturepresented at this final stage consisted ofthe following points:
1. Barcelona has applied to organise theOlympic Games four times. Spain is theonly country in Western Europe whichhas never organised an Olympic event.2. Barcelona has the unanimous supportof the people, the institutions and thesporting world.3. Barcelona is ready: 88% of thenecessary facilities are already available.4. Barcelona can offer a compact Games:the competition venues and the OlympicVillage will be concentrated within acircle with a radius of five kilometres.5. Barcelona has demonstrated itssporting tradition and its experience in
The stand of the BarcelonaCandidature at the 5thGeneral Assembly of theACNO, which took place inSeoul in April 1986. Aphotograph of Pierre deCoubertin, the man whorevived the Olympic Games,can be seen and thecelebrated phrase he utteredwhen he visited the city in1926: "Before I had visitedBarcelona, I thought that Iknew what a sporting citywas like."
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Press conference held on 25June 1986, during theFootball World Cup inMexico in 1986. Beside themayor, Pasqual Maragall,are Carles Ferrer Salat andLeopold Rodés, presidentand vice-presidentrespectively of theBarcelona Olímpica'92business association.
the organisation of various worldchampionships.6. Barcelona has a network of hotels andtourist facilities of world renown. Thereare 750,000 hotel beds no more thansixty minutes away.7. Barcelona has a mild climate.8. Barcelona has a rich cultural heritage,as illustrated by its world famous artists:Gaudí, Picasso, Miró, Caballé, etc.9. Barcelona is a safe city.10. Barcelona and Spain live for sport.King Juan Carlos is the only head ofstate to have competed in the OlympicGames.
In June 1986, 118 days before thenomination of the host city for the 1992Games, the World FootballChampionships were held in Mexico. On26 June, Pasqual Maragall arrived and,in front of more than 100 journalists,listed the ten reasons why Barcelona
should receive the Olympic nomination.He also reminded his listeners that 65out of the 90 voting members of the IOChad visited the city and that thevolunteer recruitment campaign hadresulted in more than 40,000registrations. The press agreed thatBarcelona had a clear advantage over theother aspirants.
The summer of 1986 was teeming withinternational competitions. TheCandidature wished to take advantage ofthis circumstance and made anappearance at the most important ones.In June the Barcelona'92 project waspresented at the Roland Garros tennistournament in Paris, at the opening ofthe Albergo Olímpico in Puerto Rico andat the Central American and CaribbeanGames in the Dominican Republic. InAugust, the Candidature was present atthe Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh,at the World Basketball Championships,which took place in Madrid andBarcelona, at the European Athletics
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Championships in Stuttgart and at theWorld Swimming Championships, whichalso took place in Madrid. The lastopportunities which the Candidature hadto lobby Olympic organisations were themeeting of the European NOCs inBudapest in August 1986 and the AsianGames in Seoul at the beginning ofSeptember. These events once againprovided contacts with the electors whowere to decide the host city for the 1992Olympic Games.
Match between Spain andCuba in the 1986 WorldBasketball Championship,held in Madrid. As at allimportant internationalcompetitions which tookplace that year, theCandidature was there withits promotional campaign.
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Reproduction of TheCosmic Athlete, painted bySalvador Dalí in 1960.This work presided theexhibition Treasures ofBarcelona which theOlympic Office organisedat the HermitageFoundation in Lausanne on9 October 1986, a few daysbefore Barcelona wasawarded the 1992 Games atthe 90th Session of the IOC.
The mayor of Barcelona,Pasqual Maragall, speakingduring the opening of theexhibition Treasures ofBarcelona.
"Operation Lausanne"
The IOC settled on the third week ofOctober 1986 to hold the 91st Session, atthe end of which the organisers of theSummer and Winter Games of the XXVOlympiad would be chosen. Six cities(Amsterdam, Belgrade, Birmingham,Brisbane, Paris and Barcelona) hadpresented their candidature for theSummer Games in 1992 and seven(Albertville, Anchorage, Berchtesgaden,Cortina d'Ampezzo, Falun, Lillehammerand Sofia) for the Winter Games. On theeve of this decisive encounter inLausanne, the managers of the BarcelonaCandidature prepared for the final effort,the culmination of a task that had begunfive years before with the first statementsof intent.
From the Candidature Dossier, whichhad been presented in March, and thereports of the fact-finding committees,the electors were already familiar withthe technical project: the guidelines, thevenues plan, the budget and theorganisation of services. For this reasonit was decided to concentrate, at this laststage of the operation, on the aestheticand human values and the originality ofthe Barcelona tender; the aim was toconvey an emotive image of the citywhich would add attractive elements tothe project and tip the balance in favourof the Barcelona Candidature.
During those final days, therepresentatives of Barcelona made everyeffort to emphasise the civic and culturalvalues of the city. The Candidaturestressed the degree of popular andinstitutional support it had received andrecalled that Spain had never had thechance to organise the Olympic Games.These arguments, combined with theexpectation and unanimous will to winthe nomination, were presented as acomplement to the organisationalcapacity and the seriousness of theOlympic project.
In the field of organisation, "OperationLausanne" was prepared by means of astrategic plan which had been carefullydrafted over the preceding months. Everydepartment of the Olympic Office hadbeen working flat out on the projectswhich had to be completed for the 91stSession of the IOC: setting up the standat the Palais de Beaulieu, making thefilm which would introduce theCandidature to the members of the
Committee, drawing up the differentinformation materials, deciding thestrategy to be pursued in relation to theaccredited press, defining the programmeof popular and institutional support andselecting the staff who would accompanythe official delegation to the Swiss city.
The presence of Catalonia as guest ofhonour at the 67th Fair of the ComptoirSuisse, which had opened a few weeksbefore the meeting in Lausanne, gave thecity a considerable initial advantage, as itallowed Barcelona to make contact withthe local media and to join in theinstitutional life of the Swiss city. Everyeffort was made to secure a propitiousatmosphere in the canton of Vaud andthe sympathy of its inhabitants for theambitions of Barcelona. On 15September, the president of theGeneralitat of Catalonia, Jordi Pujol, andthe mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, inaugurated the Catalanpavilion at the fair.
On 8 September, an Olympic Officeattache, in cooperation with the officialliaison officer appointed by the IOC,began to establish and coordinate thedifferent areas of work, from hotelreservations and car rentals to thepreparation of the Candidatureheadquarters. On 6 October, a first teamfrom the Olympic Office installed itselfin Lausanne to provide support andfinalise details for the IOC Session.
Alongside these activities, on 9 Octoberthe Hermitage Foundation inauguratedthe exhibition "Treasures of Barcelona"in Lausanne. This display of the culturalheritage and artistic sensibility of the citygave a new dimension to the promotionof the Candidature. Shortly before theopening, the prestigious magazine L'Oeilhad devoted a special number to Catalanart.
The Hermitage Foundation, founded in1976 at the former residence of theBougnion family with Jean-FrançoisDaulte as director, provided an idealsetting for the exhibition; the Catalanintellectual Josep Pijoan, whose wife wasa member of the Bougnion family, hadlived in the mansion for the last years ofhis life. And so, through the Hermitage
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Foundation, another link was forgedbetween the IOC headquarters andBarcelona, this time in the field of art.
The exhibition showed three stages ofmodern art in Barcelona: the turn of thecentury, the avant-gardes and the lastwork of Picasso, Dalí and Miró. Apainting by Picasso from 1905, Portraitof Senyora Canals, appeared on the coverof the catalogue, which was widelydistributed in Switzerland. Over onehundred works were on display, somefrom the Picasso Museum, the DalíMuseum, the Miró Foundation and theBarcelona Museum of Modern Art andothers from private collections inCatalonia and Switzerland. The SpanishRoyal Family lent Dalí's painting TheCosmic Athlete specially for the occasion;it hung in the place of honour at theexhibition. Also on show were works byJuli Gonzalez, Pau Gargallo, IsidreNonell, Ramon Casas and others.
The exhibition, which was open until 29October, was inaugurated by the mayorof Barcelona and the chairman of theHermitage Foundation in the presence ofa large audience, among whom wasRaymond Gafner representing the IOC.
At the Palais de Beaulieu in Lausanne,where the IOC session was to be held,the stands where each delegation wouldbroadcast its final message were installed.This was the climax of the promotioncampaign.
The concept and assembly of theBarcelona stand had been entrusted tothe designer Leopold Pomes and thearchitect Ricard Sans. It was an openspace which tried to transmit an imageof clarity, daring in line andMediterranean in aesthetic. The messagewas one of enthusiasm which shunnedlengthy explanations and concentrated on
The Managing Council ofthe Candidature isphotographed in front ofthe Magic Fountain ofMontjuïc a few days beforetravelling to Lausanne.
Portrait of Senyora Canals,painted by Pablo Picasso in1905. It was reproduced inthe exhibition catalogueand on the cover of thespecial issue of theprestigious international artmagazine L'Oeil, publishedin Lausanne, devoted toCatalan art a few monthsbefore the nomination.
The final impact
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The stand set up atLausanne by the OlympicOffice was an open spacewith a Mediterraneanflavour. It was designed byLeopold Pomes and RicardSans.
The Albertville'92 logodominated the French city'sstand. Albertville waschosen as the scene of the1992 Winter Games,winning against Anchorage,Berchtesgaden, Cortinad'Ampezzo, Falun,Lillehammer and Sofia.
The stand of the ParisCandidature.
two arguments: the fact that Spain hadnever organised an Olympic Games andthe broad movement of keen supportwhich surrounded the BarcelonaCandidature. The first idea was depictedby a printed panel with a map of Europein a shade of green showing a series offlaming torches marking the cities whichhad hosted the Summer or WinterGames; the Iberian Peninsula wasshrouded in darkness in token of the factthat it had never organised an Olympicevent. The second idea was conveyedthrough a line of silhouettes of Olympicvolunteers of different ages, symbolisingthe broad popular support for theBarcelona Candidature. These figures,made of perspex, were superimposed ona luminous background which was areproduction of a mural by Joan Miró.On a white marble floor stood five chairsdesigned by Gaudí and a table showing amap of the planned sports facilities. Allthe materials were of the same highquality as the stands mounted at earlierIOC sessions in Berlin and Seoul.
The Barcelona delegation had sent anOlympic Office press team to Lausanneto coordinate the Candidatureinformation for the media. The teamreceived visits, held conversations withmembers of the IOC and circulatedstatements and press releases from theCandidature operations centre at theHotel de la Paix and the press office,which was permanently installed at thePalais de Beaulieu. Both centres becamethe focus of attention for Spanish andinternational journalists.
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The week of the nomination
On Sunday 12 October 1986 the 91stSession of the IOC was officially opened.All the members of the official delegationof the Barcelona Candidature attended.In the afternoon the stands of thedifferent candidatures were inauguratedin the hall of the Palais de Beaulieu.From then on members of the OlympicOffice and the International RelationsCommittee were in permanent contactwith the members of the IOC and themedia.
In the afternoon of 12 October, theCatalan soprano Montserrat Caballé, whohad become cultural ambassador for theBarcelona Candidature, had held a press
conference with the mayor PasqualMaragall, at which they explained thecultural project for the BarcelonaOlympiad. On 13 October, in Lausannecathedral, Montserrat Caballé gave amemorable concert to an audience of2,300, which was broadcast by TVE. Shealso accompanied the wives of themembers of the IOC to the "Treasures ofBarcelona" exhibition at the HermitageFoundation; the members themselveswent the next day.
On the night of 14 October there was anattack by the terrorist group ETA in thePlaça d'Espanya in Barcelona whichcaused the death of the policeman AngelGonzalez. The mayor, who was headingthe official delegation of theCandidature, hurried back to Barcelonato attend the funeral. He returned toLausanne on the fifteenth for thepresentation of the Candidature.
Recital by MontserratCaballé at LausanneCathedral, before nearly2,300 guests. This concertwas one of the main eventsin the programme preparedby the Olympic Officeduring the week of"Operation Lausanne".
The Candidature standreceived many visits bysupporters, notable amongstwhom were the SpanishOlympic medallistsHerminio Menéndez, LuisDoreste, Fernando Molina,Jordi Llopart, Jose ManuelAbascal and FranciscoFernandez Ochoa.
Prince Albert of Monaco,one of the 69 members ofthe IOC who were tochoose the city to hold the1992 Olympic Games, visitsthe Barcelona standaccompanied by CarlesFerrer Salat, Josep MiguelAbad and Andreu MercéVarela.
The session begins
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The ambassador Montserrat Caballé
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Exterior of the Palais deBeaulieu in Lausanne,where the 90th Session ofthe IOC was held.
A fine example affair play:the mayor of Amsterdamand the president of theDutch Olympic Committee,with some of therepresentatives of theBarcelona Candidature.
The president of Spain,Felipe Gonzalez, and thepresident of the Generalitatof Catalonia, Jordi Pujol,formed part of the officialdelegation which presentedthe Barcelona Candidatureto the members of the IOC.
On Thursday 16 Barcelona presented theCandidature to the IOC assembly. Thecity was drawn to appear fourth, atmidday. First came Belgrade (8.30),second Amsterdam (9.40) and thirdBrisbane (10.50); after Barcelona cameBirmingham (15.00) and Paris (16.10).When the presentations were over, thefact-finding committees of the ASOIF,the ANOC and the IOC would read theirreports on the candidate cities to theassembly.
The day before, Wednesday 15, thepresident of the Generalitat of Catalonia,Jordi Pujol, had arrived in Lausanne. Onthe morning of Thursday 16, thepresident of the Spanish government,Felipe Gonzalez, joined the officialdelegation. The presence of the twopresidents in Lausanne ratified thesupport of their administrations and ofthe people of Catalonia and the rest ofSpain for the Candidature.
The delegation attending the IOCassembly was made up of thirty-sixpeople: six official delegates, six experts,four support staff and twenty observers.
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The presentation of the Candidaturefollowed the schedule established. First,Carles Ferrer Salat, as a member of theIOC, presented the BarcelonaCandidature and then followed thespeech by the president of the ManagingCouncil, Pasqual Maragall. Here aresome extracts:
"It is a fact that my city, Barcelona, hasalways been linked with this idea: it hadalready presented its Candidature for theGames in 1924 and 1931 and again for1972 ..."
"Barcelona has not only waited;Barcelona has built; more than that:Barcelona has learned! It has learned thelesson of Olympism ..."
"I would like to convey the excitement,the enthusiasm and the care with whichBarcelona and the whole country arepreparing for this possibility ..."
"It is a fact that Spain is the onlycountry of the twelve represented here bythe candidate cities to host the Summeror Winter Games in 1992 which hasnever had the honour of organising anOlympic Games ..."
"It is a fact that Spain has applied forthis honour on more than one occasion."
"Our decalogue is complete: merit,unanimity, sporting tradition,concentration, organisation, climate,accommodation, culture, security and ahead of state who is not only honorarypresident of our candidature, but was acompetitor in the Munich Games in1972 ..."
"The Barcelona Games will be theGames of plucky little Catalonia, of thegreat Spain which is awakening, of theAmerica which is so close to us, of oursister country Portugal and, why not, ofthe first step towards our neighbourAfrica ..."
The official delegation in Lausanne
Source: Olympic Office: Official Report, 1986.
The presentation
Official delegates
Experts
Observers
Technicians
Pasqual MaragallFelipe GonzalezJordi PujolAlfonso de BorbonJosep Miguel AbadLeopold Rodes
Roma CuyasJosep Llui's VilasecaJordi SerraFelix AriasLlui's Millet
Jordi Carbonell
Narcis SerraJavier SolanaManuel FonsecaLuis YanezAntoni DalmauJoan Mas CantiHigini Clotas
Jose Manuel de HozJordi Parpal
Merce SalaEnric Truno
Jordi VallverduRamon Trias Fargas
Enric Lacalle
Victoria YbarraJulio FeoFerran PerpinyaJuan Luis Pan de SoraluceIgnasi MasferrerLlui's Prenafeta
Conrado Durantez
Josep RocaMiquel CompanyEnriqueta BoschSalvador Blanch
President of the Managing Council and mayor of BarcelonaPresident of the Spanish GovernmentPresident of the Generalitat of CataloniaPresident of the Spanish Olympic CommitteeChief executive officer of the CandidatureVice-president of the Barcelona Olimpica'92 BusinessAssociation
Secretary of State for SportDirector General of Sport at the Generalitat of CataloniaDirector of the Olympic OfficeDirector of the Candidature DossierDirector of the Department of Architecture and TownPlanning at the Olympic OfficeTechnician in the Department of Architecture and TownPlanning at the Olympic Office
Minister of Defence in the Spanish GovernmentMinister of Culture in the Spanish GovernmentSecretary of the COESecretary of State for Iberoamerican CooperationPresident of the Barcelona Provincial CouncilCommissioner of the CandidatureSpokesman for the Socialist Group in the Parliament ofCataloniaVice-president of the COEDeputy mayor for Town Planning and Public Works in theBarcelona City CouncilVice-president of the Barcelona Metropolitan CorporationCouncillor for Youth and Sport in the Barcelona CityCouncilVice-president of the Barcelona Provincial CouncilLeader of the opposition and spokesman for the CIUGroup in the Barcelona City CouncilRepresentative of the Grup Popular in the Barcelona CityCouncilRepresentative of the COESecretary to the Presidency of the Spanish GovernmentUnder-Secretary in the Ministry of Foreign AffairsSpanish ambassador in SwitzerlandSecretary of the Committee of International RelationsSecretary general of the Presidency of the Generalitat ofCataloniaPresident of the Spanish Olympic Academy
Head of international exhibitions at the Olympic officeRelations with the international federations and the NOCsMember of the Committee for International RelationsProject manager
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"Trust us."
"In 1992 we will be able to provide youwith an unforgettable Games."
At one point in his speech, PasqualMaragall handed over for a few minutesto the president of the COE, Alfonso deBorbón. Here are some excerpts from hisspeech:
"Barcelona is the ideal place to hold theOlympic Games. Baron Pierre deCoubertin spoke words of praise for acity which aspired to become a meetingpoint for sportsmen and women andsports enthusiasts from all over theworld ..."
"We shall know how to make thisleading sports event into a universaloccasion, open, brotherly, memorable.We shall know how to respond totradition and the desire for renewal ofthe Olympic Movement in its finesthour ..."
"Spanish people and Barcelona want tomake their contribution to strengtheningthis movement, the largest peacefulmovement in the world."
After Maragall had finished, it was theturn of the president of the Generalitat,Jordi Pujol, who, in a brief speech,stressed the unity of the economic,social, cultural and sporting worlds whichwere solidly behind the Candidature.
Next, the Candidature film was shown; ithad been made by Leopold Pomes in 35mm Panavision. It showed Barcelona,where the inhabitants awoke andgradually joined in a great race, a symbolof their support for a common project. Itstressed the two final arguments of theCandidature, which had already beenadvanced on the stand: unanimouspopular support and the fact that Spainhad never organised the Olympic Games.
After the film had been shown, variousmembers of the IOC put questions to the
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Barcelona 26/2/86 to 3/3Valencia 4/3 to 11/3Murcia 14/3 to 21/3Sevilla 1/4 to 7/4Cáceres 9/4 to 15/4Toledo 16/4 to 22/4Madrid 24/4 to 3/5 and 14/7 to 21/7Valladolid 6/5 to 12/5Santiago de Compostela 13/5 to 20/5Oviedo 22/5 to 30/5Santander 31/5 to 9/6Bilbao 10/6 to 16/6Pamplona 17/6 to 24/6Logroño 25/6 to 1/7Zaragoza 4/7 to 10/7Las Palmas 3/9 to 5/9Santa Cruz de Tenerife 8/9 to 12/9
512,000 visitors15,732 volunteres registered15,000 kilometres covered
Route of the Olympic Bus around Spain 313
delegation, asking for more details of theexplanations they had given. Thequestions were also intended to clarify orbroaden the information contained in theCandidature Dossier, such as the officialcompetition programme, thecharacteristics of the Olympic Village,the transport, the cultural programme,the hospitals and the financial guaranteesfor the Games. Pasqual Maragallanswered the questions posed by the IOCand Felipe Gonzalez closed thepresentation with a few words.
At nearly half past one on Wednesday 17October, the members of the IOC, whohad been assembled and deliberating atthe Palais de Beaulieu since eight o'clockin the morning, went into the hall of thebuilding where the delegations of theCandidatures and the international presswere awaiting the final decision of theOlympic organisation.
Besides the public specially invited bythe IOC, there were thirty members ofeach Candidature in the room. At halfpast one on the dot, the president of theIOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch, preparedto open the sealed envelope whichcontained the final verdict.
Samaranch's words were: "As presidentof the International Olympic Committee,I have the honour to announce that theCommittee has decided to award theorganisation of the Games of the XXVOlympiad to the city of... " A pause andthe words "Attendez un moment ..." hadthe hearts of the members of all thedelegations in their mouths, until thepresident finally added: " a la ville de ...Barcelona", making the name of the cityecho around the world, with apronounced Catalan accent.
The emotions and nerves which had beensuppressed burst out in unison inLausanne and Barcelona, Catalonia andthe whole of Spain. At last the efforts
At half-past one in theafternoon, the president ofthe IOC, Juan AntonioSamaranch, gets ready toannounce the decision ofthe Olympic governingbody. More than athousand journalists wereaccredited and everybodywaited with bated breath.
A photograph for thehistory books: the presidentof the IOC is on the pointof opening the envelopecontaining the name of thecity which is to organisethe 1992 Olympic Games.First, however, there was apause: "Attendez unmoment...".
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Those in charge of theCandidature did notattempt to hide theirenthusiasm: Barcelona hadbeen selected on the thirdvote.
and the tenacity of a large team, with thesupport of the people and of a country,had made a long-cherished dream cometrue. Over a thousand journalists fromthe five continents and forty-twotelevision networks were covering an IOCSession which had aroused the highestexpectation. Barcelona had won!
The way in which the choice of thefuture Olympic city had been made wasnot revealed until after the officialannouncement of the verdict. The citywhich is to host the Olympic Games ischosen by secret ballot, in as manyrounds as necessary for one of thecandidate cities to win an outrightmajority. In the first round Barcelonaobtained 29 votes; Paris, 19; Belgrade, 13;Brisbane, 11; Birmingham, 8; andAmsterdam, 5. The last city waseliminated and Barcelona, in spite ofbeing in first place, was still far from the
43 votes it needed for an outrightmajority. In the second round, Barcelonaobtained 37 votes and Paris, 20; Belgradeand Brisbane, with 11 and 9 votes, lostground; and Birmingham, with 8 votes,was eliminated.
It was in the third round that Barcelonawas chosen. Judge Kéba Mbaye,spokesman for the members of the IOCwho did the recount of the votes, advisedthe electors that one of the candidatesalready had an outright majority.Immediately, everyone in the roomturned and showered congratulations onone of the members of the InternationalOlympic Committee: the vice-presidentof the Managing Council of theBarcelona Candidature, Carles FerrerSalat. Samaranch had to intervene toremind the everyone that the result ofthe vote had not yet been officiallyannounced. The recount awarded victoryto Barcelona, which had won 47 votes;Paris had obtained 23, Brisbane 10 andBelgrade, 8.
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The Barcelona Olympic outburst
The possibility, more real than ever, thatBarcelona would finally succeed in beingnominated site of the Olympic Games,had aroused great expectation. The finalstage of the 91st Session of the IOC,broadcast to the whole world byEurovision, had been followed by mostof the radio and television stations in thecountry. For several days before, theyhad warmed up the atmosphere withdetailed information about everythingthat was happening in Lausanne anddemonstrated their support for theBarcelona Candidature with unusualinsistence. The Catalan circuit ofTelevision Española had erected a stagein the Plaça de Catalunya in the citycentre from where it broadcast a specialprogramme with live coverage of theevent that was taking place at the Palaisde Beaulieu. People thronged around thegiant screens set up in the square.
When Samaranch spoke the name ofBarcelona, which the announcerscovering the session chorused with barelydisguised glee, the city exploded withdelight. The sky above the Plaça deCatalunya was filled with balloons andfire-crackers, while people shouted forjoy, hugged each other, wept and raisedtheir arms in triumph. Everyone hadawoken from a wonderful dream to findthat it had come true. The shouting inthe main square of the city found anecho in homes, offices and cars; for amoment, everyone had stopped to watchthe television or listen to the radio tohear the verdict of the IOC. The festivespirit and the need to share a successwhich everyone felt as his or her ownbrought people out onto the streets withflags and placards and sounded the hornsof cars in a huge chorus chanting thename of the city. The Ramblas were thepoint where most people flocked. Theparty lasted all day.
The crowds gathered in thePlaça de Catalunya tofollow the result of the votelive on television. Onhearing the word"Barcelona", they burst inunison into a chorus of "Jasom olímpics!" (Now weare Olympic!).
"... the IOC has decided toaward the Games of theXXV Olympiad to the cityof..."
"... Barcelona!"
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Immediately after theannouncement of the IOC'sdecision, the contractbetween the Olympicorganisation and the city ofBarcelona was signed at thePalais de Beaulieu.
The former mayor ofBarcelona, Narcís Serra,with the staff of theOlympic Office, momentsafter having heard of thedesignation of Barcelona.The continuous tension ofthe previous days gave wayto a great wave of joy.
The Spanish government, which was at ameeting of the Council of Ministers,toasted the nomination of Barcelona withcava and the president, Felipe Gonzalez,appeared on television to tell thecountry: "This is a moment of greathappiness for the whole of Spain." Thepresident of the Generalitat, Jordi Pujol,also expressed his satisfaction in front ofthe cameras and said that the Gameswould make "Barcelona and Cataloniabigger and better." The Barcelona CityCouncil published a proclamation sayingthat "the Games are the greatopportunity to show Catalonia to theworld, and we Catalans have to seize thisopportunity with seriousness andefficiency."
In Lausanne the Barcelona delegation,seated in the first row of the chamber atthe Palais de Beaulieu, had jumped forjoy when they heard the verdictpronounced. The last to rise from hisseat, in a thoughtful attitude, wasPasqual Maragall. Then everyone was
hugging and shaking hands; one of thewarmest embraces was between Maragalland his predecessor, the minister ofDefence, Narcís Serra, as the BarcelonaOlympic Candidature had first seen thelight when he was mayor of the city.
Then Maragall, as president of theManaging Council of the Candidature,and Alfonso de Borbón, as president ofthe COE, signed the agreement betweenthe IOC and the Organising Committeeof the Barcelona'92 Olympic Games.Jean-Claude Killy and the otherrepresentatives of the French city ofAlbertville, which had been proclaimedhost city for the 1992 Winter Olympicson the same day, also received thecongratulations of the InternationalOlympic Committee.
The mayor of Barcelona telephoned theking of Spain to give him the good news."We have won, sir," were his openingwords. At the other end of the line, JuanCarlos, overcome by enthusiasm, beganto sing the name of Barcelona.
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That same evening the IOC hadorganised a party in Lausanne tocelebrate the nominations. After puttingin an appearance, most of the Barcelonadelegation flew back home, where anemotional scene awaited them. At teno'clock in the evening an Iberia DC-10,on which a huge Barcelona'92 logotypehad been opportunely pasted, took offfrom Geneva for the city.
About two hundred thousand people,most of them young, had gathered in theAvinguda de la Reina Maria Cristina atthe foot of Montjuïc to welcome theBarcelona "embassy" returning fromLausanne with the nomination. The cityhad not seen such a massive turnoutsince the days of the transition, whenthousands of citizens took to the streetsto demand their democratic freedoms.
A platform had been erected by theMontjuïc fountains for the delegation. Asa background, the Olympic rings,illuminated, covered the facade of thePalau Nacional. At half past midnight,Pasqual Maragall mounted the podiumbetween Jordi Pujol and Narcís Serra.The mayor, dressed in a black raincoat -the temperature was mild (18° C), but hewas still suffering from the aftermath ofa cold -and bursting with joy, raisedarms in the victory sign. The crowdshouted as one person: "Now we areOlympic!"
Then Maragall addressed the audience-those present and those watching ontelevision- with a few short, but telling,phrases: "The Olympic Games are goodfor Barcelona. What is good forBarcelona is good for Catalonia. Andwhat is good for Catalonia is good forSpain."
Barcelona's reaction wasimmediate. The festivespirit of the people of thecity and the desire to sharein a success which belongedto everyone brought thepeople out on the streets toexpress their joy. Barcelonahad won!
On the night of 17 October,fireworks lit up Montjuïc,the new Olympic venue.Nearly two hundred peoplecrowded into the Avingudade la Reina Maria Cristinato celebrate the city'striumph.
Most of the Barcelonadelegation returned fromLausanne that night to takepart in the festivitiesorganised at Montjuïc. Thechief members of theCandidature wereapplauded by the thousandswho had gathered there.
Montjuïc, chock-a-block: "Now we areOlympic!"
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On 12 March 1987 theBarcelona'92 OlympicOrganising Committee(COOB'92) was constituted,with representatives of thesame public bodies whichhad made up the ManagingCouncil of the Candidature.
Then there was a firework display to thestrains of the Olympic anthem, soundingin the host city of the XXV Olympiad.At a welcome-back party at the Palau deVictòria Eugenia in the Montjuïc TradeFair precinct, leading citizens andpoliticians of all colours continued toexchange congratulations and make goodresolutions to prepare and stage theBarcelona'92 Olympic Games with thesame unanimity and consensus withwhich the city had been nominated. Thestreet party went on for several hoursmore.
On Saturday 18 October, the front pagesof all the newspapers -some of them hadbrought out special editions on Friday17- announced the triumph of Barcelona.At midday King Juan Carlos receivedPasqual Maragall and the delegationwhich had accompanied him to Lausanne.
When the first outburst of joy had dieddown, the time came to start work onthe organisation, for such was the aim ofall concerned, of the finest OlympicGames in history. In December theManaging Council of the Candidaturewas dissolved. In January 1987, the JointLiaison Committee was founded and thisin turn led, in March, to the constitutionof a consortium made up of theBarcelona City Council, the Generalitatof Catalonia, the Spanish governmentand the Spanish Olympic Committee. Itwas called the Barcelona'92 OlympicOrganising Committee and became theorganising committee of the Games.COOB'92 had been born.
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From 10 April to 17 May 1987, theUniversity of Barcelona mounted anexhibition explaining the history of theCandidature. It was called "How we wonthe Olympic Games" and was an accountof the road from the beginnings to thenomination.
The exhibition How wewon the Olympic Gameswas held at BarcelonaUniversity from 10 April to17 May 1987. It showedthe history of theCandidature and thevarious promotional standsthat had been built at eachstage. It was the brilliantconclusion of six years ofhard work and sharedenthusiasm.
On 17 October, Barcelonafinally landed the Olympicprize, having sought theOlympic nomination threetimes. What had been"everyone's goal" had beenachieved. In summer 1992,millions of people wouldhave their eyes on theCatalan capital. Thecountdown had begun.
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4.1. The structure of the Candidature
The Managing Council of the Candidature of Barcelonafor the 1992 Olympic Games
Source: Olympic Office: Candidature Report (1986) and Consejo de Apoyo a la Candidatura de Barcelona para los Juegos Olímpicos de1992 (1986).
President
Vice-presidents
Councillors with the rankof vice-president
Councillors
H.E. Mr Pasqual Maragall i Mira
H.E. Mr Romà Cuyàs i Sol
H.E. Mr Josep Lluís Vilasecai Guasch
H.R.H. Alfonso de Borbón
H.E. Mr Antoni Dalmau i Ribalta
H.E. Mr Carles Ferrer Salat
H.E. Mr Josep Miquel Abadi Silvestre
H.E. Mr Higini Clotas i Cierco
H.E. Mr Josep Maria Figuerasi Bassols
Mr Sebastià Gallego i Rovira
Mr Juan Manuel de Hoz Bravo
H.E. Mr Enric Lacalle i Coll
H.E. Mr Josep Margalef i Meler
H.E. Mr Francesc Marti i Jusmet
H.E. Mr Raimon Martínez i Fraile
H.E. Mr Joan Mas i Cantí
Mayor of Barcelona
Secretary of State for Sport
Director general of Sportat the Generalitat of Catalonia
President of the COE
President of the BarcelonaProvincial Council
President of Barcelona Olímpica'92Member of the IOC
Chief executive officerof the Barcelona Candidature
Member of the Parliament ofCatalonia
President of the Official Chamberof Commerce, Industry andNavigation of Barcelona
Coordinator of Sports at theBarcelonaProvincial Council
Vice-president of the ExecutiveBoard of the COE
Councillor at the BarcelonaCity Council
Technical secretary generalof the Department of Educationof the Generalitat of Catalonia
Government delegate in Catalonia
Deputy mayor in charge of PublicRelations at the Barcelona CityCouncil
Commissioner for the BarcelonaCandidature
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Councillors
Councillor-advisers
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H.E. Mr Àngel Miquel Sanzi Arnalot
H.E. Mr Miguel Muñizde las Cuevas
H.E. Mr Joaquim de Nadali Caparà
H.E. Mr Jordi Parpal i Marfà
H.E. Mr Pedro Pérez Fernández
Mr Leopoldo Rodés i Castañé
H.E. Mrs Mercè Salai Schnorkowski
H.E. Mr Fidel Sust i Mitjans
H.E. Mr Joaquim Tosas i Mir
H.E. Mr Ramon Trias Fargas
H.E. Mr Enric Truñó i Lagares
H.E. Mr Jordi Vallverdú i Gimeno
H.E. Mrs Victoria Ybarrade Oriol
H.E. Mr Baltasar Aymerichi Corominas
H.E. Mr Julián García Vargas
H.E. Mr Joan Majó i Cruzate
H.E. Mr Fernando Perpiñá-RobertPeyra
H.E. Mr Narcís Serra i Serra
H.E. Mr Pedro YbarraMacmahon, Barón de Güell
Director general of Tourismat the Generalitat of Catalonia
President of the Institute ofOfficial Credit
Deputy mayor in charge of Financeat the Barcelona City Council
Deputy mayor in charge ofTown-planning and Public Worksat the Barcelona City Council
Secretary general of Economyand Planning
Vice-president of BarcelonaOlímpica'92
Vice-president of the BarcelonaMetropolitan Corporation
Assistant director general of Sportat the Generalitat of Catalonia
Technical secretary general of theDepartment of Territorial Policyand Public Works at theGeneralitat of Catalonia
Leader of the opposition with therank of deputy mayor at theBarcelona City Council
Councillor for Youth and Sport atthe Barcelona City Council
Vice-president of the BarcelonaProvincial Council
Vice-president of the SpanishVolleyball Federation Member ofthe COE
Under-secretary at the Ministry ofPublic Works and Town-planning
Minister of Health and ConsumerAffairs
Minister of Industry and Energy
Under-secretary at the Ministry ofForeign Affairs
Minister of Defence
Honorary member of the IOC
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Executive Board of the Managing Council
President
Chief executive officer
Members
Secretary
H.E. Mr Pasqual Maragall i Mira
H.E. Mr Josep Miquel Abadi Silvestre
H.E. Mr Josep Lluís Vilasecai Guasch
H.E. Mr Jordi Parpal i Marfà
H.E. Mr Francesc Martí i Jusmet
H.E. Mr Jordi Vallverdú i Gimeno
H.E. Ms Mercè Salai Schnorkowski
H.E. Ms Victoria Ybarrade Oriol
Mr Leopoldo Rodés i Castañé
H.E. Mr Joan Mas i Cantí
H.E. Mr Jordi Serra i Villalbí
Mayor of Barcelona
Director general of Sportat the Generalitat of Catalonia
Deputy mayor in charge ofTown-planning and Public Worksat the Barcelona City Council
Government delegate in Catalonia
Vice-president of the BarcelonaProvincial Council
Vice-president of the BarcelonaMetropolitan Corporation
Vice-president of the SpanishVolleyball FederationMember of the COE
Vice-president of BarcelonaOlímpica'92
Commissioner for the Candidature
Olympic Office coordinator
Secretary
Olympic Office coordinator
H.E. Mr Jordi Baulies i Cortal
H.E. Mr Jordi Serra i Villalbí
Secretary general of the BarcelonaCity Council
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International Relations Committee
Olympic Office
President
Executive president
Members
Secretary
H.E. Mr Pasqual Maragall i Mira
H.E. Mr Carles Ferrer Salat
H.E. Mr Romà Cuyàs i Sol
H.E. Mr Josep Lluís Vilasecai Guasch
H.E. Mr Josep Miquel Abadi Silvestre
H.E. Ms Victoria Ybarrade Oriol
Mr Leopold Rodés i Castañé
H.E. Mr Joan Mas i Cantí
H.E. Mr Ignasi Masferrer i Sala
Mayor of Barcelona
President of BarcelonaOlímpica'92 Member of the IOC
Secretary of State for Sport
Director general of Sportat the Generalitat of Catalonia
Chief executive officerof the Executive Board
Vice-president of the SpanishVolleyball FederationMember of COE
Vice-president of BarcelonaOlímpica'92
Commissioner for the Candidature
Coordination
Candidature Dossier
Jordi Serra
Maria Josep Alemany
Mireia Sitges
Felix Àrias
Alfred Bosch
Núria Pompeia
Míriam Buxeda
Coordinator of the Olympic Office
Secretary
Secretary
Director
Assistant director
Coordinator of photography
Secretary
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Architecture and townplanning projects
Organisation projects
Financial projects
Data-processing andtelecommunications projects
Lluís Millet
Gemma Biosca
Jordi Carbonell
Carles Llop
Enric Noëlle
Paca Buades
Elvira Queralt
Sylvia Uhrlep
Anna Bellera
Néstor Cznchowicky
Gemma Goday
Montse Sanfeliu
Carme Sedó
Ferran Solé
Margarita Torrente
Francesc Segura
Assumpta Mas
Isabel Crespo
Yvonne Barral
Toni Català
Ramon Romaguera
Ferran Sicart
Jordi López
Director
Assistant director
Assistant director
Architect
Architect
Secretary
Secretary
Secretary
Draughtsman
Draughtsman
Draughtsman
Draughtsman
Draughtsman
Draughtsman
Draughtsman
Director
Assistant director
Secretary
Olympic Bus
Secretary
Economist
Economist
Telecommunications
330
Relations with federationsand clubs
International relations
Press
Promotion
Administration
Miquel Company
Rafael Torras
Rosa Comanges
Ignasi Masferrer
Andreu Mercé Varela
Úrsula de Bähr
Anna Puigdollers
Sergi Zaragoza
Pedro Palacios
Miguel Ángel Buil
Margarita Roncero
Roberto Marcos Álvarez
Julio Rocha
Josep Roca
Albert Sagrera
Alexandra Heeroms
Xavier Muñoz
Antònia Bisbal
Anna Forcadell
Carme Villella
Teodoro López
Ex-president of the SpanishYachting Federation
Ex-president of the Catalan SkiingFederation
Secretary
Ambassador
Adviser
Assistant
Secretary
Auxiliary
Coordinator
Journalist
Secretary
Coordinator
Assistant to the coordinator
Exhibitions
Audiovisual media
Secretary
Auxiliary
Coordinator
Administrator
Secretary
Auxiliary
331
Anillo Olímpico de Montjuïc, S. A.
Special Body for the Administration of the Poblenou Seafront (Olympic Village)
Documentation Clara Plasència
Ferran Villalbí
Archivist
Computer systems
Manager
Technical Department
Administration
Ernest Serra
Lluís Millet
Gaietà Granell
Pere Sariola
Lola Queralt
Antoni Nadal
Judith Avinyó
Dolors Ricart
Director
Engineer
Engineer
Architect
Draughtsman
Lawyer
Secretary
Chief executive officer
Technical Department
Ramon Boixadós
Manuel Herce
Alfons Rodríguez
Juli Laviña
Miguel Ángel Andújar
Perfecto Zayuelas
Manuel Hernández
Director
Engineer
Architect
Engineer
Topographer
Surveyor
332
Administration Margarita Ruiz
Carme Simó
Rosa Maria Farràs
Management secretary
Recepcionist
Secretary
333
4.2. The Council of Support
The Council of Support for the Candidature of Barcelonafor the 1992 Olympic Games
* Source: Olympic Office: The Council of Support for the Candidature of Barcelona for the 1992 Olympic Games (1986).
Council of Honour His Majesty King Juan Carlos I
H.E. Mr Felipe GonzálezMárquez
The Rt. Hon. Mr Jordi Pujoli Soley
H.E. Mr Javier Solana Madariaga
H.E. Mr Pasqual Maragall i Mira
King of Spain
President of the SpanishGovernment
President of the Generalitatof Catalonia
Minister of Culture
Mayor of Barcelona
Institutions, organisations,associations and VIPs
H.E. Mr Leopoldo Calvo-SoteloBustelo
H.E. Adolfo Suárez GonzálezDuque de Suárez
Molt Hble. Sr. Josep Tarradellasi JoanMarqués de Tarradellas
H.E. Mr Enric Masó i Vázquez
H.E. Mr Josep Maria de Porciolesi Colomer
H.E. Mr Narcís Serra i Serra
H.E. Mr Josep Maria Sociasi Humbert
The Rt. Hon. Mr Heribert Barrerai Costa
The Rt. Hon. Mr Miquel Colli Alentorn
H.E. Mr Gregorio LópezRaimundo
H.E. Mr Joan Raventós i Carner
Ilmo. Sr. Ramon Trias Fargas
Sr. Josep Azuara i Gonzalez
Ex-president of the SpanishGovernment
Ex-president of the SpanishGovernment
Ex-president of the Generalitatof Catalonia
Ex-mayor of Barcelona
Ex-mayor of Barcelona
Minister of DefenceEx-mayor of Barcelona
Ex-mayor of Barcelona
Secretary general of ERC
President of UDC
Ex-president of the PSUC
President of the PSC
President of CDC
President of the CatalanAssociation of Municipalities
336
Institutions, organisations,associations and VIPs
H.E. Mr Joaquim Nadal i Farreras
H.E. Mr Tomás RodríguezBolaños
Mr José María Cuevas Salvador
H.E. Mr Josep Maria Figuerasi Bassols
H.E. Mr Pere Llorens i Lorente
Mr Alfred Molinas i Bellido
H.E. Mr Adrian Piera Jiménez
Mr Josep Lluís Rovira i Escubos
H.E. Mr Marcelino Camacho Abad
H.E. Mr Justo Domínguezde la Fuente
H.E. Mr Josep Lluís López Bulla
H.E. Mr Nicolás Redondo Urbieta
H.E. Dr. Josep Maria Bricalli Masip
H.E. Dr. Gabriel Ferratei Pascual
H.E. Mr Emilio Lamode Espinosa
H.E. Dr. Ramon Pascuali de Sans
H.E. Mr Enric Trillas i Ruiz
President of the Federation ofMunicipalities of Catalonia
President of the SpanishFederation of Municipalities
President of the SpanishConfederation of BusinessOrganisations
President of the Chamber ofCommerce, Industry andNavigation of Barcelona and ofthe Higher Council of Chambersof Commerce of CataloniaPresident of the Executive Boardof the Official InternationalBarcelona Trade Fair
President of the BarcelonaCouncil of Trade Guilds
President of the Department forthe Creation of Employment
President of the Higher Council ofChambers of Commerce, Industryand Navigation of Spain
President of the Small BusinessAssociation of Catalonia
Secretary general of CC.OO.
Secretary general of the UGTof Catalonia
Secretary general of the CC.OO.of Catalonia
Secretary general of the UGT
Rector of the University ofBarcelona
Rector of the PolytechnicUniversity of Catalonia
Secretary general of the Council ofUniversities
Rector of the AutonomousUniversity of Barcelona
President of the Higher Councilfor Scientific Research
337
Institutions, organisations,associations and VIPs
H.E. Mr Luis Blanco-Soler
Mr Enric Casassas i Simó
H.E. Mr Domingo García Sabell
H.E. Mr Pedro Laín Entralgo
H.E. Mr Frederic Marési Deulovol
H.E. Mr Ángel Martín Municio
Mr José María Satrústegui Zubeldia
Sr. Ignasi Bañares i Sanz
Mr Modest Batlle i Girona
Mr Agustí Borrell i Calonge
Mr Francesc Caballero i Ortiz
Mr Esteban Camarasa Rovira
Mr Pere Camprubí i Garcia
Mr Antonio de las Heras iRedondo
Mr Delfín Fernández de SevillaTorrijos
Mr Vicente Font Boix
Mr Marià Ganduxer i Relats
Mr Josep Maria Gras i Isern
Mrs Mercè Izquierdo i Aymerich
Director of the San FernandoAcademy of Fine Arts
President of the Institute ofCatalan Studies
President of the Royal GalicianAcademy of the Language
President of the Royal SpanishAcademy of the Language
President of the Sant JordiAcademy of Fine Arts
President of the Royal Academyof Exact, Physical and NaturalSciences
Secretary general of Euskalzandia
Syndic-president of the OfficialInstitute of Stockbrokers
Dean of the Official Institute ofRoad, Canal and Port Engineersof Catalonia
Dean of the Official Institute ofArchitects of Catalonia
President of the Official Instituteof Qualified Nurses and MedicalTechnical Auxiliaries
President of the Official Instituteof Insurance Brokers
President of the Official Instituteof Biologists
Territorial President of theOfficial Institute of TechnicalTopographic Engineers
Dean of the Official Institute ofTechnical and Public WorksEngineers
Dean of the Official Institute ofNotaries of Barcelona
President of the Official Instituteof Mercantile Officials of Barcelona
President of the Barcelona OfficialInstitute of Pharmacologists
Dean of the Official Institute ofArts and Sciences Doctors andGraduates of Catalonia
338
Institutions, organisations,associations and VIPs
Mr Florentí Manyà i Turbí
Mr Francesc Monné i Orga
Mrs Anna Morató i Sáenz
Mr Gaspar Núñez i Simón
Mr Antoni Plasència i Monleón
Mr Carles Ponsa i Ballart
Mr Carles Puiggrós i Lluelles
Mr Francesc Santacana i Martorell
H.E. Mr Carles Sentís i Anfruns
Mr Ramon Trias i Rubies
Mr Pablo Vidal Francesc
Mr Antonio Alcoba López
Mr Luis Apostua Palos
Mr José María Lorente Toribio
Mr Joaquín Pérez Díaz-Palacios
Mr Horaci Seguí i López
Mr Antoni Trapé i Pi
Mr Miguel Vidal Tociño
Dean of the Official Institute ofIndustrial Technical Engineers ofCatalonia
President of the Official Instituteof Veterinary Surgenons ofBarcelona
President of the Official Instituteof Qualified Social Workers ofCatalonia
President of the Official Instituteof Customs Brokers and Agents
Dean of Illustrious Institute ofLawyers of Barcelona
Dean of the Official Institute ofIndustrial Engineers of Catalonia
President of the Official Instituteof Surveyors of Barcelona
Dean of the Official Institute ofEconomists of Catalonia
Dean of the Official Institute ofJournalists of Catalonia
President of the Official Instituteof Doctors of Barcelona
President of the Official Instituteof Property Registrars
President of the NationalAssociation of Graphic Reporters
President of the Federation ofSpanish Press Associations
President of the SpanishAssociation of Sports Journalists
President of the SpanishAssociation of Radio andTelevision Sports Reporters
President of the NationalAssociation of Graphic Reportersof Catalonia
President of the ProvincialAssociation of Sports Journalists
President of the Spanish Union ofSports Journalists
339
Institutions, organisations,associations and VIPs
Mr Enric Coromines i Vila
Mr Miquel Esquirol i Clavero
H.E. Mr Ricard Gutiérrez i Marti
H.E. Mr Jordi Maragall i Noble
H.E. Mr Leocadio MarínRodríguez
Mrs Marga Rodríguez i Piquer
Mr Rafael Alberti
Mr Andreu Alfaro
Mr Néstor Almendros
Mr Jordi Alumà
H.E. Mr Dr. Joaquim Barraquer
Mr Miguel Berrocal
Mr Conrad Blanch
Mr Ricard Bofill
Mr Oriol Bohigas
H.E. Mr Antonio Buero Vallejo
H.E. Ms Montserrat Caballé
H.E. Mr Julio Caro Baroja
Mr Josep Carreras
Mr Josep Maria Castellet
Mr Francesc Català i Roca
President of the Economists' Circle
President of the Friends of theCity
President of the Spanish RedCross in BarcelonaPresident of the Spanish RedCross Catalan Assembly
President of the Ateneu Barcelonès
President of the Spanish RedCross Assembly
President of the Federation ofNeighbourhood Associations
Writer. Cervantes Prize
Sculptor. National Prize for thePlastic Arts
Photographer. Oscar from theAcademy of Motion Picture Artsand Sciences, Hollywood
Painter
Professor of Ocular Surgery
Sculptor
Leader of the 1986 Everestexpedition
Architect and town-planner
Architect and town-planner. Goldmedal of the Barcelona CityCouncil
Writer. National Prize for theTheatre
Opera singer. Gold medal of theGeneralitat of Catalonia
Writer and anthropologist.National Prize for Spanish Letters
Opera singer
Writer
Photographer. National Prize forthe Plastic Arts
340
Institutions, organisations,associations and VIPs
Mr Camilo José Cela
Mr Xavier Corberó
Mr Xavier Cugat
H.E. Mr Eduardo Chillida
H.E. Mr Salvador DalíMarqués de Púbol
H.E. Mr Enrique de la MataGorostizaga
H.E. Ms Alícia de Larrocha
H.E. Mr Miguel Delibes
H.E. Ms Victoria de los Angeles
H.E. Mr Gerardo Diego
Mr Plácido Domingo
H.E. Mr Pere Duran i Farell
Mr Apeles Fenosa
Mr Josep Maria Flotats
H.E. Mr Carles Güellde Sentmenat
H.E. Mr Cristobal Halffter
Mr Joan Hernández Pijuan
Mr Joaquim Homs
Mr Julio Iglesias
Mr Josep Maria Llompart
H.E. Mr Julián Marías
H.E. Mr Adolfo Marsillach
H.E. Lieutenant-GeneralFederico Michavilla
Writer
Sculptor
Musician. Gold medal of theBarcelona City Council
Sculptor
Painter. Gold medal of theGeneralitat of Catalonia
President of the League of RedCross and Crescent Moon Societies
Pianist. Gold medal of theGeneralitat of Catalonia and theBarcelona City Council
Writer. Principe de Asturias Prize
Singer. National Prize for Music
Writer. Cervantes Prize
Opera singer
Businessman
Sculptor. Gold medal of theGeneralitat of Catalonia and theBarcelona City Council
Actor. Nacional Prize for theTheatre of the Generalitat ofCatalonia
Businessman
Compositor. National Prize forMusic
Painter. National Prize for thePlastic Arts
Musician. Gold medal of theBarcelona City Council
Singer
President of the Association ofWriters in Catalan
Writer. Fastenrah Prize
Actor and director of the NationalClassical Theatre
Representative of the Ministry ofDefence on the Higher SportsCouncil
341
Institutions, organisationsassociations and VIPs
H.E. Mr Fèlix Millet
H.E. Mr Frederic Mompou
Mr Tete Montoliu
Mr Xavier Montsalvatge
H.E. Mr Severo Ochoa
H.E. Mr Manuel Olivencia
H.E. Mr Marcelino Oreja
Mr Lluís Pasqual
Mr Albert Puig
H.E. Mr Antoni Puigvert
Mr Albert Ràfols i Casamada
Mr André Ricard
H.E. Mr Joaquín Rodrigo
Mr Manuel Romero
Mr Luis Rosales
H.E. Mr Xavier Rubert de Ventós
Mr Francisco Javier Sáenz de Oiza
Mr Joan Manuel Serrat
H.E. Mr Miguel Siguan i Soler
Mr Josep Maria Subirachs
Mr Antoni Tàpies
H.E. Mr Gonzalo TorrenteBallester
Mr Antoni Vila i Arrufat
Mr Narciso Yepes
President of the Orfeó Català
Composer. Gold medal of theGeneralitat of Catalonia and theBarcelona City Council
Musician. Gold medal of theBarcelona City Council
Composer. National Prize forMusic
Biologist. Nobel Prize
Comissioner general of the Sevilla1992 Universal Exhibition
Secretary general of the Council ofEurope
Theatre director. National Prizefor the Theatre
Gold medal of the Barcelona CityCouncil
Professor of Urology
Painter. National Prize for thePlastic Arts
Critic and industrial designer
National Prize for Music
Director of Sports operations ofthe UER
Writer. Cervantes Prize
Philosopher
Architect
Singer and composer
Gold medal of the Barcelona CityCouncil
Sculptor
Painter. Gold medal of theGeneralitat of Catalonia
Writer. Cervantes Prize
Painter and engraver. Gold medalof the Barcelona City Council
Musician
342
Sports H.E. Mr Luis M. Bandrés Unanue
H.E. Mr José María BarredaFontes
H.E. Mr Justino Burgos González
H.E. Mr Cebrià Ciscar i Casaban
H.E. Mr Andrés Cuartero Moreno
H.E. Mr Esteban Egea Fernández
H.E. Mr Francisco C. EspañaFuentes
H.E. Mr Román Felones Morras
H.E. Mr Alejandrino FernándezBarreiro
H.E. Mr Manuel Fernándezde la Cera
H.E. Mr José Luis García Alonso
H.E. Mr Francisco Gilet Girart
H.E. Mr Felipe Pérez Moreno
H.E. Mr José Ignacio Pérez Sáenz
H.E. Mr Luis Alberto RodríguezGonzález
H.E. Mr Javier Torres Vela
Councillor for Culture and SportBasque Country
Councillor for Education andCultureCastille-La Mancha
Councillor for Education andCultureCastille-León
Councillor for Culture, Educationand ScienceCommunity of Valencia
Councillor for the Presidency andInstitutional RelationsAragón
Councillor for Culture andEducationMurcia
Councillor for Education, Culture,Sport and the Artistic HeritageExtremadura
Councillor for Education andCultureNavarra
Councillor for Culture and SocialWelfareGalicia
Councillor for Education, cultureand SportAsturias
Councillor for Culture, Sport andTourismMadrid
Councillor for Education andCultureBalearic Islands
Councillor for Culture and SportCanary Islands
Councillor for Education, Cultureand SportLa Rioja
Councillor for Culture, Educationand SportCantabria
Councillor for CultureAndalusia
343
Sports Mr Manuel Fonseca de la Llave
H.E. Mr Daniel Romero Álvarez
Mr Miguel Ángel Delgado Noguera
Mr José Luis Hernández Vázquez
Mr Pere Miró i Sellarés
Mr Jesús Agüero i Cayon
Ms Carmen Algora Sanjuán
Mr Joan Amigó i Freixa
Mr Miquel Arbós i Abadal
Mr Domènec Argemí i Madurell
Mr Marià Arisó i Espinal
Mr Antoni Asensio Forcà
Mr Luis Báguena Salvador
Mr Enric Ballesteros i Figueres
Mr Jordi Batalla i Escoda
Mr Sebastià Benasco i Martínez
Mr Basilio Blanco Piqueras
Mr Agustí Brugués i Puig
Mr Guillermo Cabeza
Secretary general of the SpanishOlympic Committee
Director general of Sport at theHigher Sports Council
Director of the INEF Granada
Director of the INEF Madrid
Director of the INEF Cataluña
President of the Catalan RowingFederation
President of the SpanishGymnastics Federation
President of the Catalan AerialSports Federation
President of the Catalan CyclingFederation
President of the Catalan HockeyFederation
President of the CatalanMotorcycling Federation
President of the Catalan WrestlingFederation
President of the Spanish JudoFederation
President of the CatalanUnderwater Sports Federation
President of the Catalan ShootingFederation
President of the CatalanVolleyball Federation
President of the SpanishPigeon-Fanciers Federation
President of the Catalan PelotaFederation
President of the SpanishFederation of Sports for theDisabled
344
Sports Mr Joan Casellas i Xirgú
Mr Pere Cuatrecasas i Sabata
Mr Francesc Josep d'Abadali Lacambra
Mr Arturo Delgado de Almeida
Mr Francisco de Asís Geli Simon
Mr Juan Manuel de Hoz
Mr Joan de la Llera i Trens
Mr Angel de Lamo Alonso
Mr Lluís Fernández de Retamai Illa
Mr Josep Julià del Valle i González
Mr Joaquín Díez Díez
Mr Manuel Domènech i Miró
Mr Segundo Eguía Herrera
Mr Josep Maria Emerich i Ribas
Mr Antonio Espinós Ortueta
Mr Josep Ferrer i Peris
Mr Luis Figueras-Dotti
Mr Alfredo Flórez Plaza
Mr Ángel Font i González
Mr Ernest Font i Pou
President of the Catalan HandballFederation
President of the Catalan GolfFederation
President of the Catalan PoloFederation
President of the Royal SpanishYatching Federation
President of the SpanishMotorboat Federation
President of the Spanish AthleticsFederation
President of the CatalanGymnastics FederationPresident of the Union of CatalanSports Federations
President of the Spanish PelotaFederation
President of the Catalan CarrierPigeon Federation
President of the Catalan BoxingFederation
President of the Spanish FishingFederation
President of the Spanish SkatingFederation
President of the Spanish SkittlesFederation
President of the Catalan FishingFederation
President of the Spanish KarateFederation
President of the Catalan TennisFederation
President of the Spanish GolfFederation
President of the SpanishSwimming Federation
President of the CatalanMotorboat Federation
President of the CatalanAutomobile Federation
345
Sports Mr Segismundo Fraile
Mr Eduardo Gallart Baldo
Mr Josep García i Mateos
Mr José Antonio García Muñoz
Mr Francesc Garcia i Suárez
Mr Joan Garrigós i Toro
Mr Santiago Gil de Biedma
Mr Antonio Gil Pérez
Mr Eduardo Góngora Benítezde Lugo
Mr Alfredo Goyeneche MorenoMarqués de Artasona
Mr Carlos Gracia Fuertes
Mr Antoni Guasch i Carrete
Mr José Antonio Hermida
Mr José Luis Ibáñez Arana
Mr Francesc Izard i Gavarró
Mr Juan Andrés Larrazábal
Mr Miquel Llompart i Triaou
Mr Antonio López López
Mr Ángel Manso i Ortega
Mr Josep Maria March i Pàmpols
Mr Carlos Marqués Prats
President of the Spanish WinterSports Federation
President of the Spanish BoxingFederation
President of the CatalanPigeon-Fanciers Federation
President of the Spanish WrestlingFederation
President of the Catalan Baseballand Softball Federation
President of the Federation ofExcursionist Oganisations ofCatalonia
President of the Spanish PoloFederation
President of the Spanish AerialSports Federation
President of the Spanish SquashFederation
President of the SpanishEquestrian Federation
President of the SpanishAutomobile Federation
President of the Catalan FootballFederation
President of the Spanish PetanqueFederation
President of the Spanish CyclingFederation
President of the Catalan WinterSports Federation
President of the SpanishGreyhound Federation
President of the Catalan BillardsFederation
President of the SpanishMotorcycling Federation
President of the Catalan SquashFederation
President of the Catalan CanoeingFederation
President of the SpanishPigeon-Fanciers Federation
346
Sports Mr Josep Maria Martí i Font
Mr Joan Martin i Barrat
Mr Juan Martínez Valero
Mr Feliciano Mayoral Barba
Mr Joan Mercadé i Brullés
Mr Francesc Miró-Sansi Casacuberta
Mr David Moner i Codina
Mr Fernando Muñoz Guerra
Mr Leandro Negre Carrió
Ms Mercè Olivera i Capellades
Mr Joan Olivier i Genovès
Mr Francesc Ordeig i Terricabras
Mr Miquel Ortín i Rull
Mr Joan Palau i Francas
Mr Lesmes Peña Hurtado
Mr Joan Peña i Morera
Mr Pau Pérez i de Pedro
Mr Antonio Pérez Francés
Mr José Perurena López
Mr Alberto Pico Marín
Mr Enric Piquet i Miquel
President of the Catalan PetanqueFederation
President of the Catalan ArcheryFederation
President of the SpanishWater-Skiing Federation
President of the SpanishVolleyball Federation
President of the CatalanWater-skiing Federation
President of the CatalanGreyhound Federation
President of the CatalanSwimming Federation
President of the SpanishMountaineering Federation
President of the Spanish HockeyFederation
President of the CatalanLife-Saving Federation
President of the CatalanEquestrian Federation
President of the Catalan HuntingFederation
President of the Spanish Baseballand Softball Federation
President of the CatalanFederation of Sports for theDisabled
President of the Spanish HuntingFederation
President of the CatalanWeigthlifting Federation
President of the Spanish PotholingFederation
President of the Spanish ArcheryFederation
President of the Spanish CanoeingFederation
President of the Spanish RugbyFederation
President of the CatalanBasketball Federation
347
Sports Mr Jordi Prat i Puigdengolas
Mr Agustí Pujol i Niubó
Mr Javier Quintano Muñoz
Mr Manuel Recoder
Mr Enric Redondo i Fabregat
Mr Xavier Ribalta i Balcells
Mr Joan Ricart i Aguilà
Mr Manuel Rivas Ferviño
Mr José Luis Roca Millán
Mr Joan Maria Roig i Claret
Mr Guillem Ros i Massot
Mr Juan Ruiz Pérez
Mr Josep Antoni Sancha i de Prada
Mr Ricardo Sánchez Lozano
Mr Joan Segura i Vila
Mr Emilio Serna Díez
Mr Alexandre Soler-Cabot i Serra
Mr Pere Sust i Sagau
Mr Roberto Tendero Llofriu
Mr Román Torán Albero
President of the Catalan TableTennis Federation
President of the Royal SpanishTennis Federation
President of the Spanish TableTennis Federation
President of the Catalan KarateFederation
President of the SpanishUnderwater Sports Federation
President of the Catalan FencingFederation
President of the Catalan SkittlesFederation
President of the Royal SpanishShooting Federation
President of the Royal SpanishFootball Federation
President of the Catalan YatchingFederation
President of the Catalan AthleticsFederation
President of the Royal SpanishFencing Federation
President of the Catalan RugbyFederation
President of the Spanish ModernPentathlon Federation
President of the Spanish ChessFederation
President of the Catalan JudoFederation
President of the Catalan ModernPentathlon Federation
President of the SpanishBasketball FederationPresident of the CatalanAssociation of Sports Managers
President of the Spanish HandballFederation
President of the Spanish ChessFederation
348
Sports Mr Pere Torras i Escudé
Mr Francesc Valls i Luque
Mr Pedro Várez Delgado
Mr José Luis Vila Piñeiro
Mr Jesús Villamor y Villachica
Mr Salvador Vives i Jorba
Mr Pedro Walch den Tuinder
Mr Francisco Zuriarrain Altuna
Mr Alejandro Abascal
Mr José Manuel Abascal
Mr Francesc Alguersuari
Mr José Alvarez Bohorques
Mr Joan Amat
H.E. Mr Luis Azemar
Mr Jacinto Ballester
Mr Severiano Ballesteros
Mr Benito Castejón
Mr Juan José Castillo
Mr Fernando Climent
Mr Juan Antonio Corbalán
H.E. Carlos de GodóConde de Godó
Mr Guillermo del Riego
Mr José Ramón Díaz Flor
Mr Luis Doreste
Mr Eduardo Dualde
Mr Conrado Durántez
President of the Catalan SkatingFederation
President of the CatalanBadminton Federation
President of the SpanishWeightlifting Federation
President of the SpanishBadminton Federation
President of the Spanish BilliardsFederation
President of the Catalan PotholingFederation
President of the SpanishLife-Saving Federation
President of the Spanish RowingFederation
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic Order
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic Order
Olympic Order
Golfer
Olympic Order
Olympic Order
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic Order
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
President of the Olympic Academy
349
Sports Mr José María Esteban Celorrio
Mr Francisco Fernández Ochoa
Mr Antonio Gorostegui
Mr Luis María Lasúrtegui
Mr Jordi Llopart
Mr David López Zubero
Mr Herminio Menéndez
Mr Andreu Mercé i Varela
Mr Enrique Míguez
Mr Pere Lluís Millet
Mr Roberto Molina
Mr Ángel Nieto
Mr Miquel Noguer
Mr Luis Gregorio Ramos Misioné
Mr José Enrique Rodríguez Cal
Mr Manuel Santana
Mr Raimundo Saporta
Mr Narciso Suárez
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic Order
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Motorcyclist
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Olympic medal-winner
Tennis player
Olympic Order
Olympic medal-winner
Barcelona Olímpica'92Business Association
H.E. Mr José M. Aguirre González
Mr Roberto Alcalde Castillo
H.E. Mr Joan Alegre i Marcet
H.E. Mr Narcís Andreu i Musté
H.E. Mr Ramón Areces Rodríguez
Mr Antonio Asensio Pizarro
PresidentSIEMENS, S. A.
PresidentCONTROL Y APLICACIONES,S. A.
PresidentFECSA
President and director generalIBERIA, S. A.
President of the Board ofAdministrationEL CORTE INGLÉS, S. A.
PresidentGRUPO Z
350
Barcelona Olímpica'92Business Association
Mr Joan Lluís Asmarats i Pujol
Mr Fernando de Asúa Álvarez
H.E. Mr Baltasar Aymerichi Coromines
Mr Xavier Aznárez i Hermosa
Mr Josep Maria Ballbé i Armengol
Mr Javier Bañón Seijas
Mr José Basi Sabi
Mr Alfredo Basté Schwartz
Mr Romà Jesús Belloc i Escuté
Mr Manuel Bellsolell i Coma
H.E. Mr Javier BenjumeaPuigcerver
Mr Alfredo Bernad Herrando
H.E. Mr Joaquín Bertrán de Caralt
H.E. Mr Claudio Boada Villalonga
Mr Joaquim Boixareu i Gimó
H.E. Mr Emilio Botín López
H.E. Mr Miguel Boyer Salvador
H.E. Mr Carlos Bustelo Garcíadel Real
Mr José Ramón Castelló Bueso
Mr Narcís Codina i Surós
PresidentCAMUNSA
PresidentIBM
PresidentSINTEL, S. A.
PresidentSANYO
ManagerMESTRE I BALLBÉ, S. A.
PresidentISOLUX, S. A.
ManagerBASI HERMANOS, S. A.
PresidentBARNICES VALENTINE, S. A.
PresidentBELLOC ESCUTÉ
Managing directorFICHET, S.A.E.
PresidentABENGOA, S. A.
Chief ExecutiveFORET, S. A.
PresidentCEMENTOS ASLAND, S. A.
President of the Board ofAdministrationBANCO HISPANOAMERICANO
PresidentACEROS BOIXAREU, S. A.
PresidentBANCO DE SANTANDER
PresidentBANCO EXTERIOR DE ESPAÑA
PresidentACESA
Director generalOBRAS Y CONSTRUCCIONES,S. A.
Chief executiveMED PLAYA HOTELS
351
Barcelona Olímpica'92Business Association
Mr Carles Colomer i Casellas
H.E. Mr Fernando Coll Picar
Mr Joan Corominas i Vila
Mr Francesc Daurella
H.E. Mr Iñigo de Oriol e Ybarra
Mr Jesús de Polanco Gutiérrez
H.E. Mr Rafael del Pino
Mr Enric Domènech i Jaime
H.E. Mr Antonio Durán Tovar
H.E. Mr Joan Echevarría i Puig
Mr José María Entrecanalesde Azcárate
H.E. Mr Alfonso Escámez López
Dr. Josep Esteve i Soler
Mr Josep Ferrer i Sala
Mr Carles Ferrer Salat
Mr Ignasi Ferrero i Jordi
Mr Santiago Fradera i Butsems
Mr Ricardo Fuster Fuster
Mr Salvador Gabarró i Serra
PresidentHENRY COLOMER
President of the Board ofAdministrationDAMM, S. A.
PresidentBANC DE SABADELL
Chief executiveCOBEGA, S. A.
PresidentHECSA
PresidentEL PAÍS
PresidentFERROVIAL, S. A.
ManagerMAQUIMPRÉS, S. A.
PresidentDRAGADOSY CONSTRUCCIONES, S. A.
Executive presidentMOTOR IBÉRICA, S. A.
Director generalENTRECANALES Y TAVORA,S. A.
PresidentBANCO CENTRALCEPSA
PresidentLABORATORIOSDR. ESTEVE, S. A.
Managing directorFREIXENET, S. A.
PresidentFERRER INTERNACIONAL,S. A.
Director generalNUTREXPA, S. A.
AdministratorCEMENTOS UNILAND
PresidentDANONE, S. A.
ManagerROCA RADIADORES, S. A.
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Barcelona Olímpica'92Business Association
Dr. Romano Gabriele
H.E. Mr Angel Galíndez Celayeta
H.E. Mr Joan Gaspart i Bonet
Mr Javier Godó Muntañola
Mr José Acacio Gómez Vigo
Mr Humberto González Espinosa
Mr Pere Grau i Hoyos
Mr Emilio Haase Barasoain
Mr Josep Maria Juncadella i Burés
Mr Hans-Wolfgang Langner
Mr Juan March Delgado
Mr Manuel Martínez Fernández
Mr Francesc Mas-Sardà i Casanelles
H.E. Mr Enric Masó i Vázquez
Mr Enrique M. Meijer
Mr Antonio Messa Buxareu
Mr Josep Miarnau i Banús
H.E. Mr Salvador Millet i Bel
Mr José Montes Heredia
H.E. Mr Vicente Mortes Alfonso
Director generalHISPANO OLIVETTI, S. A.
PresidentBANCO DE VIZCAYA
PresidentHUSA
EditorLA VANGUARDIA
Chief executiveBANCO DE EUROPA
Chief executiveGALERÍAS PRECIADOS
PresidentCATALANA DE GASI ELECTRICITAT
Director generalRANK XEROX ESPAÑOLA,S. A.
INDUSTRIAS BURÉS
Chief executiveHISPANO ALEMANADE CONSTRUCCIÓN, S. A.
PresidentBANCO DE PROGRESO
PresidentGRUPO RAMEL, S. A.
PresidentFOCSA
PresidentENRIQUE MASÓ, E.D.S.
PresidentPHILIPS IBÉRICA, S.A.E.
Chief executiveCUBIERTAS Y MZOV, S. A.
ManagerCOMSA
PresidentCAIXA DE PENSIONS PERA LA VELLESA I D'ESTALVIS
Chief ExecutiveBBC BROWN BOVERI, S. A.
PresidentNESTLE, A.E.P.A.
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Barcelona Olímpica'92Business Association
Mr Juan Ignacio Muñiz Entrialgo
Mr Josep Lluís Núñez i Clemente
Mr Jorge Núñez y Lasso de la Vega
H.E. Mr Tomás Pascual Sanz
Mr Alfredo Pastor Bodmer
Mr Josep Joan Pintó i Ruiz
Mr Gabriel Pretús i Becerra
Mr Mariano Puig i Planas
Mr Francesc Quintana i Cascante
Mr Jaume Rosell i Sanuy
Mr Alfredo Sáenz Abad
Mr Miguel Sáenz de Vigueray Aizpurúa
Ilma. Sra. Mercè Salai Schnorkowski
Mr Romà Sanahuja i Bosch
H.E. Mr José Ángel SánchezAsiaín
Mr Abdulla A. Saudi
Mr Jordi Serra i Bayona
H.E. Mr Antoni Serrai Ramoneda
Chief ExecutiveMATERIALY CONSTRUCCIÓN, S. A.
PresidentCONSTRUCCIONES NÚÑEZY NAVARRO, S. A.
PresidentTORRAS HOSTENCH
PresidentLECHE PASCUAL
Chief executiveENHER
PresidentCAIXA DE BARCELONA
PresidentTORRAS HERRERÍAY CONSTRUCCIONES, S. A.
ManagerANTONIO PUIG, S. A.
ManagerFRANCISCO QUINTANAYLZARBE, S. A.
Director generalEMTE
PresidentBANCA CATALANA
PresidentLA MAQUINISTA TERRESTREY MARITIMA, S. A.
PresidentFERROCARRILMETROPOLITANODE BARCELONA, S. A.
President of the Board ofAdministrationINDICESA
PresidentBANCO DE BILBAO
PresidentBANCO ATLÁNTICO
Managing directorASEPEYO
PresidentCAIX-A D'ESTALVISDE CATALUNYA
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Barcelona Olímpica'92Business Association
Mr Jesús Serra i Santamans
H.E. Mr Luis Solana Madariaga
Mr Manuel Soto Serrano
Mr Federico Sotomayor Gippini
Mr Chiaki Sugishima
Mr Artur Suqué i Puig
Mr Miquel Torres i Carbó
Dr. Joan Uriach i Marsal
Chief executiveGRUPO ASEGURADORCATALANA OCCIDENTE
PresidentCOMPAÑÍA TELEFÓNICANACIONAL DE ESPAÑA
PresidentARTHUR ANDERSEN & CÍA.
PresidentENASA
Chief executiveFUJITSU-ESPAÑA, S. A.
PresidentCASINOS DE CATALUNYA,S. A.
PresidentBODEGAS TORRES
President and Managing directorJ. URIACH & CÍA., S. A.
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4.3. Chronology of the Candidature
Chronology of the Candidature
1980
17 July 1980The plans of the mayor of Barcelona,Narcís Serra, to hold the OlympicGames in the city, are mentioned in thepress for the first time.
5 October 1980Juan Antonio Samaranch, recentlyelected president of the IOC, makes astatement to the press that "Barcelonais capable of organising the OlympicGames."
1981
31 January 1981At the dinner for the sportsman andwoman of the year for 1980, the mayorof Barcelona, Narcís Serra, announcesin the presence of the president of theIOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch, that hewishes Barcelona to organise the 1992Summer Olympic Games.
7 April 1981Narcís Serra briefs senior managementof the Catalan Association of SportsManagers on the first steps taken andasks them for their support.
30 May 1981Narcís Serra requests the patronage ofHM King Juan Carlos I for theBarcelona Candidature project.
30 June 1981The Barcelona City Council, in aplenary session, unanimously supportsthe initiative.
30 September 1981Narcís Serra delivers the municipalagreement to the president of the COE,Jesús Hermida.
1982
4 January 1982The workshop of the painter AntoniTàpies produces the first Candidatureposter, which is used for the covers ofthe publications about the BarcelonaOlympic project.
14 January 1982A municipal decree is passed appointingRomà Cuyàs commissioner for theCandidature and entrusting him with astudy of the viability of organising theGames in the city of Barcelona.
6 April 1982The book Guia de l'esport is publishedby the City Council. It contains acomplete list of the sports facilities,complexes and organisations inBarcelona.
27 April 1982Publication of the book Barcelonapretén els Jocs de 1992, the firstaccount of the Barcelona Candidatureproject.
12 June 1982The World Cup opens in Barcelona.The international sports press isinformed of the aspirations of the cityto host the Olympic Games.
6 October 1982The international competition forarchitectural projects for the MontjuïcOlympic Ring is convened.
11 November 1982The Barcelona City Council receives thereport on the viability of holding the1992 Games in Barcelona, Projecte deJocs Olímpics Barcelona 1992. Primeresaproximacions, drafted by Romà Cuyàs.
12 November 1982The mayor of Barcelona, Narcís Serra;the director general of Sport at theGeneralitat, Josep Lluís Vilaseca; thecouncillor for Sport at the BarcelonaCity Council, Enric Truñó; and thedirector of the report Projecte de JocsOlímpics Barcelona 1992. Primeresaproximacions, Romà Cuyàs, presentthe viability study to the president ofthe IOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch.
15 November 1982The Executive Board of the COEdecides to give initial support to theBarcelona Candidature.
26 November 1982The Municipal Standing Committeeapproves the opening of the OlympicOffice.
2 December 1982Pasqual Maragall succeeds Narcís Serraas mayor of Barcelona, the latter havingbeen named minister of defence in theSpanish government.
10 December 1982The new mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, presents the king with thebook Barcelona pretén els Jocs de 1992.
14 December 1982The new president of the Spanishgovernment, Felipe González,announces to the mayor of Barcelona,Pasqual Maragall, the unconditionalsupport of his cabinet for the BarcelonaCandidature.
16 December 1982At a plenary session, the COE pledgesits support for the Candidature.
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1983
7 January 1983Brisbane informs the IOC of itsintention to present its Candidature forthe 1992 Olympic Games.
The president of the Generalitat, JordiPujol, and the mayor of Barcelona,Pasqual Maragall, sign the agreementconstituting the Managing Council ofthe Barcelona Candidature.
February 1983The Barcelona MetropolitanCorporation and its componentmunicipalities offer their support forthe Candidature project.
4 February 1983Armand Carabén is appointed Olympiccommissioner, replacing Romà Cuyàs,who has been appointed secretary ofState for Sport.
16 March 1983Launching of the Candidature bulletinBarcelona Olympic News, edited byAndreu Mercè Varela.
16 June 1983The First Barcelona Olympic Day isheld at the Saló del Tinell, with theinauguration of the exhibition of officialposters for the Summer and WinterOlympic Games.
Joan Mas Cantí is appointedcomissioner of the Candidature,replacing Armand Carabén.
20 June 1983Jordi Serra is appointed director of theOlympic Office.
19 July 1983The Managing Council approves theMaster Plan for the Montjuïc OlympicRing.
24 November 1983The mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, holds a meeting with a groupof businessmen at the headquarters ofthe Barcelona Chamber of Commerce,Industry and Navigation and invites
them to participate in theadministration and financing of theCandidature.
13 December 1983The Managing Council approves theBarcelona '92 Candidature PreliminaryProject.
21 December 1983The COE decides to support theBarcelona Candidature for the 1992Summer Olympic Games and discardsthe Candidatures of Jaca and Granadafor the Winter Games in the same year.
22 December 1983The mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, presents the president of theSpanish government, Felipe González,with a copy of the Barcelona'92Candidature Preliminary Project.
1984
16 January 1984The winner of the internationalcompetition for architectural projectsfor the Montjuïc Olympic Ring is chosen.
24 January 1984Amsterdam announces that it will bepresenting its Candidature for the 1992Summer Olympic Games.
8-19 February 1984A Candidature delegation travels toSarajevo (Yugoslavia) to attend the1988 Winter Games and to present aprogress report on the Barcelona project.
28 February 1984The COE ratifies its support forBarcelona'92.
28 March 1984The Spanish government, at a meetingof the Council of Ministers, approvesthe Preliminary Project and pledges itssupport for the Candidature.
April 1984The guidelines for the competition forthe Candidature logotype are madepublic.
5 April 1984The "Montjuïc Olímpic" exhibitionopens at the College of Architects ofCatalonia, with a presentation of theOlympic Ring architectural projects. Acatalogue is published with the sametitle.
14 May 1984The Managing Council approves thelogotype, based on the project presentedby Juan Carlos Pérez Sánchez (AmericaSanchez).
The Barcelona City Council calls forapplications for the study and thedrafting of the computer andtelecommunications requirementsproject for the 1992 Olympic Games(BIT'92).
6 June 1984The Second Barcelona Olympic Day isheld, with the inauguration of anexhibition of Summer Olympic torchesfrom 1936 to 1984, at the Palau de laVirreina.
17 July 1984Alfonso de Borbón is elected presidentof the COE, replacing Romà Cuyàs.
28 July 1984Opening of the Los Angeles OlympicGames.
31 July 1984The Candidature Preliminary Project ispresented to the Olympic Family at theHotel Biltmore during the Los AngelesOlympic Games.
27 August 1984Inauguration of the Vall d'Hebronvelodrome on the occasion of theWorld Cycling Championship.
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12-14 September 1984A seminar is held at the MenéndezPelayo International University (UIMP)on the subject "Analysis and prospectsfor the impact of the Olympic Gameson the city."
7 November 1984The Barcelona Candidature is presentedto the ACNO, at a meeting in Mexico.
22 November 1984The mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, presents the BarcelonaCandidature to the Culture and SportsCommittee of the Parliament ofCatalonia.
28 November 1984The mayor of Paris, Jacques Chirac,announces the presentation of theCandidature of the city for the 1992Olympic Games.
1985
February 1985The phrase "Everyone's goal" isadopted as the slogan for theCandidature.
5 February 1985The president of the IOC, Juan AntonioSamaranch, meets the president of theSpanish government, Felipe González.
Conversion work begins on theMontjuïc Olympic Stadium.
6 February 1985The president of the IOC meets thepresident of the Generalitat ofCatalonia, Jordi Pujol.
20-25 February 1985Presentation of the Candidature at theTourist Fair in the Palazzo di Brera inMilan.
9 March 1985An agreement is signed between theBarcelona City Council, the Generalitat
of Catalonia and the Spanishgovernment making the Spanishgovernment a member of the ManagingCouncil of the Candidature.
10-16 March 1985Presentation of the Candidature inStockholm at the Barcelona Weekorganised by the Municipal TouristBoard of the Catalan capital.
25 March 1985Constitution of the Barcelona Olímpica1992 Association, with Carles FerrerSalat as president, bringing togetherninety-two companies to workdisinterestedly on the financing of theCandidature.
2 April 1985At a plenary session, the Barcelona CityCouncil sets up the private municipalcompany Anella Olímpica de Montjuïc,S.A. (AOMSA), to implement theprojects in the area and other buildingworks on the Olympic programme.
17-24 April 1985Promotion of the BarcelonaCandidature in Buenos Aires, duringthe session of the Argentine OlympicCommittee.
26 April 1985The planning of the Parc de Mar Areaand the Olympic Village is awarded tothe team of architects formed by OriolBohigas, Josep Maria Martorell, DavidMackay and Albert Puigdomènech.
13 May 1985The president of the COE, Alfonso deBorbón, and the comissioner of theCandidature, Joan Mas Cantí, deliver aletter in Lausanne from the city ofBarcelona applying to be a candidatefor the organisation of the 1992Olympic Games.
16 May 1985The king and queen of Spain visit theOlympic Office and are presented withthe Barcelona Olympic project. Theking accepts the presidency of theCommittee of Honour of theCandidature.
21 May 1985The mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, appears before the Educationand Sports Committee of the Congressof Deputies.
1-5 June 1985Carles Ferrer Salat is elected a memberof the IOC at the 90th Session in WestBerlin.
At the 90th Session of the IOC, theBarcelona Candidature presents theProgress Report: from Los Angeles toBerlin, 1984-1985,
13 June 1985The COE joins the organisationstructure of the Managing Council.
17 June 1985Jordi Pujol confers the gold medal ofthe Generalitat -the Sant Jordi medal-on Juan Antonio Samaranch.
18 June 1985The Third Olympic Day is held in theSaló del Tinell in Barcelona, with theopening of an exhibition of designs formedals awarded at the SummerOlympic Games of the modern era.
12 July 1985The Olympic Committee of GreatBritain approves the presentation of theCandidature of Birmingham for the1992 Olympic Games.
15 July 1985Josep Miquel Abad is appointed chiefexecutive officer of the Candidature andCarles Ferrer Salat executive presidentof the International RelationsCommittee.
5 August 1985Work begins on the new sports hall,now the Palau Sant Jordi, in theMontjuïc Olympic Ring.
28 August 1985A climbing expedition led by ConradBlanch plants the flag of theCandidature on the summit of Everest.
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10 September 1985A seminar is held at the MenéndezPelayo International University (UIMP)on the subject "Past, present and futureof the Olympic Games."
October 1985Spanish football teams taking part ininternational competitions give theirbacking to the Barcelona promotion andsport the Candidature emblem on theirshirts.
10-15 October 1985Promotional activities are carried out atthe World Rhythmic GymnasticsChampionship in Valladolid.
14-19 October 1985The Barcelona Candidature is presentedto the Executive Boards of the IOC andthe ACNO in Lisbon.
22 October 1985The Congress of Deputies unanimouslyapproves an institutional motion ofsupport for the Candidature and asksfor the support of Spanish public andprivate institutions.
24 October 1985The Metropolitan Council gives initialsupport for the project for thereplanning of the coastal zone in thecity (Coastal Plan).
31 October 1985The city of Belgrade approves thepresentation of the Candidature of thecity to organise the 1992 Olympic Games.
4 November 1985The new headquarters of the OlympicOffice opens in Montjuïc, in the oldINI building in the Trade Fair precinct.
14 November 1985The laboratory of the BarcelonaMunicipal Institute of Medical Researchis officially accredited by the IOC tocarry out drug tests at internationalcompetitions.
16 November 1985Consitution of the Barcelona'92 HotelsCommittee, formed by representativesof the Hotel Business Association ofCatalonia and the Barcelona HotelsAssociation.
December 1985The "Olympic countdown" campaign islaunched in Barcelona newspapers andmagazines.
4 December 1985The Council of Ministers approves aroyal decree by which the BarcelonaOlímpica 1992 Association is declaredan organisation of "public utility".
4-5 December 1985The Candidature is presented at the 4thSession of the OCA in Bahrain.
5 December 1985At a plenary session, the City Councilapproves the constitution of the SpecialOrganisation for the Conversion of thePoblenou Seafront, where the OlympicVillage is to be built.
6 December 1985Presentation of the children's drawingcompetition "Operation mascot",promoted by the Olympic Office.
7 December 1985A delegation from the Olympic Office,led by the mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, attends the meeting inLausanne of candidate cities for theorganisation of the 1992 Olympic Games.
17-19 December 1985Presentation of the Candidature at the5th Assembly of the ACNOA in AddisAbaba.
19 December 1985The president of the IOC, Juan AntonioSamaranch, confers the Olympic Orderon King Juan Carlos.
23 December 1985A group of 150 young people launchthe campaign "Operation PetrolStation", which consists of distributingstickers with the Candidature logotype.
27 December 1985At a plenary session, the Barcelona CityCouncil agrees to apply officially for theorganisation of the 1992 SummerOlympic Games and formallyundertakes to accept the commitmentswhich are set out in the Olympic Charter.
1986
21 January 1986Work begins on the redevelopment ofthe Parc de Mar Area with the laying ofthe foundation stone of theinfrastructure of what is to be theOlympic Village.
23-25 January 1986The ASOIF fact-finding committeevisits Barcelona.
24 January 1986The Spanish government, at a meetingof the Council of Ministers, agrees togive its official support to theCandidature and to respect theprinciples of the Olympic Charter. Italso approves various measures to assistwith the staging of the Games.
3 February 1986The mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, presents a 9 metre pennantbearing the logotype of the Candidatureto the captain of the Juan SebastianElcano, the Spanish naval training vessel.
10 February 1986The Managing Council approves theCandidature Dossier.
Olympic sportsmen and women launchthe campaign entitled "I'm alreadytaking part", designed to enlist the helpof Olympic volunteers in the
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preparation and organisation of theGames.
13 February 1986The sports directors of the autonomouscommunities meet in Barcelona for abriefing on the Olympic project and thepresentation of the Olympic Bus.
The official agreement for the reroutingof the Poblenou railway is signedbetween the Generalitat of Catalonia,the Barcelona City Council, theBarcelona Metropolitan Corporation,the Ministry of Transport and the staterailway company RENFE.
20 February 1986At a meeting in Madrid, the ManagingCouncil of the International AmateurAthletics Federation (IAAF) choosesBarcelona to organise the Fifth WorldAthletics Cup in 1989, which is tocoincide with the inauguration of theOlympic Stadium.
21 February 1986The mayor of Barcelona, PasqualMaragall, inaugurates the exhibition"Barcelona'92" at the Llotja in Palmade Mallorca.
24 February 1986The COE and the Barcelona CityCouncil sign before the IOC theagreement for the formal presentationof the Candidature.
27 February 1986The Olympic Bus begins its journeyaround the seventeen autonomouscommunities of Spain in the Plaça deSant Jaume in Barcelona.
1 March 1986The mayor of Barcelona and othermembers of the Managing Councilpresent the Candidature Dossier to theIOC in Lausanne.
4-6 March 1986The mayor of Barcelona reports on theprogress of the Candidature to theAssembly of the ASOIF at the HiltonHotel in Rome.
6 March 1986The president of the Spanishgovernment, Felipe González, visits theOlympic Office.
14 March 1986Presentation of the Candidature Dossierto the media.
19-24 March 1986The ACNO fact-finding committeevisits Barcelona.
1-4 April 1986The IOC fact-finding committee visitsBarcelona.
5 April 1986The president of the Spanishgovernment receives the IOCfact-finding committee and assures themembers of the IOC of the support ofthe government for the Candidature.
9 April 1986The president of the Spanish Federationof Municipalities and Provinces pledgesthe support of the organisation for theBarcelona project.
21-26 April 1986The Candidature attends the 5thSession of the ACNO in Seoul.
30 April 1986Presentation of the volunteers campaignat the headquarters of the MadridAssembly, attended by distinguishedsportsmen and women.
2 May 1986Inauguration of the 49th Congress ofthe International Sports JournalismAssociation (AIPS) at the Palau deCongresses in Montjuïc, attended byrepresentatives from 58 countries. Themayor of Barcelona and the presidentof the IOC preside.
3 May 1986The president of the IOC, Juan AntonioSamaranch, opens the Catalan SportsMuseum and the Melcior Colet SportStudy Centre in Barcelona.
5 May 1986Beginning of the "Olympic Week" atthe National Physical EducationInstitute (INEF) in Madrid, organisedby the COE.
6 May 1986The king receives Pasqual Maragall,mayor of Barcelona; Alfonso de Borbón,president of the COE; Carles FerrerSalat, member of the IOC; and JosepLluís Vilaseca, director general of Sportat the Generalitat in audience.
An exhibition about the Candidature isput on at the campus of theAutonomous University of Barcelona.6,000 volunteers join the campaign.
7 May 1986A huge Candidature flag is hoisted atthe Sanchez Pizjuán Stadium in Seville,at the European Cup final between FCBarcelona and Steaua.
9 May 1986Signing of the agreement forcooperation between the Ministry ofWorks and Town Planning and theBarcelona Metropolitan Corporation forthe renovation of the seafront in thePoblenou district.
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21 May 1986The Barcelona City Council approvesthe projects for the Olympic Stadiumand the new sports hall.
22 May 1986The president of the IOC, Juan AntonioSamaranch, closes the cycle of lectureson "Barcelona and the Olympic Games"at the Ateneu Barcelonès.
Xavier Martí, a 15 year old schoolboy,wins the schools' competition for theCandidature mascot with his drawing ofSt George's dragon.
25 May 1986As a gesture of solidarity with theorganisation Sport Aid, and as part ofthe campaign against hunger in Africa,53,145 people take part in theBarcelona People's Race.
27 May 1986The Managing Council holds a meetingto present the definitive project for thebudget and reports on the result of theBIT'92 competition.
30 May 1986Players and officials of the Spanishbasketball team visit the Olympic Officeand register as volunteers.
5 June 1986The new board of the Higher SportsCouncil expresses its support for theCandidature.
7 June 1986The season of Olympic cinema opens aspart of the 54th Barcelona InternationalTrade Fair and the InternationalCinema Week.
11 June 1986The president of the Generalitat ofCatalonia, Jordi Pujol, pays an officialvisit to the Olympic Office and signs onas a volunteer.
Barcelona City Council approves theSpecial Plan for Montjuïc.
13 June 1986With over 40,000 registered, thenumber of volunteers breaks the LosAngeles record.
19 June 1986The minister of Defence, Narcís Serra,visits the Olympic Office.
20 June 1986Presentation of the magazineBarcelona'92, published by the OlympicOffice and edited by Pedro Palacios.
25 June 1986Presentation of the Candidature at theWorld Football Championships inMexico.
26 June 1986The Barcelona City Council approvesthe Special Plan for the layout of theseafront.
July 1986Presentation of the Guia Barcelona'92,published by the Olympic Office.
2 July 1986The minister of Industry presides at thepresentation of the Study for theplanning of computer andtelecommunications requirements for the1992 Olympic Games, BIT'92.
14 July 1986The Barcelona Provincial Councilpresents Joaquim Molas' book Passió imite de l'esport.
25 July 1986The Catalan Association of SmallBusinesses pledges support for theCandidature.
The Barcelona City Council and theBarcelona Provincial Council sign anagreement to build a new sports hall,which will be called the Palau SantJordi.
31 July 1986The international art magazine L'Oeil,published in Lausanne, brings out aspecial number on art in Barcelona.
August 1986The SEAT company places Candidaturestickers on the vehicles produced at itsfactories.
8-12 August 1986Alfonso de Borbón, president of theCOE, accompanied by Romà Cuyàs,secretary of state for sport, visitsPanama, Venezuela and Colombia topresent the Barcelona Candidatureproject.
13 August 1986Opening at L'Escala of the exhibition"For a flame'92 at Empúries".
22 August 1986The Candidature is presented to theinternational accredited press in Madridon the occasion of the Fifth WorldSwimming Championships.
25 August 1986The IAAF Executive Board agrees tohold the 1989 Congress of theFederation in Barcelona.
6 September 1986The figure for the number of volunteersregistered reaches 61,547.
15 September 1986The president of the Generalitat ofCatalonia and the mayor of Barcelonainaugurate the Catalan pavilion at the67th Fair of the Comptoir Suisse inLausanne.
18 September 1986The mayor of Barcelona and thepresident of RENFE sign the contract
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for the works on the Barcelona railwaynetwork.
Laying of the foundation stone of thePalau Sant Jordi.
19 September 1986At the Fourth Barcelona Olympic Dayat the Saló de Cent in the BarcelonaTown Hall, the Council of Support forthe Candidature is constituted. It bringstogether over three hundred leadingfigures from the worlds of politics,culture and sport.
6 October 1986A first team from the Olympic Officeinstalls itself in Lausanne to prepare thepresentation of the BarcelonaCandidature at the 91st Session of theIOC, where the host city of the 1992Olympic Games will be chosen.
The "Peace Torch", organised byUNICEF, arrives in Barcelona.
7 October 1986Work begins on assembling theBarcelona Candidature stand inLausanne.
9 October 1986Opening of the exhibition "Treasures ofBarcelona" at the Hermitage Foundation.
10 October 1986At the Chateau de Vidy, the draw isheld for the order in which thecandidate cities will present their casesto the 91st Session of the IOC.
12 October 1986Inauguration of the 91st Session of theIOC at the Palais de Beaulieu inLausanne.
13 October 1986Montserrat Caballé gives a concert inLausanne cathedral.
16 October 1986Presentation of the BarcelonaCandidature to the 91st Session of theIOC.
17 October 1986Barcelona is chosen as the host city forthe 1992 Olympic Games in the thirdround of voting at the IOC plenarysession. Over 100,000 people celebratethe nomination in the streets ofBarcelona. The same day, the Frenchcity of Albertville is designated host cityfor the Winter Olympic Games of thesame year.
18 October 1986The king receives the mayor ofBarcelona, Pasqual Maragall.
10 November 1986The volunteer recruitment campaigncloses with 102,000 people registered.
4 December 1986The Ministry of Transport, Tourismand Communications approves theconversion of Barcelona airport.
5 December 1986The Council of Ministers, at a meetingpresided by Felipe González, decides toconfer the Royal Order of SportingMerit on Juan Antonio Samaranch,president of the IOC, and PasqualMaragall, mayor of Barcelona.Establishment of the company VilaOlímpica, S.A. (VOSA), to administerthe urban development works on thePoblenou sector of the seafront.
10 December 1986The king receives the Managing Councilof the Candidature shortly before itsdissolution.
1987
January 1987Work begins on the undergroundreservoir in the Montjuïc Olympic Ring.
14 January 1987The Executive Committee of BarcelonaCity Council approves the basic criteriafor the layout of the Vall d'HebronArea.
16 January 1987The sports clubs in the city pay tributeto everyone who made the nominationof Barcelona for the 1992 OlympicGames possible.
17 January 1987The Barcelona City Council and theCOE set up the Joint LiaisonCommittee between the Candidatureand the future Organising Committe ofthe 1992 Games.
9 February 1987The Barcelona City Council approvesthe basic project for the NationalInstitute of Physical Education ofCatalonia (INEFC), which is to be builtin the Montjuïc Olympic Ring.
13-February 1987The Barcelona City Council and theCOE approve the statutes of theOrganising Committee.
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26 February 1987Definitive approval of the Special Planfor the layout of Montjuïc Hill.
12 March 1987Constitution of the Barcelona'92Olympic Organising Committee(COOB'92). Pasqual Maragall, mayor ofBarcelona; Jordi Pujol, president of theGeneralitat of Catalonia; Javier Solana,minister of Culture; and Alfonso deBorbón, president of the COE, sign thestatutes, the economic protocol and thesports protocol.
13 March 1987The first COOB'92 General Assembly isheld, under the presidency of the mayorof Barcelona, Pasqual Maragall, withthe president of the COE, Carles FerrerSalat, acting as first vice-president; assecond vice-president the secretary ofState for Sport, Javier Gómez Navarro;and as third vice-president, the directorgeneral of Sport at the Generalitat ofCatalonia, Josep Lluís Vilaseca. TheAssembly unanimously appoints JosepMiquel Abad as chief executive officerof the Barcelona'92 Olympic OrganisingCommittee.
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4.4. Olympic glossary
Glossary
accreditation: document whichidentifies the people involvedin the organisation of theOlympic Games and specifiesthe group to which theybelong. It allows access to andaround the facilities andconfers the right to the use ofcertain services during theGames.
ACNO: Association ofNational Olympic Committees.It includes all the NationalOlympic Committeesrecognised by the IOC. As of1992, the president is MarioVázquez Raña of Mexico.
ACNOA: Association ofAfrican National OlympicCommittees. As of 1992, thepresident is Jean-ClaudeGanga of the Congo.
ACNOE: Association ofEuropean National OlympicCommittees. As of 1992, thepresident is Jacques Rogge ofBelgium.
AGFIS: General Association ofInternational SportsFederations. As of 1992, thepresident is Un Yong Kim ofKorea.
agon: Greek word meaning'tournament' or 'competition'.In ancient Greece, the sportsagons (gymnastic -or athletic-and equestrian) and the artisticagons (poetic and musical)were events of great socialimportance. The agonisticspirit (the spirit of competitionand trials of strength amongpeers) permeated every sphereof everyday life (cf competition).
AIORMS: InternationalOlympic Association forSports-Medical Research. Abody whose purpose is to workwith the IOC MedicalCommission in the struggleagainst drug abuse and inresearch in the fields ofbiomechanics, physiology andsports medicine in general. Itis also the institution which isresponsible for theaccreditation of the dopingcontrol laboratories and theregulation of certain specificaspects of the biomechanicaltests during the Games. As of1992, the president is JuanAntonio Samaranch.
AIWF: Association of theInternational Winter SportsFederations. As of 1992, thepresident is Marc Hodler ofSwitzerland.
appeals jury: the highest courtof appeal, appointed by theinternational federations foreach sport to deal withprotests and appeals againstthe decisions taken during theOlympic Games. The verdictsof the jury are final. At theOlympic Games in antiquitythe Olympic Senate was thehighest court of appeal andsaw that the Olympic lawswhich governed theorganisation and managementof the competitions wereupheld and applied.
ARISF: Association of the IOCRecognised InternationalSports Federations. The sportsmay or may not be includedon the Olympic programme.As of 1992, the president isUn Yong Kim of Korea.
ASOIF: Association ofSummer Olympic InternationalFederations. As of 1992, thepresident is Primo Nebiolo ofItaly.
Association of African NationalOlympic Committees: (cfACNOA)
Association of EuropeanNational Olympic Committees:(cf ACNOE)
Association of NationalOlympic Committees: (cf ACNO)
Association of SummerOlympic InternationalFederations: (cf ASOIF)
Association of the InternationalWinter Sports Federations: (cfAIWF)
Association of the IOCRecognised International SportsFederations: (cf ARISF)
athlete: primarily, a man orwoman who practises one ofthe disciplines of athletics,though it is often used for acompetitor in any of the sportson the Olympic programme. Inclassical Greece, the wordathlete was also used for aperson who took part in anycompetition, thoughparticularly in gymnastics.
attaché: person appointed byeach National OlympicCommittee, who is inpermanent contact with theOlympic Games OrganisingCommittee and acts as liaisonbetween the two organisations.
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B Baillet-Latour, Henri de:(Brussels, Belgium, 1876-1942).Third president of the IOC(1925-1942). He became amember in 1903 and organisedthe Third Olympic Congress inBrussels in 1905. Member ofthe Higher Council forPhysical Education in Belgium,he promoted the candidatureof the city of Antwerp for the1920 Games, which wereeventually held in the city.
Brundage, Avery: (Detroit,USA, 1887 - GarmischPartenkirchen, FRG, 1975).
Fifth president of the IOC(1952-1972). He competed inthe Games of the V Olympiadin Stockholm. He waspresident of the AmericanAthletic Union from 1928 to1938 and of the AmericanOlympic Committee from thenuntil 1954. He was a memberof the IOC from 1936 andbecame a staunch defender ofamateurism in sport. Heresigned his post before theMunich Games in 1972.
bye-law: (cf Olympic Charter)
candidature dossier: reportwhich each candidate city forthe organisation of theOlympic Games has to presentto the IOC a few monthsbefore the date of the electionof the Olympic site so that theCommittee can assess thecandidature. The dossiercontains the answers to aquestionnaire drafted by theIOC and the internationalfederations and expounds thearguments which the candidatecity advances in support of itsproject and the reasons whichled it to apply for thedesignation. The dossier mustcontain an expression ofsupport for the candidature bythe government of the countryand the NOC.
cauldron: bowl-shapedreceptacle where the Olympicflame burns during the Games.It must be at the OlympicStadium and visible from thegrandstand.
chef de mission: personresponsible for an NOCdelegation attending theOlympic Games and liaisonbetween the IOC, theinternational federations andthe organising committee.
citius, altius, fortius: Olympicmotto. In Latin, it means'faster, higher, stronger'. Itexpresses the message whichthe IOC sends to all themembers of the OlympicMovement inviting them toexcel in the Olympic spirit.The author of the motto was afriend of Baron de Coubertin,Father Henri Didon, prior ofthe College d'Arcueil nearParis, who played a vital role
in the Olympic Congress in LeHavre in 1897.
closing ceremony: finalceremony of the OlympicGames. It is a farewell in afestive spirit for everyone whohas taken part in the Games.It begins with a parade of allthe national flags and somemembers of each delegation inthe Olympic Stadium after thelast event on the competitionprogramme. The ceremonyends with the lowering of theflag and the quenching of theflame. During the ceremony,in the presence of thepresident of the IOC, themayor of the host city handsover the official Olympic flagto the mayor of the city whichwill be organising the nextOlympic Games.
COE: Spanish OlympicCommittee. The COE wasfounded in Barcelona in 1921.The first president wasSantiago Güell, Barón deGüell. Today the headquartersof the COE is in Madrid. Asof 1992, the president isCarles Ferrer Salat.
commemorative medal: medalawarded, with a diploma, toall the competitors, officialsand members of the IOC, theinternational federations,NOCs, judges, referees,time-keepers, inspectors, etc.,who have taken part in theOlympic Games.
competition: in ancient Greecean encounter based on therivalry between opponents andthe struggle for victory.Competitions were usuallyorganised on the occasion of a
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religious festival. To refer tothe traditional competitionswhich were held in ancientHellas, the Greeks used theword "competition" and not"games". The events weredivided into equestrian (horseraces and chariot races),gymnastics (foot races,wrestling, boxing andpentathlon) and artistic(theatrical or poetical andmusical) competitions.
competitor: sportsman orwoman entered for theOlympic Games. Eachcompetitor must observe andobey the rules of the IOC andthe international federation forthe sport. Age limits forcompeting in an OlympicGames are the ones included,for health reasons, in theregulations of the internationalfederations.
Coubertin, Pierre de (Baron):(Paris, 1863 - Geneva 1937).Second president of the IOC(1896-1925). French thinkerand educationalist, born into awell-to-do family, he was themain promoter of therestoration of the OlympicMovement in the modern era.He was convinced of the needto incorporate sport intoeducation. On 23 June 1894 inParis, before two thousandauthorities and delegates oftwelve countries, heproclaimed his intention torestore the Olympic Games.He worked tirelessly to spreadhis beliefs, laid down thefoundations of the OlympicMovement and created theideology of Olympism, whichhe explained and developed inhis copious writings.
delegation: group of membersof an NOC who take part inan Olympic Games.
demonstration sport: sportapproved by the IOC, at therequest of an OCOG, to beplayed at the Olympic Gamesoff the official programme.Demonstration sports must bewidely practised or have a longtradition in the country wherethe Games are being held.They are sometimes adoptedas official sports at later Games.
doping: use by a sportsman orwoman of unauthorizedsubstances for the purpose ofartificially and temporarily
boosting performance during acompetition.
doping control: set of testswhich reveal whethercompetitors have takenunauthorized substances. Sincedoping is strictly prohibited atthe Olympic Games, allcompetitors have to submit tothe medical controls andexaminations required by theIOC Medical Commissionaccording to IOC rules. TheCommission has established alist of banned products andunauthorized procedures.Doping controls are carriedout during the Olympic Games.
Edström, J. Sigfrid: (Göteborg,Sweden 1870-1964). Fourthpresident of the IOC(1946-1952). He was anoutstanding sportsman andexcellent manager. He tookpart in the organisation of theStockholm Olympic Games in1912 and was the leader of thedelegation of his country atthe Los Angeles Games in1932. He founded theInternational AmateurAthletics Federation (IAAF), ofwhich he was president until1946. He was a member of the
IOC from 1920 and waselected vice-president in 1931and president in 1946 inLausanne. In 1952, beforeHelsinki was awarded theOlympic Games, he resignedfrom his post at the age of 82.
exhibition sport: sport chosenby the Olympic OrganisingCommittee for exhibitioncompetitions simultaneous tothe Games. As these sports arenot part of the officialprogramme, their number isstrictly limited.
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final: last phase of an event, atwhich the winner is decided.The sportsmen and women or
teams who have classified inthe semi-finals take part.
Games: in ancient Greece,where they were called agons(competitions), encounterswhich were mostly sporting innature. The games were manyand varied. After they wereestablished as periodic festivalsin honour of a divinity (in thesixth century BC), adistinction was made betweengreat games and local games.The four great games(Olympic, Pythian, Nemeanand Isthmian) were organisedat a sanctuary, whichconferred a sacred characteron them, and the prizesawarded were purely symbolic.But the local games wereorganised in a city with moneyprizes. Because of theirPan-Hellenic character, thegreat games forged and made
manifest the links between themembers of an ethnic groupscattered around the shores ofthe Mediterranean.
gender verification test: set oftests established by the IOCMedical Commission todetermine the gender of thewomen competitors in theOlympic Games.
General Association ofInternational SportsFederations: (cf AGFIS)
gymnasium: place where theathletes trained in ancientGreece. If originally they werejust places for the practice ofphysical exercise, with timethey became cultural centres.
H honorary member of the IOC:member of the IOC who hasserved the organisation for atleast ten years and retires dueto age, health or other reasons.
Honorary members maycontinue their activities onbehalf of the IOC and attendthe sessions and congresses asguests without voting rights.
International Federation ofOlympic Philately: organisationfounded in 1982 on theinitiative of Juan AntonioSamaranch, president of theIOC, for the purpose ofpublishing and distributingstudies and articles aboutphilately connected withOlympic subjects. Thisfederation organisesexhibitions and meetings ofcollectors. Since 1984 the hostcity has always mounted aninternational Olympic stampexhibition on the occasion ofthe Games.
International OlympicAcademy: institution foundedin 1961, devoted to researchand cultural and educationalactivities connected with
Olympism. The Academy hasits permanent headquarters inOlympia, on the hill ofCronus, which overlooks theancient sacred precinct ofAttis. The original idea for thefoundation of the institutioncame from Baron Pierre deCoubertin. As of 1992, thepresident is Nikos Filaretos ofGreece.
International OlympicAssociation for Sports-MedicalResearch: (cf AIORMS)
International OlympicCommittee: (cf IOC)
International Youth Camp:camp for young people fromthe countries taking part in theOlympics set up by the
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Organising Committee andheld to coincide with theGames. The first InternationalYouth Camp was organised inMunich in 1972.
international federation:international organisationwhich brings together thenational federations for aparticular sport. As of 1992the IOC recognises 48international summer andwinter sports federations, 30officially. The sports of theofficially recognisedinternational federations areon the official Gamesprogramme. Those notofficially recognised may onlybe included as demonstrationor exhibition sports. Theinternational federations inturn are grouped in differentassociations: AGFIS, AIWF,ARISF and ASOIF.
IOC: International OlympicCommittee. The IOC is aninternational association withindependent legal status,founded in 1894. Theheadquarters is in Lausanne,where it was installed byBaron Pierre de Coubertin in1915. The purpose of the IOCis to direct the OlympicMovement according to theterms of the Olympic Charter.Its main objectives are: topromote the development ofsport and sportingcompetitions in general; toguide and keep sport withinthe Olympic ideal; to fosterand strengthen friendshipamong sportsmen and womenaround the world; and toensure that the OlympicGames are held regularlyaccording to the ideals whichrevived them. The IOCSession is the general assemblyof its members and thesupreme decision makingorgan. Members of the IOCmust be citizens of a countrywith a recognised NOC andspeak one of the two officiallanguages of the Committee,French or English. Themembers of the IOC arerepresentatives of theorganisation in their countryof residence and not delegatesof their countries within theIOC. The IOC is composed ofa presidency, fourvice-presidencies, an executiveboard, a directorate general, asecretariat general and variousspecial commissions whichformulate proposals whichhave to be approved by theExecutive Board. The IOC isfinanced basically by the
commercialisation of rights tothe use of its symbols.
IOC commissions: workingparties set up directly by thepresident of the IOC to dealwith specific aspects of theOlympic Movement. Some ofthe commissions are mixed, i.e.,they include members of theIOC and representatives of theIFs and the NOCs, besidestechnicians and specialistsadvisers. In 1992 the IOC hadthe following commissions:The Commission for theInternational OlympicAcademy, the EligibilityCommission, the Apartheidand Olympism Commission,the Athletes Commission, theCoordination Commission forthe Olympic Games, theCultural Commission, theFinance Commission, theMedical Commission, theCommission for the OlympicMovement, the PressCommission, the Commissionof Preparation for the OlympicCongress of the Centenary, theRadio and TelevisionCommission, the Commissionof New Sources of Financing,the Commission for theOlympic Programme, theOlympic SolidarityCommission, the Sport for AllCommission and the Councilof the Olympic Order.
IOC Executive Board: an IOCcommittee elected at a Sessionand composed of a president,four vice-presidents and sixother members. The ExecutiveBoard sees that the rules ofthe IOC are strictly observed,decides the agenda for theSessions, proposes newmembers of the Committee,administers the finances,performs managerial tasks andkeeps the records. It usuallymeets three or four times ayear.
IOC session: plenary meetingor general assembly of themembers of the IOC which isheld at least once a year.There the most importantdecisions are taken, such aselections to posts or thedesignation of the cities to bethe sites of the Summer andWinter Olympic Games. Thesession assesses the reportswhich are presented by theOrganising Committees of thecoming Games, examines theOlympic programme andagrees on modifications to therules. It also approves thereports of the differentcommissions of the IOC,
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proposals for the recognitionof new NOCs, the election ofnew members and thesuggestions of the internationalfederations. A session isusually held in the host cityduring the Olympic Games.
Isthmian Games: in ancientGreece, athletics, equestrian,nautical and musical gameswhich were held in honour ofPoseidon at the Isthmus ofCorinth every other year inspring from 582 BC.
Kìllanin, Lord: (London 1914).Sixth president of the IOC(1972-1980). He was a sportsreporter, businessman andcinema producer in his youth.He was president of the IrishOlympic Committee from1950 to 1972. Elected amember of the IOC in 1952,
he occupied thevice-presidency of theorganisation from 1958. Hesucceeded Avery Brundage andhis term of office wascharacterised by a spirit ofopenness to dialogue. He hasbeen honorary president of theIOC since 1980.
Lausanne: city in Switzerlandon the shores of Lake Genevaand capital of the canton of
Vaud. Since 10 April 1915, theIOC has had its officialheadquarters there.
mascot: figure, usually ananimal, chosen to be a symbolof the Olympic Games. Thefirst official Olympic mascotappeared at the MunichGames in 1972. The WinterGames also have their ownmascot.
medals ceremony: (cf victoryceremony)
member of the IOC: personwho belongs to the
International OlympicCommittee and represents theorganisation in his or hercountry. Members are eminentpeople co-opted by the othermembers of the IOC. Theymust speak French or Englishand be citizens and residentsof a country with a recognisedNOC. Members of the IOC areobliged to attend the sessionsand the congresses of theorganisation.
N National Olympic Committee:(cf NOC)
national federation:organisation in a countrywhich brings together the clubsand associations for aparticular sport.
Nemean Games: in ancientGreece, sports competitionswhich had their origins infuneral rites and were held inhonour of Zeus in a sacredwood in the valley of Nemeain Argolis every other yearfrom 573 BC.
NOC: National OlympicCommittee. An organisationcomposed of therepresentatives of all thenational federations of acountry which are affiliated tothe international federationsrecognised by the IOC and ofthe members of the IOC inthat country. They areresponsible for the progressand protection of the OlympicMovement and sport ingeneral. For an NOC to obtainrecognition, at least fivenational federations for sportson the Olympic programme
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affiliated to their respectiveinternational federations mustmake an official application.The NOCs are officialrepresentatives of thesportsmen and women of theircountry or territory accordingto IOC regulations foradmission. Each NOC isresponsible for organising andsupervising the participation ofthe delegation of its country inthe Olympic Games (luggage,
transport, accommodation,insurance and medical servicesfor all members of thedelegation). All the NOCs arerepresented on the Associationof National OlympicCommittees (ACNO). Thereare five continentalassociations which make upthe collective of NOCs. (çfACNOA, ACNOE, ODEPA,OCA and ONOC).
OCA: Olympic Council ofAsia. This is the association ofNational Olympic Committeesof Asia. As of 1992, thepresident is Ahmad FahadAl-Jaber Al-Sabah of Kuwait.
Oceania National OlympicCommittees: (cf ONOC)
OCOG: Organising Committeeof the Olympic Games. Thegeneric term used by theOlympic Charter for theexecutive body responsible forthe organisation of theOlympic Games, which hasindependent legal status. Itacts by delegation, within thelimits set, and may notsupplant the IOC, whose rulesit must observe. The OCOG isusually dissolved six monthsafter the closing ceremony, theabsolute maximum beingtwelve months.
ODEPA: Pan-American SportsOrganisation. This is theassociation of NationalOlympic Committees ofAmerica. As of 1992, thepresident is MarioVázquez-Raña of Mexico.
official film of the OlympicGames: film of the highlightsof the Olympic Games. Itshows images of all the sportsand the opening and closingceremonies.
official languages: the officiallanguages of the IOC areFrench and English. At theIOC Sessions, however, thereis a simultaneousinterpretation service inArabic, German, Russian andSpanish. During the OlympicGames the official language orlanguages of the host countrymay also be used.
official publications:publications which, according
to the Olympic Charter, haveto be produced by theOrganising Committee for theOlympic Family before, duringand after the Games. Theyinclude an explanatory bookletfor each sport, with theregulations and thearrangements for the specialprogramme of the Games, amedical booklet and theofficial report. They have tobe published in English andFrench and the language orlanguages of the host country.They may not containadvertising.
official report: report which theOrganising Committee of theOlympic Games must presentto the IOC -one copy to eachmember-, to the internationalfederations and the NOCswithin a maximum of twoyears after the closing of theGames. The official report is aexhaustive document whichexplains the organisation andstaging of the Games, with adetailed list of all thedisciplines, the names of thecompetitors and the results.The report must be publishedin English and French andmay also be produced in thelanguage or languages of thecountry where the Games havebeen held.
OIC: Olympic identity card. Adocument issued by theOCOG to each of its members,the competitors, the guests andthe technical and auxiliarystaff, which establishes theidentity of the holder andauthorizes entry into thecountry in which the host cityof the Olympic Games islocated.
Olympia: shrine and religiouscentre in ancient Greece, nearthe city of Elis, at theconfluence of the rivers
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Alpheus and Cladeus. Therewas a shrine dedicated to Zeusat Olympia and the OlympicGames of antiquity wereorganised in his honour. In1961 an historical museum ofthe Olympic Games wasfounded there.
Olympiad: period of four yearsfollowing an Olympic Games.The most ancient Olympiad ofwhich records survive was theone that began in 776 BC andthe last one before theOlympic Games disappeared,to be revived in the modernera, began in 393 AD. In 1896the first Olympiad of themodern era began in Athens.The Olympiads and theOlympic Games are countedfrom that date, even if theGames of a particularOlympiad are not held.
Olympic anthem: anthemspecially commissioned by theOrganising Committee for theinauguration of the firstOlympic Games of the modernera in Athens in 1896, whereit was performed by a choir.The author of the words is theGreek poet Costis Palamasand the music is by the Greekcomposer Spyridon Samaras.Between 1900 and 1956, at theinstigation of the OrganisingCommittees, other pieces werespecially composed for theGames. In Rome in 1960, theIOC revived the first anthemby Palamas and Samaras,which was arranged by theItalian composer DomenicoFantini for a band. Since thenit has been the officialOlympic anthem and is playedat the opening and closingceremonies of the Summer andWinter Olympic Games.
Olympic arts festival: artisticevents (architecture, painting,sculpture, photography, music,literature and sports philately)which, on the initiative of theOrganising Committee, takeplace in the host city at thesame time as the Games.
Olympic Charter: documentcontaining the rules andbye-laws of the OlympicMovement and all instructionsconcerning the organisation ofthe Olympic Games. It alsoestablishes the attributions ofthe various Olympicorganisations, the NOCs andthe International Federations.
Olympic city: city elected bythe IOC to be the site of theOlympic Games. If so
authorized by the IOC, thecity designated may share thestatus of Olympic site withother cities or towns in thesame country, except for theopening and closing ceremonies.
Olympic congress: meetingconvened by the IOC at whichthe members of theCommittee, members anddelegates of the internationalfederations and the NOCs,representatives of otherorganisations and guests of theIOC take part. All mattersconcerning the OlympicGames are discussed. The firstOlympic congress was held inParis in 1894 and wasconvened by the Union desSociétés Françaises de SportsAthlétiques with the aim ofexamining the question ofamateurism and theunification of sportsregulations. The decision torevive the Olympic Games wastaken at the congress. Sincethen there have been OlympicCongresses in 1897 (LeHavre), 1905 (Brussels), 1906(Paris), 1913 (Lausanne), 1914(Paris), 1921 (Lausanne), 1925(Prague), 1930 (Berlin), 1973(Varna), 1981 (Baden-Baden)and 1989 (Tokyo). Thecentenary congress is plannedto take place in Paris in 1994.
Olympic Council of Asia: (cfOCA)
Olympic Cup: distinctionconferred by the IOC on anyinstitution or association notedfor its merits and whosedisinterested action hasrendered a valuable service tosport or the OlympicMovement.
Olympic diploma: distinctiongranted to the people classifiedin the first eight positions ineach Olympic event. Theparticipants in the OlympicGames and the official staffwho have worked on them alsoreceive a commemorativediploma and medal.
Olympic discipline: branch ofan Olympic sport comprisingone or more events. Thecriteria for admission of adiscipline to the Olympicprogramme are the same as forsports.
Olympic emblem: emblemformed by the inseparablecombination of the fiveOlympic rings and anotherdistinctive sign, usually asymbol or image which each
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Olympic host city chooses toidentify its own Games. Therings must be at least half thewidth and height of thedistinctive sign.
Olympic entry: form withwhich a sportsman and womanis entered for the OlympicGames by the NOC of his orher country. The sportsman orwoman must accept theprovisions of IOC rules and bevouched for by the relevantinternational federation. Thenumber of entries for anOlympic sport is determinedby the international federationin question in agreement withthe IOC.
Olympic event: competition ina sporting discipline which ispart of the Olympic Gamesand results in a ranking andan award of medals. To beincluded on the Olympicprogramme, an event musthave a recognised internationalstanding, both numerically andgeographically, and have beenincluded at least twice inworld, continental or regionalchampionships.
Olympic Family: group ofpeople who take part in theOlympic Games. It includesthe sportsmen and women, theteam officials andaccompanying persons, thereferees and judges, themembers of the internationalfederations, the IOC and theNOCs, the broadcasters andjournalists and the guests.
Olympic flag: flag of the IOC,white, without a border, withthe five Olympic rings. It wasdesigned by Baron deCoubertin in 1913. Theoriginal flag measured 3 x 2metres and the Olympic ringswere in the centre, occupying arectangle 2 x 0.60 metres. Itwas first shown in 1914 at theOlympic Congress in Paris onthe occasion of the twentiethanniversary of the restorationof the Games. It flew for thefirst time in 1920 at theAntwerp Games.
Olympic flame: symbol ofmodern Olympism,commemorating the sacred firewhich burned at the OlympicGames of ancient Greece. Theritual was laid down in Athenson 18 May 1934 at theinstigation of the IOC and itspresident at the time, HenriBaillet-Latour. The fire hadappeared for the first time asan Olympic symbol at the
Amsterdam Games in 1928,when a cauldron beside theOlympic Stadium was lit witha flame brought direct fromOlympia. At the Los AngelesGames in 1932, fire was alsoan element at the openingceremony. However, the ritualwhich is followed today wasnot laid down until the BerlinGames in 1936, at thesuggestion of Carl Diem,secretary general of theOrganising Committee.Following a ritual practised inancient Greece and Rome, thesacred flame is lit by aparabolic mirror which focusesthe rays of the sun. Thisceremony takes place in frontof the Temple of Hera atOlympia, beside themonument where the heart ofPierre de Coubertin is buried.The flame lights the first ofthe torches with which relaysof runners, each covering onekilometre, carry it to the siteof the Games, where it isplaced in the cauldron at theOlympic Stadium during theopening ceremony. Since 1952the Winter Games have alsohad their own Olympic flame.
Olympic Games: in ancientGreece, the Olympic Gameswere sporting and culturalcompetitions held every fouryears at Olympia in honour ofZeus. They were the mostfamous games of antiquity.The first Olympic Games ofwhich records survive wereheld in 776 BC and the last in393 AD.
Olympic Games of the modernera: a set of sportscompetitions held every fouryears in the style of the Gamesheld at Olympia in ancientGreece. They are also calledGames of the Olympiad.Sportsmen and women fromall over the world take partwithout discrimination ongrounds of race, religion orpolitics. They are entered bytheir National OlympicCommittees. The OlympicGames are competitionsbetween individuals andteams, not between countries,and they may not last longerthan sixteen days, includingthe day of the openingceremony. The organisation ofthe Olympic Games isawarded to a city which isdesignated by the IOC and hasthe approval of the NOC of itscountry. On the initiative ofBaron de Coubertin, the firstGames of the modern era wereheld in Athens in 1896, an
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event which marked therestoration of a traditionwhich had lasted for over tencenturies.Olympic identity card: ( cfOIC)
Olympic medal: prize awardedto the first three individualcompetitors or teams in thefinal of each Olympic event.The medal has the name ofthe sport and the eventengraved on the obverse and isattached to a ribbon which isplaced around the necks of thewinners at the victoryceremony. In individual andteam events the first prize is asilver gilt medal and adiploma, the second a silvermedal and a diploma and thethird a bronze medal and adiploma. In team events onlythe members of the winningteams who have taken part ina competition during theGames are entitled to a medal.
Olympic medals table: list ofthe competitors who have wonmedals at the Olympic Games,distributed by sports.
Olympic Message: magazinepublished by the IOC everyfour months about Olympicsubjects. Each number isusually devoted to a singletopic. Apart from the Spanishedition, there is a bilingualversion in French and English.
Olympic motto: motto of theOlympic Games, the Latinphrase citius, altius, fortius('faster, higher, stronger'),which expresses the aspirationsof the Olympic Movement.
Olympic Movement: group oforganisations whose aim is topromote all aspects ofOlympism. Its main tasks areto support and foster sport,the sporting spirit, theOlympic principles and theGames. The IOC is thesupreme authority of theOlympic Movement and theother pillars are the NOCs andthe international sportsfederations.
Olympic Museum: IOCinstitution where works of art,posters and other objectsrelated to the Olympic Gamesand sport in general areexhibited. Inaugurated in 1934in the villa Mon Repos inLausanne, since 1982 it hasbeen installed at a temporarysite. The definitive site, also inLausanne, will be opened inJune 1993. It is a building of
11,000 m2, the work of thearchitects Pedro RamírezVázquez and Jean PierreCahen. The museum will havea library, a video library and aphotographic archive.
Olympic oath: the wordsspoken at the openingceremony of each OlympicGames by a sportsman orwoman chosen by theOrganising Committee. Thetext of the oath is: "In thename of all the competitors Ipromise that we shall take partin these Olympic Games,respecting and abiding by therules which govern them, inthe true spirit ofsportsmanship, for the glory ofsport and the honour of ourteams." The oath was firstsworn at the Antwerp Gamesin 1920. The sportsmanchosen on that occasion wasthe Belgian fencer and poloplayer Victor Boin. Thoughthe original words were "thehonour of our country", theywere changed later to "thehonour of our teams."
Olympic Order: distinctionawarded by the IOC to anyonewhose activities have earnedoutstanding merit in sport orhave served the cause ofOlympism.
Olympic principles: idealswhich appear in the OlympicCharter and are: to promotethe development of thephysical and moral qualitieswhich are the bases of sport;to inculcate in young people,through sport, a spirit ofgreater mutual understandingand friendship to contribute tothe building of a better, morepeaceful world; to divulge theOlympic principles throughoutthe world and in this way toarouse international good will;and to bring together theathletes of the world at thegreat four-yearly sport festivalof the Olympic Games.
Olympic programme: set ofsports, disciplines and eventsin which the sportsmen andwomen entering for theOlympic Games may take part.There must be a minimum offifteen sports and theprogramme is reviewed aftereach Games. A sport may onlyappear on the officialprogramme when itsinternational federation hasbeen recognised as Olympic.
Olympic radio and television:body responsible for
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broadcasting the radio andtelevision signals during theGames.
Olympic record: official scoreby a sportsman or woman or ateam which excels all resultsobtained under the sameconditions at an OlympicGames.
Olympic Review: magazinepublished by the IOC inLausanne. It is the officialorgan of the OlympicMovement and deals withsubjects related to the IOCand the practice of sport ingeneral. There are ten numbersa year (two of them doubleissues) in three languages:French, English and Spanish.
Olympic rings: symbol of theIOC. They are five interlinkedrings -blue, black, red, yellowand green- on a whitebackground which representthe union of the fivecontinents and symbolize thecoming together of nations andathletes from all over theworld in the Olympic spirit.
Olympic site: (cf Olympic city)
Olympic Solidarity: programmeorganised by the IOC to helpNOCs carry out their task ofpromoting and protecting sportand the Olympic Movement.
Olympic sport: sport includedon the Olympic programme atthe decision of the IOC. Theonly sports eligible forinclusion on the Olympicprogramme are ones which, inthe men's category, arepractised in at least 75countries and on 4 continentsand, in the women's, in 40countries and on 3 continents.A sport is understood to bewidely practised when nationalchampionships or cupcompetitions are regularlyorganised by the nationalfederation or whencompetitions with participantsfrom different countries andregional and/or worldchampionships are held.
Olympic sportsman/woman:person who practises a sportwhich is registered on theofficial programme for anOlympic Games.
Olympic Stadium: maincompetition venue for theOlympic Games and the siteof the opening and closingceremonies.
Olympic subsite: town otherthan the host city where someof the competitions on theOlympic programme may beorganised with theauthorization of the IOC.
Olympic symbol: (cf Olympicrings)
Olympic torch: object in whichthe Olympic flame is broughtfrom Olympia to the host cityof the Olympic Games. Since1936, when it was used for thefirst time in the modern era,each the Games has had itsown torch. The first bearer ofthe Olympic torch wasConstantine Condylis ofGreece. It is usually carried byrunners, but it has also beenborne by horse riders, skiers,motorcyclists, cyclists and cardrivers. It has always beendesigned according to thecharacteristics of the host cityand the time at which theGames have been held. (cfOlympic flame)
Olympic torch relay: each ofthe stretches into which theroute of the Olympic flame isdivided, from the time thefirst runner takes up the torchin Olympia. In each relay, thetorch is carried by a differentrunner; the bearer who makesthe last relay is the one wholights the flame in thecauldron in the OlympicStadium. The relays arenormally one kilometre. (cfOlympic flame, Olympic torch)
Olympic Village: place setaside by the OrganisingCommittee for theaccommodation of thecompetitors and the technicaland auxiliary staff at theOlympic Games. The site mustbe near the Stadium and theother venues and be availableto the competitors and teamofficials at least two weeksbefore the official openingceremony until three days afterthe closing ceremony.According to the distributionof the venues, there may beone or more Olympic Villages.
Olympic volunteer: person whoundertakes, individually andaltruistically, to workaccording to his or hercapacity on the organisation ofthe Olympic Games,performing the tasks to whichhe or she is assigned withoutany kind of economic or otherpayment.
378
Olympism: doctrine whichcontains the fundamentalprecepts of the OlympicMovement. It seeks thephysical and spiritualimprovement of mankind andtoday it is trying to strengthenunderstanding and friendshipamong peoples with the aim ofcontributing to a better, morepeaceful world.
Olympus: a mountain inGreece between Macedoniaand Thessaly, 2,911 metreshigh, now a national park. Theancient Greeks believed that itwas the home of the gods.
ONOC: (Association of)Oceania National OlympicCommittees. As of 1992, the
president is Kevan Gosper ofAustralia.
opening ceremony: inauguralceremony of the OlympicGames. It is an eventcombining Olympic ritual anda taste of the culturalpersonality of the organisingcity. The Olympic ritualconsists of a parade ofparticipants at the Stadium,the entry of the Olympic flag,which is hoisted in a place ofhonour, the lighting of theflame in the cauldron, theprotocol speeches and theswearing of the Olympic oathsby the sportsmen and women,referees and judges.
Organising Committee of theOlympic Games: (cf OCOG)
palaestra: in ancient Greece,the place where the athletespractised gymnastic exercises,boxing and wrestling.
Pan-American SportsOrganisation: (cf ODEPA)
Pan-Hellenic Games: the fourgreat sports events of ancientGreece: the Olympic, Pythian,Isthmian and Nemean Games.
parade of participants: part ofthe ritual of the opening andclosing ceremonies, at whicheach delegation parades withits uniform, flag andname-board.
pentathlon: group of fiveevents to be entered by asingle competitor. The eventsin the modern pentathlon areriding, fencing, shooting,swimming and cross countryrunning, but in the ancientworld the five elements were afootrace, a long jump, thepankration (wrestling andboxing), javelin and discusthrowing.
photofinish: photograph of thecompetitors in a race taken asthey cross the line which
makes it possible to identifythe winner in the event of aclose contest. It wasintroduced at the StockholmGames in 1912.
pre-Olympic event: eventorganised before the OlympicGames under the control ofthe OCOG and governed bythe technical regulations of theinternational federation. It isheld at an Olympic venue andserves as a preparation forboth the competitors and theorganisation.
president of the IOC: memberof the IOC elected by themembers in a secret ballot andby outright majority to be atthe head of the organisationfor a mandate of eight years.He may be re-elected forsuccessive four year terms.Since the foundation of theIOC in 1894 there have beenseven presidents.
Pythian Games: in ancientGreece, games and drama andmusic contests which wereheld in honour of PythianApollo at the shrine in Delphiin the third year of everyOlympiad.
roll of honour: list of thecompetitors classified in thefirst eight places in each eventof the Games, established bythe Organising Committee and
sent to the IOC. Classificationsby countries are not valid, asthe Olympic Games are not acompetition between nations.
P
R
379
Samaranch, Juan Antonio:seventh president of the IOC,elected in 1980, shortly beforethe Moscow Games. He wasborn in Barcelona on 17 July1920. A sports administratorfrom 1946, he worked as aneditor on several journals; hetook part in the organisationof sporting competitions, suchas the World Roller HockeyChampionships and theSecond Mediterranean Games;he was chef de mission at theGames in Cortina dÁmpezzo,Rome and Tokyo and heldvarious posts, notablypresident of the Spanish RollerHockey Federation, nationaldelegate for Physical Educationand Sport, president of theCOE, member of parliament,president of the BarcelonaProvincial Council andSpanish ambassador to theUSSR. He has been a memberof the IOC since 1966; he washead of protocol (1968-70),member of the ExecutiveBoard (1970-80) and
vice-president of the IOC(1974-80). During his term ofoffice, the IOC has wonworldwide recognition andrevised many of its procedures.
Spanish Olympic Committee:(cf COE)
sports federation: organisationwhich brings together thesportsmen and women or clubsfrom the same territory whopractise a particular sport forthe purpose of establishingregulations and organisingcompetitions.
sportsman/woman: person whoregularly practises a sport forpleasure to keep in goodphysical condition or becauseit is his or her primary activity.
stadium: place where thegymnastics competitions wereheld in ancient Greece.
Summer Olympic Games: (cfOlympic Games)
technical delegate: one of thetwo representatives chosen byan international federation totake charge of the technicalmanagement of the sport andthe control of the facilities forthe Olympic Games. He or shealso makes sure that thefederation rules are observedwhen the facilities are beingprepared and supervisesaccommodation, catering andtransport arrangements for thetechnical staff and the judges.
"The important thing in theOlympic Games is not winningbut taking part": words spokenby the archbishop ofPennsylvania at the ceremonyin Saint Paul's cathedral inhonour of the sportsmen andwomen taking part in the
London Games in 1908. A fewdays later, at a dinner hostedby the British government,Coubertin quoted and glossedthe phrase, which is why thewords are often erroneouslyattributed to him.
TOP: The OlympicProgramme. A worldwidesporting sponsorshipprogramme set up by the IOCbefore the Seoul Games in1988. It is negotiated jointlyfor the Summer and WinterGames. Twelve companiestook part in the programmefor Barcelona and Albertville,called TOP-2. As sponsors,they have worldwide exclusiverights to the use of theOlympic symbols for certainproduct categories.
vice-president of the IOC:member of the IOC whoassists the president. He iselected by the members of theorganisation in a secret ballot.The IOC has fourvice-presidents elected for aterm of four years. They maybe re-elected after a minimuminterval of four years.
victory ceremony: ceremony atwhich the president of the IOC(or a member selected byhim), accompanied by thepresident of the InternationalFederation for the sport (or hisdeputy), presents the medals tothe competitors classified first,second and third in anOlympic event after the
S
T
V
380
competition is over. Duringthe ceremony the flags of theNOCs of the winners arehoisted and the (abbreviated)anthem of the winner'sdelegation is played.
Vikelas, Demetrius: (Syra,Greece, 1835 - Athens, 1908).First president- of the IOC(1894 - 1896). He was a
member of the Pan-HellenicClub in Athens andrepresented his country at theFirst Olympic Congress inParis in 1894, the year he wasappointed president of theorganisation. He also managedto secure the first OlympicGames of the modern era forAthens.
W Winter Olympic Games:competitions in winter sportssuch as skiing and skating,governed by the OlympicCharter. The first WinterOlympic Games were held inChamonix in 1924. Since thenthey have been held in StMoritz (1928), Lake Placid(1932), GarmischPartenkirchen (1936), StMoritz (1948), Oslo (1952),Cortina dÁmpezzo (1956),Squaw Valley (1960),
Innsbruck (1964), Grenoble(1968), Sapporo (1972),Innsbruck (1976), Lake Placid(1980), Sarajevo (1984),Calgary (1988) and Albertville(1992). Until 1992, theSummer and Winter Gameswere held in the same year,but from 1994, although theWinter Games will still beheld every four years, they willbe two years away from theSummer Games.
381
4.5. Olympic medals
The tables on the following pages are acompilation of the results in the eventsheld at all the Olympic Games of themodern era which have been included onthe programme of the 1992 Games. Italso contains results of events whichhave been discontinued, but which havehad an influence on the evolution ofothers which are still held today. If atable does not include the year of anOlympic Games it means that the eventin question was not held on thatoccasion. Demonstration and exhibitionsports have not been taken into account.
The names of the Olympic medalwinners for each event are given.However, it must be borne in mind thatat the first Olympic Games the medalswere not awarded according to anywell-established rules and the times,distances etc were not always recorded.
In general, the maiden names ofsportswomen who later adopted theirhusbands' names are in brackets. So, forexample, Irena Kirszenstein, silvermedallist in the 200 metres and the longjump in the 1964 Games, appears underthe name Szewinska (Kirszenstein) at theOlympic Games in 1968, 1972 and 1976.
The notes at the foot of some of thetables explain vital elements of the eventin question or important changes in itshistorical development or simply drawattention to a significant feature.
The following sports have specialcharacteristics:
- Boxing: since the 1952 Games, abronze medal has also been awarded tothe losers of the semi-finals.
- Equestrian sports: the name of therider is followed by the name of thehorse in brackets.
- Fencing: since the 1984 Games, thefinal part of the Olympic tournament hasbeen contested by an elimination system;previously the fencers fought a roundrobin.
- Gymnastics: since the 1936 Games,scores have been out of 10, except in1948, when they were out of 20.
- Weightlifting: the rules of the sportwere not formulated until 1928. Since1976, the competition has been decidedby the sum of the weights lifted in twomovements: snatch and clean and jerk.
- Judo: at the 1980 Games all thecategories were changed, except the open,which continued until 1984.
- Rowing: the distance for the men'scompetitions is 2000 metres in all events.In 1904, however, it was 3,218.7 metres(2 miles); in 1908, 2,444 metres (1.5miles); and in 1948, 1,880 metres (1 mile296 yards). Until the 1984 Games, thewomen's events were contested over adistance of 1000 metres; since then it hasbeen 2,000.
- Shooting: at the 1988 Games, thescoring system was modified and a finalphase was introduced in which the topclassified shooters from the preliminaryphase compete at the same time. From1968 to 1984, women competed in thesame events as men. Since 1984,however, the events have been dividedinto three kinds: men only, women onlyand mixed.
- Yachting: in 1968 the scoring systemwas changed with the introduction ofminus points. The events in each classare contested in seven regattas.
Source:Kamper, Erich.Lexicon der 14.000 Olympioniken.Graz: Leykam Verlag, 1983.
Wallechinsky, David.The Complete Book of the Olympics.Londres: Aurum Press, 1992.
Olympic medals Results tables for thesports events held at the SummerOlympic Games*
384
Initials of National OlympicCommittees used in the tables
AFGAHOALBALGANDANGANTARGARUASAAUSAUTBAHBANBARBELBENBERBHUBIZBOLBOTBRABRNBRUBULBURCAFCANCAYCGOCHACHICHNCIVCMRCOKCOLCRCCUBCYPDENDJIDOMECUEGYESAESPESTETHEUNFIJFINFRAGABGAMGBRGEQGERGHAGREGRNGUAGUIGUMGUYHAIHKGHONHRVHUNINAINDIRIIRLIRQISLISRISVITA
AfghanistanNetherlands AntillesAlbaniaAlgeriaAndorraAngolaAntiguaArgentinaArubaAmerican SamoaAustraliaAustriaBahamasBangladeshBarbadosBelgiumBeninBermudaBhutanBelizeBoliviaBotswanaBrazilBahrainBruneiBulgariaBurkina FasoCentral African RepublicCanadaCayman IslandsPeople's Republic of CongoChadChilePeople's Republic of ChinaCôte d'IvoireCameroonCook IslandsColombiaCosta RicaCubaCyprusDenmarkDjiboutiDominican RepublicEcuadorArabe Republic of EgyptEl SalvadorSpainEstoniaEthiopiaUnified TeamFijiFinlandFranceGabonGambiaGreat BritainEquatorial GuineaGermanyGhanaGreeceGrenadaGuatemalaGuineaGuamGuyanaHaitiHong KongHondurasCroatiaHungaryIndonesiaIndiaIslamic Republic of IranIrelandIraqIcelandIsraelVirgin IslandsItaly
IVBJAMJORJPNKENKORKSAKUWLAOLATLBALBRLESLIBLIELTULUXMADMARMASMAWMDVMEXMGLMLIMLTMONMOZMRIMTNMYANAMNCANEDNEPNGRNIGNORNZLOMAPAKPANPARPERPHIPNGPOLPORPRK
PURQATROMRSARWASAMSENSEYSINSLESLOSMRSOLSOMSRISUDSUISURSWESWZSYRTANTCH
TGATHATOGTPETRITUN
British Virgin IslandsJamaicaJordanJapanKenyaKoreaSaudi ArabiaKuwaitLaosLatviaLibyaLiberiaLesothoLebanonLiechtensteinLithuaniaLuxembourgMadagascarMoroccoMalaysiaMalawiMaldivesMexicoMongoliaMaliMaltaMonacoMozambiqueMauritiousMauritaniaUnion of MyanmarNamibiaNicaraguaThe NetherlandsNepalNigeriaNigerNorwayNew ZealandOmanPakistanPanamaParaguayPeruPhilippinesPapua New GuineaPolandPortugalPeople's Democratic Republic ofKoreaPuerto RicoQatarRomaniaSouth AfricaRwandaWestern SamoaSenegalSeychellesSingaporeSierra LeoneSloveniaSan MarinoSolomon IslandsSomaliaSri LankaSudanSwitzerlandSurinamSwedenSwazilandSyriaTanzaniaCzech and Slovak FederativeRepublicTongaThailandTogoChinese TaipeiTrinidad and TobagoTunisia
TURUAEUGAURUUSAVANVENVIEVINYEMYUGZAIZAMZIM
TurkeyUnited Arab EmiratesUgandaUruguayUnited States of AmericaVanuatuVenezuelaVietnamSt Vincent and the GrenadinesYemenYugoslaviaZaireZambiaZimbabwe
Other initials of NationalOlympic Commites used in thetables
Abbreviations and symbols usedin the tables
BOHBWICEYFRGGDRIRNRUSSAFUARURS
BohemiaBritish West IndiesCeylon (now SRI)Federal Republic of GermanyGerman Democratic RepublicIran (now IRI)RussiaSouth Africa or Union of South AfricaUnited Arab RepublicUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics
kgm
kilogrammetre
*International Olympic Commiteesrecognized by the IOC in may 1992.
385
ArcheryMenIndividual Olympic FITA round
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
J. Williams
D. Pace
T. Poikolainen
D. Pace
J. Barrs
USA
USA
FIN
USA
USA
2,528
2,571
2,455
2,616
2,605
G. Jervill
H. Michinaga
B. Isachenko
R. McKinney
S.-S. Park
SWE
JPN
URS
USA
KOR
2,481
2,502
2,452
2,564
2,614
K. Laasonen
G. Ferrari
G. Ferrari
H. Yamamoto
V. Esheyev
FIN
ITA
ITA
JPN
URS
2,467
2,495
2,449
2,563
2,600
Gold Silver Bronze
ArcheryMenTeam Olympic FITA round
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 KOR 986 USA 972 GBR 968
ArcheryWomenIndividual Olympic FITA round
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
D. Wilber
L. Ryon
K. Losaberidze
H.-S. Seo
S.-N. Kim
USA
USA
URS
KOR
KOR
2,424
2,499
2,491
2,568
2,683
I. Szydlowska
V. Kovpan
N. Butuszova
Li Lingjuan
H.-K. Wang
POL
URS
URS
CHN
KOR
2,407
2,460
2,477
2,559
2,612
E. Gaptxenko
Z. Rustamova
P. Meriluoto
J.-H. Kim
Y.-S. Yun
URS
URS
FIN
KOR
KOR
2,403
2,407
2,449
2,555
2,593
ArcheryWomenTeam Olympic FITA round
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 KOR 982 INA 952 USA 952
AthleticsMen100m
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
T. Burke
F. Jarvis
A. Hahn
R. Walker
R. Craig
C. Paddock
H. Abrahams
P. Williams
E. Tolan
J. Owens
H. Dillard
L. Remigino
B. Morrow
A. Hary
R. Hayes
J. Hines
V. Borzov
H. Crawford
A. Wells
C. Lewis
C. Lewis
USA
USA
USA
SAF
USA
USA
GBR
CAN
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
USA
USA
URS
TRI
GBR
USA
USA
12.0
11.0
11.0
10.8
10.8
10.8
10.6
10.8
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.2
10.0
9.9
10.14
10.06
10.25
9.99
9.92
F. Hofmann
J. W. Tewksbury
N. Cartmell
J. Rector
A. Meyer
M. Kirksey
J. Scholz
J. London
R. Metcalfe
R. Metcalfe
H. N. Ewell
H. McKenley
W. T. Baker
D. Sime
E. Figuerola
L. Miller
R. Taylor
D. Quarrie
S. Leonard
S. Graddy
L. Christie
GER
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GBR
USA
USA
USA
JAM
USA
USA
CUB
JAM
USA
JAM
CUB
USA
GBR
12.2
11.1
11.2
10.9
10.9
10.8
10.7
10.9
10.3
10.4
10.4
10.4
10.5
10.2
10.2
10.0
10.24
10.08
10.25
10.19
9.97
A. Szokolyi
S. Rowley
W. Hogenson
R. Kerr
D. Lippincott
H. Edward
A. Porritt
G. Lammers
A. Jonath
M. Osendarp
L. LaBeach
E. M. Bailey
H. Hogan
P. Radford
H. Jerome
C. Greene
L. Miller
V. Borzov
P. Petrov
B. Johnson
C. Smith
HUN
AUS
USA
CAN
USA
GBR
NZL
GER
GER
NED
PAN
GBR
AUS
GBR
CAN
USA
JAM
URS
BUL
CAN
USA
12.6
11.2
11.2
11.0
10.9
11.0
10.8
10.9
10.4
10.5
10.4
10.4
10.6
10.3
10.2
10.0
10.33
10.14
10.39
10.22
9.99
AthleticsMen200 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
J. W. Tewksbury
A. Hahn
R. Ken
USA
USA
CAN
22.2
21.6
22.6
N. Pritchard
N. Cartmell
R. Cloughen
IND
USA
USA
22.8
21.9
22.6
S. Rowley
W. Hogenson
N. Cartmell
AUS
USA
USA
22.9
22.7
386
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
R. Craig
A. Woodring
J. Scholz
P. Williams
E. Tolan
J. Owens
M. Patton
A. Stanfield
B. Morrow
L. Berruti
H. Carr
T. Smith
V. Borzov
D. Quarrie
P. Mennea
C. Lewis
J. DeLoach
USA
USA
USA
CAN
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
ITA
USA
USA
URS
JAM
ITA
USA
USA
21.7
22.0
21.6
21.8
21.2
20.7
21.1
20.7
20.6
20.5
20.3
19.8
20.23
20.19
19.80
19.75
Silver
D. Lippincott
C. Paddock
C. Paddock
E. Rangeley
G. Simpson
M. Robinson
H. N. Ewell
W. T. Baker
A. Stanfield
L. Carney
O. Drayton
P. Norman
L. Black
M. Hampton
A. Wells
K. Baptiste
C. Lewis
USA
USA
USA
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
AUS
USA
USA
GBR
USA
USA
21.8
22.1
21.7
21.9
21.4
21.1
21.1
20.8
20.7
20.6
20.5
20.0
20.19
20.29
20.21
19.96
19.79
Bronze
W. Applegarth
H. Edward
E. Liddell
H. Körnig
R. Metcalfe
M. Osendarp
L. LaBeach
J. Gathers
W. T. Baker
A. Seye
E. Roberts
J. Carlos
P. Mennea
D. Evans
D. Quarrie
T. Jefferson
R. Silva
GBR
GBR
GBR
GER
USA
NED
PAN
USA
USA
FRA
TRI
USA
ITA
USA
JAM
USA
BRA
22.0
22.2
21.9
21.9
21.5
21.3
21.2
20.8
20.9
20.7
20.6
20.0
20.30
20.43
20.29
20.26
20.04
AthleticsMen400 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
T. Burke
M. Long
H. Hillman
W. Halswelle
C. Reidpath
B. Rudd
E. Liddell
R. Barbuti
W. Carr
A. Williams
A. Wint
G. Rhoden
C. Jenkins
O. Davis
M. Larrabee
L. Evans
V. Matthews
A. Juantorena
V. Markin
A. Babers
S. Lewis
USA
USA
USA
GBR
USA
SAF
GBR
USA
USA
USA
JAM
JAM
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
CUB
URS
USA
USA
54.2
49.4
49.2
50.0
48.2
49.6
47.6
47.8
46.2
46.5
45.2
45.9
46.7
44.9
45.1
43.8
44.66
44.26
44.60
44.27
43.87
H. Jamison
W. Holland
F. Waller
USA
USA
USA
55.2
49.6
49.9
H. Braun
G. Butler
H. Fitch
J. Ball
B. Eastman
A. G. Brown
H. McKenley
H. McKenley
K.-F. Hass
C. Kaufmann
W. Mottley
L. James
W. Collett
F. Newhouse
R. Mitchell
G. Tiacoh
H. B. Reynolds
GER
GBR
USA
CAN
USA
GBR
JAM
JAM
GER
GER
TRI
USA
USA
USA
AUS
CIV
USA
48.3
49.9
48.4
48.0
46.4
46.7
46.4
45.9
46.8
44.9
45.2
43.9
44.80
44.40
44.84
44.54
43.93
C. H. Gmelin
E. Schultz
H. Groman
GBR
DEN
USA 50.0
E. Lindberg
N. Engdahl
G. Butler
J. Büchner
A. Wilson
J. LuValle
M. Whitfield
O. Matson
V. HellsténA. Ignatiev
M. Spence
A. Badenski
R. Freeman
J. Sang
H. Frazier
F. Schaffer
A. McKay
D. Everett
USA
SWE
GBR
GER
CAN
USA
USA
USA
FINURS
SAF
POL
USA
KEN
USA
GDR
USA
USA
48.4
50.0
48.6
48.2
47.4
46.8
46.9
46.8
47.047.0
45.5
45.6
44.4
44.92
44.95
44.87
44.71
44.09
The 1908 final was repeated due to the disqualification of J.C. Carpenter (USA). Only W. Halswelle of Great Britain reported for the re-run, as Robbins and Taylor ofthe USA withdrew.
AthleticsMen800 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
E. Flack
A. Tysoe
J. Lightbody
M. Sheppard
J. Meredith
A. Hill
D. Lowe
D. Lowe
T. Hampson
J. Woodruff
M. Whittfield
M. Whittfield
T. Courtney
AUS
GBR
USA
USA
USA
GBR
GBR
GBR
GRB
USA
USA
USA
USA
2:11.0
2:01.2
1:56.0
1:52.8
1:51.9
1:53.4
1:52.4
1:51.8
1:49.7
1:52.9
1:49.2
1:49.2
1:47.7
N. Dáni
J. Cregan
H. Valentine
E. Lunghi
M. Sheppard
E. Eby
P. Martin
E. Byléhn
A. Wilson
M. Lanzi
A. Wint
A. Wint
D. Johnson
HUN
USA
USA
ITA
USA
USA
SUI
SWE
CAN
ITA
JAM
JAM
GBR
2:11.8
2:03.0
1:56.3
1:54.2
1:52.0
1:53.6
1:52.6
1:52.8
1:49.9
1:53.3
1:49.5
1:49.4
1:47.8
D. Golemis
D. Hall
E. Breitkreutz
H. Braum
I. Davenport
B. Rudd
S. Enck
H. Engelhard
P. Edwards
P. Edwards
M. Hansenne
H. Ultzheimer
A. Boysen
GRE
USA
USA
GER
USA
SAF
USA
GER
CAN
CAN
FRA
GER
NOR
1:56.4
1:55.2
1:52.0
1:54.0
1:53.0
1:53.2
1:51.5
1:53.6
1:49.8
1:49.7
1:48.1
387
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
P. Snell
P. Snell
R. Doubell
D. Wottle
A. Juantorena
S. Ovett
J. Cruz
P. Ereng
NZL
NZL
AUS
USA
CUB
GBR
BRA
KEN
1:46.3
1:45.1
1:44.3
1:45.9
1:43.50
1:45.40
1:43.00
1:43.45
Silver
R. Moens
W. Crothers
W. Kiprugut
E. Arzhanov
I. van Damme
S. Coe
S. Coe
J. Cruz
BEL
CAN
KEN
URS
BEL
GBR
GBR
BRA
1:46.5
1:45.6
1:44.5
1:45.9
1:43.86
1:45.85
1:43.64
1:43.90
Bronze
G. Kerr
W. Kiprugut
T. Farrell
M. Boit
R. Wohlhuter
N. Kirov
E. Jones
S. Aouita
BWI
KEN
USA
KEN
USA
URS
USA
MAR
1:47.1
1:45.9
1:45.4
1:46.0
1:44.12
1:45.94
1:43.83
1:44.06
AthleticsMen1,500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Flack
C. Bennet
J. Lightbody
M. Sheppard
A. Jackson
A. Hill
P. Numi
H. Larva
L. Beccali
J. Lovelock
H. Eriksson
J. Barthel
R. Delany
H. Elliot
P. Snell
K. Keino
P. Vasala
J. Walker
S. Coe
S. Coe
P. Rono
AUS
GBR
USA
USA
GBR
GBR
FIN
FIN
ITA
NZL
SWE
LUX
IRL
AUS
NZL
KEN
FIN
NZL
GBR
GBR
KEN
4:33.2
4:06.2
4:05.4
4:03.4
3:56.8
4:01.8
3:53.6
3:53.2
3:51.2
3:47.8
3:49.8
3:45.1
3:41.2
3:35.6
3:38.1
3:34.9
3:36.3
3:39.17
3:38.40
3:32.53
3:35.96
A. Blake
H. Deloge
W. F. Verner
H. Wilson
A. Kiviat
P. Noel-Baker
W. Schärer
J. Ladoumègue
J. Cornes
G. Cunningham
L. Strand
R. McMillen
K. Richtzenhain
M. Jazy
J. Odložil
J. Ryun
K. Keino
I. van Damme
J. Straub
S. Cram
P. Elliott
USA
FRA
USA
GBR
USA
GBR
SUI
FRA
GBR
USA
SWE
USA
GER
FRA
TCH
USA
KEN
BEL
GDR
GBR
GBR
4:35.4
4:06.6
4:06.8
4:03.6
3:56.9
4:02.4
3:55.0
3:53.8
3:52.6
3:48.4
3:50.4
3:45.2
3:42.0
3:38.4
3:39.6
3:37.8
3:36.8
3:39.27
3:38.80
3:33.40
3:36.15
A. Lemusiaux
J. Bray
L. Hearn
N. Hallows
N. Taber
L. Shields
H. Stallard
E. Purje
P. Edwards
L. Beccali
W. Slijkhuis
W. Lueg
J. Landy
I. Rózsavölgyi
J. Davies
B. Tümmler
R. Dixon
P. H. Wellmann
S. Ovett
J. M. Abascal
J. P. Herold
FRA
USA
USA
GBR
USA
USA
GBR
FIN
CAN
ITA
NED
GER
AUS
HUN
NZL
FRG
NZL
FRG
GRB
ESP
GDR
4:36.0
4:07.2
4:04.0
3:56.9
4:03.1
3:55.6
3:56.4
3:52.8
3:49.2
3:50.4
3:45.4
3:42.0
3:39.2
3:39.6
3:39.0
3:37.5
3:39.33
3:38.99
3:34.30
3:36.21
AthleticsMen5,000 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
J. Kolehmainen
J. Guillemot
P. Nurmi
V. Ritola
L. Lehtinen
G. Höckert
G. Reilf
E. Zátopek
V. Kuts
M. Halberg
R. Schul
M. Gammoudi
L. Viren
L. Viren
M. Yifter
S. Aouita
J. Ngugi
FIN
FRA
FIN
FIN
FIN
FIN
BEL
TCH
URS
NZL
USA
TUN
FIN
FIN
ETH
MAR
KEN
14:36.6
14:55.6
14:31.2
14:38.0
14:30.0
14:22.2
14:17.6
14:06.6
13:39.6
13:43.4
13:48.8
14:05.0
13:26.4
13:24.76
13:20.91
13:05.59
13:11.70
J. Bouin
P. Nurmi
V. Ritola
P. Nurmi
R. Hill
L. Lehtinen
E. Zátopek
A. Minoun
G. Pine
H. Grodotzki
H. Norporth
K. Keino
M. Gammoudi
D. Quax
S. Nyambui
M. Ryffel
D. Baumann
FRA
FIN
FIN
FIN
USA
FIN
TCH
FRA
GBR
GER
GER
KEN
TUN
NZL
TAN
SUI
FRG
14:36.7
15:00.0
14:31.4
14:40.0
14:30.0
14:25.8
14:17.8
14:07.4
13:50.6
13:44.6
13:49.6
14:05.2
13:27.4
13:25.16
13:21.60
13:07.54
13:15.52
G. Hutson
E. Backman
E. Wide
E. Wide
L. Virtanen
H. Jonsson
W. Slijkhuis
H. Schade
D. Ibbotson
K. Zimny
W. Dellinger
N. Temu
I. Stewart
K. P. Hildenbrand
K. Maaninka
A. Leitão
H. Kunze
GBR
SWE
SWE
SWE
FIN
SWE
NED
GER
GBR
POL
USA
KEN
GBR
FRG
FIN
POR
GDR
15:07.6
15:13.0
15:01.8
14:41.2
14:44.0
14:29.0
14:26.8
14:08.6
13:54.4
13:44.8
13:49.8
14:06.4
13:27.6
13:25.38
13:22.00
13:09.20
13:15.73
AthleticsMen10,000 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
J. Kolehmainen
P. Nurmi
FIN
FIN
31:20.8
31:45.8
L. Tewanima
J. Guillemot
USA
FRA
32:06.6
31:47.2
A. Stenroos
J. Wilson
FIN
GBR
32:21.8
31:50.8
388
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
V. Ritola
P. Nurmi
J. Kusocinski
I. Salminen
E. Zátopek
E. Zátopek
V. Kuts
P. Bolotnikov
B. Mills
N. Temu
L. Viren
L. Viren
M. Yifter
A. Cova
M. B. Boutaib
FIN
FIN
POL
FIN
TCH
TCH
URS
URS
USA
KEN
FIN
FIN
ETH
ITA
MAR
30:23.2
30:18.8
30:11.4
30:15.4
29:59.6
29:17.0
28:45.6
28:32.2
28:24.4
29:27.4
27:38.4
27:40.38
27:42.69
27:47.54
27:21.46
Silver
E. Wide
V. Ritola
V. Iso-Hollo
A. Askola
A. Mimoun
A. Mimoun
J. Kovács
H. Grodotzki
M. Gammoudi
M. Wolde
E. Puttemans
C. Lopes
K. Maaninka
M. McLeod
S. Antibo
SWE
FIN
FIN
FIN
FRA
FRA
HUN
GER
TUN
ETH
BEL
POR
FIN
GBR
ITA
30:55.2
30:19.4
30:12.6
30:15.6
30:47.4
29:32.8
28:52.4
28:37.0
28:24.8
29:28.0
27:39.6
27:45.17
27:44.28
28:06.22
27:23.55
Bronze
E. Berg
E. Wide
L. Virtanen
V. Iso-Hollo
B. Albertsson
A. Anufriev
A. Lawrence
D. Power
R. Clarke
M. Gammoudi
M. Yifter
B. Foster
M. Kedir
M. Musyoki
K. Kimeli
FIN
SWE
FIN
FIN
SWE
URS
AUS
AUS
AUS
TUN
ETH
GBR
ETH
KEN
KEN
31:43.0
31:00.8
30:35.0
30:30.2
30:53.6
29:48.2
28:53.6
28:38.2
28:25.8
29:34.2
27:41.0
27:54.92
27:44.64
28:06.46
27:25.16
AthleticsMenMarathon
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
S. Louis
M. Théato
T. Hicks
J. Hayes
K. McArthur
J. Kolehmainen
A. Stenroos
B. El Quafi
J. Zabala
K. Sohn
D. Cabrera
E. Zátopek
A. Mimoun
A. Bikila
A. Bikila
M. Wolde
F. Shorter
M. Cierpinski
W. Cierpinski
C. Lopes
G. Bordin
GRE
FRA
USA
USA
SAF
FIN
FIN
FRA
ARG
JPN
ARG
TCH
FRA
ETH
ETH
ETH
USA
GDR
GDR
POR
ITA
2:58:50.0
2:59:45.0
3:28:53.0
2:55:18.4
2:36:54.8
2:32:35.8
2:41:22.6
2:32:57.0
2:31:36.0
2:29:19.2
2:34:51.6
2:23:03.2
2:25:00.0
2:15:16.2
2:12:11.2
2:20:26.4
2:12:19.8
2:09:55.0
2:11:03.0
2:09:21.0
2:10:32.0
C. Vasilakos
É. Champion
A. Corey
C. Hefferon
C. Gitsham
J. Lossmann
R. Bertini
M. Plaza
S. Ferris
E. Harper
T. Richards
R. Gorno
F. Mihalic
R. Ben Abdesselem
B. Heatley
K, Kimihara
K. Lismont
F. Shorter
G. Nijboer
J. Treacy
D. Wakiihuri
GRE
FRA
USA
SAF
SAF
EST
ITA
CHI
GBR
GBR
GBR
ARG
YUG
MAR
GBR
JPN
BEL
USA
NED
IRL
KEN
3:06:03.0
3:04:17.0
3:34:52.0
2:56:06.0
2:37:52.0
2:32:48.6
2:47:19.6
2:33:23.0
2:31:55.0
2:31:23.3
2:35:07.6
2:25:35.0
2:26:32.0
2:15:41.6
2:16:19.2
2:23:31.0
2:14:31.8
2:10:45.8
2:11:20.0
2:09:56.0
2:10:47.0
G. Kellner
E. Fast
A. Newton
J. Forshaw
G. Strobino
V. Arri
C. DeMar
M. Marttelin
A. Toivonen
S. Nam
E. Gailly
G. Jansson
V. Karvonen
B. Magee
K. Tsuburaya
M. Ryan
M. Wolde
K. Lismont
S. Dzhumanazarov
C. Spedding
H. Ahmed Saleh
HUN
SWE
USA
USA
USA
ITA
USA
FIN
FIN
JPN
BEL
SWE
FIN
NZL
JPN
NZL
ETH
BEL
URS
GBR
DJI
3:06:35.0
3:37:14.0
3:47:33.0
2:57:10.4
2:38:42.4
2:36:32.8
2:48:14.0
2:35:02.0
2:32:12.0
2:31:42.0
2:35:33.6
2:26:07.0
2:27:47.0
2:17:18.2
2:16:22.8
2:23:45.0
2:15:08.4
2:11:12.6
2:11:35.0
2:09:58.0
2:10:50.0
Since 1924, the distance has been 42.195 km, fixed in 1908. In previous years, the distance varied. In 1908, the Marathon was won by the Italian D. Pietri, who waslater disqualified.
AthleticsMen110 m hurdles
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
T. Curtis
A. Kraenzlein
F. Schule
F. Smithson
F. Kelly
E. Thomson
D. Kinsey
S. Atkinson
G. Saling
F. Towns
W. Porter
H. Dillard
L. Calhoun
L. Calhoun
H. Jones
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
CAN
USA
SAF
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
17.6
15.4
16.0
15.0
15.1
14.8
15.0
14.8
14.6
14.2
13.9
13.7
13.5
13.8
13.6
G. Goulding
J. Mac Lean
T. Shideler
J. Garrels
J. Wendell
H. Barron
S. Atkinson
S. Anderson
P. Beard
D. Finlay
C. Scott
J. Davis
J. Davis
W. May
H. B. Lindgren
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
SAF
USA
USA
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
17.7
15.5
16.3
15.7
15.2
15.1
15.0
14.8
14.7
14.4
14.1
13.7
13.5
13.8
13.7
F. Moloney
L. Ashburner
A. Shaw
M. Hawkins
F. Murray
S. Pettersson
J. Collier
D. Finlay
F. Pollard
C. Dixon
A. Barnard
J. Shankle
H. Jones
A. Mikhailov
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
SWE
USA
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
16.4
15.3
15.2
15.4
14.9
14.8
14.4
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.0
13.7
389
In 1900, the distance was 2,500 m. In 1904, it was 2,590 m, and in 1908, it was 3,200 m. In 1932, the distance in the final was 3,460 m, due to a mistake by the judgewho was counting the laps.
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
W. Davenport
R. Milbum
G. Drut
T. Munkelt
R. Kingdom
R. Kingdom
USA
USA
FRA
GDR
USA
USA
13.3
13.24
13.30
13.39
13.20
12.98
Silver
E. Hall
G. Drut
A. Casañas
A. Casañas
G. Foster
C. Jackson
USA
FRA
CUB
CUB
USA
GBR
13.4
13.34
13.33
13.40
13.23
13.28
Bronze
E. Ottoz
T. Hill
W. Davenport
A. Puchkov
A. Bryggare
A. Cambell
ITA
USA
USA
URS
FIN
USA
13.4
13.48
13.38
13.44
13.40
13.38
In 1896, the distance was 100 m and there were only two finalists.
AthleticsMen400 m hurdles
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
J. W. Tewksbury
H. Hillman
C. Bacon
F. Loomis
F. M. Taylor
D. Burghley
R. Tisdall
G. Hardin
R. Cochran
C. Moore
G. Davis
G. Davis
W. Cawley
D. Hemery
J. Akii-Bua
E. Moses
V. Beck
E. Moses
A. Philips
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GBR
IRL
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GBR
UGA
USA
GDR
USA
USA
57.6
53.0
55.0
54.0
52.6
53.4
51.7
52.4
51.1
50.8
50.1
49.3
49.6
48.1
47.82
47.64
48.70
47.75
47.19
H. Tauzin
F. Waller
H. Hillman
J. Norton
E. Vilén
F. Cuhel
G. Hardin
J. Loaring
D. White
Y. Lituyev
E. Southen
C. Cushman
J. Cooper
G. Hennige
R. Mann
M. Shine
V. Arjipenko
D. Harris
E. H. D. Ba
FRA
USA
USA
USA
FIN
USA
USA
CAN
CEY
URS
USA
USA
GBR
FRG
USA
USA
URS
USA
SEN
58.3
53.2
55.3
54.3
53.8
53.6
51.9
52.7
51.8
51.3
50.8
49.6
50.1
49.0
48.51
48.69
48.86
48.13
47.23
G. Orton
G. Poage
L. Tremeer
A. Desch
I. Riley
F. M. Taylor
F. M. Taylor
M. White
R. Larsson
J. Holland
J. Culbreath
R. Howard
S. Morale
J. Sherwood
D. Hemery
E. Gavrilenko
G. Oakes
H. Schmid
E. Moses
CAN
USA
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
PHI
SWE
NZL
USA
USA
ITA
GBR
GBR
URS
GBR
FRG
USA
57.0
54.5
54.2
53.6
52.0
52.8
52.2
52.2
51.6
49.7
50.1
49.0
48.52
49.45
49.11
48.19
47.56
AthleticsMen
3,000 m Steeplechase
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
G. Orton
J. Lightbody
A. Russell
P. Hodge
V. Ritola
L. Loukola
V. Iso-Hollo
V. Iso-Hollo
T. Sjöstrans
H. Ashenfelter
C. Brasher
Z. Krzyszkowiak
G. Roelants
A. Biwott
K. Keino
A. Gärderud
B. Malinowski
J. Korir
J. Kariuski
CAN
USA
GBR
GBR
FIN
FIN
FIN
FIN
SWE
USA
GBR
POL
BEL
KEN
KEN
SWE
POL
KEN
KEN
7:34.4
7:39.6
10:47.8
10:00.4
9:33.6
9:21.8
10:33.4
9:03.8
9:04.6
8:45.4
8:41.2
8:34.2
8:30.8
8:51.0
8:23.6
8:08.02
8:09.70
8:11.80
8:05.51
S. Robinson
J. Daly
A. Robertson
P. Flynn
E. Katz
P. Nurmi
T. Evenson
K. Tuominen
E. Elmsäter
V. Kazantsev
S. Rozsnyói
N. Sokolov
M. Herriott
B. Kogo
B. Jipcho
B. Malinowski
F. Bayi
J. Mahmoud
P. Koech
GBR
GBR
GBR
USA
FIN
FIN
GBR
FIN
SWE
URS
HUN
URS
GBR
KEN
KEN
POL
TAN
FRA
KEN
7:38.0
7:40.6
10:48.4
9:44.0
9:31.2
10:46.0
9:06.8
9:08.2
8:51.6
8:43.6
8:36.4
8:32.4
8:51.6
8:24.6
8:09.11
8:12.48
8:13.31
8:06.79
J. Chastanié
A. Newton
J. Eisele
E. Ambrosini
P. Bontemps
O. Andersen
J. McCluskey
A. Dompert
G. Hagström
J. Disley
E. Larsen
S. Rjixtxin
I. Beliaiev
G. Young
T. Kantanen
F. Baumgarti
E. Tura
Ð. Diemer
M. Rowland
FRA
USA
USA
ITA
FRA
FIN
USA
GER
SWE
GBR
NOR
URS
URS
USA
FIN
GDR
ETH
USA
GBR
11:00.8
9:45.2
9:35.6
10:46.2
9:07.2
9:11.8
8:51.8
8:44.0
8:42.2
8:33.8
8:51.8
8:24.8
8:10.36
8:13.57
8:14.06
8:07.96
390
AthleticsMen20 km walk
Gold Silver Bronze
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
L. Spirin
V. Golubnichi
K. Matthews
V. Golubnichi
P. Frenkel
D. B. Rocha
M. Damilano
E. Canto
J. Pribilinec
URS
URS
GBR
URS
GDR
MEX
ITA
MEX
TCH
1:31:27.4
1:34:07.2
1:29:34.0
1:33:58.4
1:26:42.4
1:24:40.6
1:23:35.5
1:23:13.0
1:19:57.0
A. Mikenas
N. Freeman
D. Under
J. Pedraza
V. Golubnichi
H. Reiman
P. Pochinchuk
R. González
R. Weigel
URS
AUS
FRG
MEX
URS
GDR
URS
MEX
GDR
1:32:03.0
1:34:16.4
1:31:13.2
1:34:00.0
1:26:55.2
1:25:13.8
1:24:45.4
1:23:20.0
1:20:00.0
B. Yunk
S. Vickers
V. Golubnichi
N. Smaga
H. Reiman
P. Frenkel
R. Wieser
M. Damilano
M. Damilano
URS
GBR
URS
URS
GDR
GDR
GDR
ITA
ITA
1:32:12.0
1:34:56.4
1:31:59.4
1:34:03.4
1:27:16.6
1:25:29.4
1:25:58.2
1:23:26.0
1:20:14.0
AthleticsMen50 km walk
Gold Silver Bronze
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1980
1984
1988
T. Green
H. Whitlock
J. Ljunggren
G. Dordoni
N. Read
D. Thompson
A. Pamich
C. Höme
B. Kannenberg
H. Gauder
R. González
V. Ivanenko
GBR
GBR
SWE
ITA
NZL
GBR
ITA
GDR
FRG
GDR
MEX
URS
4:50:10.0
4:30:41.1
4:41:52.0
4:28:07.8
4:30:42.8
4:25:30.0
4:11:12.4
4:20:13.6
3:56:11.6
3:49:24.0
3:47:26.0
3:38:29.0
J. Dalinš
A. Schwab
G. Godel
J. Doležal
E. Maskinskov
J. Ljunggren
P. Nihill
A. Kiss
V. Soldatenko
J. Llopart
B. Gustafsson
R. Weigel
LAT
SUI
SUI
TCH
URS
SWE
GBR
HUN
URS
ESP
SWE
GDR
4:57:20.0
4:32:09.2
4:48:17.0
4:30:17.8
4:32:57.0
4:25:47.0
4:11:31.2
4:30:17.0
3:58:24.0
3:51:25.0
3:53:19.0
3:38:56.0
U. Frigerio
A. Bubenko
T. Lloyd-Johnson
A. Róka
J. Ljunggren
A. Pamich
I. Pettersson
L. Young
L. Young
E. Ivchenko
A. Bellucci
H. Gauder
ITA
LAT
GBR
HUN
SWE
ITA
SWE
USA
USA
URS
ITA
GDR
4:59:06.0
4:32:42.2
4:48:31.0
4:31:27.2
4:35:02.0
4:27:55.4
4:14:17.4
4:31:55.4
4:00:46.0
3:56:32.0
3:53:45.0
3:39:45.0
AthleticsMen4 x 100 m relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
USA
URS
42.4
42.2
41.0
41.0
40.0
39.8
40.6
40.1
39.5
39.5
39.0
38.2
38.19
38.33
38.26
37.83
38.19
SWE
FRA
GBR
GER
GER
ITA
GBR
URS
URS
URS
POL
CUB
URS
GDR
POL
JAM
GBR
42.6
42.6
41.2
41.2
40.9
41.1
41.3
40.3
39.8
40.1
39.3
38.3
38.50
38.66
38.33
38.62
38.28
SWE
NED
GBR
ITA
GER
ITA
HUN
GER
GBR
FRA
FRA
FRG
URS
FRA
CAN
FRA
42.9
41.8
41.8
41.2
41.2
41.5
40.5
40.3
40.2
39.3
38.4
38.79
38.78
38.53
38.70
38.40
AthleticsMen4 x 400 m relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
USA
GBR
USA
USA
USA
GBR
USA
JAM
USA
3:16.6
3:22.2
3:16.0
3:14.2
3:08.2
3:09.0
3:10.4
3:03.9
3:04.8
FRA
SAF
SWE
GER
GBR
USA
FRA
USA
AUS
3:20.7
3:24.2
3:17.0
3:14.8
3:11.2
3:11.0
3:14.8
3:04.0
3:06.2
GBR
FRA
GBR
CAN
CAN
GER
SWE
GER
GBR
3:23.2
3:24.8
3:17.4
3:15.4
3:12.8
3:11.8
3:16.0
3:06.6
3:07.2
391
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
USA
USA
USA
KEN
USA
URS
USA
USA
3:02.2
3:00.7
2:56.1
2:59.8
2:58.65
3:01.1
2:57.91
2:56.16
Silver
GER
GBR
KEN
GBR
POL
GDR
GBR
JAM
3:02.7
3:01.6
2:59.6
3:00.5
3:01.43
3:01.3
2:59.13
3:00.30
Bronze
BWI
TRI
FRG
FRA
FRG
ITA
NGR
FRG
3:04.0
3:01.7
3:00.5
3:00.7
3:01.98
3:04.3
2:59.32
3:00.56
AthleticsMenHigh jump
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Clark
I. Baxter
S. Jones
H. Porter
A. Richards
R. Landon
H. Osbom
R. King
D. McNaughton
C. Johnson
J. Winter
W. Davis
C. Dumas
R. Shavlakadze
V. Brumel
R. Fosbury
Y. Tarmak
J. Wszola
G. Wessig
D. Mögenburg
G. Avdeyenko
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
CAN
USA
AUS
USA
USA
URS
URS
USA
URS
POL
GDR
FRG
URS
1.81
1.90
1.80
1.90
1.93
1.94
1.98
1.94
1.97
2.03
1.98
2.04
2.12
2.16
2.18
2.24
2.23
2.25
2.36
2.35
2.38
R. Garret
L. Gönczy
P. Weinstein
USA
HUN
GER
1.65
1.75
1.78
G. Horine
B. Ekelund
P. Lewden
C. Ménard
S. Toribio
D. Thurber
G. Stanich
J. Telles da Conceiçäo
I. Kashkarov
J. Thomas
J. Rambo
V. Gavrilov
D. Stones
D. Stones
J. Freimuth
Zhu Jianhua
R. PovarnitsinP. Sjöberg
USA
SWE
FRA
FRA
PHI
USA
USA
BRA
USA
USA
USA
URS
USA
USA
GDR
CHN
URSSWE
1.89
1.90
1.92
1.91
1.97
2.00
1.95
1.98
2.08
2.14
2.16
2.20
2.21
2.21
2.31
2.31
2.362.36
J. Connolly
P. Leahy
G. Serviss
C. LeahyI. SomodiG. André
H. Leische
H. Muller
L. Brown
B. Hedges
R. van Osdel
D. Albritton
B. Paulsen
K. Wiesner
C. Porter
V. Brumel
J. Thomas
E. Caruthers
S. Junge
G. Joy
J. Wszola
P. Sjöberg
H. Conway
USA
GBR/IRL
USA
GBR/IRLHUNFRA
GER
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
NOR
USA
AUS
URS
USA
USA
GDR
CAN
POL
SWE
USA
1.65
1.78
1.78
1.881.881.88
1.91
1.90
1.95
1.91
1.97
2.00
1.95
2.01
2.10
2.16
2.18
2.22
2.21
2.23
2.31
2.33
2.36
AthleticsMenPole vault
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
W. Hoyt
I. Baxter
C. Dvorak
E. CookeA. Gilbert
H. Babcock
F. Foss
L. Barnes
S. Carr
W. Miller
E. Meadows
O. G. Smith
R. Richards
R. Richards
D. Bragg
F. Hansen
R. Seagren
W. Nordwig
T. Šlusarski
W. Kozakiewicz
USA
USA
USA
USAUSA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
POL
POL
3.30
3.30
3.50
3.713.71
3.95
4.09
3.95
4.20
4.32
4.35
4.30
4.55
4.56
4.70
5.10
5.40
5.50
5.50
5.78
A. Tyler
M. B. Colkett
L. Samse
USA
USA
USA
3.25
3.25
3.43
F. NelsonM. Wright
H. Petersen
G. Graham
W. Droegemuller
S. Nishida
S. Nishida
E. Kataja
D. Laz
R. Gutowski
R. Morris
W. Reinhardt
C. Schiprowski
R. Seagren
A Kalliomäki
K. Volkov
USAUSA
DEN
USA
USA
JPN
JPN
FIN
USA
USA
USA
GER
FRG
USA
FIN
URS
3.853.85
3.70
3.95
4.10
4.30
4.25
4.20
4.50
4.53
4.60
5.05
5.40
5.40
5.50
5.65
E. Damaskos
C. A. Andersen
L. Wilkins
E. ArchibaldC. JacobsB. Söderström
GRE
NOR
USA
CANUSASWE
2.85
3.20
3.43
3.583.583.58
E. Myers
J. Brooker
C. McGinnis
G. Jefferson
S. Oe
R. Richards
R. Lundberg
G. Roubanis
E. Landström
K. Lehnertz
W. Nordwig
J. Johnson
D. Roberts
T. Šlusarski
USA
USA
USA
USA
JPN
USA
SWE
GRE
FIN
GER
GDR
USA
USA
POL
3.60
3.90
3.95
4.20
4.25
4.20
4.40
4.50
4.55
5.00
5.40
5.35
5.50
5.65
392
1984
1988
Gold
P. Quinon
S. Bubka
FRA
URS
5.75
5.90
Silver
M. Tully
R. Gataullin
USA
URS
5.65
5.85
Bronze
E. BellT. Vigneron
G. Egorov
USAFRA
URS
5.605.60
5.80
AthleticsMenLong jump
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Clark
A. Kraenzlein
M. Prinstein
F. Irons
A. Gutterson
W. Petersson-Björneman
W. D. H. Hubbard
E. Hamm
E. Gordon
J. Owens
W. Steele
J. Biffle
G. Bell
R. Boston
L. Davies
R. Beamon
R. Williams
A. Robinson
L. Dombrowski
C. Lewis
C. Lewis
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
SWE
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GBR
USA
USA
USA
GDR
USA
USA
6.35
7.18
7.34
7.48
7.60
7.15
7.44
7.73
7.64
8.06
7.82
7.57
7.83
8.12
8.07
8.90
8.24
8.35
8.54
8.54
8.72
R. Garrett
M. Prinstein
D. Frank
D. Kelly
C. Bricker
C. Johnson
E. Gourdin
S. Cator
C. L. Redd
L. Long
T. Bruce
M. Gourdine
J. Bennett
I. Roberson
R. Boston
K. Beer
H. Baumgartner
R. Williams
F. Paschek
G. Honey
M. Powell
USA
USA
USA
USA
CAN
USA
USA
HAI
USA
GER
AUS
USA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
FRG
USA
GDR
AUS
USA
6.18
7.17
6.89
7.09
7.21
7.09
7.28
7.58
7.60
7.87
7.55
7.53
7.68
8.11
8.03
8.19
8.18
8.11
8.21
8.24
8.49
J. Connolly
P. Leahy
R. Stangland
C. Bricker
G. Aberg
E. Abrahamsson
S. Hansen
A. Bates
C. Nambu
N. Tajima
H. Douglas
O. Földessy
J. Valkama
I. Ter-Ovanesian
I. Ter-Ovanesian
R. Boston
A. Robinson
F. Wartenberg
V. Podluzhni
G. Evangelisti
L. Myricks
USA
GBR/IRL
USA
CAN
SWE
SWE
NOR
USA
JPN
JPN
USA
HUN
FIN
URS
URS
USA
USA
GDR
URS
ITA
USA
6.11
6.95
6.88
7.08
7.18
7.08
7.26
7.40
7.45
7.74
7.54
7.30
7.48
8.04
7.99
8.16
8.03
8.02
8.18
8.24
8.27
AthleticsMenTriple jump
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
J. Connolly
M. Prinstein
M. Prinstein
T. Aheame
G. Lindblom
V. Tuulos
A. Winter
M. Oda
C. Nambu
N. Tajima
A. Åhman
A. Ferreira da Silva
A. Ferreira da Silva
J. Schmidt
J. Schmidt
V. Saneyev
V. Saneyev
V. Saneyev
J. Uudmäe
A. Joyner
K. Markov
USA
USA
USA
GBR/IRL
SWE
FIN
AUS
JPN
JPN
JPN
SWE
BRA
BRA
POL
POL
URS
URS
URS
URS
USA
BUL
13.71
14.47
14.35
14.92
14.76
14.50
15.52
15.21
15.72
16.00
15.40
16.22
16.35
16.81
16.85
17.39
17.35
17.29
17.35
17.26
17.61
A. Tuffère
J. Connolly
F. Englehardt
J. G. MacDonald
G. Åberg
F. Jansson
L. Brunette
L. Casey
E. Svensson
M. Harada
G. Avery
L. Shcherbakov
V. Einarsson
V. Goriayev
O. Fedoseyev
N. Prudencio
J. Drehmel
J. Butts
V. Saneyev
M. Conley
I. Lapchin
FRA
USA
USA
CAN
SWE
SWE
ARG
USA
SWE
JPN
AUS
URS
ISL
URS
URS
BRA
GDR
USA
URS
USA
URS
12.70
13.97
13.90
14.76
14.51
14.48
15.42
15.17
15.32
15.66
15.37
15.98
16.26
16.63
16.58
17.27
17.31
17.18
17.24
17.18
17.52
I. Persakis
L. P. Sheldon
R. Stangland
E. Larsen
E. Almlöf
E. Almlöf
V. Tuulos
V. Tuulos
K. Oshima
J. P. Metcalfe
R. Sarialp
A. Devonish
V. Kreyer
V. Kreyer
V. Kravchenko
G. Gentile
N. Prudencio
J. C. de Oliveira
J. C. de Oliveira
K. Connor
A. Kovalenko
GRE
USA
USA
NOR
SWE
SWE
FIN
FIN
JPN
AUS
TUR
VEN
URS
URS
URS
ITA
BRA
BRA
BRA
GBR
URS
12.52
13.64
13.36
14.39
14.17
14.27
15.37
15.11
15.12
15.50
15.02
15.52
16.02
16.43
16.57
17.22
17.05
16.90
17.22
16.87
17.42
AthleticsMenShot put
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
R. Garrett
R. Sheldon
R. Rose
USA
USA
USA
11.22
14.10
14.81
M. Gouskos
J. McCracken
W. Coe
GRE
USA
USA
11.20
12.85
14.40
G. Papasideris
R. Garrett
L. Feuerbach
GRE
USA
USA
10.36
12.37
13.37
393
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
R. Rose
P. Mc Donald
F. Pörhölä
C. Houser
J. Kuck
L. Sexton
H. Wõllke
W. Thompson
P. O'Brien
P. O'Brien
W. Nieder
D. Long
R. Matson
W. Komar
U. Beyer
V. Kisseliov
A. Andrei
U. Timmermann
USA
USA
FIN
USA
USA
USA
GER
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
POL
GDR
URS
ITA
GDR
14.21
15.34
14.81
14.99
15.87
16.01
16.20
17.12
17.41
18.57
19.68
20.33
20.54
21.18
21.05
21.35
21.26
22.47
Silver
D. Morgan
R. Rose
E. Niklander
G. Hartranft
H. Brix
H. Rothert
S. Bärlund
F. J. Delaney
D. Hooper
W. Nieder
P. O'Brien
R. Matson
G. Woods
G. Woods
E. Mironov
A. Barishnikov
M. Carter
R. Barnes
GBR
USA
FIN
USA
USA
USA
FIN
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
URS
USA
USA
13.62
15.25
14.15
14.90
15.75
15.67
16.12
16.68
17.39
18.18
19.11
20.20
20.12
21.17
21.03
21.08
21.09
22.39
Bronze
J. Garrels
L. Whitney
H. Liversedge
R. Hills
E. Hirchfeld
F. Douda
G. Stock
J. Fuchs
J. Fuchs
J. Skobla
D. Long
V. Varju
E. Guishchin
H. Briesenick
A. Barishnikov
U. Beyer
D. Laut
W. Günthör
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
TCH
GER
USA
USA
TCH
USA
HUN
URS
GDR
URS
GDR
USA
SUI
13.18
13.93
14.15
14.64
15.72
15.61
15.66
16.42
17.06
17.65
19.01
19.39
20.09
21.14
21.00
21.06
20.97
21.99
AthleticsMenDiscus
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
R. Garret
R. Bauer
M. Sheridan
M. Sheridan
A. Taipale
E. Niklander
C. Houser
C. Houser
J. Anderson
K. Carpenter
A. Consolini
S. Iness
A. Oerter
A. Oerter
A. Oerter
A. Oerter
L. Danek
M. Wilkins
V. Rashchupkin
R. Danneberg
J. Schult
USA
HUN
USA
USA
FIN
FIN
USA
USA
USA
USA
ITA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
TCH
USA
URS
FRG
GDR
29.15
36.04
39.28
40.89
45.21
44.69
46.16
47.32
49.49
50.48
52.78
55.03
56.36
59.18
61.00
64.78
64.40
67.50
66.64
66.60
68.82
P. Paraskevopoulos
F. Janda-Suk
R. Rose
M. Griffin
R. Byrd
A. Tajpale
V. Nittymaa
A. Kivi
H. Laborde
G. Dunn
G. Tosi
A. Consolini
F. Gordien
R. Babka
L. Danek
L. Milde
J. Silvester
W. Schmidt
I. Bugár
M. Wilkins
R. Ubartas
GRE
BOH
USA
USA
USA
FIN
FIN
FIN
FRA
USA
ITA
ITA
USA
USA
TCH
GDR
USA
GDR
TCH
USA
URS
28.96
35.25
39.28
40.70
42.32
44.19
44.95
47.23
48.47
49.36
51.78
53.78
54.81
58.02
60.52
63.08
63.50
66.22
66.38
66.30
67.48
S. Versis
R. Sheldon
N. Georgantas
M. Horr
J. Duncan
A. Pope
T. Lieb
J. Corson
P. Winter
G. Oberweger
F. Gordien
J. Dillion
D. Koch
R. Cochran
D. Weill
L. Danek
R. Bruch
J. Powell
L. Delis Fournier
J. Powell
R. Danneberg
GRE
USA
GRE
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
FRA
ITA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
TCH
SWE
USA
CUB
USA
FRG
28.78
34.60
37.68
39.45
42.28
42.13
44.83
47.10
47.85
49.23
50.77
53.28
54.40
57.16
59.49
62.92
63.40
65.70
66.32
65.46
67.38
AthleticsMenHammer
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
J. Flanagan
J. Flanagan
J. Flanagan
M. McGrath
P. Ryan
F. Tootell
P. O'Callagham
P. O'Callaghan
K. Hein
I. Németh
J. Csermák
H. Connolly
V. Rudenkov
R. Klim
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
IRL
IRL
GER
HUN
HUN
USA
URS
URS
49.73
51.23
51.92
54.74
52.88
53.30
51.39
53.92
56.49
56.07
60.34
63.19
67.10
69.74
T. Hare
J. De Witt
M. McGrath
D. Gillis
C. H. Lind
M. McGrath
O. Skiöld
F. Pörhölä
E. Blask
I. Gubijan
K. Storch
M. Krivonosov
G. Zsivótzky
G. Zsivótzky
USA
USA
USA
CAN
SWE
USA
SWE
FIN
GER
YUG
GER
URS
HUN
HUN
49.13
50.26
51.18
48.39
48.43
50.84
51.29
52.27
55.04
54.27
58.86
63.03
65.79
69.09
J. McCraken
R. Rose
C. Walsh
C. Childs
B. Bennett
M. Nokes
E. Black
P. Zaremba
F. Wamgård
R. Bennett
I. Németh
A. Samotsvyetov
T. Rut
U. Beyer
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GBR
USA
USA
SWE
USA
HUN
URS
POL
GER
42.46
45.73
48.50
48.17
48.25
48.88
49.03
50.33
54.83
53.73
57.74
62.56
65.64
68.09
394
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
G. Zsivótzky
A. Bondarchuck
Y. Sedyj
Y. Sedyj
J. Tiainen
S. Litvinov
HUN
URS
URS
URS
FIN
URS
73.36
75.50
77.52
81.80
78.08
84.80
Silver
R. Klim
J. Sachse
A. Spiridonov
S. Litvinov
K.-H. Riehm
Y. Sedyj
URS
GDR
URS
URS
FRG
URS
73.28
74.96
76.08
80.64
77.98
83.76
Bronze
L. Lovász
V. Jmelevski
A. Bondarchuck
Y. Tamm
K. Ploghaus
Y. Tamm
HUN
URS
URS
URS
FRG
URS
69.78
74.04
75.48
78.96
76.68
81.16
AthleticsMenJavelin
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Lemming
E. Lemming
J. Myyrä
J. Myyrä
E. Lundkvist
M. Järvinen
G. Stock
T. Rautavaara
C. Young
E. Danielsen
V. Tsibulenko
P. Nevala
J. Lusis
K. Wolfermann
M. Németh
D. Kula
A. Härkönen
T. Korjus
SWE
SWE
FIN
FIN
SWE
FIN
GER
FIN
USA
NOR
URS
FIN
URS
FRG
HUN
URS
FIN
FIN
54.83
60.64
65.78
62.96
66.60
72.71
71.84
69.77
73.78
85.71
84.64
82.66
90.10
90.48
94.58
91.20
86.76
84.82
A. Halse
J. J. Saaristo
U. Peltonen
G. Lindström
B. Szepes
M. Sippala
Y. Nikkanen
S. Seymour
W. Miller
J. Sidlo
W. Krüger
G. Kulsár
J. Kinnunen
J. Lusis
H. Siitonen
A. Makarov
D. Ottley
J. Železný
NOR
FIN
FIN
SWE
HUN
FIN
FIN
USA
USA
POL
GER
HUN
FIN
URS
FIN
URS
GBR
TCH
50.57
58.66
63.50
60.92
65.26
69.80
70.77
67.56
72.46
79.98
79.36
82.32
88.58
90.46
87.92
89.64
85.74
84.12
O. Nilsson
M. Kóczán
P. Jaale-Johansson
E. Oberst
O. Sunde
E. Penttilä
K. Toivonen
J. Várszegi
T. Hyytäinen
V. Tsibulenko
G. Kulcsár
J. Lusis
G. Kulcsár
W. Schmidt
G. Megelea
W. Hanish
K. Eldebrink
S. Räty
SWE
HUN
FIN
USA
NOR
FIN
FIN
HUN
FIN
URS
HUN
URS
HUN
USA
ROM
GDR
SWE
FIN
47.10
55.50
63.10
58.35
63.97
68.70
70.72
67.03
71.89
79.50
78.57
80.57
87.06
84.42
87.16
86.72
83.72
83.26
AthleticsMenDecathlon
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
J. ThorpeH. Wieslander
H. Lövland
H. Osbom
P. Yrjöïä
J. Ðausch
G. Morris
R. Mathias
R. Mathias
M. Campbell
R. Johnson
W. Holdorf
B. Toomey
N. Avilov
B. Jenner
D. Thompson
D. Thompson
C. Schenk
USASWE
NOR
USA
FIN
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
USA
URS
USA
GBR
GBR
GDR
6,7566,161
5,970
6,668
6,774
6,896
7,421
6,826
7,731
7,708
8,001
7,887
8,193
8,454
8,618
8,495
8,797
8,488
C. Lomberg
B. Hamilton
E. Norton
A. Järvinen
A. Järvinen
R. Clark
I. Heinrich
M. Campbell
R. Johnson
Chuan-Kwang Yuan
R. Aun
H.-J. Walde
L. Litvinenko
G. Kratschmer
Y. Kutsenko
J. Hingsen
T. Voss
SWE
USA
USA
FIN
FIN
USA
FRA
USA
USA
TPE
URS
FRG
URS
FRG
URS
FRG
GDR
5,943
5,940
6,340
6,815
7,038
7,226
6,740
7,132
7,568
7,930
7,842
8,111
8,035
8,411
8,331
8,673
8,399
G. Holme
B. Ohlson
A. Klumberg
J. K. Doherty
W. Eberle
J. Parker
F. Simmons
F. Simmons
V. Kuznetsov
V. Kuznetsov
H.-J. Walde
K. Ðendlin
R. Katus
N. Avilov
S. Zhelanov
S. Wentz
D. Steen
SWE
SWE
EST
USA
GER
USA
USA
USA
URS
URS
GER
FRG
POL
URS
URS
FRG
CAN
5,956
5,825
6,260
6,593
6,830
6,918
6,711
7,069
7,461
7,624
7,809
8,064
7,984
8,369
8,135
8,412
8,328
The points shown in this table have been calculated in accordance with those established in 1962. J. Thorpe, winner of the 1912 event was disqualified the followingyear for having been a professional baseball player. In 1982 the IOC posthumously restored his position.
AthleticsWomen100m
1928
1932
1936
1948
E. Robinson
S. Walasiewicz
H. Stephens
F. Blankers-Koen
USA
POL
USA
NED
12.2
11.9
11.5
11.9
F. Rosenfeld
H. Strike
S. Walasiewicz
D. Manley
CAN
CAN
POL
GBR
12.3
11.9
11.7
12.2
E. Smith
W. von Bremen
K. Krauss
S. Strickland
CAN
USA
GER
AUS
12.3
12.0
11.9
12.2
395
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
M. Jackson
B. Cuthbert
W. Rudolph
W. Tyus
W. Tyus
R. Stecher
A. Richter
L. Kondratieva
E. Ashford
F. Griffith Joyner
AUS
AUS
USA
USA
USA
GDR
GDR
URS
USA
USA
11.5
11.5
11.0
11.4
11.0
11.07
11.08
11.06
10.97
10.54
Silver
D. Hasenjager (Robb)
C. Stubrick
D. Hyman
E. McGuire
B. Ferrell
R. Boyle
R. Stecher
M. Göhr (Oelsner)
A. Brown
E. Ashford
SAF
GER
GBR
USA
USA
AUS
GDR
GDR
USA
USA
11.8
11.7
11.3
11.6
11.1
11.23
11.13
11.07
11.13
10.83
Bronze
S. Strickland
M. Matthews
G. Leone
E. Klobukowska
I. Szewiñska(Kirszenstein)
S. Chibás
I. Helten
I. Auerswald
M. Ottey-Page
H. Drechsler
AUS
AUS
ITA
POL
POL
CUB
FRG
GDR
JAM
GDR
11.9
11.7
11.3
11.6
11.1
11.24
11.17
11.14
11.16
10.85
AthleticsWomen200 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
F. Blankers-Koen
M. Jackson
B. Cuthbert
W. Rudolph
E. McGuire
I. Szewiñska(Kirszenstein)
R. Stecher
B. Eckert
B. Wöckel (Eckert)
V. Brisco-Hooks
F. Griffith Joyner
NED
AUS
AUS
USA
USA
POL
GDR
GDR
GDR
USA
USA
24.4
23.7
23.4
24.0
23.0
22.5
22.40
22.37
22.03
21.81
21.34
A. Williamson
B. Brouwer
C. Stubnick
J. Heine
I. Kirszenstein
R. Boyle
R. Boyle
A. Richter
N. Botxina
F. Griffith
G. Jackson
GBR
NED
GER
GER
POL
AUS
AUS
FRG
URS
USA
JAM
25.1
24.2
23.7
24.4
23.1
22.7
22.45
22.39
22.19
22.04
21.72
A. Patterson
N. Jnykina
M. Matthews
D. Hyman
M. Black
J. Lamy
I. Szewiñska(Kirszenstein)
R. Stecher
M. Ottey
M. Ottey-Page
H. Drechsler
USA
URS
AUS
GBR
AUS
AUS
POL
GDR
JAM
JAM
GDR
25.2
24.2
23.8
24.7
23.1
22.8
22.74
22.47
22.20
22.09
21.95
AthleticsWomen
400 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
B. Cuthbert
C. Besson
M. Zehrt
I. Szewiñska(Kirszenstein)
M. Koch
V. Brisco-Hooks
O. Brizguina
AUS
FRA
GDR
POL
GDR
USA
URS
52.0
52.0
51.08
49.29
48.88
48.83
48.65
A. Packer
L. Board
R. Wilden
C. Brehmer
J. Kratochvilová
C. Cheeseborough
P. Müller
GBR
GBR
FRG
GDR
TCH
USA
GDR
52.2
52.1
51.21
50.51
49.46
49.05
49.45
J. Amoore
N. Petxenkina
K. Hammond
E. Streidt
C. Lathan (Brehmer)
K. Cook
O. Nazarova
AUS
URS
USA
GDR
GDR
GBR
URS
53.4
52.2
51.64
50.55
49.66
49.42
49.90
AthleticsWomen800 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1928
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
L. Radke
L. Shevtsova
A. Packer
M. Manning
H. Falck
T. Kazankina
N. Olizarenko
D. Melinte
S. Wodars
GER
URS
GBR
USA
GDR
URS
URS
ROM
GDR
2:16.8
2:04.3
2:01.1
2:00.9
1:58.6
1:54.94
1:53.43
1:57.60
1:56.10
K. Hitomi
B. Jones
M. Dupureur
I. Silai
N. Sabaite
N. Xtereva
O. Mineyeva
K. Gallagher
C. Wachtel
JPN
AUS
FRA
ROM
URS
BUL
URS
USA
GDR
2:17.6
2:04.4
2:01.9
2:02.5
1:58.7
1:55.42
1:54.81
1:58.63
1:56.64
I. Gentzel
U. Donath
A. Chamberlain
M. Gommers
G. Hoffmeister
E. Zinn
T. Providojina
F. Lovin
K. Gallagher
SWE
GER
NZL
NED
GDR
GDR
URS
ROM
USA
2:17.8
2:05.6
2:02.8
2:02.6
1:59.2
1:55.60
1:55.46
1:58.83
1:56.91
AthleticsWomen1,500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
L. Braguina
T. Kazankina
T. Kazankina
URS
URS
URS
4:01.4
4:05.48
3:56.56
G. Hoffmeister
G. Hoffmeister
C. Wartenberg
GDR
GDR
GDR
4:02.8
4:06.02
3:57.71
P. Cacchi
H. Klapezynski
N. Olizarenko
ITA
GDR
URS
4:02.9
4:06.09
3:59.52
396
1984
1988
Gold
G. Dorio
P. Ivan
ITA
ROM
4:03.25
3:53.96
Silver
D. Melinte
L. Baikauskaite
ROM
URS
4:03.76
4:00.24
Bronze
M. Puicã
T. Samolenko
ROM
URS
4:04.15
4:00.30
AthleticsWomen
3,000 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
M. Puicä
T. Samolenko
ROM
URS
8:35.96
8:26.53
W. Sly
P. Ivan
GBR
ROM
8:39.47
8:27.15
L. Williams
Y. Murray
CAN
GBR
8:42.14
8:29.02
AthleticsWomen10,000 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 O. Bondarenko URS 31:05.21 E. McColgan GBR 31:08.44 E. Zhupiyeva URS 31:19.82
AthleticsWomen4 x 100 m relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
CAN
USA
USA
NED
USA
AUS
USA
POL
USA
FRG
FRG
FRG
USA
USA
48.4
47.0
46.9
47.5
45.9
44.5
44.5
43.6
42.8
42.81
42.55
41.60
41.65
41.98
USA
CAN
GBR
AUS
GER
GBR
GER
USA
CUB
GDR
FRG
URS
CAN
GDR
48.8
47.0
47.6
47.6
45.9
44.7
44.8
43.9
43.3
42.95
42.59
42.10
42.77
42.09
GER
GBR
CAN
CAN
GBR
USA
POL
GBR
URS
CUB
URS
GBR
GBR
URS
49.0
47.6
47.8
47.8
46.2
44.9
45.0
44.0
43.4
43.36
43.09
42.43
43.11
42.75
AthleticsWomen4 x 400 m relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
GDR
GDR
URS
USA
URS
3:23.0
3:19.23
3:20.2
3:18.29
3:15.18
USA
USA
GDR
CAN
USA
3:25.2
3:22.81
3:20.4
3:21.21
3:15.51
FRG
URS
GBR
FRG
GDR
3:26.5
3:24.24
3:27.5
3:22.98
3:18.29
AthleticsWomenMarathon
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
J. Benoit
R. Mota
USA
POR
2:24:52
2:25:40
G. Waitz
L. Martin
NOR
AUS
2:26:18
2:25:53
R. Mota
K. Dörre
POR
GDR
2:26:57
2:26:21
AthleticsWomen
80 m hurdles
Gold Silver Bronze
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
M. Didrikson
T. Valla
F. Blankers-Koen
S. Strickland
S. Strickland
I. Press
USA
ITA
NED
AUS
AUS
URS
11.7
11.7
11.2
10.9
10.7
10.8
E. Hall
A. Steuer
M. Gardner
M. Golubnichaya
G. Kòhler
C. Quinton
USA
GER
GBR
URS
GER
GBR
11.7
11.7
11.2
11.1
10.9
10.9
M. Clark
E. Taylor
S. Strckland
M. Sander
N. Thrower
G. Birkemeyer (Köhler)
SAF
CAN
AUS
GER
AUS
GER
11.8
11.7
11.4
11.1
11.0
11.0
397
398
1964
1968
Gold
K. Balzer
M. Caird
GER
AUS
10.5
10.3
Silver
T. Ciepla
P. Kilborn
POL
AUS
10.5
10.4
Bronze
P. Kilborn
Chi Cheng
AUS
TPE
10.5
10.4
This event was replaced by the 100 m hurdles as from the Games held in 1972.
AthleticsWomen100 m hurdles
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Ehrhardt
J. Schaller
V. Komissova
B. Fitzgerad-Brown
J. Donkova
GDR
GDR
URS
USA
BUL
12.59
12.77
12.56
12.84
12.38
V. Bufanu
T. Anissmova
J. Klier (Schaller)
S. Strong
G. Siebert
ROM
URS
GDR
GBR
GDR
12.84
12.78
12.63
12.88
12.61
K. Balzer
N. Lebedeva
L. Langer
K. TurnerM. Chardonnet
C. Zackiewicz
GDR
URS
POL
USAFRA
FRG
12.90
12.80
12.65
13.0613.06
12.75
AthleticsWomen400 m hurdles
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
N. El Moutawakel
D. Flintoff-King
MAR
AUS
54.61
53.17
J. Brown
T. Ledovskaya
USA
URS
55.20
53.18
C. Cojocaru
E. Fiedler
ROM
GDR
55.41
53.63
AthleticsWomenHigh jump
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Catherwood
J. Shiley
I. Csák
A. Coachman
E. Brand
M. McDaniel
I. Balas
I. Balas
M. Rezková
U. Meyfarth
R. Ackermann
S. Simeoni
U. Meyfarth
L. Ritter
CAN
USA
HUN
USA
SAF
USA
ROM
ROM
TCH
FRG
GDR
ITA
FRG
USA
1.59
1.65
1.60
1.68
1.67
1.76
1.85
1.90
1.82
1.92
1.93
1.97
2.02
2.03
C. Gisolf
M. Didrikson
D. Odam
D. Tyler (Odam)
S. Lerwill
T. HopkinsM. Pissarieva
J. JózwiakowskaD. Shirley
M. Brown (Mason)
A. Okorokova
Y. Blagoeva
S. Simeoni
U. Kielan
S. Simeoni
S. Kostadinova
NED
USA
GBR
GBR
GBR
GBRURS
POLGBR
AUS
URS
BUL
ITA
POL
ITA
BUL
1.56
1.65
1.60
1.68
1.65
1.671.67
1.711.71
1.80
1.80
1.88
1.91
1.94
2.00
2.01
M. Wiley
E. Dawes
E. Kaun
M. Ostermeyer
A. Chudina
USA
CAN
GER
FRA
URS
1.56
1.60
1.60
1.61
1.63
T. Chenchik
V. Kozir
I. Gusenbauer
Y. Blagoeva
J. Kirst
J. Huntley
T. Bikova
URS
URS
AUT
BUL
GDR
USA
URS
1.78
1.80
1.88
1.91
1.94
1.97
1.99
Gold Silver Bronze
AthleticsWomenLong jump
Gold Silver Bronze
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
O. Gyamati
Y. Williams
E. Krzesinska
V. Krepkina
M. Rand
V. Viscopoleanu
H. Rosendahl
A. Voigt
T. Kolpakova
A. Cusmir-Stanciu
J. Joyner-Kersee
HUN
NZL
POL
URS
GBR
ROM
FRG
GDR
URS
ROM
USA
5.69
6.24
6.35
6.37
6.76
6.82
6.78
6.72
7.06
6.96
7.40
N. Simonettode Portela
A. Chudina
W. White
E. Krzesinska
I. Kirszenstein
S. Sherwood
D. Yorgova
K. McMillan
B. Wujak
V. lonescu
H. Drechsler
ARG
URS
USA
POL
POL
GBR
BUL
USA
GDR
ROM
GDR
5.60
6.14
6.09
6.27
6.60
6.68
6.77
6.66
7.04
6.81
7.22
A. B. Leyman
S. Cawley
N. Dvalishvili (Jngkina)
H. Claus
T. Shchelkanova
T. Talisheva
E. Šuranova
L. Alfeyeva
T. Skachko
S. Hearnshaw
G. Chistiakova
SWE
GBR
URS
GER
URS
URS
TCH
URS
URS
GBR
URS
5.57
5.97
6.07
6.21
6.42
6.66
6.67
6.60
7.01
6.80
7.11
This event was replaced by the heptathlon as from the 1984 Games. The scoring system was changed in 1972.
AthleticsWomenShot put
Gold Silver Bronze
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
M. Ostermeyer
G. Zibina
T. Tishkevich
T. Press
T. Press
M. Gummel(Helmboldt)
N. Chizhova
I. Christova
I. Slupianek
C. Losch
N. Lisovskaya
FRA
URS
URS
URS
URS
GDR
URS
BUL
GDR
FRG
URS
13.75
15.28
16.59
17.32
18.14
19.61
21.03
21.16
22.41
20.48
22.24
A. Piccinini
M. Werner
G. Zibina
J. Lüttge
R. Garisch
M. Lange
M. Gummel(Helmboldt)
N. Chizhova
S. Krachevskaya
M. Loghin
K. Neimke
ITA
GER
URS
GER
GER
GDR
GDR
URS
URS
ROM
GDR
13.09
14.57
16.53
16.61
17.61
18.78
20.22
20.96
21.42
20.47
21.07
I. Schäffer
K. Totxenova
M. Werner
E. Brown
G. Zibina
N. Chizhova
I. Christova
H. Fibingerová
M. Pufe
G. Martin
Li Meisu
AUT
URS
GER
USA
URS
URS
BUL
TCH
GDR
AUS
CHN
13.08
14.50
15.61
16.42
17.45
18.19
19.35
20.67
21.20
19.19
21.06
AthleticsWomen
Discus
Gold Silver Bronze
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
H. Konopacka
L. Copeland
G. Mauermayer
M. Ostermeyer
N. Romashkova
O. Fikotova
N. Ponomareva(Romashkova)
T. Press
L. Manoliu
F. Melnik
E. Schlaak
E. Jahl (Schlaak)
R. Stalman
M. Hellmann
POL
URS
GER
FRA
URS
TCH
URS
URS
ROM
URS
GDR
GDR
NED
GDR
39.62
40.58
47.63
41.92
51.42
53.69
55.10
57.27
58.28
66.62
69.00
69.96
65.36
72.30
L. Copeland
R. Osburn
J. Wajsówna
E. Cordiale Gentile
E. Bagriantseva
I. Begliakova
T. Press
I. Lotz
L. Westermann
A. Menis
M. Vergova
M. Petkova (Vergova)
L. Deniz
D. Gansky
URS
URS
POL
ITA
URS
URS
URS
GER
FRG
ROM
BUL
BUL
USA
GDR
37.08
40.12
46.22
41.17
47.08
52.54
52.59
57.21
57.76
65.06
67.30
67.90
64.86
71.88
R. Svedberg
J. Wajsówna
P. Mollenhauer
J. Mazéas
N. Dumbadze
N. Ponomareva(Romashkova)
L. Manoliu
L. Manoliu
J. Kleiber
V. Stoeva
G. Hinzmann
T. Lessovaya
F. Craciunescu
T. Jhristova
SWE
POL
GER
FRA
URS
URS
ROM
ROM
HUN
BUL
GDR
URS
ROM
BUL
35.92
38.74
39.80
40.47
46.29
52.02
52.36
56.97
54.90
64.34
66.84
67.40
63.64
69.74
AthleticsWomenJavelin
Gold Silver Bronze
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
M. Didrikson
T. Fleischer
H. Bauma
D. Zátopková
I. Yaunzeme
E. Ozolina
M. Penes
A. Németh
R. Fuchs
R. Fuchs
M. Colón Rueñes
T. Sanderson
P. Felke
USA
GER
AUT
TCH
URS
URS
ROM
HUN
GDR
GDR
CUB
GBR
GDR
43.68
45.18
45.57
50.47
53.86
55.98
60.54
60.36
63.88
65.94
68.40
69.56
74.68
E. Braumüller
L. Krüger
K. Parviainen
A. Chudina
M. Ahrens
D. Zátopková
M. Rudas
M. Penes
J. Todten
M. Becker
S. Gunba
T. Lillak
F. Whitbread
GER
GER
FIN
URS
CHI
TCH
HUN
ROM
GDR
FRG
URS
FIN
GBR
43.49
43.29
43.79
50.01
50.38
53.78
58.27
59.92
62.54
64.70
67.76
69.00
70.32
T. Fleischer
M. Kwasniewska
L. Carlstedt
E. Gorchakova
N. Koniayeva
B. Kalediene
E. Gorchakova
E. Janko
K. Schmidt
K. Schmidt
U. Hommola
F. Whitbread
B. Koch
GER
POL
DEN
URS
URS
URS
URS
AUT
USA
USA
GDR
GBR
GDR
43.00
41.80
42.08
49.76
50.28
53.45
57.06
58.04
59.94
63.96
66.56
67.14
67.30
AthleticsWomenPentathlon
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
I. Press
I. Becker
M. Peters
S. Siegl
N. Tkachenko
URS
FRG
GBR
GDR
URS
5,246
5,098
4,801
4,745
5,083
M. Rand
E. Prokop
H. Rosendahl
C. Laser
O. Rukavishnikova
GBR
AUT
FRG
GDR
URS
5,035
4,966
4,791
4,745
4,937
G. Bistrova
A. Tóth
B. Pollak
B. Pollak
O. Kuraguina
URS
HUN
GDR
GDR
URS
4,956
4,959
4,768
4,740
4,875
399
AthleticsWomenHeptathlon
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
G. Nunn
J. Joyner-Kersee
AUS
USA
6,390
7,291
J. Joyner
S. John
USA
GDR
6,385
6,897
S. Everts
A. Behmer
FRG
GDR
6,363
6,858
BasketballMen
Gold Silver Bronze
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
USA
YUG
USA
URS
CAN
FRA
URS
URS
URS
URS
YUG
USA
YUG
ITA
ESP
YUG
MEX
BRA
URU
URU
BRA
BRA
URS
CUB
URS
URS
YUG
USA
BasketballWomen
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
URS
URS
USA
USA
USA
BUL
KOR
YUG
BUL
YUG
CHN
URS
BoxingLight flyweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
F. Rodríguez
G. Gedo
J. Hernández
S. Sabirov
P. Gonzales
I. Jristov (Jiuseihov)
Weight limit: 48 kg.
VEN
HUN
CUB
URS
USA
BUL
Y.-J. Jee
U.-G. Kim
B.-U. Li
H. Ramos
S. Todisco
M. Carbajal
KOR
PRK
PRK
CUB
ITA
USA
H. MarbleyH. Skrzypczak
R. EvansE. Rodriguez Cal
P. PooltaratO. Maldonado
I. JiuseinovB.-U. Li
K. MwilaJ.M. Bolivar
L. SerantesR. Isaszegi
USAPOL
GBRESP
THAPUR
BULPRK
ZAMVEN
PHIHUN
BoxingFlyweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
G. Finnegan
F. Di Gennara
F. Labarba
A. Kocsis
I. Énekes
W. Kaiser
P. Perez
N. Brooks
T. Spinks
G. Török
USA
USA
USA
HUN
HUN
GER
ARG
USA
GBR
HUN
M. Burke
A. Petersen
J. MacKenzie
A. Appell
F. Cabanas
G. Matta
S. Bandinelli
E. Basel
M. Dobrescu
S. Sivko
USA
DEN
GBR
FRA
MEX
ITA
ITA
GER
ROM
URS
W. Cuthbertson
R. Fee
C. Cavagnoli
L. Salica
L. D. Laurie
S. A. Han
A. BulakovW. Toweel
J. CaldwellR. Libeer
K. TanabeA. Elguindi
GBR
USA
ITA
USA
USA
KOR
URSSAF
IRLFRA
JPNUAR
400
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
F. Atzori
R. Delgado
G. Kostadinov
L. Randolph
P. Lessov
S. McCrory
K.-S. Kim
ITA
MEX
BUL
USA
BUL
USA
KOR
Silver
A. Olech
A. Olech
L. Rwabwogo
R. Duvalón
V. Miroshnichenko
R. Redzepovski
A Tews
POL
POL
UGA
CUB
URS
YUG
GDR
Bronze
S. SorokinR. Carmody
S. OliveiraL. Rwabwogo
I. BlazynskyD. Rodríguez
D. TorosianL. Blazynsky
J. VáradiH. Russell
E. CanI. Bilali
M. GonzálezT. Skriabin
URSUSA
BRAUGA
POLCUB
URSPOL
HUNIRL
TURKEN
MEXURS
Weight limit. 51 kg from 1948. 47.63 kg in 1904. 50.80 kg from 1920 to 1936.
BoxingBantamweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
O. Kirk
A. H. Thomas
C. Walker
W. Smith
V. Tamagrini
H. Gwynne
U. Sergo
T. Csik
P. Hämäläinen
W. Behrendt
O. Grigoriev
T. Sakurai
W. Sokolov
O. Martinez
Y.-J. Gu
J. Hernandez
M. Stecca
K. McKinney
USA
GBR
SAF
SAF
ITA
CAN
ITA
HUN
FIN
GER
URS
JPN
URS
CUB
PRK
CUB
ITA
USA
G. Finnegan
J. Condon
C. J. Graham
S. Tripoli
J. Daley
H. Ziglarski
J. Wilson
G. B. Zuddas
J. McNally
S.-C. Song
P. Zamparini
S.-C. Chung
E. Mukwanga
A. Zamora
C. Mooney
B. J. Pinango
H. López
A. Jhristov
USA
GBR
CAN
USA
USA
GER
USA
ITA
IRL
KOR
ITA
KOR
UGA
MEX
USA
VEN
MEX
BUL
W. Webb
G. McKenzie
J. Ces
H. Isaacs
J. Villanueva
F. Ortiz
J. Venegas
G. GarbuzovJ.-H. Kang
F. GilroyC. Barrientos
O. TaylorB. Bendig
J. Fabila MendozaW. Rodríguez
E. MoriokaK.-C. Chang
G. TurpinR. Carreras
P. CowdellV. Ribakov
M. AnthonyD. Cipere
D. WaltersP. I. Nolasco
J. E. RochaP. Moolsan
GBR
GBR
FRA
SAF
PHI
MEX
PUR
URSKOR
IRLCHI
AUSPOL
MEXURU
JPNKOR
GBRUSA
GBRURS
GUYROM
CANDOM
COLTHA
Weight limit: 54 kg from 1948. 52.16 kg in 1904. 52.62 kg in 1908. 53.52 kg from 1920 to 1936.
BoxingFeatherweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
O. Kirk
R. Gunn
P. Fritsch
J. Fields
L. van Klaveren
C. Robledo
O. Casanovas
E. Formenti
J. Zachara
V. Safronov
F. Musso
S. Stepashkin
USA
GBR
FRA
USA
NED
ARG
ARG
ITA
TCH
URS
ITA
URS
F. Haller
C. W. Morris
J. Gachet
J. Salas
V. Peralta
J. Schleinkofer
C. Catterall
D. Shepherd
S. Caprari
T. Nicholls
J. Adamski
A. Villanueva
USA
GBR
FRA
USA
ARG
GER
SAF
SAF
ITA
GBR
POL
PHI
F. Gilmore
R. Roddin
E. Garzena
P. Quartucci
H. Divine
C. Carlsson
J. Miner
A. Antkiewicz
J. LeischingJ. Ventaja
H. NiedžwiedzkiP. Hämäläinen
W. MeyersJ. Limmonen
C. BrownH. Schulz
USA
GBR
ITA
ARG
USA
SWE
GER
POL
SAFFRA
POLFIN
SAFFIN
USAGER
401
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
A. Roldán
B. Kuznetsov
A. Herrera
R. Fink
M. Taylor
G. Parisi
MEX
URS
CUB
GDR
USA
ITA
Silver
A. Robinson
P. Waruinge
R. Nowakowski
A. Horta
P. Konyegwachie
D. Dumitrescu
USA
KEN
GDR
CUB
NGR
ROM
Bronze
P. WaruingeI. Mijailov
C. RojasA. Botos
J. ParedesK. Kosedowski
V. RibakovK. Kosedowski
O. Catari PerazaT. Aykac
J.-H. LeeA. Achik
KENBUL
COLHUN
MEXPOL
URSPOL
VENTUR
KORMAR
Weight limit: 57 kg from 1952. 56.70 kg in 1904. 57.15 kg from 1908 to 1936. 58 kg in 1948.
BoxingLightweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
H. Spanger
F. Grace
S. Mosberg
H. Nielsen
C. Orlandi
L. Stevens
I. Harangi
G. Dreyer
A. Bolognesi
R. McTaggart
K. Pazdzior
J. Grudzien
R. W. Harris
J. Szczepanski
H. Davis
A. Herrera
P. Whitaker
A. Zuelow
USA
GBR
USA
DEN
ITA
SAF
HUN
SAF
ITA
GBR
POL
POL
USA
POL
USA
CUB
USA
GDR
J. Eagan
F. Spiller
G. Johanssen
A. Copello
S. Halaiko
T. Ahlqvist
N. Stepulov
J. Vissers
A. Antkiewicz
H. Kurschat
S. Lopopolo
V. Barannikov
J. Grudzien
L. Orbán
S. Cutov
V. Demianenko
L. Ortiz
G. Cramne
USA
GBR
DEN
ARG
USA
SWE
EST
BEL
POL
GER
ITA
URS
POL
HUN
ROM
URS
PUR
SWE
R. Van Horn
H. H. Johnson
C. Newton
F. Boylstein
G. Berggren
N. Bor
E. Ågren
S. Wad
G. FiatE. Pakkanen
A. ByrneA. Laguetko
R. McTaggartA. Laudonio
R. A. HarrisJ. McCourt
C. CutovZ. Vujin
S. MbuguaA. Pérez
A. RusevskiV. Solomin
R. NowakowskiK. Adach
M. Ndongo EbangaC.-S. Chun
N. EnkhbatR. Ellis
USA
GBR
CAN
USA
SWE
USA
SWE
DEN
ROMFIN
IRLURS
GBRARG
USAIRL
ROMYUG
KENCOL
YUGURS
GDRPOL
CMRKOR
MGLUSA
Weight limit: 60 kg from 1952. 61.24 kg in 1904 and from 1920 to 1936. 63.50 kg in 1908. 62 kg in 1948.
BoxingLight welterweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
C. Adkins
V. Yenguibarian
B. Nemecek
J. Kulej
J. Kulej
R. Seales
R. Leonard
P. Oliva
USA
URS
TCH
POL
POL
USA
USA
ITA
V. Mednov
F. Nenci
C. Quartey
E. Frolov
E. Regüeiferos
A. Anguelov
A. Aldama
S. Konakbayev
URS
ITA
GHA
URS
CUB
BUL
CUB
URS
E. MalleniusB. Visintin
H. LoubscherC. Dumitrescu
Q. DanielsM. Kasprzyk
E. BlayH. Galhia
A. NilssonJ. Wallington
Z. VujinI. Dabord
V. KolevK. Szczerba
A. WillisJ. Aguilar
FINITA
SAFROM
USAPOL
GHATUN
FINUSA
YUGNIG
BULPOL
GBRCUB
402
1984
1988
Gold
J. Page
V. Yanovski
USA
URS
Silver
D. Umponmaha
G. Cheney
THA
AUS
Bronze
M. PuzovicM. Fulger
R. GiesL. Myrberg
YUGROM
GDRSWE
Weight limit: 63.5 kg.
BoxingWelterweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Young
A. Schneider
J. Delarge
E. Morgan
E. Flynn
S. Suvio
J. Torma
Z. Chychla
N. Linca
G. Benvenuti
M. Kasprzyk
M. Volke
E. Correa
J. Bachfeld
A. Aldama
M. Breland
R. Wangila
USA
CAN
BEL
NZL
USA
FIN
TCH
POL
ROM
ITA
POL
GDR
CUB
GDR
CUB
USA
KEN
H. Spanger
A. Ireland
H. Méndez
R. Landini
E. Campe
M. Murach
H. Herring
S. Shcherbakov
F. Tiedt
Y. Radoniak
R. Tamulis
J. Bessala
J. Kajdi
P. Gamarro
J. Mugabi
Y.-S. An
L. Boudouani
USA
GBR
ARG
ARG
GER
GER
USA
URS
IRL
URS
URS
CMR
HUN
VEN
UGA
KOR
FRA
J. LydonJ. Eagan
F. Colberg
D. Lewis
R. Smillie
B. Ahlberg
G. Petersen
A. d'Ottavio
J. JörgensenG. Heidemann
K. HogarthN. Gargano
L. DrogoszJ. Lloyd
P. PurhonenS. Bertini
V. MussalimovM. Guilloti
D. Tiger MurungaJ. Valdez
R. SkricekV. Zilberman
K.-H. KrügerK. Szczerba
J. NymanL. Bruno
K. GouldJ. Dydak
USAUSA
USA
CAN
CAN
FIN
DEN
ITA
DENGER
AUSGBR
POLGBR
FINITA
URSARG
KENUSA
FRGROM
GDRPOL
FINITA
USAPOL
Weight limit: 67 kg from 1948. 65.27 kg in 1904. 66.68 kg from 1920 to 1936.
BoxingLight middleweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
L. Papp
L. Papp
W. McClure
B. Lagutin
B. Lagutin
D. Kottysch
J. Rybicki
A. Martínez
F. Tate
S.-H. Park
Weight limit: 71 kg.
HUN
HUN
USA
URS
URS
FRG
POL
CUB
USA
KOR
T. van Schalkwyk
J. Torres
C. Bossi
J. Gonzales
R. Garbey
W. Rudkowski
T. Kacar
A. Koshkin
S. O'Sullivan
R. Jones
SAF
USA
ITA
FRA
CUB
POL
YUG
URS
CAN
USA
B. TishinE. Herrera
J. McCormackZ. Pietrzykowski
B. LagutinW. Fisher
N. MaiyegunJ. Grzesiak
J. BaldwinG. Meier
A. MinterP. Tiepold
R. GarbeyV. Savchenko
F. FranekD. Kästner
M. ZielonkaC. Tiozzo
R. WoodhallR. Downey
URSARG
GBRPOL
URSGBR
NGRPOL
USAFRG
GBRGDR
CUBURS
TCHGDR
FRGFRA
GBRCAN
403
BoxingMiddleweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
C. Mayer
J. Douglas
H. Mallin
H. Mallin
P. Toscani
C. Barth
J. Despeaux
L. Papp
F. Patterson
G. Shatkov
E. Crook
V. Popenchenko
C. Finnegan
V. Lemeshev
M. Spinks
J. Gomez
J.-S. Shin
H. Maske
USA
GBR
GBR
GBR
ITA
USA
FRA
HUN
USA
URS
USA
URS
GBR
URS
USA
CUB
KOR
GDR
B. Spradley
R. Baker
G. A. Prud'homme
J. Elliott
J. Hermánek
A. Azar
H. Tiller
J. Wright
V. Tita
R. Tapia
T. Walasek
E. Schulz
A. Kisseliov
R. Virtanen
R. Riskiev
V. Savchenko
V. Hill
E. Marcus
USA
AUS
CAN
GBR
TCH
ARG
NOR
GBR
ROM
CHI
POL
GER
URS
FIN
URS
URS
USA
CAN
W. Philo
M. H. Herscovith
J. Beecken
L. Steyaert
E. Pierce
R. Villareal
I. Fontana
B. NikolovS. Sjölin
G. ChapronV. Zalazar
I. MoneaE. Feofanov
F. VallaT. Walasek
A. ZaragozaA. Jones
P. AmarteyM. Johnson
A. NastacL. Martínez
V. SilaghiJ. Rybicki
M. ZaouiA. González
C. SandeH. S. Syed
GBR
CAN
BEL
BEL
SAF
ARG
ITA
BULSWE
FRAARG
ROMURS
ITAPOL
MEXUSA
GHAUSA
ROMCUB
ROMPOL
ALGPUR
KENPAK
Weight limit: 75 kg from 1952. 71.68 kg in 1904 and 1908. 72.57 kg from 1920 to 1936. 73 kg in 1948.
BoxingLight heavyweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Eagan
H. Mitchell
V. Avendaño
D. Carstens
R. Michelot
G. Hunter
N. Lee
J. Boyd
C. Clay
C. Pinto
D. Pozniak
M. Parlow
L. Spinks
S. Kacar
A. Josipovic
A. Maynard
USA
GBR
ARG
SAF
FRA
SAF
USA
USA
USA
ITA
URS
YUG
USA
YUG
YUG
USA
S. Sörsdal
T. Peterson
E. Pistulla
G. Rossi
R. Vogt
D. Scott
A. Pacenza
G. Negrea
Z. Pietrzykowski
A. Kisseliov
I. Monea
G. Carrillo
S. Soria
P. Skrzecz
K. Barry
N. Shannivazov
NOR
DEN
GER
ITA
GER
GBR
ARG
ROM
POL
URS
ROM
CUB
CUB
POL
NZL
URS
H. Franks
S. Sörsdal
K. L. Miljon
P. Jörgensen
F. Risiglione
M. Cia
A. PerovH. Siljander
C. LucasR. Murauskas
A. MadiganG. Saraudi
A. NikolovZ. Pietrzykowski
G. StankovS. Dragan
I. IkhouriaJ. Gortat
C. DafinoiuJ. Gortat
H. BauchR. Rojas
M. MoussaE. Holyfield
D. ŠkaroH. Petrich
GBR
NOR
NED
DEN
ARG
ARG
URSFIN
CHIURS
AUSITA
BULPOL
BULPOL
NGRPOL
ROMPOL
GDRCUB
ALGUSA
YUGPOL
Weight limit: 81 kg from 1952. 79.38 kg from 1920 to 1936. 80 kg in 1948.
BoxingHeavyweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
S. Berger
A. Oldham
USA
GBR
C. Mayer
S. C. H. Evans
USA
GBR
W. Michaels
F. Parks
USA
GBR
404
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
R. Rawson
O. von Porat
A. Rodríguez Jurado
S. Lovell
H. Runge
R. Iglesias
H. E. Sanders
T. P. Rademacher
F. de Piccoli
J. Frazier
G. Foreman
T. Stevenson
T. Stevenson
T. Stevenson
H. Tillman
R. Mercer
GBR
NOR
ARG
ARG
GER
ARG
USA
USA
ITA
USA
USA
CUB
CUB
CUB
USA
USA
Silver
S. Petersen
S. Petersen
N. Ramm
L. Rovati
G. Lovell
G. Nilsson
I. Johansson
L. Mujin
D. Bekker
H. Huber
I. Chepulis
I. Alexe
M. Simon
P. Zayev
W. deWit
H.-M. Baik
DEN
DEN
SWE
ITA
ARG
SWE
SWE
URS
SAF
GER
URS
ROM
ROM
URS
CAN
KOR
Bronze
X. Eluère
A. Porzio
M. J. Michaelsen
F. Feary
E. Nilsen
J. Arthur
A. NiemanI. Koski
D. BekkerG. Bozzano
J. NemecG. Siegmund
G. RosV. Yemelianov
G. BambiniJ. Rocha
P. HussingH. Thomsén
J. TateC. Hill
I. LevaiJ. Fanghänel
A. VanderlijdeA. Musone
A. VanderlijdeA. Golota
FRA
ARG
DEN
USA
NOR
SAF
SAFFIN
SAFITA
TCHGER
ITAURS
ITAMEX
FRGSWE
USABER
HUNGDR
NEDITA
NEDPOL
Weight limit: 91 kg from 1984. In 1904 and 1908, this category was reserved for boxers weighing 71.67 kg. Over 79.38 kg from 1920 to 1936. Over 80 kg in 1948.Over 81 kg from 1952 to 1980. I. Johansson was disqualified from the 1952 final for "not giving of his best" but was reinstated and awarded the silver medal by IOC in1981.
BoxingSuper heavyweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
T. Biggs
L. Lewis
USA
CAN
F. Damiani
R. Bo we
ITA
USA
R. WellsS. Azis
A. MiroshnichenkoJ. Zarenkiewicz
GBRYUG
URSPOL
Over 91 kg.
CanoeingMenFlat waterk1 500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
V. Diba
V. Parfenovich
I. Ferguson
Z. Gyulay
ROM
URS
NZL
HUN
1:46.41
1:43.43
1:47.84
1:44.82
Z. Sztanity
J. Sumegi
L.-E. Moberg
A. Stähle
HUN
AUS
SWE
GDR
1:46.95
1:44.12
1:48.18
1:46.38
R. Helm
V. Diba
B. Brégeon
P. MacDonald
GDR
ROM
FRA
NZL
1:48.30
1:44.90
1:48.41
1:46.46
CanoeingMenFlat waterk2 500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
GDR
URS
NZL
NZL
1:35.87
1:32.38
1:34.21
1:33.98
URS
ESP
SWE
URS
1:36.81
1:33.65
1:35.26
1:34.15
ROM
GDR
CAN
HUN
1:37.43
1:34.00
1:35.41
1:34.32
CanoeingMenFlat waterk2 1,000 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1936
1948
G. Hradetzky
G. Fredriksson
AUT
SWE
4:22.9
4:33.2
H. Cämmerer
J. F. Kobberup
GER
DEN
4:25.6
4:39.9
J. Kraaier
H. Eberhardt
NED
FRA
4:35.1
4:41.4
405
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
G. Fredriksson
G. Fredriksson
E. Hansen
R. Peterson
M. Hesz
A. Chaparenko
R. Helm
R. Helm
A. Thompson
G. Barton
SWE
SWE
DEN
SWE
HUN
URS
GDR
GDR
NZL
USA
4:07.9
4:12.8
3:53.00
3:57.13
4:02.63
3:48.06
3:48.20
3:48.77
3:45.73
3:55.27
Silver
T. Strömberg
I. Pisarev
I. Szöllösi
M. Hesz
A. Chaparenko
R. Peterson
G. Csapó
A. Lebas
M. Janic
G. Davies
FIN
URS
HUN
HUN
URS
SWE
HUN
FRA
YUG
AUS
4:09.7
4:15.3
3:54.02
3:57.28
4:03.58
3:48.35
3:48.84
3:50.20
3:46.88
3:55.28
Bronze
L. Gantois
L. Kiss
G. Fredriksson
A. Vernescu
E. Hansen
G. Csapó
V. Diba
I. Birladeanu
G. Barton
A. Wohllebe
FRA
HUN
SWE
ROM
DEN
HUN
ROM
ROM
USA
GDR
4:20.1
4:16.2
3:55.89
4:00.77
4:04.39
3:49.38
3:49.65
3:50.49
3:47.38
3:55.55
CanoeingMenFlat waterk2 1,000 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
AUT
SWE
FIN
GER
SWE
SWE
URS
URS
URS
URS
CAN
USA
4:03.8
4:07.3
3:51.1
3:49.6
3:34.73
3:38.54
3:37.54
3:31.23
3:29.01
3:26.72
3:24.22
3:32.42
GER
DEN
SWE
URS
HUN
NED
HUN
HUN
GDR
HUN
FRA
NZL
4:08.9
4:07.5
3:51.1
3:51.4
3:34.91
3:39.30
3:38.44
3:32.00
3:29.33
3:28.49
3:25.97
3:32.71
NED
FIN
AUT
AUT
POL
GER
AUT
POL
HUN
ESP
AUS
AUS
4:12.2
4:08.7
3:51.4
3:55.8
3:37.34
3:40.69
3:40.71
3:33.83
3:30.36
3:28.66
3:26.80
3:33.76
CanoeingMenFlat waterk4 1,000 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
URS
NOR
URS
URS
GDR
NZL
HUN
3:14.67
3:14.38
3:14.02
3:08.69
3:13.76
3:02.28
3:00.20
GER
ROM
ROM
ESP
ROM
SWE
URS
3:15.39
3:14.81
3:15.07
3:08.95
3:15.35
3:02.81
3:01.40
ROM
HUN
NOR
GDR
BUL
FRA
GDR
3:15.51
3:15.10
3:15.27
3:10.76
3:15.46
3:03.94
3:02.37
CanoeingMenFlat waterc1 500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Rogov
S. Postrejin
L. Cain
O. Heukrodt
URS
URS
CAN
GDR
1:59.23
1:53.37
1:57.01
1:56.42
J. Wood
L. Liubenov
H. Jakobsen
M. Slivinski
CAN
BUL
DEN
URS
1:59.58
1:53.49
1:58.45
1:57.26
M. Ljubek
O. Heukrodt
C. Olaru
M. Marinov
YUG
GDR
ROM
BUL
1:59.60
1:54.38
1:59.86
1:57.27
CanoeingMenFlat waterc2 500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
URS
HUN
YUG
URS
1:45.81
1:43.39
1:43.67
1:41.77
POL
ROM
ROM
POL
1:47.77
1:44.12
1:45.68
1:43.61
HUN
BUL
ESP
FRA
1:48.35
1:44.83
1:47.71
1:43.81
406
CanoeingMenFlat waterc1 1,000 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
F. Amyot
J. Holecek
J. Holecek
L. Rotman
J. Parti
J. Eschert
T. Tatai
I. Patzaichin
M. Ljubek
L. Liubenov
U. Eicke
I. Klementiev
CAN
TCH
TCH
ROM
HUN
GER
HUN
ROM
YUG
BUL
FRG
URS
5:32.1
5:42.0
4:56.3
5:05.3
4:33.93
4:35.14
4:36.14
4:08.94
4:09.51
4:12.38
4:06.32
4:12.78
B. Karlik
D. Bennett
J. Parti
I. Hemek
A. Silayev
A. Igorov
D. Lewe
T. Wichmann
V. Urchenko
S. Postrejin
L. Cain
J. Schmidt
TCH
CAN
HUN
HUN
URS
ROM
FRG
HUN
URS
URS
CAN
GDR
5:36.9
5:53.3
5:03.6
5:06.2
4:34.41
4:37.89
4:38.31
4:12.42
4:12.57
4:13.53
4:08.67
4:15.83
E. Koschik
R. Boutigny
O. Ojanperä
G. Bujarin
L. Rotmann
E. Peniajen
V. Galkov
D. Lewe
T. Wichmann
E. Leue
H. Jakobsen
N. Bujalov
GER
FRA
FIN
URS
ROM
URS
URS
FRG
HUN
GDR
DEN
BUL
5:39.0
5:55.9
5:08.5
5:12.7
4:35.87
4:38.31
4:40.42
4:13.63
4:14.11
4:15.02
4:09.51
4:18.94
Gold Silver Bronze
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
TCH
TCH
DEN
ROM
URS
URS
ROM
URS
URS
ROM
ROM
URS
4:50.1
5:07.1
4:38.3
4:47.4
4:17.94
4:04.64
4:07.18
3:52.60
3:52.76
3:47.65
3:40.60
3:48.36
AUT
USA
TCH
URS
FRA
HUN
ROM
ROM
GDR
YUG
GDR
4:53.8
5:08.2
4:42.9
4:48.6
4:20.77
4:06.52
4:08.77
3:52.63
3:54.28
3:49.93
3:41.56
3:51.44
CAN
FRA
GER
HUN
HUN
DEN
URS
BUL
HUN
URS
FRA
POL
4:56.7
5:15.2
4:48.3
4:54.3
4:20.89
4:07.48
4:11.30
3:58.10
3:55.66
3:51.28
3:48.01
3:54.33
CanoeingMenSlalom k 1
Gold Silver Bronze
1972 S. Horn GDR 268.56 N. Sattler AUT 270.76 H. Gimpel GDR 277.95
CanoeingMenSlalom c1
Gold Silver Bronze
1972 R. Eiben GDR 315. 84 R. Kauder FRG 327.89 J. McEwan USA 335.95
CanoeingMenSlalom c2
Gold Silver Bronze
1972 GDR 310.68 FRG 311.90 FRA 315.10
CanoeingWomenFlat waterk1 500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
K. Hoff
S. Saimo
E. Dementieva
A. Seredina
L. Jvedosiuk
DEN
FIN
URS
URS
URS
2:31.9
2:18.4
2:18.9
2:08.08
2:12.87
A. van derAnker-Doedens
G. Liebbhart
T. Zenz
T. Zenz
H. Lauer
NED
AUT
GER
GER
ROM
2:32.8
2:18.8
2:19.6
2:08.22
2:15.35
F. Schwingl
N. Savina
T. Söby
D. Walkowiak
M. Jones
AUT
URS
DEN
POL
USA
2:32.9
2:21.6
2:22.3
2:10.46
2:15.68
CanoeingMenFlat waterc2 1,000 m
407
ITA
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
L. Pinayeva(Jvedosiuk)
I. Riabchinskaya
C. Zirzow
B. Fischer
A. Andersson
V. Guesheva
URS
URS
GDR
GDR
SWE
URS
2:11.09
2:03.17
2:01.05
1:57.96
1:58.72
1:55.19
Silver
R. Breuer
M. Jaapies
T. Korshunova
V. Guesheva
B. Schüttpelz
B. Schmidt
FRG
NED
URS
BUL
FRG
GDR
2:12.71
2:04.03
2:03.07
1:59.48
1:59.93
1:55.31
Bronze
V. Dumitru
A. Pfeffer
K. Rajnai
A. Melnikova
A. Derckx
I. Dylewska
ROM
HUN
HUN
URS
NED
POL
2:13.22
2:05.50
2:05.01
1:59.66
2:00.11
1:57.38
CanoeingWomenFlat waterk2 500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
URS
GER
FRG
URS
URS
GDR
SWE
GDR
1:54.76
1:56.95
1:56.44
1:53.50
1:51.15
1:43.88
1:45.25
1 :43.46
GER
USA
HUN
GDR
HUN
URS
CAN
BUL
1:56.66
1:59.16
1:58.60
1:54.30
1:51.69
1:46.91
1:47.13
1:44.06
HUN
ROM
URS
ROM
GDR
HUN
FRG
NED
1:58.22
2:00.25
1:58.61
1:55.01
1:51.81
1:47.95
1:47.32
1:46.00
CanoeingWomenFlat waterk4 500 m
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
ROM
GDR
1:38.34
1:40.78
SWE
HUN
1:38.87
1:41.88
CAN
BUL
1:39.40
1:42.63
CanoeingWomenSlalom k1
Gold Silver Bronze
1972 A. Bahmann GDR 364.50 G. Grothaus FRG 398.15 M. Wunderlich FRG 400.50
CyclingMenKilometre time trial
Gold Silver Bronze
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
W. Falck-Hansen
E. Gray
A. van Vliet
J. Dupont
R. Mockridge
L. Faggin
S. Gaiardoni
P. Sercu
P. Trentin
N. Fredborg
K. Grünke
L. Thorns
F. Schmidtke
A. Kiritxenko
DE
AUS
NED
FRA
AUS
ITA
ITA
BEL
FRA
DEN
GDR
GDR
FRG
URS
1:14.4
1:13.0
1:12.0
1:13.5
1:11.1
1:09.8
1:07.27
1:09.59
1:03.91
1:06.44
1:05.927
1:02.955
1:06.10
1:04.499
G. Boschvan Drakestein
J. van Egmond
P. Georget
P. Nihant
M. Morettini
L. Foucek
D. Gieseler
G. Pettenella
N. Fredborg
D. Clark
M. Vaarten
A. Panfilov
C. Harnett
M. Vinnicombe
NED
NED
FRA
BEL
ITA
TCH
GER
ITA
DEN
AUS
BEL
URS
CAN
AUS
1:15.2
1:13.3
1:12.8
1:14.5
1:12.7
1:11.4
1:08.75
1:10.09
1:04.61
1:06.87
1:07.516
1:04.845
1:06.44
1:04.784
E. Gray
G. Rampelbergt
R. Karsch
T. Godwin
R. Robinson
A. Swift
R. Vargashkin
P. Trentin
J. Kierzkowski
J. Schütze
N. Fredborg
D. Weller
F. Colas
R. Lechner
AUS
FRA
GER
GBR
SAF
SAF
URS
FRA
POL
GDR
DEN
JAM
FRA
GDR
1:15.6
1:13.4
1:13.2
1:15.0
1:13.0
1:11.6
1:08.86
1:10.42
1:04.63
1:07.02
1:07.617
1:05.241
1:06.65
1:05.114
CyclingMenSprint
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1920
P. Masson
G. Taillandier
M. Peeters
FRA
FRA
NED
S. Nikolopoulos
F. Sanz
H. T. Johnson
GRE
FRA
GBR
L. Flameng
J.H. Lake
H. Ryan
FRA
USA
GBR
408
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
L. Michard
R. Beaufrand
J. van Egmond
T. Merkens
M. Ghella
E. Sacchi
M. Rousseau
S. Gaiardoni
G. Pettenella
D. Morelon
D. Morelon
A. Tkác
L. Hesslich
M. Gorski
L. Hesslich
FRA
FRA
NED
GER
ITA
ITA
FRA
ITA
ITA
FRA
FRA
TCH
GDR
USA
GDR
Silver
J. Meijer
A. Mazairac
L. Chailtot
A. van Vliet
R. Harris
L. Cox
G. Pesenti
L Sterckx
S. Bianchetto
G. Turrini
J. M. Nicholson
D. Morelon
Y. Cahard
N. Vails
N. Kovshe
NED
NED
FRA
NED
GBR
AUS
ITA
BEL
ITA
ITA
AUS
FRA
FRA
USA
URS
Bronze
J. Cugnot
W. Falck-Hansen
B. Pellizzari
L. Chaillot
A. Schandorff
W. Potzemheim
R. Ploog
V. Gasparella
D. Morelon
P. Trenitn
O. Pjakadze
H. J. Geschke
S. Kopilov
T. Sakamoto
G. Neiwand
FRA
DEN
ITA
FRA
DEN
GER
AUS
ITA
FRA
FRA
URS
GDR
URS
JPN
AUS
CyclingMenIndividual pursuit
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
J. Daler
D. Rebillard
K. Knudsen
G. Braun
R. Dill-Bundi
S. Hegg
G. Umaras
TCH
FRA
NOR
FRG
SUI
USA
URS
5:04.75
4:41.71
4:45.74
4:47.61
4:35.66
4:39.35
4:32.00
G. Ursi
M. F. Jensen
X. Kumann
H. Ponsteen
A. Bondue
R. Golz
D. Woods
ITA
DEN
SUI
NED
FRA
FRG
AUS
5:05.96
4:42.43
4:51.96
4:49.72
4:42.96
4:43.82
4:35.00
P. Isaksson
X. Kurmann
H. Lutz
T. Huschke
H.-H. Örsted
L. H. Nitz
B. Dittert
DEN
SUI
FRG
GDR
DEN
USA
GDR
5:01.90
4:39.42
4:50.80
4:52.71
4:36.54
4:44.03
4:34.17
Bronze medal times are set in a separate race for third place and as such can be faster than those recorded for first or second place.
CyclingMenTeam pursuit
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
ITA
ITA
ITA
ITA
FRA
FRA
ITA
ITA
ITA
GER
DEN
FRG
FRG
URS
AUS
URS
5:20.0
5:15.0
5:01.8
4:53.0
4:45.0
4:57.8
4:46.1
4:37.4
4:30.90
4:35.67
4:22.44
4:22.14
4:21.06
4:15.70
4:25.99
4:13.31
GBR
POL
NED
FRA
ITA
ITA
SAF
FRA
GER
ITA
FRG
GDR
URS
GDR
USA
GDR
5:06.2
4:55.7
4:51.0
5:36.7
4:53.6
4:39.4
4:35.78
4:35.74
4:18.94
4:25.25
4:27.15
4:19.67
4:29.85
4:14.09
SAF
BEL
GBR
GBR
GBR
GBR
GBR
GBR
URS
NED
ITA
GBR
GBR
5:02.4
4:56.0
4:53.6
4:55.8
4:51.5
4:42.2
4:34.05
4:38.99
4:18.35
4:23.78
4:22.41
TCH
FRG
AUS
4:25.60
4:16.02
Bronze medal times are set in a separate race for third place and as such can be faster than those recorded for first or second place. The Federal Republic of Germanywon the final of the 1968 Games but were disqualified. In 1980 Italy were disqualified from the third place race.
CyclingMenIndividual points race
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
R. llegems
D. Frost
BEL
DEN
U. Messerschmidt
L. Peelen
FRG
NED
J. M. Youshimatz
M. Ganeyev
MEX
URS
409
CyclingMenIndividual road race
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Konstantinidis
H. Lewis
H. Stenqvist
A. Blanchonnet
H. Hansen
A. Pavesi
R. Charpentier
J. Beyaert
A. Noyelle
E. Baldini
V. Kapitonov
M. Zanin
P. Vianelli
H. Kuiper
B. Johansson
S. Sujoruchenkov
A. Grewal
O. Ludwig
GRE
SAF
SWE
FRA
DEN
ITA
FRA
FRA
BEL
ITA
URS
ITA
ITA
NED
SWE
URS
USA
GDR
3:22:31.0
10:42:39.0
4:40:01.8
6:20:48.0
4:47:18.0
2:28:05.6
2:33:05.0
5:18:12.6
5:06:03.4
5:21:17.0
4:20:37.0
4:39:51.63
4:41:25.24
4:14:37.0
4:46:52.0
4:48:28.9
4:59:57
4:32:22
A. Goedrich
F. Grubb
H. J. Kaltenbrun
H. Hoevenaers
F. W. Southall
G. Segato
G. Lapébie
G. P. Voorting
R. Grondelaers
A. Geyre
L. Trapè
K. A. Rodian
L. Mortensen
K. C. Sefton
G. Martinelli
C. Lang
S. Bauer
B. Gröne
GER
GBR
SAF
BEL
GBR
ITA
FRA
NED
BEL
FRA
ITA
DEN
DEN
AUS
ITA
POL
CAN
FRG
3:42:18.0
10:51:24.2
4:41:26.6
6:30:27.0
4:55:06.0
2:29:21.4
2:33:05.2
5:18:16.2
5:06:51.2
5:23:16.0
4:20:37.0
4:39:51.65
4:42:49.71
4:15:04.0
4:47:23.0
4:51:26.9
4:59:57
4:32:46
F. Battel
C. Schutte
F. Canteloube
R. Hamel
G. Carlsson
B. Britz
E. Nievergelt
L. Wouters
E. Ziegler
A. Jackson
W. van den Berghen
W. Godefroot
G. Pettersson
B. Diddle
M. Nowicki
Y. Barinov
D. O. Lauritzen
C. Henn
GBR
USA
FRA
FRA
SWE
SWE
SUI
BEL
GER
GBR
BEL
BEL
SWE
NZE
POL
URS
NOR
FRG
10:52:38.8
4:42:54.4
6:30:51.6
5:00:17.0
2:29:45.2
2:33:05.8
5:18:16.2
5:07:47.5
5:23:16.0
4:20:57.0
4:39:51.74
4:43:15.24
4:15:04.0
4:47:23.0
4:51:26.9
5:00:18
4:32:46
This event has taken place over the following distances: 1896: 87 km. 1912: 320 km. 1920:175 km. 1924:188 km. 1928:168 km. 1932:100 km. 1936:100 km 1948:194.63 km. 1952: 190.4 km. 1956: 187.73 km. 1960: 175.38 km. 1964: 194.83 km. 1968: 162.2 km. 1972: 200 km. 1976: 175 km. 1980: 189 km. 1984: 190.2 km.1988: 196.80. In 1972 the Spanish team member J. Huélamo, who obtained third place, was disqualified for doping and the bronze medal was awarded to the NewZealander B. Biddle.
CyclingMenTeam road race
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
SWE
FRA
FRA
DEN
ITA
FRA
BEL
BEL
FRA
44:35:33.6
19:16:43.2
19:30:14.0
15:09:14.0
7:27:15.2
7:39:16.2
15:58:17.4
15:20:46.6
22
GBR
SWE
BEL
GBR
DEN
SUI
GBR
ITA
GBR
44:44:39.2
19:23:10.0
19:46:55.4
15:14:49.0
7:38:50.2
7:39:20.4
16:03:31.6
15:33:27.3
23
USA
BEL
SWE
SWE
SWE
BEL
FRA
FRA
GER
44:47:55.5
19:28:44.4
19:59:41.6
15:27:49.0
7:39:12.6
7:39:21.0
16:08:19.4
15:38:58.1
27
This event was substituted by the 100 km team trial from the 1960 Games onward. It was held together with the individual road race.
CyclingMen100 km team time trial
Gold Silver Bronze
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
ITA
NED
NED
URS
URS
URS
ITA
GDR
2:14:33.53
2:26:31.19
2:07:49.06
2:11:17.8
2:08:53
2:01:21.7
1:58:28
1:57:47.7
GER
ITA
SWE
POL
POL
GDR
SUI
POL
2:16:56.31
2:26:55.39
2:09:26.60
2:11:47.5
2:09:13
2:02:53.2
2:02:38
1:57:54.2
URS
SWE
ITA
BEL
DEN
TCH
USA
SWE
2:18:41.67
2:27:11.52
2:10:18.74
2:12:36.7
2:12:20
2:02:53.9
2:02:46
1:59:47.3
The distance was 109.89 km in 1964 and 104 km in 1968. The Netherlands team finished in third place in 1972 but were disqualified for doping. The bronze medal wassubsequently awarded to the Belgian team.
CyclingWomenSprint
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 E. Salumäe URS C. Rothenburguer GDR C. Paraskevin-Young USA
410
CyclingWomen
Individual road race
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
C. Carpenter-Phinney USA
M. Knol NED
2:11:14
2:00:52
R. Twigg
J. Niehaus
USA
FRG
2:11:14
2:00:52
S. Schumacher
L. Zilporitee
FRG
URS
2:11:14
2:00:52
This event has been held over the following distances: 1984: 79.2 km. 1988: 82 km.
Equestrian SportsIndividual dressage
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
C. Bonde (Emperor)
J. Lundblad (Uno)
E. Linder (Piccolomini)
C. F. von Langen-Parow (Draufgänger)
X. Lesage (Taine)
H. Pollay (Kronos)
H. Moser (Hummer)
H. Saint Cyr (Master Rufus)
H. Saint Cyr (Juli)
S. Filatov (Absent)
H. Chammartin (Woermann)
I. Kizimov (Ijor)
L. Linsenhoff (Piaff)
C. Stückelberger (Granat)
E. Theurer (Mon Chéri)
R. Klimke (Ahlerich)
N. Uphoff (Rembrandt)
SWE
SWE
SWE
GER
FRA
GER
SUI
SWE
SWE
URS
SUI
URS
FRG
SUI
AUT
FRG
FRG
15
27.937
276.4
237.42
343.75
1.760
492.5
561.0
860.0
2,144
1,504
1,572
1,299
1,486
1,370
1,504
1,521
G. A. Boltenstem (Neptun)
B. Sandström (Sabel)
B. Sandström (Sabel)
C. Marion (Linon)
C. Marion (Linon)
F. Gerhard (Absinth)
A. Jousseaume (Harpagon)
L. Hartel (Jubilee)
L. Hartel (Jubilee)
G. Fischer (Wald)
H. Boldt (Remus)
J. Neckermann (Mariano)
E. Petushkova (Pepel)
H. Boldt (Woycek)
I. Kovshov (Igrok)
A. G. Jensen (Marzog)
M. Otto-Crépin (Coriandus)
SWE
SWE
SWE
FRA
FRA
GER
FRA
DEN
DEN
SUI
GER
FRG
URS
FRG
URS
DEN
FRA
21
26.312
275.8
231.00
305.42
1,745.5
480.0
541.5
850.0
2,087
1,503
1,546
1,185
1,435
1,300
1,442
1,462
H. von Blixen-Finecke (Maggie)
H. von Rosen (Running Sister)
X. Lesage (Plumarol)
R. Olson (Günstling)
H. Tuttle (Olympic)
A. Podhajsky (Nero)
G. A. Boltenstem Jr. (Trumf)
A. Jousseaume (Harpagon)
L. Linsenhoff (Adular)
J. Neckermann (Asbach)
S. Filatov (Absent)
R. Klimke (Dux)
J. Neckermann (Venetia)
R. Klimke (Mehmed)
V. Ugriumov (Shjval)
O. Hofer (Limandus)
C. Stückelberger(Gauguin de Lully)
SWE
SWE
FRA
SWE
USA
AUT
SWE
FRA
GER
GER
URS
FRG
FRG
FRG
URS
SUI
SUI
32
25.125
265.8
229.78
300.50
1,721.5
447.5
541.0
832.0
2,082
1,486
1,537
1,177
1,395
1,234
1,364
1,417
Equestrian SportsTeam dressage
Gold Silver Bronze
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
GER
FRA
GER
FRA
SWE
SWE
GER
FRG
URS
FRG
URS
FRG
FRG
669.72
2,818.75
5,074.0
1,269.0
1,593.0
2,475
2,558
2,699
5,095
5,155
4,383
4,955
4,302
SWE
SWE
FRA
USA
SUI
GER
SUI
URS
FRG
SUI
BUL
SUI
SUI
650.86
2,678.00
4,856.0
1,256.0
1,575.0
2,346
2,526
2,657
5,083
4,684
3,580
4,673
4,164
NED
USA
SWE
POR
GER
SUI
URS
SUI
SWE
USA
ROM
SWE
CAN
642.96
2,576.75
4,660.5
1,182.0
1,501.0
2,346
2,311
2,547
4,849
4,647
3,346
4,630
3,969
The Swiss team won the 1948 event with 1,366 points but were disqualified the following year.
Equestrian SportsIndividual three-day event
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
A. Nordlander (Lady Artist)
H. Mörner (Germania)
A. v. d. Voort van Zijp(Silver Piece)
C. Pahud de Mortange(Marcroix)
C. Pahud de Mortange(Marcroix)
L. Stubbendorff (Nurmi)
B. Chevalier (Aiglonne)
H. von Blixen-Finecke Jr. (Jubal)
P. Kastenman (Iluster)
SWE
SWE
NED
NED
NED
GER
FRA
SWE
SWE
46.59
1,775.00
1,976.00
1,969.82
1,813.83
-37.70
+4
-28.33
-66.53
F. von Rochow (Idealist)
A. Lundström (Yrsa)
F. Kirkebjerg (Meteor)
G. de Kruyff (Va-t-en)
E. Thompson (Jenny Camp)
E. Thomson (Jenny Camp)
F. Henry (Swing Low)
G. Lefrant (Verdun)
A. Lütke-Westhues(Trux von Kamax)
GER
SWE
DEN
NED
USA
USA
USA
FRA
GER
46.42
1,738.75
1,873.50
1,967.26
1,811.00
-99.90
-21
-54.50
-84.87
J. Cariou (Cocotte)
E. Caffaratti (Caniche)
S. Doak (Pathfinder)
B. Neuman (llja)
C. von Rosen(Sunnyside Maid)
H. Mathiesen-Lunding (Jason)
R. Selfelt (Claque)
W. Büsing (Hubertus)
F. Weldon (Kibarry)
FRA
ITA
USA
GER
SWE
DEN
SWE
RFA
GBR
46.32
1,733.75
1,845.50
1,944.42
1,809.42
-102.20
-25
-55.50
-85.48
411
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
L. Morgan (Salad Days)
M. Checcoli (Surbean)
J.-J. Guyon (Pitou)
R. Meade (Laurieston)
E. Coffin (Bally-Cor)
F. E. Roman (Rossinan)
M. Todd (Charisma)
M. Todd (Charisma)
AUS
ITA
FRA
GBR
USA
ITA
NZL
NZL
+7.15
+64.40
-38.86
-57.73
-114.99
-108.60
-51.60
-42.60
Silver
N. Lavis (Mirrabooka)
C. Moratorio (Chalan)
D. Allhusen (Lochinvar)
A. Argenton (Woodland)
J. M. Plumb (Better & Better)
A. Blinov (Galzun)
K. Stives (Ben Arthur)
I. Stark (Sir Wattie)
AUS
ARG
GBR
ITA
USA
URS
USA
GBR
-16.50
+56.40
-41.61
-43.33
-125.85
-120.80
-54.20
-52.80
Bronze
A. Bühler (Gay Spark)
F. Ligges (Donkosak)
M. Page (Foster)
J. Jönsson (Sarajevo)
K. Schultz (Madrigal)
Y. Salnikov (Pintset)
V. Holgate (Priceless)
V. Leng (Master Craftsman)
SUI
GER
USA
SWE
FRG
URS
GBR
GBR
-51.21
+49.20
-52.31
-39.67
-129.45
-151.60
-56.80
-62.00
Equestrian SportsTeam three-day event
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
SWE
SWE
NED
NED
USA
GER
USA
SWE
GBR
AUT
ITA
GBR
GBR
USA
URS
USA
FRG
139.06
5,057.50
5,297.50
5,865.68
5,038.08
-676.65
-161.50
-221.94
-355.48
-128.18
+85.80
-175.93
+95.53
-441.00
-457.00
-186.00
-225.95
GER
ITA
SWE
NOR
NED
POL
SWE
GER
GER
SUI
USA
USA
USA
FRG
ITA
GBR
GBR
138.48
4,735.00
4,743.50
5,395.68
4,689.08
-991.70
-165.00
-235.49
-475.91
-386.02
+65.86
-245.87
+10.81
-584.60
-656.20
-189.20
-256.80
USA
BEL
ITA
POL
137.33
4,560.00
4,515.00
5,067.92
GBR
MEX
USA
CAN
FRA
GER
AUT
FRG
AUT
MEX
FRG
NZL
-9,195.50
-305.25
-587.16
-572.72
-515.71
+56.73
-331.26
-18.00
-599.54
-1,172.85
-234.00
-271.20
The other two teams which participated in the 1932 event withdrew from the competition.
Equestrian SportsIndividual jumping
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Haegeman (Benton II)
J. Cariou (Mignon)
T. Lequio (Trebecco)
A. Gemuseus (Lucette)
F. Ventura (Eliot)
T. Nishi (Uranus)
K. Hasse (Tora)
H. Mariles (Arete)
P. Jonquères d'Oriola (Ali Baba)
H.-G. Winkler (Halla)
R. d'lnzeo (Posillipo)
P. Jonquères d'Oriola (Lutteur B)
W. Steinkraus (Snowbound)
G. Mancinelli (Ambassador)
A. Schockemöhle (Warwick Rex)
J. Kowalczyk (Artemor)
J. Fargis (Touch of Class)
P. Durand (Jappeloup)
BEL
FRA
ITA
SUI
TCH
JPN
GER
MEX
FRA
GER
ITA
FRA
USA
ITA
FRG
POL
USA
FRA
2:16.0
4
2 faults
6 faults
0 faults
8 faults
4 faults
6.25 faults
8 faults
4 faults
12 faults
9 faults
4 faults
8 faults
0 faults
8 faults
4 faults
1 faults
G. van de Poele(Windsor Squire)
R. W. von Kröcher (Donna)
A. Valerio (Cento)
T. Lequio (Trebecco)
P. Bertran de Balanda(Papillon)
H. Chamberlin (Show Girl)
H. Rang (Delfis)
R. Uriza (Harvey)
O. Crìsti (Bambi)
R. d'lnzeo (Merano)
P. d'lnzeo (The Rock)
H. Schridde (Dozent II)
M. Coakes (Stroller)
A. Moore (Psalm)
M. Vaillancourt(Branch County)
N. Korolkov (Espadron)
C. Homfeld (Abdullah)
G. Best (Gem Twist)
BEL
GER
ITA
ITA
FRA
USA
ROM
MEX
CHI
ITA
ITA
GER
GBR
GBR
CAN
URS
USA
USA
2:17.6.
4
3 faults
8.75 faults
2 faults
12 faults
4 faults
8 faults
8 faults
8 faults
16 faults
13.75 faults
8 faults
8 faults
12 faults
9 faults
4 faults
4 faults
M. Champsavin(Terpsichore)
E. Blommaert de Soye(Ctonmore)
C. G. Lewenhaupt(Mon Coeur)
A. Królikiewicz (Picador)
C. Kuhn (Pepita)
C. von Rosen (Empire)
J. Platthy (Sellö)
J. F. d'Orgeix(Sucre Pomme)
F. Thìedermann (Meteor)
P. d'lnzeo (Uruguay)
D. Broome (Sunsalve)
P. Robeson (Firecrest)
D. Broome (Mister Softee)
N. Shapiro (Sloopy)
F. Mathy (Gai Luron)
J. Pérez Heras (Alymony)
H. Robbiani (Jessica V)
K. Huck (Nepomuk 8)
FRA
BEL
SWE
POL
SUI
SWE
HUN
FRA
GER
ITA
GBR
GBR
GBR
USA
BEL
MEX
SUI
FRG
2:26.0
5
4 faults
10 faults
4 faults
16 faults
8 faults
8 faults
8 faults
11 faults
23 faults
16 faults
12 faults
8 faults
12 faults
12 faults
8 faults
4 faults
412
Equestrian SportsTeam jumping
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
SWE
SWE
SWE
ESP
GER
MEX
GBR
GER
GER
GER
CAN
FRG
FRA
URS
USA
FRG
25
14 faults
42.25 faults
4 faults
44 faults
34.25 faults
40.75 faults
40 faults
46.5 faults
68.50 faults
102.75 faults
32.00 faults
40 faults
20.25 faults
12.00 faults
17.25 faults
FRA
BEL
SUI
POL
NED
ESP
CHI
ITA
USA
FRA
FRA
USA
FRG
POL
GBR
USA
32
16.25 faults
80 faults
8 faults
51.5 faults
56.5 faults
45.75 faults
66 faults
66 faults
77.75 faults
110.50 faults
32.25 faults
44 faults
56.00 faults
36.75 faults
20.50 faults
GER
ITA
POR
SWE
POR
GBR
USA
GBR
ITA
ITA
FRG
ITA
BEL
MEX
FRG
FRA
40
18.75 faults
53 faults
10 faults
56 faults
67 faults
52.25 faults
69 faults
80.5 faults
88.50 faults
117.25 faults
48.00 faults
63 faults
59.75 faults
39.25 faults
27.50 faults
None of the teams participating in the 1932 event were able to complete the course with three riders.
FencingMenIndividual foil
Gold Wins Silver Wins Bronze Wins
1896
1900
1904
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E.-H. Gravetotte
E. Coste
R. Fonst
N. Nadi
N. Nadi
R. Ducret
L. Gaudin
G. Marzi
G. Gaudini
J. Buhan
C. d'Oriola
C. d'Oriola
V. Zhdanovich
E. Franke
I. Drimba
W. Woyda
F. dal Zotto
V. Smimov
M. Numa
S. Cerioni
FRA
FRA
CUB
ITA
ITA
FRA
FRA
ITA
ITA
FRA
FRA
FRA
URS
POL
ROM
POL
ITA
URS
ITA
ITA
4
6
3
7
10
6
9
9
7
7
8
6
7
3
4
5
4
4
H. Callot
H. Masson
A. Van Zo Post
P. Speciale
P. Cattiau
P. Cattiau
E. Casmir
J. Levis
E. Gardère
C. d'Oriola
E. Mangiarotti
G. Bergamini
Y. Sissikin
J.-C. Magnan
J. Kamuti
J. Kamuti
A. Romankov
P. Jolyot
M. Behr
U. Wagner
FRA
FRA
USA
ITA
FRA
FRA
GER
USA
FRA
FRA
ITA
ITA
URS
FRA
HUN
HUN
URS
FRA
FRG
GDR
3
5
2
5
9
5
9
6
6
5
6
5
4
2
3
4
4
4
L. Pierrakos
J. Boulenger
C. Tatham
R. Verderber
R. Ducret
M. van Damme
G. Gaudini
G. Gaudini
G. Bocchino
L. Maszlay
M. di Rosa
A. Spallino
A. Axelrod
D. Revenu
D. Revenu
C. Noel
B. Talvard
A. Romankov
S. Cerioni
A. Romankov
GRE
FRA
USA
AUT
FRA
BEL
ITA
ITA
ITA
HUN
ITA
ITA
USA
FRA
FRA
FRA
FRA
URS
ITA
URS
2
4
1
4
9
4
9
5
4
4
5
5
3
1
3
2
3
4
FencingMenIndividual sabre
Gold Wins Silver Wins Bronze Wins
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
I. Giorgìadis
G. de la Falaise
M. Díaz
J. Fuchs
J. Fuchs
N. Nadi
S. Posta
Ö. Tersztyánszky
G. Piller
E. Kabos
A. Gerevich
P. Kovács
R. Kárpáti
R. Kárpáti
T. Pesza
GRE
FRA
CUB
HUN
HUN
ITA
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
4
3
6
6
11
5
9
8
7
7
8
6
5
2
T. Karakalos
L. Thiébaut
W. Grebe
B. Zulasvsky
B. Békéssey
A. Nadi
R. Ducret
A. Petschauer
G. Gaudini
G. Marzi
V. Pinton
A. Gerevich
J. Pawlowski
Z. Horváth
C. Arabo
GRE
FRA
USA
HUN
HUN
ITA
FRA
HUN
ITA
ITA
ITA
HUN
POL
HUN
FRA
3
2
6
5
9
5
9
7
6
5
7
5
4
2
H. Nielsen
S. Flesch
A. Van Zo Post
V. Goppold von Lobsdorf
E. Mészáros
A. de Jong
J. Garay
B. Bini
E. Kabos
A. Gerevich
P. Kovács
T. Berczelly
L. Kuznetsov
W. Calarese
U. Mavlijanov
DEN
AUT
USA
BOH
HUN
NED
HUN
ITA
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
URS
ITA
URS
2
2
4
5
7
5
8
5
6
5
5
4
4
1
413
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
J. Pawlowski
V. Sidiak
V. Krovopuskov
V. Krovopuskov
J. F. Lamour
J. F. Lamour
POL
URS
URS
URS
FRA
FRA
4
4
5
4
Silver
M. Rakita
P. Maroth
V. Nazlimov
M. Burtsev
M. Marín
J. Olech
URS
HUN
URS
URS
ITA
POL
4
3
4
4
Bronze
T. Pésza
V. Nazimov
V. Sidiak
I. Gedövári
P. Westbrook
G. Scalzo
HUN
URS
URS
HUN
USA
ITA
3
3
3
3
FencingMenIndividual epee
Gold Wins Silver Wins Bronze Wins
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
R. Fonst
R. Fonst
G. Alibert
P. Anspach
A. Massard
C. Delporte
L. Gaudin
G. Cornaggia-Medici
F. Riccardi
L. Cantone
E. Mangiarotti
C. Pavesi
G. Delfino
G. Kriss
G. Kulcsár
C. Fenyvesi
A. Pusch
J. Harmenberg
P. Boisse
A. Schmitt
CUB
CUB
FRA
BEL
FRA
BEL
FRA
ITA
ITA
ITA
ITA
ITA
ITA
URS
HUN
HUN
FRG
SWE
FRA
FRG
5
6
9
8
8
8
5
7
7
5
5
2
4
4
3
4
L. Perrée
C. Tatham
A. Lippmann
I. Osiier
A. Lippmann
R. Ducret
G. Buchard
G. Buchard
S. Ragno
O. Zappelli
D. Mangiarotti
G. Delfino
A. Jay
W. Hoskyns
G. Kriss
J. La Degaillerie
J. Hehn
E. Kolczonay
B. Väggö
P. Riboud
FRA
USA
FRA
DEN
FRA
FRA
FRA
FRA
ITA
SUI
ITA
ITA
GBR
GBR
URS
FRA
FRG
HUN
SWE
FRA
4
5
7
7
7
8
6
5
6
5
5
2
4
3
3
3
L. Sée
A. Van Zo Post
E. Olivier
P. Le Hardy de Beaulieu
G. Buchard
N. Hellsten
G. Calnan
C. Agostoni
G. Cornaggia-Medici
E. Mangiarotti
O. Zappelli
E. Mangiarotti
B. Jabarov
G. Kostava
G. Saccaro
G. Kulcsár
G. Kulcsár
P. Riboud
P. Riboud
A. Shuvalov
FRA
USA
FRA
BEL
FRA
SWE
USA
ITA
ITA
ITA
SUI
ITA
URS
URS
ITA
HUN
HUN
FRA
FRA
URS
4
4
6
7
6
7
6
5
6
5
4
1
4
3
3
3
FencingMenTeam Foil
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
ITA
FRA
ITA
FRA
ITA
FRA
FRA
ITA
URS
URS
FRA
POL
FRG
FRA
ITA
URS
FRA
BEL
FRA
ITA
FRA
ITA
ITA
FRA
ITA
POL
URS
URS
ITA
URS
FRG
FRG
USA
HUN
ARG
USA
GER
BEL
HUN
HUN
GER
FRA
POL
FRA
FRA
POL
FRA
HUN
Only one competion was held at the 1904 Games. It was won by a mixed team (Cuba and the United States of America) which fenced against a team from the UnitedStates of America.
FencingMenTeam sabre
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
HUN
HUN
ITA
ITA
ITA
AUT
FRA
HUN
BOH
NED
NED
NED
414
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
HUN
URS
URS
ITA
URS
URS
ITA
HUN
Silver
ITA
ITA
ITA
ITA
ITA
POL
POL
ITA
ITA
URS
ITA
ITA
FRA
URS
Bronze
POL
POL
GER
USA
FRA
URS
ITA
POL
HUN
HUN
ROM
HUN
ROM
ITA
FencingMenTeam epee
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
FRA
BEL
ITA
FRA
ITA
FRA
ITA
FRA
ITA
ITA
ITA
HUN
HUN
HUN
SWE
FRA
FRG
FRA
GBR
GBR
BEL
BEL
FRA
ITA
SWE
ITA
SWE
HUN
GBR
ITA
URS
SUI
FRG
POL
FRA
FRG
BEL
NED
FRA
ITA
POR
USA
FRA
SWE
SUI
FRA
URS
FRA
POL
URS
SUI
URS
ITA
URS
FencingWomen
Individual foil
Gold Wins Silver Wins Bronze
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Osiier
H. Mayer
E. Preis
I. Schacherer-EIek
I. Elek
I. Camber
G. Sheen
H. Schmid
I. Ujlaki-Rejtö
E. Novikova
A. Ragno-Lonzi
I. Schwarczenberger
P. Trinquet
Luan Jujie
A. Fichtel
DEN
GER
AUT
HUN
HUN
ITA
GBR
GER
HUN
URS
ITA
HUN
FRA
CHN
FRG
5
7
8
6
6
5
6
6
2
4
4
4
4
G. Davis
M. Freeman
J. H. Guiness
H. Mayer
K. Lachmann
I. Elek
O. Orban
V. Rastvorova
H. Mees
M. P. Roldán
I. Bóbis
M. C. Collino
M. Maros
C. Hanish
S. Bau
GBR
GBR
GBR
GER
DEN
HUN
ROM
URS
GER
MEX
HUN
ITA
HUN
FRG
FRG
4
6
8
5
5
5
6
5
2
3
3
4
3
G. Heckscher
O. Oelkers
E. Bogáthy Bogen
E. Preis
E. Müller-Preis
K. Lachmann
R. Garilhe
M. Vicol
A. Ragno
I. Ujlaki-Rejtö
G. Gorojova
E. Belova (Novikova)
B. Wysocsañska
D. Vaccaroni
Z. Funkenhauser
DEN
GER
HUN
AUT
AUT
DEN
FRA
ROM
ITA
HUN
URS
URS
POL
ITA
FRG
3
4
7
5
5
4
5
4
2
3
3
3
3
415
Up until the 1932 Games this event was often very different from the modem day format.
FencingWomen
Team foil
Gold Silver Bronze
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
URS
HUN
URS
URS
URS
FRA
FRG
FRG
HUN
URS
HUN
HUN
FRA
URS
ROM
ITA
ITA
GER
ROM
ROM
HUN
HUN
FRA
HUN
Football
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
GBR
CAN
GBR
GBR
BEL
URU
URU
ITA
SWE
HUN
URS
YUG
HUN
HUN
POL
GDR
TCH
FRA
URS
FRA
USA
DEN
DEN
ESP
SUI
ARG
AUT
YUG
YUG
YUG
DEN
TCH
BUL
HUN
POL
GDR
BRA
BRA
BEL
USA
NED
NED
NED
SWE
ITA
NOR
DEN
SWE
BUL
HUN
GER
JAP
GDRURS
URS
URS
YUG
FRG
At the Games held in 1900 and 1904 the majority of medals were awarded to club teams rather than teams representing their country.
GymnasticsMenArtistic GymnasticsTeam competition
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
USA
SWE
ITA
ITA
ITA
SUI
ITA
GER
FIN
URS
URS
JAP
JAP
JAP
JAP
JAP
URS
USA
URS
374.43
438.000
265.75
359.855
839.058
1,718.625
541.850
657.430
1,358.30
574.40
568.25
575.20
577.95
575.90
571.25
576.85
598.60
591.40
593.35
USA
NOR
HUN
BEL
FRA
TCH
USA
SUI
SUI
SUI
JAP
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
GDR
CHN
GDR
356.37
425.000
227.25
346.785
820.528
1,712.250
522.275
654.802
1,356.70
567.50
566.40
572.70
575.45
571.10
564.05
576.45
581.15
590.80
588.45
USA
FIN
GBR
FRA
SUI
YUG
FIN
FIN
HUN
FIN
FIN
ITA
GER
GDR
GDR
GDR
HUN
JAP
JAP
349.69
405.000
184.50
340.100
816.661
1,648.750
509.995
638.468
1,330.85
564.20
555.95
559.05
565.10
557.15
559.70
564.65
575.00
586.70
585.60
416
GymnasticsMen
Artistic gymnasticsIndividual all-round competition
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
G. Sandras
J. Lenhart
A. Braglia
A. Braglia
G. Zampori
L. Štukelj
G. Miez
R. Neri
A. Schwarzmann
V. Huhtanen
V. Chukarin
V. Chukarin
B. Shajlin
Y. Endo
S. Kato
S. Kato
N. Andrianov
A. Ditiatin
K. Gushiken
V. Artemov
FRA
AUT
ITA
ITA
ITA
YUG
SUI
ITA
GER
FIN
URS
URS
URS
JPN
JPN
JPN
URS
URS
JPN
URS
302
69.80
317
135.0
88.35
110.340
247.500
140.625
113.100
229.70
115.70
114.25
115.95
115.95
115.90
114.650
116.650
118.650
118.700
119.125
N. Bas
W. Weber
S. W. Tysal
L. Ségura
M. Torres
R. Pražák
H Hänggi
I. Pelle
E. Mack
W. Lehmann
G. Shaguinian
T. Ono
T. Ono
S. TsurumiV. LisitskiB. Shajlin
M. Voronin
E. Kenmotsu
S. Kato
N. Andrianov
P. Vidmar
V. Liukin
FRA
GER
GBR
FRA
FRA
TCH
SUI
HUN
SUI
SUI
URS
JPN
JPN
JPNURSURS
URS
JPN
JPN
URS
USA
URS
295
69.10
312
132.5
87.62
110.323
246.625
134.925
112.334
229.00
114.95
114.20
115.90
115.40115.40115.40
115.85
114.575
115.650
118.225
118.675
119.025
L. Démanet
A. Spinnler
L. Ségura
A. Tunesi
J. Gounot
B. Šupcik
L. Štukelj
H. Savolainen
K. Frey
P. Aaltonen
J. Stalder
Y. Titov
Y. Titov
FRA
SUI
FRA
ITA
FRA
TCH
YUG
FIN
GER
FIN
SUI
URS
URS
293
67.99
297
131.5
87.45
106.930
244.875
134.575
111.532
228.80
114.75
113.80
115.60
A. Nakayama
A. Nakayama
M. Tsukahara
S. Deltchev
Li Ning
D. Bilozerchev
JPN
JPN
JPN
BUL
CHN
URS
115.65
114.325
115.575
118.000
118.575
118.975
Up until the 1932 Games this event was often very different from the modern day format.
GymnasticsMenArtistic gymnasticsFloor exercices
Gold Silver Bronze
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
I. Pelle
G. Miez
F. Pataki
K. W. Thoresson
V. Muratov
N. Aihara
F. Menichelli
S. Kato
N. Andrianov
N. Andrianov
R. Bruckner
Li Ning
S. Jarimov
HUN
SUI
HUN
SWE
URS
JPN
ITA
JPN
URS
URS
GDR
CHN
URS
9.60
18.666
38.70
19.25
19.20
19.450
19.450
19.475
19.175
19.450
19.750
19.925
19.925
G. Miez
J. Walter
J. Mogyorósi-Klencs
T. UesakoJ. Jokiel
N. AiharaK. W. ThoressonV. Chukarin
Y. Titov
V. LisitskiY. Endo
A. Nakayama
A. Nakayama
V. Marchenko
N. Andrianov
Lou Yun
V. Artemov
SUI
SUI
HUN
JPNPOL
JPNSWEURS
URS
URSJPN
JPN
JPN
URS
URS
CHN
URS
9.47
18.500
38.40
19.1519.15
19.1019.1019.10
19.325
19.35019.350
19.400
19.125
19.425
19.725
19.775
19.900
M. Lertora
K. FreyE. Mack
Z. Ružicka
F. Menichelli
T. Kato
S. Kasamatsu
P. Kormann
A. Ditiatin
K. SotomuraP. Vatuone
Lou YunY. Iketani
ITA
GERSUI
TCH
ITA
JPN
JPN
USA
URS
JPNFRA
CHNJPN
9.23
18.46618.466
38.10
19.275
19.275
19.025
19.300
19.700
19.70019.700
19.85019.850
GymnasticsMenArtistic GymnasticPommel Horse
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1904
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
J. Zutter
A. Heida
J. Wihelm
H. Hänggi
I. Pelle
K. Frey
P. AaltonenV. HuhtanenH. Savolainen
V. Chukarin
SUI
USA
SUI
SUI
HUN
GER
FINFINFIN
URS
42
21.23
19.75
19.07
19.333
38.7038.7038.70
19.50
H. Weingärtner
G. Eyser
J. Gutweniger
G. Miez
O. Bonoli
E. Mack
GER
USA
SUI
SUI
ITA
SUI
33
21.13
19.25
18.87
19.167
E. KorolkovG. Shaguinian
URSURS
19.4019.40
W. Merz
A. Rebetez
H. Savolainen
F. Haubold
A. Bachmann
USA
SUI
FIN
USA
SUI
29
20.73
18.83
18.57
19.067
417
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
B. Shajlin
E. EkmanB. Shajlin
M. Cerar
M. Cerar
V. Klimenko
Z. Magyar
Z. Magyar
Li NingP. Vidmar
L. GueraskovZ. BorkaiD. Bilozerchev
URS
FINURS
YUG
YUG
URS
HUN
HUN
CHNUSA
BULHUNURS
19.25
19.37519.375
19.525
19.325
19.125
19.700
19.925
19.95019.950
19.95019.95019.950
Silver
T. Ono JPN 19.20
S. Tsurumi
O. E. Laiho
S. Kato
E. Kenmotsu
A. Ditiatin
JPN
FIN
JPN
JPN
URS
19.325
19.225
19.000
19.575
19.800
Bronze
V. Chukarin
S. Tsurumi
Y. Tsapenko
M. Voronin
E. Kenmotsu
N. Andrianov
M. Nikolay
T. Daggett
URS
JPN
URS
URS
JPN
URS
GDR
USA
19.10
19.150
. 19.200
19.200
18.950
19.525
19.775
19.825
In 1948, despite three gold medals being awarded, L. Zanetti and G. Figore received their respective silver and bronze medals in accordance with the rules current atthat time.
GymnasticsMenArtistic gymnasticsRings
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1904
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
I. Mitropoulos
H. Glass
F. Martino
L. Štukelj
G. Gulack
A. Hudec
K. Frei
G. Shaguinian
A. Azarian
A. Azarian
T. Hayata
A. Nakayama
A. Nakayama
N. Andrianov
A. Ditiatin
K. GushikenLi Ning
H. BehrendtD. Bilozerchev
GRE
USA
ITA
YUG
USA
TCH
SUI
URS
URS
URS
JPN
JPN
JPN
URS
URS
JPNCHN
GDRURS
45
21.553
19.25
18.97
19.43
39.60
19.75
19.35
19.725
19.475
19.450
19.350
19.650
19.875
19.85019.850
19.99519.925
H. Weingärtner
W. Merz
R. Pražák
L. Vácha
W. Denton
L. Štukelj
M. Reusch
V. Chukarin
V. Muratov
B. Shajlin
F. Menichelli
M. Voronin
M. Voronin
A. Ditiatin
A. Tkachiov
GER
USA
TCH
TCH
USA
YUG
SUI
URS
URS
URS
ITA
URS
URS
URS
URS
39
21.483
19.17
18.60
18.867
39.10
19.55
19.15
19.500
19.425
19.325
19.275
19.550
19.725
P. Persakis
E. Voigt
L. Vácha
E. Loffler
G. Lattuada
M. Volz
Z. Ružicka
H. EugsterD. Leonkin
M. TakemotoM. Kubota
V. KapsazovT. Ono
B. Shajlin
S. Kato
M. Tsukahara
D. Grecu
J. Tabák
M. Gaylord
S. Tippelt
GRE
USA
TCH
TCH
ITA
GER
TCH
SUIURS
JPNJPN
BULJPN
URS
JPN
JPN
ROM
TCH
USA
GDR
32
21.430
18.83
18.50
18.667
38.50
19.4019.40
19.1019.10
19.42519.425
19.400
19.225
19.225
19.500
19.600
19.825
19.875
GymnasticsMenArtistic gymnasticsHorse vault
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1904
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
C. Schumann
A. HeidaG. Eyser
F. Kriz
E. Mack
S. Guglielmetti
A. Schwarzmann
P. Aaltonen
V. Chukarin
H. BanzV. Muratov
T. OnoB. Shajlin
H. Yamashita
M. Voronin
K. Köste
GER
USAUSA
USA
SUI
ITA
GER
FIN
URS
GERURS
JPNURS
JPN
URS
GDR
3636
9.98
9.98
18.03
19.20
19.55
19.20
18.8518.85
19.35019.350
19.600
19.000
18.850
J. A. Zutter SUI
J. Koutny
E. Loffler
A. Jochim
E. Mack
O. Rove
M. Takemoto
TCH
TCH
GER
SUI
FIN
JPN
9.97
9.50
17.77
18.96
19.50
19.15
V. Lisitski
Y. Endo
V. Kimenko
URS
JPN
URS
19.325
18.950
18.825
H. Weingärtner
W. Merz
B. Morkovsky
S. Derganc
E. Carmichael
M. Volz
J. Mogyorósi-KlencsF. PatakiL. Sotomik
T. UesakoT. Ono
Y. Titov
V. Portnoi
H. Rantakari
S. Diomidov
N. Andrianov
GER
USA
TCH
YUG
USA
GER
HUNHUNTCH
JPNJPN
URS
URS
FIN
URS
URS
31
9.93
9.46
17.53
18.46
19.2519.2519.25
19.1019.10
18.75
19.225
19.300
18.925
18.800
418
At the 1932 Games E. Teräsvirta ceded second place to H. Savolainen.
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
N. Andrianov
N. Andrianov
Lou Yun
Lou Yun
URS
URS
CHN
CHN
19.450
19.825
19.950
19.875
Silver
M. Tsukahara
A. Ditiatin
Li NingK. GushikenM. GaylordS. Morisue
S. Kroll
JPN
URS
CHNJPNUSAJPN
GDR
19.375
19.800
19.82519.82519.82519.825
19.862
Bronze
H. Kajiyama
R. Bruckner
JPN
GDR
19.275
19.775
J.-H. Park KOR 19.775
GymnasticsMen
Artistic gymnasticsParallel bars
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1904
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Flatow
G. Eyser
A. Güttinger
L. Vácha
R. Neri
K. Frey
M. Reusch
H. Eugster
V. Chukarin
B. Shajlin
Y. Endo
A. Nakayama
S. Kato
S. Kato
A. Tkachiov
B. Conner
V. Artemov
GER
USA
SUI
TCH
ITA
GER
SUI
SUI
URS
URS
JPN
JPN
JPN
JPN
URS
USA
URS
44
21.63
18.83
18.97
19.067
19.75
19.65
19.20
19.400
19.675
19.475
19.475
19.675
19.775
19.950
19.925
J. Zutter
A. Heida
R. Praža
J. Primožic
I. Pelle
M. Reusch
V. Huhtanen
V. Chukarin
M. Kubota
G. Carminucci
S. Tsurumi
M. Voronin
S. Kasamatsu
N. Andrianov
A. Dtiatin
N. Kajitani
V. Liukin
SUI
USA
TCH
YUG
HUN
SUI
FIN
URS
JPN
ITA
JPN
URS
JPN
URS
URS
JPN
URS
43
26.61
18.50
18.60
19.034
19.65
19.60
19.15
19.375
19.450
19.425
19.375
19.500
19.750
19.925
19.900
H. Weingärtner
J. Duha
G. Zampori
H. Hänggi
H. Savolainen
A. Schwarzmann
C. KipferJ. Stalder
J. Stalder
T. OnoM. Takemoto
T. Ono
F. Menichelli
V. Klimenko
E. Kenmotsu
M. Tsukahara
R. Bruckner
M. Gaylord
S. Tippelt
GER
USA
ITA
SUI
FIN
GER
SUISUI
SUI
JPNJPN
JPN
ITA
URS
JPN
JPN
GDR
USA
GDR
40
21.45
18.08
18.27
18.967
19.5519.55
19.50
19.1019.10
19.350
19.350
19.225
19.250
19.475
19.650
19.850
19.750
GymnasticsMenArtistic GymnasticsHorizontal bar
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1904
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
H. Weingärtner
A. HeidaE. Hennig
L. Štukelj
G. Miez
D. Bixler
A. Saarvala
J. Stalder
J. Güthard
T. Ono
T. Ono
B. Shajlin
M. VoroninA. Nakayama
M. Tsukahara
N. Tsukahara
S. Deltchev
S. Morisme
V. ArtemovV. Uukin
GER
USAUSA
YUG
SUI
USA
FIN
SUI
SUI
JPN
JPN
URS
URSJPN
JPN
JPN
BUL
JPN
URSURS
4040
19.730
19.17
18.33
19.367
19.85
19.55
19.60
19.600
19.625
19.55019.550
19.725
19.675
19.825
20.000
19.90019.900
A. Flatow GER
J. Gutweniger
R. Neri
H. Savolainen
K. Frey
W. Lehmann
J. StalderA. Schwarzmann
Y. Titov
M. Takemoto
Y. Titov
SUI
ITA
FIN
GER
SUI
SUIGER
URS
JPN
URS
19.236
19.00
18.07
19.267
19.70
19.5019.50
19.40
19.550
19.550
S. Kato
E. Kenmotsu
A. Ditiatin
Tong Fei
JPN
JPN
URS
CHN
19.525
19.500
19.750
19.975
G. Eyser
A. Higelin
E. Mack
E. Teräsvirta
A. Schwarzmann
V. Huhtanen
USA
FRA
SUI
FIN
GER
FIN
39
19.163
18.92
18.07
19.23
19.60
M. Takemoto
B. Shajlin
M. Cerar
E. Kenmotsu
S. Kasamatsu
E. GiengerH. Boërio
N. Andrianov
K. Gushiken
H. BehrendtM. Gherman
JPN
URS
YUG
JPN
JPN
FRGFRA
URS
JPN
GDRROM
19.30
19.475
19.500
19.375
19.450
19.47519.475
19.675
19.950
19.80019.800
419
GymnasticsWomen
Artistic gymnasticsTeam competition
Gold Silver Bronze
1928
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
NED
GER
TCH
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
ROM
URS
316.75
506.50
445.45
527.03
444.80
382.320
380.890
382.85
380.50
390.35
394.90
392.20
395.475
ITA
TCH
HUN
HUN
HUN
TCH
TCH
TCH
GDR
ROM
ROM
USA
ROM
289.00
503.60
440.55
520.96
443.50
373.323
379.989
382.20
376.55
387.15
393.50
391.20
394.125
GBR
HUN
USA
TCH
ROM
ROM
JAP
GDR
HUN
GDR
GDR
CHN
GDR
258.25
499.00
422.63
503.32
438.20
372.053
377.889
379.10
368.25
385.10
392.55
388.60
390.875
Before the 1960 Games this event was very different from the modern day format.
GymnasticsWomenArtistic gymnasticsIndividual all-round competition
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
M. Gorojovskaya
L. Latinina
L. Latinina
V. Cáslavská
V. Cáslavská
L. Turishcheva
N. Comãneci
E. Davidova
M. L. Retton
E. Shushunova
URS
URS
URS
TCH
TCH
URS
ROM
URS
USA
URS
76.78
74.933
77.031
77.564
78.25
77.025
79.275
79.150
79.715
79.662
N. Botxarova
A. Keleti
S. Muratova
L. Latinina
Z. Voronina
K. Janz
N. Kim
N. ComãneciM. Gnauck
E. Szabó
D. Silivas
URS
HUN
URS
URS
URS
GDR
URS
ROMGDR
ROM
ROM
75.94
74.633
76.696
76.998
76.85
76.875
78.675
79.07579.075
79.125
79.637
M. Korondi
S. Muratova
P. Astajova
P. Astajova
N. Kuchinskaya
T. Lazakovich
L. Turishcheva
HUN
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
75.82
74.466
76.164
76.965
76.75
76.850
78.625
S. Pauca
S. Boguinskaya
ROM
URS
78.675
79.400
GymnasticsWomen
Artistic gymnasticsHorse vault
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Kalinchuk
L. Latinina
M. Nikolayeva
V. Cáslavská
V. Cáslavská
K. Janz
N. Kim
N. Shaposhnikova
E. Szabó
S. Boguinskaya
URS
URS
URS
TCH
TCH
GDR
URS
URS
ROM
URS
19.20
18.833
19.316
19.483
19.775
19.525
19.800
19.725
19.875
19.905
M. Gorjovskaya
T. Manina
S. Muratova
L. LatininaB. Radochla
E. Zuchold
E. Zuchold
L. TurishchevaC. Dombeck
S. Kräker
M. L. Retton
G. Potorac
URS
URS
URS
URSGER
GDR
GDR
URSGDR
GDR
USA
ROM
19.19
18.800
19.049
19.28319.283
19.625
19.275
19.65019.650
19.675
19.850
19.830
G. Minaicheva
A.-S. CollingO. Tass
L. Latinina
URS
SWEHUN
URS
19.16
18.73318.733
19.016
Z. Voronina
L. Turishcheva
URS
URS
19.500
19.250
M. Rühn
L. Agache
D. Silivas
ROM
ROM
ROM
19.650
19.750
19.818
GymnasticsWomen
Artistic gymnasticsAsymmetric bars
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
M. Korondi
A. Keleti
P. Astajova
P. Astajova
V. Cáslavská
K. Janz
N Comãneci
HUN
HUN
URS
URS
TCH
GDR
ROM
19.40
18.966
19.616
19.332
19.650
19.675
20.000
M. Gorojovskaya
L. Latinina
L. Latinina
K. Makray
K. Janz
O. KorbutE. Zuchold
T. Ungureanu
URS
URS
URS
HUN
GDR
URSGDR
ROM
19.26
18.833
19.416
19.216
19.500
19.45019.450
19.800
A. Keleti
S. Muratova
T. Liujina
L. Latinina
Z. Voronina
HUN
URS
URS
URS
URS
19.16
18.800
19.399
19.199
19.425
M. Egervári HUN 19.775
420
At the 1936 Games there was an open air tournament between teams of eleven players, with Germany winning the gold medal, Austria the silver and Switzerland thebronze.
1980
1984
1988
Gold
M. Gnauck
Ma YanhongJ. McNamara
D. Silivas
GDR
CHNUSA
ROM
19.875
19.95019.950
20.000
Silver
E. Eberle ROM 19.850
D. Kersten GDR 19.987
Bronze
S. KräkerM. RühnM. Filatova
M. L. Retton
E. Chuichunova
GDRROMURS
USA
URS
19.77519.77519.775
19.800
19.962
GymnasticsWomen
Artistic gymnasticsBalance beam
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
N. Bocharova
Á. Keleti
E. Bosáková
V. Cáslavská
N. Kuchinskaya
O. Korbut
N. Comäneci
N. Comäneci
E. SzabóS. Pauca
D. Silivas
URS
HUN
TCH
TCH
URS
URS
ROM
ROM
ROMROM
ROM
19.22
18.800
19.283
19.449
19.650
19.400
19.950
19.800
19.80019.800
19.924
M. Gorojovskaya
T. ManinaE. Bosáková
L. Latinina
T. Manina
V. Cáslavská
T. Lazakovich
O. Korbut
E. Davidova
URS
URSTCH
URS
URS
TCH
URS
URS
URS
19.13
18.63318.633
19.233
19.399
19.575
19.375
19.725
19.750
E. Chuichunova URS 19.875
M. Korondi HUN 19.02
S. Muratova
L. Latinina
L. Petrik
K. Janz
T. Ungureanu
N. Chapoichnikova
K. Johnson
G. PotoracP. Mills
URS
URS
URS
GDR
ROM
URS
USA
ROMUSA
19.232
19.382
19.250
18.975
19.700
19.725
19.650
19.83719.837
GymnasticsWomen
Artistic gymnasticsFloor exercices
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Á. Keleti
Á. KeletiL. Latinina
L. Latinina
L. Latinina
L. PetrikV. Cáslavská
O. Korbut
N. Kim
N. KimN. Comäneci
E. Szabó
D. Silivas
HUN
HUNURS
URS
URS
URSTCH
URS
URS
URSROM
ROM
ROM
19.36
18.73318.733
19.583
19.599
19.67519.675
19.575
19.850
19.87519.875
19.975
19.937
M. Gorojovskaya URS 19.20
P. Astajova
P. Astajova
URS
URS
19.532
19.500
L. Turishcheva
L. Turishcheva
URS
URS
19.550
19.825
J. McNamara
S. Boguinskaya
USA
URS
19.950
19.887
M. Korondi
E. Leusteanu
T. Liujina
A. Jánosi
N. Kuchinskaya
T. Lazakovich
N. Comäneci
N. ChapoixnikovaM. Gnauk
M. L. Retton
D. Dudeva
HUN
ROM
URS
HUN
URS
URS
ROM
URSGDR
USA
BUL
19.00
18.700
19.449
19.300
19.650
19.450
19.750
19.82519.825
19.775
19.850
GymnasticsWomenRhythmic gymnasticsIndividual all-round competition
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
L. Fung
M. Lobach
CAN
URS
57.950
60.000
D. Staiculescu
A. Dunavska
ROM
BUL
57.900
59.950
R. Weber
A. Timoshenko
FRG
URS
57.700
59.875
HandballMen
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
YUG
URS
GDR
YUG
URS
TCH
ROM
URS
FRG
KOR
ROM
POL
ROM
ROM
YUG
421
Weight limit: 65 kg.
HandballWomen
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
URS
URS
YUG
KOR
GDR
YUG
KOR
NOR
HUN
GDR
CHN
URS
HockeyMen
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1920
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
GBR
GBR
IND
IND
IND
IND
IND
IND
PAK
IND
PAK
FRG
NZL
IND
PAK
GBR
IRL
DEN
NED
JAP
GER
GBR
NED
PAK
IND
PAK
AUS
PAK
AUS
ESP
FRG
FRG
GBRGBR
BEL
GER
USA
NED
NED
GBR
GER
ESP
AUS
IND
IND
PAK
URS
GBR
NED
HockeyWomen
Gold Silver Bronze
1980
1984
1988
ZIM
NED
AUS
TCH
FRG
KOR
URS
USA
NED
JudoMenExtra lightweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1980
1984
1988
T. Rey
S. Hosakawa
J.-Y. Kim
Weight limit: 60 kg.
FRA
JPN
KOR
J. Rodriguez
J.-Y. Kim
K. Asano
CUB
KOR
USA
T. KinesesA. Emizh
E. LiddieN. Eckersley
S. HosokawaA. Totikaixvili
HUNURS
USAGBR
JPNURS
JudoMenHalf-lightweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1980
1984
1988
N. Solodujin
Y. Matsuoka
K.-K. Lee
URS
JPN
KOR
T. Damdin
J.-O. Hwang
J. Pawlowski
MGL
KOR
POL
I. NedkovJ. Pawlowski
J. ReiterM. Alexandre
B. CarabettaY. Yamamoto
BULPOL
AUTFRA
FRAJPN
422
Weight limit: up to and including 1976, 93 kg; since then, 95 kg.
JudoMenLightweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
T. Nakalani
T. Kawaguchi
H. Rodríguez
E. Gamba
B.-K. Ahn
M. Alexandra
JPN
JPN
CUB
ITA
KOR
FRA
E. Hänni SUI
E.-Y.Chang
N. Adams
E. Gamba
S. Loll
KOR
GBR
ITA
GDR
O. StepanovA. Bogoliubov
Y.-l. KimJ.-J. Mounier
J. TuncsikF. Mariani
K.-H. LehmannR. Davaadalai
L. OnmuraK. Brown
M. SwainG. Tenadze
URSURS
PRKFRA
HUNITA
GDRMGL
BRAGBR
USAURS
Weight limit: 69 kg in 1964; 63 kg in 1972 and 1976; since 1980: 71 kg. At the 1972 Games the Mongolion B. Buidas, who took second place, was later disqualified forfailing doping control.
JudoMenHalf-middleweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
T. Normura
V. Nerzorov
S. Jabareli
F. Wieneke
W. Legien
JPN
URS
URS
FRG
POL
A. Zajkowski
K. Kuramoto
J. Ferrer
N. Adams
F. Wieneke
POL
JPN
CUB
GBR
FRG
D. HötgerA. Novikov
P. VialR. Davaadalai
B. TchoullouyanH. Heinke
M. NowakM. Fratiçä
T. BrechotB. Varayev
GDRURS
FRAMGL
FRAGDR
FRAROM
GDRURS
Weight limit: 70 kg in 1972 and 1976; since 1980: 79 kg.
JudoMenMiddleweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
I. Okamo
S. Sekine
I. Sonoda
J. Röthlisberger
P. Seisenbacher
P. Seisenbacher
JPN
JPN
JPN
SUI
AUT
AUT
W. Hofmann
S.-L. Oh
V. Dvonikov
I. Azcuy
R. Berland
V. Chestakov
GER
KOR
URS
CUB
USA
URS
J. BregmanU.-T. Kim
B. JacksJ.-P. Coche
Y.-C. ParkS. Obadov
A. YatskevichD. Ultsch
S. NoseW. Carmona
B. SpijkersA. Osako
USAKOR
GBRFRA
KORYUG
URSGDR
JPNBRA
NEDJPN
Weight limit: 80 kg from 1964 to 1976; since then: 86 kg.
JudoMenHalf-heavyweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
S. Chochishvili
K. Ninomiya
R. van de Walle
H.-Z. Ha
A. Miguel
URS
JPN
BEL
KOR
BRA
D. C. Starbrook
R. Jarshiladze
T. Jubuluri
D. Vieira
M. Meiling
GBR
URS
URS
BRA
FRA
P. BarthC. Ishii
D. C. StarbrookJ. Röthlisberger
D. LorenzH. Numan
B. FridrikssonG. Neureuther
R. van de WalleD. Stewart
FRGBRA
GBRSUI
GDRNED
ISLFRG
BELGBR
423
JudoMenHeavyweight
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
I. Inokuma
W. Ruska
S. Novikov
A. Parisi
H. Saito
H. Saito
JPN
HOL
URS
FRA
JPN
JPN
A. H. Rogers
K. Glahn
G. Neureuther
D. Zaprianov
A. Parisi
H. Stöhr
CAN
FRG
FRG
BUL
FRA
GDR
A. KiknadzeP. Chikviladze
G. OnashviliM. Nishimura
S. EndoA. Coage
V. KocmanR. Kovalcevic
Y.-C. ChoM. Berger
Y.-C. ChoG. Verichev
URSURS
URSJPN
JPNUSA
TCHYUG
KORCAN
KORURS
Weight limit: over 80 kg in 1964; over 93 kg in 1972 and 1976; since then,over 95 kg.
JudoMenOpen Category
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1972
1976
1980
1984
A. Geesink
W. Ruska
H. Uemura
D. Lorenz
Y. Yamashita
NED
NED
JPN
GDR
JPN
A. Kaminaga
V. Kuznetsov
K. Remfry
A. Parisí
M. Rashwan
JPN
URS
GBR
FRA
EGY
K. GlahnT. Boronovskis
J.-C. BrodaniA. Parisi
S. ChochishviliJ. Cho
A. MappA. Ozsvár
M. CiocA. Schnabél
GERAUT
FRAFRA
URSKOR
GBRHUN
ROMGDR
Modern PentathlonIndividual competition
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
G. Lilliehöök
G. Dyrssen
B. Lindman
S. Thofelt
J. Oxenstiema
G. Handrick
W. Grut
L. Hall
L. Hall
F. Németh
F. Török
B. Ferm
A. Balczó
J. Pyciak-Peciak
A. Starostin
D. Masala
J. Martinek
SWE
SWE
SWE
SWE
SWE
GER
SWE
SWE
SWE
HUN
HUN
SWE
HUN
POL
URS
ITA
HUN
27
18
18
47
32
31.5
16
32
4,833
5,024
5,116
4,964
5,412
5,520
5,568
5,469
5,404
G. Åsbrink
E. de Laval
G. Dyrssen
B. Lindman
B. Lindman
C. Leonard
G. Moore
G. Benedek
O. Mannonen
I. Nagy
I. Novikov
A. Balczó
B. Onishchenko
P. Lednev
T. Szombathelyi
S. Rasmuson
C. Massullo
SWE
SWE
SWE
SWE
SWE
USA
USA
HUN
FIN
HUN
URS
HUN
URS
URS
HUN
SWE
ITA
28
23
39.5
50
35.5
39.5
47
39
4,774
4,988
5,067
4,953
5,335
5,485
5,502
5,456
5,379
G. de Laval
G. Runö
B. Uggla
H. Kahl
R. Mayo
S. Abba
G. Gärdin
I. Szondy
V. Korhonen
R. Beck
A. Mokeyev
P. Lednev
P. Lednev
J. Bárti
P. Lednev
C. Massullo
V. Yagorashvili
SWE
SWE
SWE
GER
USA
ITA
SWE
HUN
FIN
USA
URS
URS
URS
TCH
URS
ITA
URS
30
27
45
52
38.5
45.5
49
41
4,750
4,981
5,039
4,795
5,328
5,466
5,382
5,406
5,367
The scoring system was changed in 1956.
Modern PentathlonTeam competition
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
HUN
URS
HUN
URS
HUN
URS
GBR
URS
166
13,690
14,836
14,961
14,325
15,968
15,559
16,126
SWE
USA
URS
USA
URS
HUN
TCH
HUN
182
13,482
14,309
14,189
14,248
15,348
15,451
15,912
FIN
FIN
USA
HUN
FRA
FIN
HUN
SWE
213
13,185
14,192
14,173
13,289
14,812
15,395
15,845
424
1984
1988
Gold
ITA
HUN
16,066
15,886
Silver
USA
ITA
15,568
15,571
Bronze
FRA
GBR
15,565
15,276
The scoring system was changed in 1956.
RowingMenSingle sculls
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
H. Barrelet
F. Greer
H. Blackstaffe
W. Kinnear
J. Kelly
J. Beresford
H. Pearce
H. Pearce
G. Schäfer
M. Wood
Y. Tiukalov
V. Ivanov
V. Ivanov
V. Ivanov
H. J. Wienese
I. Malishev
P. Karppinen
P. Karppinen
P. Karppinen
T. Lange
FRA
USA
GBR
GBR
USA
GBR
AUS
AUS
GER
AUS
URS
URS
URS
URS
NED
URS
FIN
FIN
FIN
GDR
7:35.6
10:08.5
9:26.0
7:47.6
7:35.0
7:49.2
7:11.0
7:44.4
8:21.5
7:24.4
8:12.8
8:02.5
7:13.96
8:22.51
7:47.80
7:10.12
7:29.03
7:09.61
7:00.24
6:49.86
A. Gaudin
J. Juvenal
A. McCulloch
P. Veirman
J. Beresford
W. Garrett Gilmore
K. Myers
W. Miller
J. Hasenöhrl
E. Risso
M. Wood
S. Mackenzie
A. Hill
A. Hill
J. Meissner
A. Demiddi
P.-M. Kolbe
V. Yakusha
P.-M. Kolbe
P.-M. Kolbe
FRA
USA
GBR
BEL
GBR
USA
USA
USA
AUT
URU
AUS
AUS
GER
GER
FRG
ARG
FRG
URS
FRG
FRG
7:41.6
7:56.0
7:36.0
7:54.0
7:20.8
7:45.2
8:25.8
7:38.2
8:14.5
8:07.7
7:20.21
8:26.24
7:52.00
7:11.53
7:31.67
7:11.66
7:02.19
6:54.77
G. Saint Ashe
C. Titus
B. von GazaK. Levitzky
E. ButlerM. Kusik
C. Hadfield d'Arcy
J. Scheider
T. Collet
G. Douglas
D. Barrow
R. Catasta
T. Kocerka
J. Kelly Jr.
T. Kocerka
G. Kottmann
A. Demiddi
W. Güldenpfenning
J. Dreifke
P. Kersten
R. Mills
E. Verdonk
GBR
USA
GERHUN
CANRUS
NZL
SUI
GBR
URU
USA
ITA
POL
USA
POL
SUI
ARG
GDR
GDR
GDR
NZL
NZL
8:15.6
7:48.0
8:01.1
7:29.8
8:13.6
8:28.0
7:51.4
8:19.4
8:11.8
7:21.26
8:29.68
7:57.19
7:14.45
7:38.03
7:14.88
7:10.38
6:58.66
RowingMenDouble sculls
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GBR
GBR
ARG
URS
TCH
URS
URS
URS
NOR
GDR
USA
NED
10:03.2
7:09.0
6:34.0
6:41.4
7:17.4
7:20.8
6:51.3
7:32.2
7:24.0
6:47.50
7:10.66
6:51.82
7:01.77
7:13.20
6:24.33
6:36.87
6:21.13
USA
ITA
FRA
CAN
GER
GER
DEN
URS
USA
URS
USA
NED
NOR
GBR
YUG
BEL
SUI
7:19.0
6:38.0
6:51.0
7:22.8
7:26.2
6:55.3
7:38.3
7:32.2
6:50.49
7:13.16
6:52.80
7:02.58
7:15.26
6:26.34
6:38.19
6:22.59
USA
FRA
SUI
AUT
CAN
POL
URU
URU
AUT
SUI
TCH
USA
GDR
GDR
TCH
YUG
URS
7:21.0
7:27.6
7:36.2
7:12.4
7:43.7
7:37.4
7:50.59
7:14.23
6:54.21
7:05.55
7:17.45
6:29.07
6:39.59
6:22.87
The participating crews were clubs rather than teams representing their country in 1904.
RowingMenCoxswainless pair oars
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1924
1928
1932
USA
GBR
NED
GER
GER
10:57.0
9:41.0
8:19.4
7:06.4
8:00.0
USA
GBR
FRA
GER
NZL
8:21.6
7:08.8
8:02.4
USA
USA
POL
7:20.4
8:08.2
425
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
GER
GBR
USA
USA
URS
CAN
GDR
GDR
GDR
GDR
ROM
GBR
8:16.1
7:21.1
8:20.7
7:55.4
7:02.01
7:32.94
7:26.56
6:53.16
7:23.31
6:48.01
6:45.39
6:36.84
Silver
DEN
SUI
BEL
URS
AUT
NED
USA
SUI
USA
URS
ESP
ROM
8:19.2
7:23.9
8:23.5
8:03.9
7:03.69
7:33.40
7:26.71
6:57.06
7:26.73
6:50.50
6:48.47
6:38.06
Bronze
ARG
ITA
SUI
AUT
FIN
GER
DEN
NED
FRG
GBR
NOR
YUG
8:23.0
7:31.5
8:32.7
8:11.8
7:03.80
7:38.63
7:31.84
6:58.70
7:30.03
6:51.47
6:51.81
6:41.01
The participating crews were clubs rather than teams representing their country in 1904 and 1908.
RowingMenPair oars with coxswain
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
NED
ITA
SUI
SUI
USA
GER
DEN
FRA
USA
GER
USA
ITA
GDR
GDR
GDR
ITA
ITA
7:34.2
7:56.0
8:39.0
7:42.6
8:25.8
8:36.9
8:00.5
8:28.6
8:26.1
7:29.14
8:21.23
8:04.81
7:17.25
7:58.99
7:02.54
7:05.99
6:58.79
FRA
FRA
ITA
FRA
POL
ITA
ITA
GER
GER
URS
FRA
NED
TCH
URS
URS
ROM
GDR
7:34.4
7:57.0
8:39.1
7:48.4
8:31.2
8:49.7
8:12.2
8:32.1
8:29.2
7:30.17
8:23.15
8:06.80
7:19.57
8:01.82
7:03.35
7:11.21
7:00.63
FRA 7:57.2
SUI
USA
BEL
FRA
FRA
HUN
DEN
URS
USA
NED
DEN
ROM
TCH
YUG
USA
GBR
7:59.4
8:41.2
8:54.0
8:25.2
8:34.9
8:31.0
7:34.58
8:23.42
8:08.07
7:21.36
8:03.28
7:04.92
7:12.81
7:01.95
The participating crews were clubs rather than teams representing their country in 1900.
RowingMenQuadruple sculls
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
GDR
GDR
GDR
ITA
6:18.65
5:49.81
5:57.55
5:53.37
URS
URS
AUS
NOR
6:19.89
5:51.47
5:57.98
5:55.08
TCH
BUL
CAN
GDR
6:21.77
5:52.38
5:59.07
5:56.13
RowingMenCoxswainless four oars
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
USA
GBR
GBR
GBR
GBR
GER
ITA
YUG
CAN
USA
DEN
GDR
GDR
9:53.8
8:34.0
7:08.6
6:36.0
6:58.2
7:01.8
6:39.0
7:16.0
7:08.8
6:26.26
6:59.30
6:39.18
6:24.27
USA
GBR
CAN
USA
GER
GBR
DEN
FRA
USA
ITA
GBR
HUN
NZL
7:18.0
6:37.0
7:03.0
7:06.5
6:43.5
7:18.9
7:18.4
6:28.78
7:00.47
6:41.64
6:25.64
USA
SUI
ITA
ITA
SUI
USA
FIN
FRA
URS
USA
ITA
FRG
6:37.6
7:04.0
7:10.6
6:47.7
7:23.3
7:20.9
6:29.62
7:01.37
6:44.01
6:28.41
426
The participating crews were clubs rather than teams representing their country prior to the 1920 Games.
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
GDR
GDR
NZL
GDR
6:37.42
6:08.17
6:03.48
6:03.11
Silver
NOR
URS
USA
USA
6:41.22
6:11.81
6:06.10
6:05.53
Bronze
URS
GBR
DEN
FRG
6:42.52
6:16.58
6:07.72
6:06.22
The participating crews were clubs rather than teams representing their country in 1904 and 1908.
RowingMenFour oars with coxswain
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
FRA
GER
SUI
SUI
ITA
GER
GER
USA
TCH
ITA
GER
GER
NZL
FRG
URS
GDR
GBR
GDR
7:11.0
6:59.4
6:54.0
7:18.4
6:47.8
7:19.0
7:16.2
6:50.3
7:33.4
7:19.4
6:39.12
7:00.44
6:45.62
6:31.85
6:40.22
6:14.51
6:18.64
6:10.74
FRA
GBR
USA
FRA
SUI
ITA
SUI
SUI
SUI
SWE
FRA
ITA
GDR
GDR
GDR
URS
USA
ROM
7:18.0
6:58.0
7:21.6
7:03.4
7:19.2
7:24.3
6:53.3
7:36.5
7:22.4
6:41.62
7:02.84
6:48.20
6:33.30
6:42.70
6:19.05
6:20.28
6:13.58
GER
DENNOR
NOR
USA
POL
POL
FRA
DEN
USA
FIN
ITA
NED
SUI
TCH
FRG
POL
NZL
NZL
7:18.2
7:02.0
7:23.0
7:12.8
7:26.8
7:33.3
6:58.6
7:37.0
7:30.9
6:43.72
7:06.46
6:49.04
6:35.64
6:46.04
6:22.52
6:23.68
6:15.78
The participating crews were clubs rather than teams representing their country in 1900 and 1912. Two separate finals were held in 1900: one (included in the tableabove) for the crews which had the best times during the three qualifying heats, and another for the winning crews of the three qualifying heats.
RowingMenEight oars with coxswain
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
USA
USA
GBR
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
USA
FRG
NZL
GDR
GDR
CAN
GDR
6:09.8
7:50.0
7:52.0
6:15.0
6:02.6
6:33.4
6:03.2
6:37.6
6:25.4
5:56.7
6:25.9
6:35.2
5:57.18
6:18.23
6:07.00
6:08.94
5:58.29
5:49.05
5:41.32
5:46.05
BEL 6:13.8
CAN
BEL
GBR
GBR
CAN
GBR
ITA
ITA
GBR
URS
CAN
CAN
GER
AUS
USA
GBR
GBR
USA
URS
6:19.0
6:05.0
6:49.0
6:05.6
6:37.8
6:26.0
6:06.9
6:31.2
6:37.1
6:01.52
6:23.29
6:07.98
6:11.61
6:00.82
5:51.92
5:41.74
5:48.01
NED
CANGBR
GER
NOR
ITA
CAN
CAN
GER
NOR
AUS
AUS
TCH
TCH
URS
GDR
NZL
URS
AUS
USA
6:23.0
6:36.0
6:40.4
6:26.4
6:10.3
6:33.1
6:39.2
6:04.84
6:25.11
6:09.11
6:11.67
6:03.51
5:52.66
5:43.40
5:48.26
427
RowingWomenSingle sculls
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
C. Scheiblinch
S. Toma
V. Räcilã
J. Behrendt
GDR
ROM
ROM
GDR
4:05.56
3:40.68
3:40.68
7:47.19
J. Lind
A. Makhina
C. Geer
A. Marden
USA
URS
USA
USA
4:06.21
3:41.65
3:43.89
7:50.28
E. Antonova
M. Schröter
A. Haesebrouck
M. Gueorguieva
URS
GDR
BEL
BUL
4:10.24
3:43.54
3:45.72
7:53.65
RowingWomen
Double sculls
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
BUL
URS
ROM
GDR
3:44.36
3:16.27
3:26.75
7:00.48
GDR
GDR
NED
ROM
3:47.86
3:17.63
3:29.13
7:04.36
URS
ROM
CAN
BUL
3:49.93
3:18.91
3:29.82
7:06.03
RowingWomenCoxswainless pair oars
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
BUL
GDR
ROM
ROM
4:01.22
3:30.49
3:32.60
7:28.13
GDR
POL
CAN
BUL
4:01.64
3:30.95
3:36.06
7:31.95
FRG
BUL
FRG
NZL
4:02.35
3:32.39
3:40.50
7:35.68
RowingWomen
Quadruple sculls
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 GDR 6:21.06 URS 6:23.47 ROM 6:23.81
RowingWomen
Coxswainless quadruple sculls
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
GDR
GDR
ROM
3:29.99
3:15.32
3:14.11
URS
URS
USA
3:32.49
3:15.73
3:15.57
ROM
BUL
DEN
3:32.76
3:16.10
3:16.02
This event was discontinued after the 1984 Games.
RowingWomen
Four oars with coxswain
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
GDR
GDR
ROM
GDR
3:45.08
3:19.27
3:19.30
6:56.00
BUL
BUL
CAN
CHN
3:48.24
3:20.75
3:21.55
6:58.78
URS
URS
AUS
ROM
3:49.38
3:20.92
3:23.29
7:01.13
This event was discontinued after the 1988 Games.
RowingWomenEight oars with coxswain
1976
1980
1984
1988
GDR
GDR
USA
GDR
3:33.32
3:03.32
2:59.80
6:15.17
Gold Silver Bronze
URS
URS
ROM
ROM
3:36.17
3:04.29
3:00.87
6:17.44
USA
ROM
NED
CHN
3:38.68
3:05.63
3:02.92
6:21.83
428
Distance: 50 m. Beginning in 1992, the distance will be 10 m and an air rifle will be used.
ShootingMenRapid-fire pistol
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1908
1912
1920
1924
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
I. Frangudis
M. Larrouy
P. van Asbroeck
A. Lane
G. Paraense
H. Bailey
R. Morigi
C. van Oyen
K. Takács
K. Takács
S. Petrescu
W. McMillan
P. Linnosvuo
J. Zapedski
J. Zapedski
N. Klaar
C. Ion
T. Kamachi
A. Kuzmin
GRE
FRA
BEL
USA
BRA
USA
ITA
GER
HUN
HUN
ROM
USA
FIN
POL
POL
GDR
ROM
JPN
URS
344
58
490
287
274
18
36
36
580
579
587
587
592
593
595
597
596
595
698
G. Orfanidis
L. Moreaux
R. Storms
P. Palén
R. Bracken
V. Carlberg
H. Hax
H. Hax
C.E. Diaz SaenzValiente
S. Kun
E. Cherkasov
P. Linnosvuo
I. Tripsa
M. Rosca
L. Falta
J. Wiefel
J. Wiefel
C. Ion
R. Schumann
GRE
FRA
BEL
SWE
USA
SWE
GER
GER
ARG
HUN
URS
FIN
ROM
ROM
TCH
GDR
GDR
ROM
GDR
249
57
487
286
272
18
36
35
571
578
585
587
591
591
594
596
596
593
696
H. Nielsen
E. Balme
J. Gorman
J. Hübnes von Hoist
F. Zulauf
L. Hannelius
D. Matteucci
T. Ullman
S. Lundqvist
G. Lichiardopol
G. Lichiardopol
A. Zabelin
L. Nacovsky
R. Suleimanov
V. Torchin
R. Ferraris
G. Petritsch
R. Bies
Z. Kovács
DEN
FRA
USA
SWE
SUI
FIN
ITA
SWE
SWE
ROM
ROM
URS
TCH
URS
URS
ITA
AUT
FIN
HUN
57
485
283
269
18
36
34
569
578
581
587
590
591
593
595
596
591
693
Distance: 25 m. These rules were established in 1948.
ShootingMenFree pistol
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1912
1920
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
S. Paine
C.-K. Röderer
A. Lane
K. Frederick
T. Ullman
E. Vazquez Cam
H. Brenner
P. Linnosvuo
A. Güshchin
V. Markkanen
G. Kosij
R. Skanåker
U. Potteck
A. Melentiev
Xu Haifeng
S. Babii
Distance: 50 m.
USA
SUI
USA
USA
SWE
PER
USA
FIN
URS
FIN
URS
SWE
GDR
URS
CHN
ROM
442
503
499
496
559
545
553
556
560
560
562
567
573
581
566
660
H. Nielsen
A. Paroche
P. Dolfen
A. da Costa
E. Krempel
R. Schnyder
Á. León de Gozalo
M. Umarov
M. Umarov
F. Green
H. Mertel
D. luga
H. Vollmar
H. Vollmar
R. Skanåker
R. Skanåker
DEN
FRA
USA
BRA
GER
SUI
ESP
URS
URS
USA
FRG
ROM
GDR
GDR
SWE
SWE
285
466
474
489
544
539
550
556
552
557
562
562
567
568
565
657
I. Frangudis
K. Stäheli
C. Stewart
A. Lane
C. des Jammonières
T. Ullman
A. Balogh
O. Pinion
Y. Yoshikawa
Y. Yoshikawa
H. Vollmar
R. Dollinger
R. Dollinger
L. Diakov
Wang Yifu
I. Basinski
GRE
SUI
GBR
USA
FRA
SWE
HUN
USA
JPN
JPN
GDR
AUT
AUT
BUL
CHN
URS
453
470
481
540
539
549
551
552
554
560
560
562
565
564
657
ShootingMenAir pistol
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 T. Kiriakov BUL 687.9 E. Buljung USA 687.9 Xu Haifeng CHN 684.5
Distance: 10 m.
ShootingMen10 m running target
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
L. Debray
Y. Zhelezniak
A. Gazov
I. Sokolov
Li Yuwei
T. Heiestad
FRA
URS
URS
URS
CHN
NOR
20
569
579
589
587
689
P. Nivet
H. Bellingrodt
A. Kediarov
T. Pfeffer
H. Bellingrodt
Huang Shiping
FRA
COL
URS
GDR
COL
CHN
20
565
576
589
584
687
Comte de Lambert
K. Kynoch
J. Greszkiewicz
A. Gazov
Huang Shiping
G. Avramenko
FRA
GBR
POL
URS
CHN
URS
19
562
571
587
581
686
429
ShootingMenAir rifle
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
P. Heberle
G. Maksimovic
FRA
YUG
589
695.6
A. Kronthater
N. Berthelot
AUT
FRA
587
694.2
B. Dagger
J. Riederer
GBR
FRG
587
694.0
Distance: 10 m.
ShootingMenSB free rifle, three positions
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Kongshaug
A. Bodganov
V. Shamburkin
L. Wigger
B. Kingner
J. Writer
L. Bassham
V. Vlassov
M. Cooper
M. Cooper
NOR
URS
URS
USA
FRG
USA
USA
URS
GBR
GBR
1,164
1,172
1,149
1,164
1,157
1,166
1,162
1,173
1,173
1,279.3
V. Ylönen
O. Hofinek
M. Niasov
V. Velichkov
J. Writer
L. Bassham
M. Murdock
B. Harstein
D. Nipkow
A. Allan
FIN
TCH
URS
BUL
USA
USA
USA
GDR
SUI
GBR
1,164
1,172
1,145
1,152
1,156
1,157
1,162
1,166
1,163
1,275.6
B. Andreyev
N. J. Sundberg
K. Zähringer
L. Hammerl
V. Parjimovich
W. Lippoldt
W. Seibold
S. Johansson
A. Allan
K. Ivanov
URS
SWE
GER
HUN
URS
GDR
FRG
SWE
GBR
URS
1,163
1,167
1,139
1,151
1,154
1,153
1,160
1,165
1,162
1,275.0
Distance: 50 m. Shooting in three positions: prone, kneeling and standing.
ShootingMenSB free rifle, prone
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. A. Carnell
F. Hird
L. A. Nuesslein
P. Coquelin de Lisle
B. Rönnmark
W. Rögeberg
A. Cook
I. Sârbu
G. Ouellette
P. Kohnke
L. Hammerl
J. Kurka
H.-J. Li
K. Smieszek
K. Varga
E. Etzel
M. Varga
GBR
USA
USA
FRA
SWE
NOR
USA
ROM
CAN
GER
HUN
TCH
PRK
FRG
HUN
USA
TCH
387
194
391
398
294
300
599
400
600
590
597
598
599
599
599
599
703.9
H. Humby
W. Milne
A. Rothrock
M. Dinwiddie
G. Huet
R. Berzsenyi
W. Tomsen
B. Andreyev
V. Borisov
J. Hill
L. Wigger
L. Hammerl
V. Auer
U. Lind
H. Heilfort
M. Bury
K.-C. Cha
GBR
GBR
USA
USA
MEX
HUN
USA
URS
URS
USA
USA
HUN
USA
FRG
GDR
FRA
KOR
386
193
386
396
294
296
599
400
599
589
597
598
598
597
599
596
702.8
G. Barnes
H. Hurt
D. Fenton
J. Hartmann
Z. Hradetzky-Spoós
W. Karas
J. Jonsson
A. Jackson
G. Boa
E. Forcella Pelliccioni
T. Pool
I. Ballinger
N. Rotaru
G. Lushchikov
P. Zaprianov
M. Sullivan
A. Záhonyi
GBR
GBR
USA
SUI
HUN
POL
SWE
USA
CAN
VEN
USA
NZL
ROM
URS
BUL
GBR
HUN
385
192
385
394
293
296
597
399
598
587
596
597
598
595
598
596
701.9
Distance: 50 m. In 1908 the distances were 45.7 m (50 yards) and 91.4 m (100 yards). Positions: in 1908 and 1912, free; in 1920, standing; as of 1924,prone.
ShootingWomenSport pistol
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
L. Thorn
N. Salukvadze
CAN
URS
585
690
R. Fox
T. Hasegawa
USA
JPN
585
686
P. Dench
J. Škaric
AUS
YUG
583
686
Distance: 25 m.
ShootingWomen
Air pistol
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 J. Šekaric YUG 489.5 N. Salukvadke URS 487.9 M. Dobrancheva URS 485.2
Distance: 10 m.
430
The distance was 45.72 m (50 yards) in 1904.
ShootingWomenAir rifle
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
P. Spurgin
I. Shilova
USA
URS
393 p.
498.5 p.
E. Guller
S. Sperber
ITA
FRG
391 p.
497.5 p.
Wu Xiaoxuan
A. Malujina
CHN
URS
389 p.
495.8 p.
Distance: 10 m.
ShootingWomen
SB standard rifle, three positions
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
Wu Xiaoxuan
S. Sperber
CHN
FRG
581 p.
665.6 p.
U. Holmer
V. Letxeva
FRG
BUL
578 p.
683.2 p.
W. Jewell
V. Txerkassova
USA
URS
578 p.
681.4 p.
Distance. 50 m. Shooting in three positions: prone, kneeling and standing.
ShootingOpenSkeet
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Petrov
K. Wimhier
J. Panácek
H. K. Rasmussen
M. Dryke
A. Wegner
URS
FRG
TCH
DEN
USA
GDR
198
195
198
196
198
222
R. Garagnani
E. Petrov
E. Swinkels
L. G. Carlsson
O. R. Rasmussen
A. de Iruarrizaga
ITA
URS
NED
SWE
DEN
CHI
198
195
198
196
196
221
K. Wimhier
M. Buchheim
W. Gawlikowski
R. Castrillo Garcia
L. Scribani Rossi
J. Guardiola
FRG
GDR
POL
CUB
ITA
ESP
198
195
196
196
196
220
ShootingOpen
Trap
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1908
1912
1920
1924
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
R. de Barbarin
W. Ewing
J. Graham
M. Arie
G. Halasy
G. Généreux
G. Rossini
I. Dumitrescu
E. Mattarelli
J. Braithwaite
A. Scalzone
D. Haldeman
L. Giovannetti
L. Giovannetti
D. Monakov
FRA
CAN
USA
USA
HUN
CAN
ITA
ROM
ITA
GBR
ITA
USA
ITA
ITA
URS
17
72
96
95
98
192
195
192
198
198
199
190
198
192
222
R. Guyot
G. Beattie
A. Goeldel
F. Troeh
K. Huber
K. Holmqvist
A. Smelczyñski
G. Rossini
P. Senichev
T. Garrigus
M. Carrega
A. Silva Marques
R. Yambulatov
F. Boza
M. Bednarik
FRA
CAN
GER
USA
FIN
SWE
POL
ITA
URS
USA
FRA
POR
URS
PER
TCH
17
60
94
93
98
191
190
191
194
196
198
189
196
192
222
J. de Clary
A. MaunderA. Metaxas
H. Blau
F. Wright
F. Hughes
H. Liljedahl
A. Ciceri
S. Kalinin
W. Morris
K. Czekalla
S. Basagni
U. Baldi
J. Damme
D. Carlisle
F. Peeters
FRA
GBRGRE
RUS
USA
USA
SWE
ITA
URS
USA
GDR
ITA
ITA
GDR
USA
BEL
17
5757
91
87
97
190
188
190
194
196
195
189
196
192
219
SwimmingMen50 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1988
Z. Halmay
M. Biondi
HUN
USA
28.0
22.14
J. S. Leary
T. Jager
USA
USA
28.6
22.36
C. Daniels
G. Prigoda
USA
URS 22.71
431
In 1904 the distance was 402.34 m (440 yards). In 1972 the race was won by R. Demont of the United States of America but he was later disqualified after failing do-ping control.
SwimmingMen100 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Hajós
Z. Halmay
C. Daniels
D. P. Kahanamoku
D. P. Kahanamoku
J. Weissmuller
J. Weissmuller
Y. Miyazaki
F. Csik
W. Ris
C. Scholes
J. Henricks
J. Devitt
D. Schollander
M. Wenden
M. Spitz
J. Montgomery
J. Woithe
A. Gaines
M. Biondi
HUN
HUN
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
JPN
HUN
USA
USA
AUS
AUS
USA
AUS
USA
USA
GDR
USA
USA
1:22.2
1:02.8
1:05.6
1:03.4
1:01.4
59.0
58.6
58.2
57.6
57.3
57.4
55.4
55.2
53.4
52.2
51.22
49.99
50.40
49.80
48.63
O. Herschmann
C. Daniels
Z. Halmay
C. Healy
P. K. Kealoha
D. P. Kahanamoku
I. Bárány
T. Kawaishi
M. Yusa
A. Ford
H. Suzuki
J. Devitt
L. Larson
R. McGregor
K. Walsh
J. Heidenreich
J. Babashoff
P. Holmertz
M. Stockwell
C. Jacobs
AUS
USA
HUN
AUS
USA
USA
HUN
JPN
JPN
USA
JPN
AUS
USA
GBR
USA
USA
USA
SWE
AUS
USA
1:22.8
1:06.2
1:04.6
1:02.2
1:01.4
59.8
58.6
57.9
57.8
57.4
55.8
55.2
53.5
52.8
51.65
50.81
50.91
50.24
49.08
J. S. Leary
H. Julin
K. Huszagh
W. Harris
S. Kahanamoku
K. Takaishi
A. Schwartz
S. Arai
G. Kádas
G. Larsson
G. Chapman
M. dos Santos
H.-J. Klein
M. Spitz
V. Bure
P. Nocke
P. Johansson
P. Johansson
S. Caron
USA
SWE
USA
USA
USA
JPN
USA
JPN
HUN
SWE
AUS
BRA
GER
USA
URS
FRG
SWE
SWE
FRA
1:08.0
1:05.6
1:03.0
1:01.8
1:00.0
58.8
58.0
58.1
58.2
56.7
55.4
54.0
53.0
51.77
51.31
51.29
50.31
49.62
In 1904 the distance was 91.44 m (100 yards).
SwimmingMen200 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
F. Lane
C. Daniels
M. Wenden
M. Spitz
B. Furniss
S. Kopliakov
M. Gross
D. Armstrong
AUS
USA
AUS
USA
USA
URS
FRG
AUS
2:25.2
2:44.2
1:55.2
1:52.78
1:50.29
1:49.81
1:47.44
1:47.25
Z. Halmay
F. Gailey
D. Schollander
S. Genter
J. Naber
A. Krilov
M. Heath
A. Holmertz
HUN
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
USA
SWE
2:31.4
2:46.0
1:55.8
1:53.73
1:50.50
1:50.76
1:49.10
1:47.89
K. Ruberl
E. Rausch
J. Nelson
W. Lampe
J. Montgomery
G. Brewer
T. Fahmer
M. Biondi
AUT
GER
USA
FRG
USA
AUS
FRG
USA
2:32.0
2:56.0
1:58.1
1:53.99
1:50.58
1:51.60
1:49.69
1:47.99
In 1904 the distance was 201.17 m (220 yards).
SwimmingMen400 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
C. Daniels
H. Taylor
G. Hodgson
N. Ross
J. Weissmuller
A. Zorrilla
C. Crabbe
J. Medica
W. Smith
J. Boiteux
M. Rose
M. Rose
D. Schollander
M. Burton
B. Cooper
B. Goodell
V. Salnikov
G. Cicarto
U. Dassler
USA
GBR
CAN
USA
USA
ARG
USA
USA
USA
FRA
AUS
AUS
USA
USA
AUS
USA
URS
USA
GDR
6:16.2
5:36.8
5:24.4
5:26.8
5:04.2
5:01.6
4:48.4
4:44.5
4:41.0
4:30.7
4:27.3
4:18.3
4:12.2
4:09.0
4:00.27
3:51.93
3:51.31
3:51.23
3:46.95
F. Gailey
F. Beaurepaire
J. Hatfield
L. Langer
A. Borg
A. Charlton
J. Tans
S. Uto
J. McLane
F. Konno
T. Yamanaka
T. Yamanaka
F. Wiegand
R. Hutton
S. Genter
T. Shaw
A. Krilov
J. Mykkanen
D. Armstrong
USA
AUS
GBR
USA
SWE
AUS
FRA
JPN
USA
USA
JPN
JPN
GER
CAN
USA
USA
URS
USA
AUS
6:22.0
5:44.2
5:25.8
5:29.0
5:05.6
5:03.6
4:48.5
4:45.6
4:43.4
4:31.3
4:30.4
4:21.4
4:14.9
4:11.7
4:01.94
3:52.54
3:53.24
3:51.49
3:47.15
O. Wahle
O. Scheff
H. Hardwick
G. Vernot
A. Charlton
A. Borg
T. Oyokota
S. Makino
J. Marshall
P. O. Östrand
G. Breen
J. Konrads
A. Wood
A. Mosconi
T. McBreen
V. Raskatov
I. Stukolkin
J. Lemberg
A. Wojdat
AUT
UAT
AUS
CAN
AUS
SWE
JPN
JPN
AUS
SWE
USA
AUS
AUS
FRA
USA
URS
URS
AUS
POL
6:39.0
5:46.0
5:31.2
5:29.6
5:06.6
5:04.6
4:52.3
4:48.1
4:47.4
4:35.2
4:32.5
4:21.8
4:15.1
4:13.3
4:02.64
3:55.76
3:53.95
3:51.79
3:47.34
432
SwimmingMen1,500 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Rausch
H. Taylor
G. Hodgson
N. Ross
A. Charlton
A. Borg
K. Kitamura
N. Tereda
J. McLane
F. Konno
M. Rose
J. Konrads
R. Windle
M. Burton
M. Burton
B. Goodell
V. Salnikov
M. O'Brien
V. Salnikov
GER
GBR
CAN
USA
AUS
SWE
JPN
JPN
USA
USA
AUS
AUS
AUS
USA
USA
USA
URS
USA
URS
27:18.2
22:48.4
22:00.0
22:23.2
20:06.6
19:51.8
19:12.4
19:13.7
19:18.5
18:30.0
17:58.9
17:19.6
17:01.7
16:38.9
15:52.58
15:02.40
14:58.27
15:05.20
15:00.40
G. Kiss
T. Battersby
J. Hatfield
G. Vernot
A. Borg
A. Charlton
S. Makino
J. Medica
J. Marshall
S. Hashizume
T. Yamanaka
M. Rose
J. Nelson
J. Kinsella
G. Windeatt
B. Hackett
A. Chaev
G. Cicarlo
S. Pfeiffer
HUN
GBR
GBR
CAN
SWE
AUS
JPN
USA
AUS
JPN
JPN
AUS
USA
USA
AUS
USA
URS
USA
FRG
28:28.2
22:51.2
22:39.0
22:36.4
22:41.4
20:28.8
19:14.1
19:34.0
19:31.3
18:41.4
18:00.3
17:21.7
17:03.0
16:57.3
15:58.48
15:03.91
15:14.30
15:10.59
15:02.69
F. Gailey
F. Beaurepaire
H. Hardwick
F. Beaurepaire
F. Beaurepaire
C. Crabbe
J. Cristy
S. Uto
G. Mitró
T. Okamoto
G. Breen
G. Breen
A. Wood
G. Brough
D. Northway
S. Holland
M. Metzker
S. Pfeiffer
U. Drassler
USA
AUS
AUS
AUS
AUS
USA
USA
JPN
HUN
BRA
USA
USA
AUS
AUS
USA
AUS
AUS
FRG
GDR
28:54.0
22:56.2
23:15.4
23:04.0
21:48.4
20:28.8
19:39.5
19:34.5
19:43.2
18:51.3
18:08.2
17:30.6
17:07.7
17:04.7
16:09.25
15:04.66
15:14.49
15:12.11
15:06.15
In 1904 the distance was 1,609.34 m (1 mile).
SwimmingMen100 m backstroke
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
W. Brack
A. Bieberstein
H. Hebner
W. P. Kealoha
W. P. Kealoha
G. Kojac
M. Kiyokawa
A. Kiefer
A. Stack
Y. Oyakawa
D. Theile
D. Theile
R. Matthes
R. Matthes
J. Naber
B. Baron
R. Carey
D. Suzuki
GER
GER
USA
USA
USA
USA
JPN
USA
USA
USA
AUS
AUS
GDR
GDR
USA
SWE
USA
JPN
1:16.8
1:24.6
1:21.2
1:15.2
1:13.2
1:08.2
1:08.6
1:05.9
1:06.4
1:05.4
1:02.2
1:01.9
58.7
56.58
55.49
56.33
55.79
55.05
G. Hoffmann
L. Dam
O. Fahr
R. Kegeris
P. Wyatt
W. Laufer
T. Irie
A. Vandeweghe
R. Cowell
G. Bozon
J. Monckton
F. McKinney
C. Hickcox
M. Stamm
P. Rocca
V. Kuznetsov
D. Wilson
D. Berkoff
GER
DEN
GER
USA
USA
USA
JPN
USA
USA
FRA
AUS
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
USA
USA
1:26.6
1:22.4
1:16.2
1:15.4
1:10.0
1:09.8
1:07.7
1:06.5
1:06.2
1:03.2
1:02.1
1:00.2
57.70
56.34
56.99
56.35
55.18
G. Zacharias
H. Haresnape
P. Kellner
G. Blitz
K. Bartha
P. Wyatt
K. Kawatsu
M. Kiyokawa
G. Vallerey
J. Taylor
F. McKinney
R. Bennet
R. Mills
J. Murphy
R. Matthes
V. Dolgov
M. West
I. Polianski
GER
GBR
GER
BEL
HUN
USA
JPN
USA
FRA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
URS
CAN
URS
1:27.0
1:24.0
1:19.0
1:17.8
1:12.0
1:10.0
1:08.4
1:07.8
1:06.4
1:04.5
1:02.3
1:00.5
58.35
57.22
57.63
56.49
55.20
In 1904 the distance was 91.44 m (100 yards).
SwimmingMen200 m backstroke
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Hoppenberg
J. Graef
R. Matthes
R. Matthes
J. Naber
S. Wladár
R. Carey
I. Polianski
GER
USA
GDR
GDR
USA
HUN
USA
URS
2:47.0
2:10.3
2:09.6
2:02.82
1:59.19
2:01.93
2:00.23
1:59.37
K. Ruberl
G. Dilley
M. Ivey
M. Stamm
P. Rocca
Z. Verrasztó
F. Delcourt
F. Baltrusch
AUT
USA
USA
USA
USA
HUN
FRA
GDR
2:56.0
2:10.5
2:10.6
2:04.09
2:00.55
2:02.40
2:01.75
1:59.60
J. Drost
R. Bennett
J. Horsley
M. Ivey
D. Harrigan
M. Kerry
C. Henning
P. Kingsman
NED
USA
USA
USA
USA
AUS
CAN
NZL
3:01.0
2:13.1
2:10.9
2:04.33
2:01.35
2:03.14
2:02.37
2:00.48
433
SwimmingMen100 m breaststroke
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
D. McKenzie
N. Taguchi
J. Hencken
D. Goodhew
S. Lundquist
A. Moorhouse
USA
JPN
USA
GBR
USA
GBR
1:07.7
1:04.94
1:03.11
1:03.44
1:01.65
1:02.04
V. Kossinski
T. Bruce
D. Wilkie
A. Miskarov
V. Davis
K. Guttler
URS
USA
GBR
URS
CAN
HUN
1:08.0
1:05.43
1:03.43
1:03.82
1:01.99
1:02.05
N. Pankin
J. Hencken
A. Juosaitis
P. Evans
P. Evans
D. Volkov
URS
USA
URS
AUS
AUS
URS
1:08.0
1:05.61
1:04.23
1:03.96
1:02.97
1:02.20
SwimmingMen200 m breaststroke
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
F. Holman
W. Bathe
H. Malmroth
R. Skelton
Y. Tsuruta
Y. Tsuruta
T. Hamuro
J. Verdeur
J. Davies
M. Furukawa
W. Mulliken
I. O'Brien
F. Muñoz
J. Hencken
D. Wilkie
R. Zulpa
V. Davis
J. Szabó
GBR
GER
SWE
USA
JPN
JPN
JPN
USA
AUS
JPN
USA
AUS
MEX
USA
GBR
URS
CAN
HUN
3:09.2
3:01.8
3:04.4
2:56.6
2:48.8
2:45.4
2:41.4
2:39.3
2:34.4
2:34.7
2:37.4
2:27.8
2:28.7
2:21.55
2:15.11
2:15.85
2:13.34
2:13.52
W. Robinson
W. Lützow
T. Henning
J. de Combe
E. Rademacher
R. Koike
E. Sietas
K. Carter
B. Stassforth
M. Yoshimura
Y. Osaki
G. Prokopenko
V. Kosinski
D. Wilkie
J. Hencken
A. Vemes
G. Beringen
N. Gillingham
GBR
GER
SWE
BEL
GER
JPN
GER
USA
USA
JPN
JPN
URS
URS
GBR
USA
HUN
AUS
GBR
3:12.8
3:05.0
3:09.2
2:59.2
2:50.6
2:46.6
2:42.9
2:40.2
2:34.7
2:36.7
2:38.0
2:28.2
2:29.2
2:23.67
2:17.26
2:16.93
2:15.79
2:14.12
P. Hanson
K. Malisch
A. Aaltonen
W. Kischbaum
Y. Yldefonzo
Y. Yldefonzo
R. Koike
R. Sohl
H. Klein
K. Yunichev
W. Mensionides
C. Jastremski
B. Job
N. Taguchi
R. Colella
A. Miskarov
É. Dagon
S. Lopez
SWE
GER
FIN
USA
PHI
PHI
JPN
USA
GER
USA
NED
USA
USA
JPN
USA
URS
SUI
ESP
3:14.6
3:08.0
3:12.2
3:01.0
2:56.4
2:47.1
2:44.2
2:43.9
2:35.9
2:36.8
2:39.7
2:29.6
2:29.9
2:23.88
2:19.20
2:17.28
2:17.41
2:15.21
SwimmingMen100 m butterfly
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
D. Russell
M. Spitz
M. Vogel
P. Arvidsson
M. Gross
A. Nesty
USA
USA
USA
SWE
FRG
SUR
55.9
54.27
54.35
54.92
53.08
53.00
M. Spitz
B. Robertson
J. Bottom
R. Pytell
P. Morales
M. Biondi
USA
CAN
USA
GDR
USA
USA
56.4
55.56
54.50
54.94
53.23
53.01
R. Wales
J. Heidenreich
G. Hall
D. Lopez
G. Buchanan
A. Jameson
USA
USA
USA
ESP
AUS
GBR
57.2
55.74
54.65
55.13
53.85
53.30
SwimmingMen200 m butterfly
Gold Silver Bronze
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
W. Yorzyk
M. Troy
K. Berry
C. Robie
M. Spitz
M. Bruner
S. Fesenko
J. Sieben
M. Gross
USA
USA
AUS
USA
USA
USA
URS
AUS
FRG
2:19.3
2:12.8
2:06.6
2:08.7
2:00.70
1:59.23
1:59.76
1:57.04
1:56.94
T. Ishimoto
N. Hayes
C. Robie
M. Woodroffe
G. Hall
S. Gregg
P. Hubble
M. Gross
B. Nielsen
JPN
AUS
USA
GBR
USA
USA
GBR
FRG
DEN
2:23.8
2:14.6
2:07.5
2:09.0
2:02.86
1:59.54
2:01.20
1:57.40
1:58.24
G. Tumpek
D. Gillanders
F. Schmidt
J. Ferris
R. Backhaus
B. Forrester
R. Pyttel
R. Vidal Castro
A. Mosse
HUN
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
VEN
NZL
2:23.9
2:15.3
2:09.3
2:09.3
2:03.23
1:59.96
2:01.39
1:57.51
1:58.28
SwimmingMen200 m medley
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
C. Hickcox
G. Larsson
USA
SWE
2:12.0
2:07.17
G. Buckingham
A. McKee
USA
USA
2:13.0
2:08.37
S. Ferris
S. Furniss
USA
USA
2:13.3
2:08.45
434
1984
1988
Gold
A. Baumann
T. Damyi
CAN
HUN
2:01.42
2:00.17
Silver
P. Morales
P. Kühl
USA
GDR
2:03.05
2:01.61
Bronze
N. Cochran
V. Yaroshchuk
GBR
URS
2:04.38
2:02.40
SwimmingMen400 m medley
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
R. Roth
C. Hickcox
G. Larsson
R. Strachan
A. Sidorenko
A. Baumann
T. Darnyi
USA
USA
SWE
USA
URS
CAN
HUN
4:45.4
4:48.4
4:31.98
4:23.68
4:22.89
4:17.41
4:14.75
R. Saari
G. Hall
A. McKee
A. McKee
S. Fesenko
R. Prado
D. Wharton
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
BRA
USA
4:47.1
4:48.7
4:31.98
4:24.62
4:23.43
4:18.45
4:17.36
G. Hetz
M. Holthaus
A. Hargitay
A. Smimov
Z. Verrasztó
R. Woodhouse
S. Battistelli
GER
FRG
HUN
URS
HUN
AUS
ITA
4:51.0
4:51.4
4:32.70
4:26.90
4:24.24
4:20.50
4:18.01
SwimmingMen4 x 100 m freestyle relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1984
1988
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
3:33.2
3:31.7
3:26.42
3:19.03
3:16.53
GER
URS
URS
AUS
URS
3:37.2
3:34.2
3:29.72
3:19.68
3:18.33
AUS
AUS
GDR
SWE
GDR
3:39.1
3:34.7
3:32.42
3:22.69
3:19.82
SwimmingMen
4 x 200 m freestyle relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
GBR
AUS/NZL
USA
USA
USA
JAP
JAP
USA
USA
AUS
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
USA
USA
10:55.6
10:11.6
10:04.4
9:53.4
9:36.2
8:58.4
8:51.5
8:46.0
8:31.1
8:23.6
8:10.2
7:52.1
7:52.3
7:35.78
7:23.22
7:23.50
7:15.69
7:12.51
USA
GBR
GBR
SWE
CAN
HUN
HUN
FRA
FRA
URS
AUS
JAP
URS
URS
GBR
BRA
GBR
FRG
11:02.8
10:28.2
10:37.2
10:06.8
9:47.8
9:31.4
9:12.3
9:08.0
8:45.9
8:34.7
8:13.8
8:03.8
8:01.6
7:45.76
7:32.11
7:29.30
7:24.78
7:14.35
HUN
USA
AUS
AUS
JAP
USA
USA
HUN
JAP
USA
JAP
GER
AUS
FRG
URS
GDR
FRG
GDR
10:59.0
10:20.2
10:25.4
10:02.0
9:41.4
9:10.5
9:03.0
8:48.4
8:33.5
8:31.5
8:13.2
7:59.3
7:53.7
7:41.69
7:27.97
7:28.60
7:15.73
7:13.68
SwimmingMen4 x 400 m freestyle relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1984
1988
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
3:33.2
3:31.7
3:26.42
3:19.03
3:16.53
GER
URS
URS
AUS
URS
3:37.2
3:34.2
3:29.72
3:19.68
3:18.33
AUS
AUS
GDR
SWE
GDR
3:39.1
3:34.7
3:32.42
3:22.69
3:29.82
435
SwimmingMen4 x 100 m medley relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
AUS
USA
USA
4:05.4
3:58.4
3:54.9
3:48.16
3:42.22
3:45.70
3:39.30
3:36.93
AUS
GER
FRG
FRG
CAN
URS
CAN
CAN
4:12.0
4:01.6
3:57.5
3:51.1
3:45.94
3:45.92
3:43.23
3:39.28
JAP
AUS
URS
CAN
FRG
GBR
AUS
URS
4:12.2
4:02.3
4:00.7
3:52.26
3:47.29
3:47.71
3:43.25
3:39.96
SwimmingWomen
50 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 K. Otto GDR 25.49 Yang Wenyi CHN 25.64 K. MeissnerJ. Sterkel
GDRUSA
25.7125.71
SwimmingWomen100 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
F. Durack
E. Bleibtrey
E. Lackie
A. Osipowich
H. Madison
H. Mastenbroek
G. Andersen
K. Szöke
D. Fraser
D. Fraser
D. Fraser
J. Henne
S. Neilson
K. Ender
B. Krause
C. SteinseiferN. Hogshead
K. Otto
AUS
USA
USA
USA
USA
NED
DEN
HUN
AUS
AUS
AUS
USA
USA
GDR
GDR
USAUSA
GDR
1:22.2
1:13.6
1:12.4
1:11.0
1:06.8
1:05.9
1:06.3
1:06.8
1:02.0
1:01.2
59.5
1:00.0
58.59
55.65
54.79
55.9255.92
54.93
W. Wylie
I. Guest
M. Wehselau
E. Garatti
W. den Ouden
J. Campbell
A. Curtis
J. Termeulen
L. Crapp
C. von Saltza
S. Stouder
S. Pedersen
S. Babashoff
P. Priemer
C. Metschuck
AUS
USA
USA
USA
NED
ARG
USA
NED
AUS
USA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
GDR
1:25.4
1:17.0
1:12.8
1:11.4
1:07.8
1:06.4
1:06.5
1:07.0
1:02.3
1:02.8
59.9
1:00.3
59.02
56.49
55.16
Zhuang Yong CHN 55.47
J. Fletcher
F. Schroth
G. Ederle
M. J. Cooper
E. Saville (Garatti)
G. Arendt
M.-L. Vaessen
J. Temes
F. Leech
N. Steward
K. Ellis
L. Gustavson
S. Gould
E. Brigitha
I. Diers
A. Verstappen
C. Plewinski
GBR
USA
USA
GBR
USA
GER
NED
HUN
AUS
GBR
USA
USA
AUS
NED
GDR
NED
FRA
1:27.0
1:17.2
1:14.2
1:13.6
1:08.2
1:06.6
1:07.6
1:07.1
1:05.1
1:03.1
1:00.8
1:00.3
59.06
56.65
55.65
56.08
55.49
In 1984, Carrie Steinseifer and Nancy Hogshead were both awarded a gold medal. This is, so far, the only double gold in Olympic swimming history.
SwimmingWomen200 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
D. Meyer
S. Gould
K. Ender
B. Krause
M. Wayte
H. Friedrich
USA
AUS
GDR
GDR
USA
GDR
2:10.5
2:03.56
1:59.26
1:58.33
1:59.23
1:57.65
J. Henne
S. Babashoff
S. Babashoff
I. Diers
C. Woodhead
S. Poll
USA
USA
USA
GDR
USA
CRC
2:11.10
2:04.33
2:01.22
1:59.64
1:59.50
1:58.67
J. Barkman
K. Rothammer
E. Brigitha
C. Schmidt
A. Verstappen
M. Stellmach
USA
USA
NED
GDR
NED
GDR
2:11.2
2:04.92
2:01.40
2:01.44
1:59.69
1:59.01
SwimmingWomen
400 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
M. Norelius
M. Norelius
H. Madison
H. Mastenbroek
A. Curtis
V. Gyenge
L. Crapp
USA
USA
USA
NED
USA
HUN
AUS
6:02.2
5:42.8
5:28.5
5:26.4
5:17.8
5:12.1
4:54.6
H. Wainwright
M. Braun
L. Kight
R. Hveger
K.-M. Harup
E. Novák
D. Fraser
USA
NED
USA
DEN
DEN
HUN
AUS
6:03.8
5:57.8
5:28.6
5:27.5
5:21.2
5:13.7
5:02.5
G. Ederle
J. McKim
J. Makaal
L. Wingard (Kìght)
C. Gibson
E. Kawamoto
S. Ruuska
USA
USA
SAF
USA
GBR
USA
USA
6:04.8
6:00.2
5:47.3
5:29.0
5:22.5
5:14.6
5:07.1
436
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
C. Von Saltza
V. Duenkel
D. Meyer
S. Gould
P. Thümer
I. Diers
T. Cohen
J. Evans
USA
USA
USA
AUS
GDR
GDR
USA
USA
4:50.6
4:43.3
4:31.8
4:19.04
4:09.89
4:08.76
4:07.10
4:03.85
Silver
J. Cederqvist
M. Ramenofsky
L. Gustavson
N. Calligarís
S. Babashoff
P. Schneider
S. Hardcastle
H. Friedrich
SWE
USA
USA
ITA
USA
GDR
GBR
GDR
4:53.9
4:44.6
4:35.5
4:22.44
4:10.46
4:09.16
4:10.27
4:05.94
Bronze
C. Lagerberg
T. Stickles
K. Moras
G. Wegner
S. Smith
C. Schmidt
J. Croft
A. Möhring
NED
USA
AUS
GDR
CAN
GDR
GBR
GDR
4:56.9
4:47.2
4:37.0
4:23.11
4:14.60
4:10.86
4:11.49
4:06.62
SwimmingWomen
800 m freestyle
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
D. Meyer
K. Rothhammer
P. Thümer
M. Ford
T. Cohen
J. Evans
USA
USA
GDR
AUS
USA
USA
9:24.0
8:53.68
8:37.14
8:28.90
8:24.95
8:20.20
P. Kruse
S. Gould
S. Babashoff
I. Diers
M. Richardson
A. Strass
USA
AUS
USA
GDR
USA
GDR
9:35.7
8:56.39
8:37.59
8:32.55
8:30.73
8:22.09
M. T. Ramirez
N. Calligaris
W. Weinberg
H. Dähne
S. Hardcastle
J. McDonald
MEX
ITA
USA
GDR
GBR
AUS
9:38.5
8:57.46
8:42.60
8:33.48
8:32.60
8:22.93
SwimmingWomen
100 m breaststroke
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
D. Bjedov
C. Carr
H. Anke
U. Geweniger
P. van Staveren
T. Dangalakova
YUG
USA
GDR
GDR
NED
BUL
1:15.8
1:13.58
1:11.16
1:10.22
1:09.88
1:07.95
G. Prozumenshchikova
G. Stepanova(Prozumenshchikova)
L. Russanova
E. Vasilkova
A. Ottenbrite
A. Frenkeva
URS
URS
URS
URS
CAN
BUL
1:15.9
1:14.99
1:13.04
1:10.41
1:10.69
1:08.74
S. Wichman
B. Whitfield
M. Koshevaya
S. Nielsson
C. Poirot
S. Hörner
USA
AUS
URS
DEN
FRA
GDR
1:16.1
1:15.73
1:13.30
1:11.16
1:10.70
1:08.83
SwimmingWomen
200 m breaststroke
Gold Silver Bronze
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
L. Morton
H. Schrader
C. Dennis
H. Maehata
P. van Vliet
É. Székely
U. Happe
A. Lonsbrough
G. Prozumenshchikova
S. Wichman
B. Whitfield
M. Koshevaya
L. Kaciušyte
A. Ottenbrite
S. Hörner
GBR
GER
AUS
JPN
NED
HUN
GER
GBR
URS
USA
AUS
URS
URS
CAN
GDR
3:33.2
3:12.6
3:06.3
3:03.6
2:57.2
2:51.7
2:53.1
2:49.5
2:46.4
2:44.4
2:41.71
2:33.35
2:29.54
2:30.38
2:26.71
A. Geraghty
M. Baron
H. Maehata
M. Genenger
B. Lyons
É. Novak
É. Székely
W. Urselmann
C. Kolb
D. Bjedov
D. Schoenfield
M. Yurchenia
S. Varganova
S. Rapp
Huang Xiaomin
USA
NED
JPN
GER
AUS
HUN
HUN
GER
USA
YUG
USA
URS
URS
USA
CH
3:34.0
3:15.2
3:06.4
3:04.2
2:57.7
2:54.4
2:54.8
2:50.0
2:47.6
2:46.4
2:42.05
2:36.08
2:29.61
2:31.15
2:27.49
G. Carson
L. Mühe
E. Jacobsen
I. Sörensen
É. Novák
H. Gordon
E.-M. Ten Elsen
B. Göbel
S. Babanina
G. Prozumenshchikova
G. Stepanova(Prozumenshchikova)
L. Rusanova
Y. Bogdanova
I. Lempereur
A. Frenkeva
GBR
GER
DEN
DEN
HUN
GBR
GER
GER
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
BEL
BUL
3:35.4
3:17.6
3:07.1
3:07.8
3:00.2
2:57.6
2:55.1
2:53.6
2:48.6
2:47.0
2:42.36
2:36.22
2:32.39
2:31.40
2:28.34
SwimmingWomen
100 m backstroke
Gold Silver Bronze
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
S. Bauer
M. Braun
E. Holm
D. Senff
K.-M. Harup
J. Harrison
USA
NED
USA
NED
DEN
SAF
1:23.2
1:22.0
1:19.4
1:18.9
1:14.4
1:14.3
P. Harding
E. King
P. Mealing
H. Mastenbroek
S. Zimmerman
G. Wielema
GBR
GBR
AUS
NED
USA
NED
1:27.4
1:22.2
1:21.3
1:19.2
1:16.0
1:14.5
A. Riggin
M. J. Cooper
E. V. Davies
A. Bridges
J. Davies
J. Stewart
USA
GBR
GBR
USA
AUS
NZL
1:28.2
1:22.8
1:22.5
1:19.4
1:16.7
1:15.8
437
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
J. Grinham
L. Burke
C. Ferguson
K. Hall
M. Belote
U. Ritcher
R. Reinisch
T. Andrews
K. Otto
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
GDR
USA
GDR
1:12.9
1:09.3
1:07.7
1:06.2
1:05.78
1:01.83
1:00.86
1:02.55
1:00.89
Silver
C. Cone
N. Steward
C. Caron
E. Tanner
A. Gyarmati
B. Treiber
I. Kleber
B. Mitchell
K. Egerszegi
USA
GBR
FRA
CAN
HUN
GDR
GDR
USA
HUN
1:12.9
1:10.8
1:07.9
1:06.7
1:06.26
1:03.41
1:02.07
1:02.63
1:01.56
Bronze
M. Edwards
S. Tanaka
V. Duenkel
J. Swagerty
S. Atwood
N. Garapick
P. Riedel
J. de Rover
C. Sirch
GBR
JPN
USA
USA
USA
CAN
GDR
NED
GDR
1:13.1
1:11.4
1:08.0
1:08.1
1:06.34
1:03.71
1:02.64
1:02.91
1:01.57
SwimmingWomen
200 m backstroke
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
L. Watson
M. Belote
U. Richter
R. Reinisch
J. de Rover
K. Egerszegi
USA
USA
GDR
GDR
NED
HUN
2:24.8
2:19.19
2:13.43
2:11.77
2:12.38
2:09.29
E. Tanner
S. Atwood
B. Treiber
C. Polit
A. White
K. Zimmerman
CAN
USA
GDR
GDR
USA
GDR
2:27.4
2:20.38
2:14.97
2:13.75
2:13.04
2:10.61
K. Hall
D. Gurr
N. Garapick
B. Treiber
A. Patrascoiu
C. Sirch
USA
CAN
CAN
GDR
ROM
GDR
2:28.9
2:23.22
2:15.60
2:14.14
2:13.29
2:11.45
SwimmingWomen100 m butterfly
Gold Silver Bronze
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
S. Mann
C. Schuler
S. Stouder
L. McClements
M. Aoki
K. Ender
C. Metschuck
M. T. Meagher
K. Otto
USA
USA
USA
AUS
JPN
GDR
GDR
USA
GDR
1:11.0
1:09.5
1:04.7
1:05.5
1:03.34
1:00.13
1:00.42
59.26
59.00
N. Ramey
M. Heemskerk
A. Kok
E. Daniel
R. Beier
A. Pollack
A. Pollack
J. Johnson
B. Weigang
USA
NED
NED
USA
GDR
GDR
GDR
USA
GDR
1:11.9
1:10.4
1:05.6
1:05.8
1:03.61
1:01.17
1:00.90
1:00.19
59.45
M. Sears
J. Andrew
K. Ellis
S. Shields
A. Gyarmati
W. Boglioli
C. Knacke
K. Seick
Qian Hong
USA
AUS
USA
USA
HUN
GDR
GDR
FRG
CHN
1:14.4
1:12.2
1:06.0
1:06.2
1:03.73
1:01.17
1:01.44
1:01.36
59.52
SwimmingWomen200 m butterfly
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Kok
K. Moe
A. Pollack
I. Geissler
M. T. Meagher
K. Nord
NED
USA
GDR
GDR
USA
GDR
2:24.7
2:15.57
2:11.41
2:10.44
2:06.90
2:09.51
H. Lindner
L. Colella
U. Tauber
S. Schönrock
K. Phillips
B. Weigang
GDR
USA
GDR
GDR
AUS
GDR
2:24.8
2:16.34
2:12.50
2:10.45
2:10.56
2:09.91
E. Daniel
E. Daniel
R. Gabriel (Kothers)
M. Ford
I. Beyermann
M. T. Meagher
USA
USA
GDR
AUS
FRG
USA
2:25.9
2:16.74
2:12.86
2:11.66
2:11.91
2:10.80
SwimmingWomen
200 m medley
Gold Silver Bronze
1968
1972
1984
1988
C. Kolb
S. Gould
T. Caulkins
D. Hunger
USA
AUS
USA
GDR
2:24.7
2:23.07
2:12.64
2:12.59
S. Pedersen
K. Ender
N. Hogshead
E. Dendeberova
USA
GDR
USA
URS
2:28.8
2:23.59
2:15.17
2:13.31
J. Henne
L. Vidali
M. Pearson
N. I. Lung
USA
USA
AUS
ROM
2:31.4
2:24.06
2:15.92
2:14.85
SwimmingWomen400 m medley
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
D. De Varona
C. Kolb
G. Neall
USA
USA
AUS
5:18.7
5:08.5
5:02.97
S. Finneran
L. Vidali
L. Cliff
USA
USA
CAN
5:24.1
5:22.2
5:03.57
M. Randall
S. Steinbach
N. Calligaris
USA
GDR
ITA
5:24.2
5:25.3
5:03.99
438
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
U. Tauber
P. Schneider
T. Caulkins
J. Evans
GDR
GDR
USA
USA
4:42.77
4:36.29
4:39.24
4:37.76
Silver
C. Gibson
S. Davies
S. Landells
N. I. Lung
CAN
GBR
AUS
ROM
4:48.10
4:46.83
4:48.30
4:39.46
Bronze
B. Smith
A. Czopek
P. Zinder
D. Hunger
CAN
POL
FRG
GDR
4:50.48
4:48.17
4:48.57
4:39.76
SwimmingWomen
4 x 100 m freestyle relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
NED
USA
HUN
AUS
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
USA
GDR
5:52.8
5:11.6
4:58.8
4:47.6
4:38.0
4:36.0
4:29.2
4:24.4
4:17.1
4:08.9
4:03.8
4:02.5
3:55.19
3:44.82
3:42.71
3:43.43
3:40.63
GER
GBR
GBR
GBR
NED
GER
DEN
NED
USA
AUS
AUS
GDR
GDR
GDR
SWE
NED
NED
6:04.6
5:40.8
5:17.0
5:02.8
4:47.5
4:36.8
4:29.6
4:29.0
4:19.2
4:11.3
4:06.9
4:05.7
3:55.55
3:45.50
3:48.93
3:44.40
3:43.39
AUS
SWE
SWE
SAF
GBR
USA
NED
USA
SAF
GER
NED
CAN
FRG
CAN
NED
FRG
USA
6:17.0
5:43.6
5:35.6
5:13.4
4:52.4
4:40.2
4:31.6
4:30.1
4:25.7
4:19.7
4:12.0
4:07.2
3:57.93
3:48.81
3:49.51
3:45.56
3:44.25
SwimmingWomen
4 x 100 m medley relay
Gold Silver Bronze
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
USA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
GDR
USA
GDR
4:41.1
4:33.9
4:28.3
4:20.75
4:07.95
4:06.67
4:08.34
4:03.74
AUS
NED
AUS
GDR
USA
GBR
FRG
USA
4:45.9
4:37.0
4:30.0
4:24.91
4:14.55
4:12.24
4:11.97
4:07.90
GER
URS
FRG
FRG
CAN
URS
CAN
CAN
4:47.6
4:39.2
4:36.4
4:26.46
4:15.22
4:13.61
4:12.98
4:10.49
SwimmingMenSpringboard diving
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Albert Zümer
P. Günther
L. Kuehn
A. White
P. Desjardins
M. Galitzen
R. Degener
B. Harlan
D. Browning
R. Clotworthy
G. Tobian
K. Sitzberger
B. Wrightson
V. Vasin
P. Boggs
A. Portnov
G. Louganis
G. Louganis
GER
GER
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
URS
USA
URS
USA
USA
85.50
79.23
675.40
696.40
185.04
161.38
163.57
163.64
205.29
159.56
170.00
159.90
170.15
594.09
619.05
905.025
754.41
730.80
K. Behrens
H. Luber
C. Pinkston
P. Desjardins
M. Galitzen
H. Smith
M. Wayne
M. Anderson
M. Anderson
D. Harper
S. Hall
F. Gorman
K. Dibiasi
F. G. Cagnotto
F. G. Cagnotto
C. Girón
Tan Liangde
Tan Liangde
GER
GER
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
ITA
ITA
ITA
MEX
CHN
CHN
85.30
76.78
655.30
693.20
174.06
158.54
159.56
157.29
199.84
156.23
157.63
157.63
159.74
591.63
570.48
892.140
662.31
704.88
G. Gaidzik
K. Behrens
L. Balbach
C. Pinkston
F. Simaika
R. Degener
A. Greene
S. Lee
R. Clotworthy
J. Capilla Pérez
J. Botella
L. Andreasen
J. Henry
C. Lincoln
A. Kosenkov
F. G. Cagnotto
R. Merriott
Li Deliang
USA
GER
USA
USA
EGY
USA
USA
USA
USA
MEX
MEX
USA
USA
USA
URS
ITA
USA
CHN
80.80
73.73
649.50
653.00
172.46
151.82
146.29
145.52
184.92
150.69
162.30
143.77
158.09
577.29
567.24
871.500
661.32
665.28
439
SwimmingMenPlatform diving
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
G. Sheldon
H. Johansson
E. Adlerz
C. Pinkston
A. White
P. Desjardins
H. Smith
M. Wayne
S. Lee
S. Lee
J. Capilla Perez
R. Webster
R. Webster
K. Dibiasi
K. Dibiasi
K. Dibiasi
F. Hoffmann
G. Louganis
G. Louganis
USA
SWE
SWE
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
MEX
USA
USA
ITA
ITA
ITA
GDR
USA
USA
12.66
83.75
73.94
100.67
97.46
98.74
124.80
113.58
130.05
156.28
152.44
165.56
148.58
164.18
504.12
600.51
835.65
710.91
638.61
G. Hoffmann
K. Malström
A. Zürner
E. Adlerz
D. Fall
F. Simaika
M. Galitzen
E. Root
B. Harlan
J. Capilla Pérez
G. Tobian
G. Tobian
K. Dibiasi
A. Gaxiola
R. Rydze
G. Louganis
V. Aleinik
B. Kimball
Xiong Ni
GER
SWE
GER
SWE
USA
EGY
USA
USA
USA
MEX
USA
USA
ITA
MEX
USA
USA
URS
USA
CHN
11.66
78.73
72.60
99.08
97.30
99.58
124.28
110.60
122.30
145.21
152.41
165.25
147.54
154.49
480.75
576.99
819.70
643.50
637.47
F. KehoeA. Braunschweiger
A. Spångberg
G. Blomgren
H. Prieste
C. Pinkston
M. Galitzen
F. Kurtz
H. Stork
J. Capilla Pérez
G. Haase
R. Connor
B. Phelps
T. Gompf
E. Young
F. G. Cagnotto
V. Aleinik
D. Ambartsumian
Li Kongzheng
J. Mena
USAGER
SWE
SWE
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
MEX
GER
USA
GBR
USA
USA
ITA
URS
URS
CHN
MEX
11.3311.33
74.00
69.56
93.73
94.60
92.34
121.98
110.31
113.52
141.31
149.79
157.13
146.57
153.93
475.83
548.61
817.44
638.28
594.39
This was a combined springboard and platform event in the 1904 and 1908 Games. P. Desjardins won this event in 1928 owing to the classification system, althoughhe had scored fewer points than F. Simaika.
SwimmingWomen
Springboard diving
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Riggin
E. Becker
H. Meany
G. Coleman
M. Gestring
V. Draves
P. McCormick
P. McCormick
I. Kramer
I. Engel (Kramer)
S. Gossick
M. King
J. Chandler
I. Kalinina
S. Bernier
Gao Min
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
GER
USA
USA
USA
URS
CAN
CHN
539.90
474.50
78.62
87.52
89.27
108.74
147.30
142.36
155.81
145.00
150.77
450.03
506.19
725.91
530.70
580.23
H. Wainwright
A. Riggin
D. Poynton
K. Rawls
K. Rawls
Z. A. Olsen
M. Moreau
J. Stunyo
P. J. Pope (Myers)
J. Collier
T. Pogosheva(Fedosova)
U. Knape
C. Köhler
M. Proeber
K. McCormick
Li Qing
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
FRA
USA
USA
USA
URS
SWE
GDR
GDR
USA
CHN
534.80
460.40
75.62
82.56
88.35
108.23
139.34
125.89
141.24
138.86
145.30
434.19
469.41
698.89
527.46
534.33
T. Payne
C. Fletcher
G. Coleman
J. Fauntz
D. Hill (Poynton)
P. Elsener
Z. A. Jensen (Olsen)
I. McDonald
E. Ferris
M. Willard
K. O'Sullivan
M. Janicke
C. Potter
K. Guthke
C. Seufert
K. McCormick
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
CAN
GBR
USA
USA
GDR
USA
GDR
USA
USA
534.10
436.40
73.38
82.12
82.36
101.30
127.57
121.40
139.09
138.18
145.23
430.92
466.83
685.24
517.62
533.19
SwimmingWomenPlatform diving
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
G. Johansson
S. Fryland-Clausen
C. Smith
E. Pinkston (Becker)
D. Poynton
D. Hill (Poynton)
V. Draves
P. McCormick
P. McCormick
I. Kramer
L. Bush
M. Duchková
U. Knape
SWE
DEN
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
USA
TCH
SWE
39.90
34.60
33.20
31.60
40.26
33.93
68.87
79.37
84.85
91.28
99.80
109.59
390.00
L. Regnell
E. Armstrong
E. Becker
G. Coleman
G. Coleman
V. Dunn
P. Elsener
P. J. Myers
J. Irwin (Stover)
P. J. Pope (Myers)
I. Engel (Kramer)
N. Lobanova(Kuznetsova)
M. Duchková
SWE
GBR
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
GER
URS
TCH
36.00
33.30
33.40
30.60
35.56
33.63
66.28
71.63
81.64
88.94
98.45
105.14
370.92
I. White
E. Ollivier
H. Töpel
L. Sjöquist
M. Roper
K. Köhler
B. Christoffersen
J. Irwin (Stover)
P. J. Myers
N. Krutova
G. Alekseyeva
A. Peterson
M. Janicke
GBR
SWE
SWE
SWE
USA
GER
DEN
USA
USA
URS
URS
USA
GDR
34.00
33.30
32.80
29.20
35.22
33.43
66.04
70.49
81.58
86.99
97.60
101.11
360.54
440
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
E. Vaitsejouskaya
M. Jäschke
Zhou Jihong
Xu Yanmei
URS
GDR
CHN
CHN
406.59
596.25
435.51
445.20
Silver
U. Knape
S. Emirzian
M. Mitchell
M. Mitchell
SWE
URS
USA
USA
402.60
576.46
431.19
436.95
Bronze
D. Wilson
L. Tsotadze
W. Wyland
W. L. Williams
USA
URS
USA
USA
401.07
575.92
422.07
400.44
C. Smith won this event in 1924 owing to the classification system although he had scored fewer points than E. Becker.
SwimmingWomen
Synchronized swimmingSolo
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
T. Ruiz
C. Waldo
USA
CAN
198.467
200.150
C. Waldo
T. Ruiz-Conforto
CAN
USA
195.300
197.633
M. Motoyoshi
M. Kotani
JPN
JPN
187.050
191.850
SwimmingWomen
Synchronized swimmingDuet
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
USA
CAN
195.584
197.317
CAN
USA
194.234
197.284
JAP
JAP
187.992
190.159
SwimmingMenWater polo
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
GBR
USA
GBR
GBR
GBR/IRL
FRA
GER
HUN
HUN
ITA
HUN
HUN
ITA
HUN
YUG
URS
HUN
URS
YUG
YUG
The participating teams were clubs rather than teams representing their country in 1900 and 1904.
BEL
USA
BEL
SWE
BEL
BEL
HUN
GER
GER
HUN
YUG
YUG
URS
YUG
URS
HUN
ITA
YUG
USA
USA
FRA
USA
SWE
BEL
SWE
USA
FRA
USA
BEL
NED
ITA
URS
HUN
URS
HUN
USA
NED
HUN
FRG
URS
Table tennisMenSingles
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 N.-K. Yoo KOR K.-T. Kim KOR E. Lindh SWE
Table tennisMenDoubles
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 CHN YUG KOR
441
Table tennisWomenSingles
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 Chen Jing CHN Li Huifen CHN Jiao Zhimin CHN
Table tennisWomenDoubles
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 KOR CHN YUG
TennisMenSingles
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1988
J. P. Boland
H. Doherty
B. Wright
J. Ritchie
C. Winslow
L. Raymond
V. Richards
M. Mecir
GBR/IRL
GBR
USA
GBR
SAF
SAF
USA
TCH
D. Kasdaglis
H. Mahony
R. LeRoy
O. Froitzheim
H. Kitson
I. Kumagae
H. Cochet
T. Mayotte
EGY
GBR/IRL
USA
GER
SAP
JPN
FRA
USA
M. TopaviczaK. Paspatis
R. DohertyA. Norris
A. BellE. Leonard
W. Vaughan Eaves
O. Kreuzer
C. Winslow
U. L. de Morpurgo
S. EdbergB. Gilbert
HUNGRE
GBRGBR
USAUSA
GBR
GER
SAP
ITA
SWEUSA
TennisMen
Doubles
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1920
1924
1988
GBR/IRL
GBR
USA
GBR
SAF
GBR
USA
USA
GRE/EGY
USA/FRA
USA
GBR/IRL
AUS
JAP
FRA
ESP
AUS/GBR
FRAIRL/GBR
USAUSA
GBR
FRA
FRA
FRA
TCHSWE
TennisWomen
Singles
Gold Silver Bronze
1900
1908
1912
1920
1924
1988
C. Cooper
D. Chambers
M. Broquedis
S. Lenglen
H. Wills
S. Graf
GBR
GBR
FRA
FRA
USA
FRG
H. Prévost
P. D. Boothby
D. Köring
E. D. Holman
J. Vlasto
G. Sabatini
FRA
GBR
GER
GBR
FRA
ARG
M. Jones
J. Winch
M. Bjurstedt
K. McKane
K. McKane
Z. GarrisonM. Maleeva
USA
GBR
NOR
GBR
GBR
USABUL
TennisWomenDoubles
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1988
GBR
USA
USA
GBR
GBR
TCH
FRA
GBR
AUSFRG
442
VolleyballMen
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
URS
URS
JAP
POL
URS
USA
USA
TCH
JAP
GDR
URS
BUL
BRA
URS
JAP
TCH
URS
CUB
ROM
ITA
ARG
VolleyballWomen
Gold Silver Bronze
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
JAP
URS
URS
JAP
URS
CHN
URS
URS
JAP
JAP
URS
GDR
USA
PER
POL
POL
PRK
KOR
BUL
JAP
CHN
WeightliftingUp to 52 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Z. Smalcerz
A. Voronin
K. Osmonaliev
Zeng Guoqiang
S. Marinov
POL
URS
URS
CHN
BUL
337.5 kg
242.5 kg
245.0 kg
235.0 kg
270.0 kg
L. Szücs
G. Köszegi
B.-C. Ho
Zhou Peishun
B.-K. Chun
HUN
HUN
PRK
CHN
KOR
330.0 kg
237.5 kg
245.0 kg
235.0 kg
260.0 kg
S. Holczreiter
M. Nassiri
G.-S. Han
K. Manabe
He Zhouqiang
HUN
IRN
PRK
JPN
CHN
327.5 kg
235.0 kg
245.0 kg
232.5 kg
257.5 kg
WeightliftingFrom 52.01 to 56 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
J. Di Pietro
I. Udodov
C. Vinci
C. Vinci
A. Vajonin
M. Nassiri
I. Földi
N. Nurikian
D. Núñez Aguilar
Wu Shude
O. Mirzoian
USA
URS
USA
USA
URS
IRN
HUN
BUL
CUB
CHN
URS
307.5 kg
315.0 kg
342.5 kg
345.0 kg
357.5 kg
367.5 kg
377.5 kg
262.5 kg
275.0 kg
267.5 kg
292.5 kg
J. Creus
M. Namdyou
V. Stogov
Y. Miyake
I. Földi
I. Földi
M. Nassiri
G. Cziura
Y. Sarkisian
Lai Runming
He Yingqiang
GBR
IRN
URS
JPN
HUN
HUN
IRN
POL
URS
CHN
CHN
297.5 kg
307.5 kg
337.5 kg
337.5 kg
355.0 kg
367.5 kg
370.0 kg
252.5 kg
270.0 kg
265.0 kg
287.5 kg
R. Tom
A. Mirzal
M. Namdyou
E. Elmjan
S. Ichinoseki
H. Trobicki
G. Chetin
K. Ando
T. Dembonczyk
M. Kotaka
Liu Shoubin
USA
IRN
IRN
IRN
JPN
POL
URS
JPN
POL
JPN
CHN
295.0 kg
300.0 kg
332.5 kg
330.0 kg
347.5 kg
357.5 kg
367.5 kg
250.0 kg
265.0 kg
252.5 kg
267.5 kg
WeightliftingFrom 56.01 to 60
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
F. de Haes
P. Gabetti
F. Andrysek
R. Suvigny
A. Terlazzo
M. Fayad
R. Chimishkian
I. Berger
E. Minayev
Yoshinobu Miyake
Yoshinobu Miyake
BEL
ITA
AUT
FRA
USA
EGY
URS
USA
URS
JPN
JPN
220.0 kg
402.5 kg
287.5 kg
287.5 kg
312.5 kg
332.5 kg
337.5 kg
352.5 kg
372.5 kg
397.5 kg
392.5 kg
A. Schmidt
A. Stadler
P. Gabetti
H. Wolper
S. M. Soliman
R. Wilkes
N. Saksonov
E. Minayev
I. Berger
I. Berger
D. Zhanidze
EST
AUT
ITA
GER
EGY
TRI
URS
URS
USA
USA
URS
212.5 kg
385.0 kg
282.5 kg
282.5 kg
305.0 kg
317.5 kg
332.5 kg
342.5 kg
362.5 kg
382.5 kg
387.5 kg
E. Ryther
A. Reinmann
H. Wölpert
A. Terlazzo
I. Hassan Shams
J. Salmassi
R. Wilkes
M. Zielinski
S. Mannironi
M. Nowak
Yoshiyuki Miyake
SUI
SUI
GER
USA
EGY
IRN
TRI
POL
ITA
POL
JPN
210.0 kg
382.5 kg
282.5 kg
280.0 kg
300.0 kg
312.0 kg
322.5 kg
335.0 kg
352.5 kg
377.5 kg
385.0 kg
443
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
N. Nurikian
N. Kolesnikov
V. Mazin
Chen Weiquiang
N. Suleymanoglü
BUL
URS
URS
CHN
TUR
402.5 kg
285.0 kg
290.0 kg
282.5 kg
342.5 kg
Silver
D. Zhanidze
G. Todorov
S. Dimitrov
G. Radu
S. Topurov
URS
BUL
BUL
ROM
BUL
400.0 kg
280.0 kg
287.5 kg
280.0 kg
312.5 kg
Bronze
J. Benedek
K. Hirai
M. Seweryn
W.-Y. Tsai
Ye Huanming
HUN
JPN
POL
TPE
CHN
390.0 kg
275.0 kg
282.5 kg
272.5 kg
287.5 kg
Weightliftingfrom 60.01 to 67.5 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Neuland
E. Décottignies
K. HelbingH. Haas
R. Duverger
A. M. MesbahR. Fein
I. Hassanien Shams
T. Kono
I. Ribak
V. Bushuyev
W. Baszanowski
W. Baszanowski
M. Kirzhinov
P. Korol
Y. Russev
Yao Jingyuan
J. Kunz
EST
FRA
GERAUT
FRA
EGYAUT
EGY
USA
URS
URS
POL
POL
URS
URS
BUL
CHN
GDR
257.5 kg
440.0 kg
322.5 kg322.5 kg
325.0 kg
342.5 kg342.5 kg
360.0 kg
362.5 kg
380.0 kg
397.5 kg
432.5 kg
437.5 kg
460.0 kg
305.0 kg
342.5 kg
320.0 kg
340.0 kg
L. Williquet
A. Zwerina
BEL
AUT
240.0 kg
427.5 kg
H. Haas AUT 307.5 kg
A. Hamouda
E. Lopatin
R. Jabutdinov
H. L. Tan
V. Kaplunov
P. Jalayer
M. Kuchev
D. Senet
J. Kunz
A. Socaci
I. Militosian
EGY
URS
URS
SIN
URS
IRN
BUL
FRA
GDR
ROM
URS
360.0 kg
350.0 kg
372.5 kg
380.0 kg
432.5 kg
422.5 kg
450.0 kg
300.0 kg
335.0 kg
312.5 kg
337.5 kg
F. Rooms
B. Durdis
F. Arnout
G. Pierini
K. Jansen
J. Halliday
V. Barberis
C.-H. Kim
A. Wahid Aziz
M. Zielinski
M. Zielinski
Z. Kaczmarek
K. Czarnecki
M. Pashov
J. Grönman
Li Jinhe
BEL
TCH
FRA
ITA
GER
GBR
AUS
KOR
IRQ
POL
POL
POL
POL
BUL
FIN
CHN
230.0 kg
425.0 kg
302.5 kg
302.5 kg
327.5 kg
340.0 kg
350.0 kg
370.0 kg
380.0 kg
420.0 kg
420.0 kg
437.5 kg
295.0 kg
325.0 kg
312.5 kg
325.0 kg
At the 1928 Games both K. Helbing and H. Haas were declared champion since they weighted the same and lifted the same weight. At the 1976 Games the event waswon by the Polish team member Z. Kaczmarek who was later disqualified for having used anabolic steroids.
WeightliftingFrom 67.51 to 75 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
H. Gance
C. Galimberti
R. Francois
R. Ismayr
K. S. El Touri
F. Spellman
P. George
F. Bogdanovski
A. Kurinov
H. Zdražila
V. Kurentsov
Y. Bikov
Y. Mitkov
A. Zlatev
K.-H. Radschinsky
B. Guidikov
FRA
ITA
FRA
GER
EGY
USA
USA
URS
URS
TCH
URS
BUL
BUL
BUL
FRG
BUL
245.0 kg
492.5 kg
335.0 kg
345.0 kg
387.5 kg
390.0 kg
400.0 kg
420.0 kg
437.5 kg
445.0 kg
475.0 kg
485.0 kg
335.0 kg
360.0 kg
340.0 kg
375.0 kg
P. Bianchi
A. Neuland
C. Galimberti
C. Galimberti
R. Ismayr
P. George
G. Gratton
P. George
T. Kono
V. Kurentsov
M. Ouchi
M. Traboulsi
V. Militosian
A. Pervi
J. Demers
I. Steinhoefel
ITA
EST
ITA
ITA
GER
USA
CAN
USA
USA
URS
JPN
LIB
URS
URS
CAN
GDR
237.5 kg
455.0 kg
332.5 kg
340.0 kg
352.5 kg
382.5 kg
390.0 kg
412.5 kg
427.5 kg
440.0 kg
455.0 kg
472.5 kg
330.0 kg
357.5 kg
335.0 kg
360.0 kg
A. Pettersson
J. Kikkas
A. Scheffer
K. Hipfinger
A. Wagner
S.-J. Kim
S.-J. Kim
E. Pignatti
G. Veres
M. Ouchi
K. Bakos
A. Silvino
P. Wenzel
N. Kolev
D. Cioroslan
A. Varbanov
SWE
EST
NED
AUT
GER
KOR
KOR
ITA
HUN
JPN
HUN
ITA
GDR
BUL
ROM
BUL
237.5 kg
450.0 kg
327.5 kg
337.5 kg
352.5 kg
380.0 kg
382.5 kg
382.5 kg
405.0 kg
437.5 kg
440.0 kg
470.0 kg
327.5 kg
345.0 kg
332.5 kg
357.5 kg
WeightliftingFrom 75,01 to 82,5 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
E. Cadine
C. Rigoulot
E. S. Nosseir
L. Hostin
L. Hostin
S. Stanczyk
T. Lomakin
T. Kono
FRA
FRA
EGY
FRA
FRA
USA
URS
USA
290,0 kg
502,5 kg
355,0 kg
365,0 kg
372,5 kg
417,5 kg
417,5 kg
447,5 kg
F. Hünenberger
F. Hünenberger
L. Hostin
S. Olsen
E. Deutsch
H. Sakata
S. Stanczyk
V. Stepanov
SUI
SUI
FRA
DEN
GER
USA
USA
URS
275,0 kg
490,0 kg
352,5 kg
360,0 kg
365,0 kg
380,0 kg
415,0 kg
427,5 kg
E. Pettersson
L. Friedrich
J. Verheijen
H. Duey
I. Wasif
G. Magnusson
A. Vorobiev
J. George
SWE
AUT
NED
USA
EGY
SWE
URS
USA
272,5 kg
490,0 kg
337,5 kg
330,0 kg
360,0 kg
375,0 kg
407,5 kg
417,5 kg
444
At the 1896 and 1904 Games there were two separate events: the one-hand lift (*) and the two-hand lift. The weight limits for the heavyweight category have been thefollowing: 1986 and 1904: open. From 1920 to 1948: over 82.5 kg. From 1952 to 1968: over 90 kg. From 1972: up to 110 kg. The Bulgarian V. Khristov won the 1976event but he was later disqualified for having taken anabolic steroids.
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
I. Palinski
R. Pukfelder
B. Selitski
L. Jenssen
V. Shari
Y. Vardanian
P. Becheru
I. Arsamakov
POL
URS
URS
NOR
URS
URS
ROM
URS
442,5 kg
475,0 kg
485,0 kg
507,5 kg
365,0 kg
400,0 kg
355,0 kg
377,5 kg
Silver
S. George
G. Tóth
V. Beliayev
N. Ozimek
T. Stoichev
B. Blagoyev
R. Kabbas
I. Messzi
USA
HUN
URS
POL
BUL
BUL
AUS
HUN
430,0 kg
467,5 kg
485,0 kg
497,5 kg
360,0 kg
372,5 kg
342,5 kg
370,0 kg
Bronze
J. Bochenek
G. Veres
N. Ozimek
G. Horváth
P. Baczakó
D. Poliacik
R. Isaoka
H.-K. Lee
POL
HUN
POL
HUN
HUN
TCH
JPN
KOR
420,0 kg
467,5 kg
472,5 kg
495,0 kg
345,0 kg
367,5 kg
340,0 kg
367,5 kg
At the 1976 Games the Bulgarian B. Blagoev took second place but was later disqualified for having used anabolic steroids.
WeightliftingFrom 82.51 to 90 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
N. Schemansky
A. Vorobiev
A. Vorobiev
V. Golovanov
K. Kangasniemi
A. Nikolov
D. Riguert
P. Baczakó
N. Vlad
A. Jrapati
USA
URS
URS
URS
FIN
BUL
URS
HUN
ROM
URS
445.0 kg
462.5 kg
472.5 kg
487.5 kg
517.5 kg
525.0 kg
381.5 kg
377.5 kg
392.5 kg
412.5 kg
G. Novak
D. Sheppard
T. Lomakin
L. Martin
J. Talts
A. Shopov
L. James
R. Aleksandrov
D. Petre
N. Mujamediarov
URS
USA
URS
GBR
URS
BUL
USA
BUL
ROM
URS
410.0 kg
422.5 kg
457.5 kg
475.0 kg
507.5 kg
517.5 kg
362.5 kg
375.0 kg
360.0 kg
400.0 kg
L. Kilgour
J. Debuf
L. Martin
I. Palinski
M. Golab
H. Bettembourg
A. Shopov
F. Mantek
D. Mercer
S. Zawada
TRI
FRA
GBR
POL
POL
SWE
BUL
GDR
GBR
POL
402.5 kg
425.0 kg
445.0 kg
467.5 kg
495.0 kg
512.5 kg
360.0 kg
370.0 kg
352.5 kg
400.0 kg
WeightliftingFrom 90.01 to 100 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1980
1984
1988
O. Zaremba
R. Milser
P. Kuznetsov
TCH
FRG
URS
395.0 kg
385.0 kg
425.0 kg
I. Nikitin
V. Groapã
N. Vlad
URS
ROM
ROM
392.5 kg
382.5 kg
402.5 kg
A. Blanco
P. Niemi
P. Immersberger
CUB
FIN
FRG
385.0 kg
367.5 kg
395.0 kg
WeightliftingFrom 100.01 to 110 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1904
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
L. Elliot*V. Jensen**
O. Osthoff*P. Kakousis**
F. Bottino
G. Tonani
J. Strassberger
J. Skobla
J. Manger
J. Davis
J. Davis
P. Anderson
Y. Vlasov
L. Jabotinski
L. Jabotinski
J. Talts
Y. Zaitsev
L. Taranenko
N. Oberburger
Y. Zajarevich
GBRDEN
USAGRE
ITA
ITA
GER
TCH
GER
USA
USA
USA
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
ITA
URS
71.0 kg111.5 kg
48111.5 kg
270.0 kg
517.5 kg
372.5 kg
380.0 kg
410.0 kg
452.5 kg
460.0 kg
500.0 kg
537.5 kg
572.5 kg
572.5 kg
580.0 kg
385.0 kg
422.5 kg
390.0 kg
455.0 kg
V. Jensen*L. Elliot**
F. Winters*O. Osthoff**
J. Alzin
F. Aigner
A. Luhaäär
V. Pšenicka
V. Pšenicka
N. Schemansky
J. Bradford
H. Selvetti
J. Bradford
Y. Vlasov
S. Reding
A. Kraichev
K. Semerdzhiev
V. Jristov
S. Tasnadi
J. Jacsó
DENGBR
USAUSA
LUX
AUT
EST
TCH
TCH
USA
USA
ARG
USA
URS
BEL
BUL
BUL
BUL
ROM
HUN
57.2 kg111.5 kg
4584.3 kg
255.0 kg
515.0 kg
360.0 kg
377.5 kg
402.5 kg
425.0 kg
437.5 kg
500.0 kg
512.5 kg
570.0 kg
555.0 kg
562.5 kg
385.0 kg
405.0 kg
380.0 kg
427.5 kg
A. Nikolopoulos*K. Schumann**S. Versis**
F. Kungler*F. Kungler**
L. Bemot
H. Tammer
J. Skobla
J. Strassberger
A. Luhaäär
A. Charité
H. Selvetti
A. Pigaiani
N. Schemansky
N. Schemansky
J. Dube
S. Grützner
T. Rutkowski
G. Szalai
G. Cariton
R. Weller
GREGERGRE
USAUSA
FRA
EST
TCH
GER
EST
NED
ARG
ITA
USA
USA
USA
GDR
POL
HUN
USA
GDR
57.0 kg90.0 kg90.0 kg
1079.8 kg
250.0 kg
497.5 kg
357.5 kg
377.5 kg
400.0 kg
412.5 kg
432.5 kg
452.5 kg
500.0 kg
537.5 kg
555.0 kg
555.0 kg
377.5 kg
390.0 kg
377.5 kg
425.0 kg
445
In 1904 the weight limit was 56.70 kg. In 1908 it was 54 kg and from 1924 to 1936 it was 56 kg.
WeíghtliftìngOver 110 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
V. Alekseyev
V. Alekseyev
S. Rajmanov
D. Lukin
A. Kurlovich
URS
URS
URS
AUS
URS
640.0 kg
440.0 kg
440.0 kg
412.5 kg
462.5 kg
R. Mang
G. Bonk
J. Heuser
M. Martínez
M. Nerlinger
FRG
GDR
GDR
USA
FRG
610.0 kg
405.0 kg
410.0 kg
410.0 kg
430.0 kg
G. Bonk
H. Losch
T. Rutkowski
M. Nenïnger
M. Zawieja
GDR
GDR
POL
FRG
FRG
572.5 kg
387.5 kg
407.5 kg
397.5 kg
415.0 kg
WrestlingFree styleUp to 48 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
R. Curry
R. Dmitriev
K. Isayev
C. Pollio
R. Weaver
T. Kobayashi
USA
URS
BUL
ITA
USA
JPN
J. Hein
O. Nikolov
R. Dmitriev
S.-H. Jang
T. Irie
I. Tzonov
USA
BUL
URS
PRK
JPN
BUL
G. Thiefenthaler
E. Yavadi
A. Kudo
S. Komilayev
G.-D. Son
S. Karamchakov
USA
IRN
JPN
URS
KOR
URS
WrestlingFree styleUp to 52 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
G. Mehnert
L. Vitala
H. Gemici
M. Tsalkalamanidze
A. Bilek
Y. Yoshida
S. Nakata
K. Kato
Y. Takada
A. Beloglazov
S. Trstena
M. Sato
USA
FIN
TUR
URS
TUR
JPN
JPN
JPN
JPN
URS
YUG
JPN
G. Bauer
H. Balamir
Y. Kitano
M. A. Joyastehpur
M. Matsubara
C.-S. Chang
R. Sanders
A. Alajverdiev
A. Ivanov
W. Stecyk
J.-K. Kim
S. Trstena
USA
TUR
JPN
IRN
JPN
KOR
USA
URS
URS
POL
KOR
YUG
W. Nelson
T. Johansson
M. Mollaghassemi
H. Akbas
M. E. Seifpur
A. Akbar Heidari
S. Sujbaatar
G.-H. Kim
H. S. Jeon
N. Selimov
Y. Takada
V. Toguzov
USA
SWE
IRN
TUR
IRN
IRN
MGL
PRK
KOR
BUL
JPN
URS
In 1904 the weight limit was 52.16 kg.
WrestlingFree styleUp to 57 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
I. Niflot
G. Mehnert
K. Pihlajamäki
K. Mäkinen
R. Pearce
Ö. Zombori
N. Akar
S. Ishii
M. Dagistanli
T. McCann
Y. Uetake
Y. Uetake
H. Yanagida
V. Umin
S. Beloglazov
H. Tomiyama
S. Beloglazov
USA
USA
FIN
FIN
USA
HUN
TUR
JPN
TUR
USA
JPN
JPN
JPN
URS
URS
JPN
URS
A. Wester
W. Press
K. Mäkinen
E. Spapen
Ö. Zombori
R. Flood
G. Leeman
R. Mamedbekov
M. Yaghubi
N. Zalev
H. Akbas
D. Behm
R. Sanders
H. D. Brüchert
H.-P. Li
B. Davis
A. Mohammadian
USA
GBR
FIN
BEL
HUN
USA
USA
URS
IRN
BUL
TUR
USA
USA
GDR
PRK
USA
IRN
Z. B. Strebler
A. Côté
B. Mines
J. Trifunov
A. Jaskari
J. Herbert
C. Kouyos
K.-S. Jadav
M. Shajov
T. Trojanowski
A. Ibraguimov
A. Gorgori
L. Kinga
M. Arai
D. Ouinbold
E.-K. Kim
K.-S. Noh
USA
CAN
USA
CAN
FIN
GER
FRA
IND
URS
POL
URS
IRN
HUN
JPN
MGL
KOR
KOR
446
Wrestling
Free styleUp to 62 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
B. Bradshaw
G. Dole
C. Ackerly
R. Reed
A. Morrison
K. Pihlajamäki
K. Pihlajamäki
G. Bilge
B. Sit
S. Sasahara
M. Dagistanli
O. Watanabe
M. Kaneko
Z. Abdulbekov
J.-M. Yang
M. Abushev
R. Lewis
J. Smith
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
FIN
FIN
TUR
TUR
JPN
TUR
JPN
JPN
URS
KOR
URS
USA
USA
T. McLear
J. Slim
S. Gerson
C. Newton
K. Pihlajamäki
E. Nemir
F. Millard
I. Sjölin
N. Guiveshi
J. Newis
S. Ivanov
S. Ivanov
E. Todorov
V. Akdag
Z. Oidov
M. Doukov
K. Akaishi
S. Sarkisian
USA
GBR
USA
USA
FIN
USA
USA
SWE
IRN
BEL
BUL
BUL
BUL
TUR
MGL
BUL
JPN
URS
C. Clapper
W. McKie
P. W. Bernard
K. Naito
H. Minder
E. Karlsson
G. Jönsson
A. Müller
J. Henson
E. Penttilá
V. Rubaaivili
N. Khokhaaivili
S. Seiedablassi
I. Krustev
G. Davis
G. Hadjiioannidis
J. K. Lee
S. Shterev
USA
GBR
GBR
JPN
SUI
SWE
SWE
SUI
USA
FIN
URS
URS
IRN
BUL
USA
GRE
KOR
BUL
The weight limit in 1904 was 61.23 kg. In 1908: 60.30 kg. In 1920: 60 kg. From 1924 to 1936: 61 kg. From 1948 to 1968: 63 kg.
WrestlingFree styleUp to 68 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
O. Roehm
G. de Relwyskow
K. Antilla
R. Vis
0. Käpp
C. Pacôme
K. Kárpáti
C. Atik
O. Anderberg
E. Habibi
S. Wilson
E. Vutehev (Dimov)
A. Movahhed
D. Gable
D. Piniguin
S. Absaidov
I.-T. You
A. Fadzayev
USA
GBR
FIN
USA
EST
FRA
HUN
TUR
SWE
IRN
USA
BUL
IRN
USA
URS
URS
KOR
URS
R. Tesing
W. Wood
G. Svensson
V. Vikström
C. Pacôme
K. Kárpáti
W. Ehrt
G. Frändfors
J. T. Evans
S. Kasahara
V. Siniavski
K.-J. Rost
E. Vulchev (Dimov)
K. Wada
L. Keaser
I. Yankov
A. Rein
J.-S. Park
USA
GBR
SWE
FIN
FRA
HUN
GER
SWE
USA
JPN
URS
GER
JPN
JPN
USA
BUL
USA
KOR
A. Zirkel
A. Gingell
P. Wright
A. Haavisto
E. Leino
G. Klarén
H. Pihlajamäki
H. Baumann
D. Tovfight
A. Bestayev
E. Dimov
I. Horiuchi
S. Danzandaryaa
R. Ashuraliev
Y. Sugawara
S. Sejdi
J. Rauhala
N. Carr
USA
GBR
GBR
FIN
FIN
SWE
FIN
SUI
IRN
URS
BUL
JPN
MGL
URS
JPN
YUG
FIN
USA
In 1904 the weight limit was 65.77 kg. In 1908: 66.60 kg. In 1920: 67.50 kg. From 1924 to 1936: 66 kg. From 1948 to 1960.67 kg. In 1964 and 1968: 70 kg.
WrestlingFree styleUp to 74 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
C. Erickson
H. Gehri
A. Haavisto
J. van Bebber
F. Lewis
Y. Dogu
W. Smith
M. Ikeda
D. Blubaugh
I. Ogan
M. Atalay
W. Wells
J. Date
V. Anguelov
USA
SUI
FIN
USA
USA
TUR
USA
JPN
USA
TUR
TUR
USA
JPN
BUL
W. Beckmann
E. Leino
L. Appleton
D. MacDonald
T. Andersson
R. Garrard
P. Berlin
I. Zengin
I. Ogan
G. Sagaradze
D. Robin
J. Karlsson
M. Barzegar
J. Davaayav
USA
FIN
USA
CAN
SWE
AUS
SWE
TUR
TUR
URS
FRA
SWE
IRN
MGL
J. Winholtz
O. Müller
M. Letchford
E. Leino
J. Schleimer
L. Merrill
A. Modjtabavi
V. Balvadze
M. Bashir
M. A. Sanatkaran
D. Purev
A. Seger
S. Dziedzic
D. Karabin
USA
SUI
CAN
FIN
CAN
USA
IRN
URS
PAK
IRN
MGL
FRG
USA
TCH
447
1984
1988
Gold
D. Schultz
K. Monday
USA
USA
Silver
M. Knosp
A. Varayev
FRG
URS
Bronze
S. Sedji
R. Sofiadi
YUG
BUL
In 1904 the weight limit was 71.67 kg. From 1924 to 1936: 72 kg. From 1948 to 1960: 73 kg. In 1964 and 1968: 78 kg.
WrestlingFree styleUp to 82 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
S. Bacon
E. Leino
F. Hagmann
E. Kyburz
I. Johansson
E. Polivé
G. Brand
D. Tsimakuridze
N. Stanchev
H. Güngör
P. Gardzhev
B. Gurevich
L. Tediashvili
J. Peterson
I. Abilov
M. Schultz
M.-W. Han
GBR
FIN
SUI
SUI
SWE
FRA
USA
URS
BUL
TUR
BUL
URS
URS
USA
BUL
USA
KOR
G. de Relwyskow
V. Penttala
P. Olivier
D. P. Stockton
K. Luukko
R. Voliva
A. Candemir
G. R. Tajti
D. Hodge
G. Sjirtladze
H. Güngör
M. Yigyid
J. Peterson
V. Novojilov
M. Aratsilov
H. Nagashima
N. Gencalp
GBR
FIN
BEL
CAN
FIN
USA
TUR
IRN
USA
URS
TUR
MGL
USA
URS
URS
JPN
TUR
F. Beck
C. Johnson
V. Pekkala
S. Rabin
J. Tunyogi
A. Kirecci
E. Lindén
G. Gurics
G. Sjirtladze
H. Antonsson
D. Brand
P. Gardzhev
V. lorga
A. Seger
I. Kovács
C. Rinke
J. Lohyna
GBR
USA
FIN
GBR
HUN
TUR
SWE
HUN
URS
SWE
USA
BUL
ROM
FRG
HUN
CAN
TCH
In 1908 the weight limit was 73 kg. In 1920: 75 kg. From 1924 to 1960: 79 kg. 1964 and 1968: 87 kg.
WrestlingFree styleUp to 90 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
A. Larsson
J. Spellman
T. Sjöstedt
P. Mehringer
K. Fridell
H. Wittenberg
V. Palm
G. R. Takhti
A. Atli
A. Medved
A. Ayik
B. Peterson
L. Tediashvili
S. Oganesian
E. Banach
M. Jadartsev
SWE
USA
SWE
USA
SWE
USA
SWE
IRN
TUR
URS
TUR
USA
URS
URS
USA
URS
C. Courant
R. Svensson
A. Bögli
T. Sjöstedt
A. Neo
F. Stöckli
H. Wittenberg
B. Kulayev
G. R. Tajti
A. Ayik
S. Lomidze
G. Strajov
B. Peterson
U. Neupert
A. Ota
A. Ota
SUI
SWE
SUI
SWE
EST
SUI
USA
URS
IRN
TUR
URS
URS
USA
GDR
JPN
JPN
W. Maurer
C. Courant
H. Lefèbre
E. Scarf
E. Siebert
B. Fahlkvist
A. Atan
P. Blair
A. Albul
S. Mustafov
J. Csatári
K. Bajkó
S. Morcov
A. Cichoñ
N. Loban
T.-W. Kim
USA
SUI
FRA
AUS
GER
SWE
TUR
USA
URS
BUL
HUN
HUN
ROM
POL
GBR
KOR
In 1920 the weight limit was 80 kg. From 1924 to 1960: 87 kg. In 1964 and 1968: 97 kg.
WrestlingFree styleUp to 100 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
I. Yariguin
I. Yariguin
I. Mate
L. Banach
V. Puscasu
URS
URS
URS
USA
ROM
K. Bayanmunj
R. Hellickson
S. Chervenkov
J. Atiyeh
L. Jabelov
MGL
USA
BUL
SYR
URS
C. Csatári
D. Kostov
J. Strnisko
V. Puscasu
W. Scherr
HUN
BUL
TCH
ROM
USA
448
WrestlingFreestyleUp to 130 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1904
1908
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
B. Hansen
G. C. O' Kelly
R. Roth
H. Steele
J. Richthoff
J. Richthoff
K. Palusalu
G. Bóbis
A. Mekokishvili
H. Kaplan
W. Dietrich
A. Ivanitski
A. Medved
A. Medved
S. Andiev
S. Andiev
B. Baumgartner
D. Gobezhishvili
USA
GBR/IRL
SUI
USA
SWE
SWE
EST
HUN
URS
TUR
GER
URS
URS
URS
URS
URS
USA
URS
F. Kungler
J. Gundersen
N. Pendleton
H. Wemli
A. Sihvola
J. Riley
J. Klapuch
B. Antonsson
B. Antonsson
K. Mejmedov
H. Kaplan
L. Ajmedov
O. Duraliev
O. Duraliev
J. Balla
J. Balla
B. Molle
B. Baumgartner
USA
NOR
USA
SUI
FIN
FIN
TCH
SWE
SWE
BUL
TUR
BUL
BUL
BUL
HUN
HUN
CAN
USA
F. Warmbold
E. Barrett
E. NilssonF. Meyer
A. McDonald
E. Dame
N. Hirschl
H. Nyström
J. Armstrong
K. Richmond
T. Kangasniemi
S. Dzarassov
H. Kaplan
W. Dietrich
C. Taylor
L. Simon
A. Sandurski
A. Taskin
A. Schroeder
USA
GBR/IRL
SWEUSA
GBR
FRA
AUT
FIN
AUS
GBR
FIN
URS
TUR
GER
USA
ROM
POL
TUR
GDR
This upper category (called heavyweight until 1968) did not have a weight limit until the 1986 Games.
WrestlingGreco-Roman
Up to 48 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
G. Berceanu
A. Shumakov
Z. Ushkempirov
V. Maenza
V. Maenza
ROM
URS
URS
ITA
ITA
R. Aliabadi
G. Berceanu
C. Alexandru
M. Scherer
A. Glab
IRN
ROM
ROM
FRG
POL
S. Anguelov
S. Anguelov
F. Seres
I. Saito
B. Tzenov
BUL
BUL
HUN
JPN
BUL
WrestlingGreco-RomanUp to 52 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
P. Lombadi
B. Gurevich
N. Sotoviov
D. Pirvulescu
T. Hanahara
P. Kirov
P. Kirov
V. Kostantinov
V. Blaguidze
A. Miyahara
J. Ronningen
ITA
URS
URS
ROM
JPN
BUL
BUL
URS
URS
JPN
NOR
K. Olcay
I. Fabra
I. Fabra
O. Sayed
A. Kerezov
V. Bakulin
K. Hirayama
N. Cinga
L. Rácz
D. Aceves
A. Miyahara
TUR
ITA
ITA
UAR
BUL
URS
JPN
ROM
HUN
MEX
JPN
R. Kangasmäki
L. Honkala
D. A. Egribas
M. Paziraii
D. Pirvulescu
M. Zeman
G. Bognanni
K. Hirayama
M. Mladenov
D.-D. Bang
J.-S. Lee
FIN
FIN
TUR
IRN
ROM
TCH
ITA
JPN
BUL
KOR
KOR
WrestlingGreco-Roman
Up to 57 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
E. Pütseg
K. Leucht
J. Brendel
M. Lörincz
K. Pettersén
I. Hódos
K. Virupayev
O. Karavayev
M. Ichiguchi
J. Varga
R. Kazakov
EST
GER
GER
HUN
SWE
HUN
URS
URS
JPN
HUN
URS
A. Ahlfors
J. Maudr
M. Nizzola
E. Svensson
A. M. Hassan
Z. Chihab
E. Vesterby
I. Cernea
V. Trostianski
I. Baciu
H.-J. Veil
FIN
TCH
ITA
SWE
EGY
LIB
SWE
ROM
URS
ROM
FRG
V. Ikonen
G. Gozzi
L. Francois
J. Brendel
H. Kaya
A. Terian
F. Horvat
D. Petrov
I. Cernea
I. Kocherguin
R. Björlin
FIN
ITA
FRA
GER
TUR
URS
ROM
BUL
ROM
URS
FIN
449
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
P. Ukkola
S. Serikov
P. Passarelli
A. Sike
FIN
URS
FRG
HUN
Silver
I. Frgic
J. Lipien
M. Eto
S. Balov
YUG
POL
JPN
BUL
Bronze
F. Mustafin
B. Ljungbeck
J. Holidis
J. Holidis
URS
SWE
GRE
GRE
In 1924 and 1928 the weight limit was 58 kg. In 1932 and 1936 it was 56 kg.
WrestlingGreco-RomanUp to 62 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
K. Koskelo
O. Friman
K. Anttila
V. Väli
G. Gozzi
Y. Erkan
M. Oktav
Y. Punkin
R. Mäkinen
M. Sille
I. Polyák
R. Rurua
G. Markov
K. Lipieñ
S. Miguiakis
W.-K. Kim
K. Madzhidov
FIN
FIN
FIN
EST
ITA
TUR
TUR
URS
FIN
TUR
HUN
URS
BUL
POL
GRE
KOR
URS
G. Gerstacker
H. Känkönen
A. Toivola
E. Malmberg
W. Ehrt
A. Reini
O. Andergerg
I. Polyák
I. Polyák
I. Polyák
R. Rurua
H. Fujimoto
H.-H. Wehling
N. Davidian
I. Tóth
K. Johansson
J. Vanguelov
GER
FIN
FIN
SWE
GER
FIN
SWE
HUN
HUN
HUN
URS
JPN
GDR
URS
HUN
SWE
BUL
O. Lasanen
F. Svensson
E. Malmberg
G. Quaglia
L. Koskela
E. Karisson
F. Tóth
A. Rashed
R. Dzneladze
K. Virupayev
B. Martinovic
S. Popescu
K. Lipien
L. Réci
B. Kramorenko
H. Dietsche
D.-H. An
FIN
SWE
SWE
ITA
FIN
SWE
HUN
EGY
URS
URS
YUG
ROM
POL
POL
URS
SUI
KOR
From 1912 to 1928 the weight limit was 60 kg. From 1932 to 1960 it was 61 kg. In 1964 and 1968 it was 63 kg.
WrestlingGreco-Roman
Up to 68 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
E. Porro
E. Wäre
E. Wäre
O. Friman
L. Kereszles
E. Malmberg
L. Kosela
G. Freij
S. Safin
K. Lehtonen
A. Koridze
K. Ayvaz
M. Munemura
S. Jisamutdinov
S. Nalbandian
S. Rusu
V. Lisjak
L. Dzhulfalakian
ITA
FIN
FIN
FIN
HUN
SWE
FIN
SWE
URS
FIN
URS
TUR
JPN
URS
URS
ROM
YUG
URS
N. Orlov
G. Malmström
T. Tamminen
L. Kereszles
E. Sperling
A. Kurland
J. Herda
A. Eriksen
G. Freij
R. Dogan
B. Martinovic
V. Bularca
S. Horvat
S. Apostolov
S. Rusu
A. Supron
T. Sipilä
S.-M. Kim
RUS
SWE
FIN
HUN
GER
DEN
TCH
NOR
SWE
TUR
YUG
ROM
YUG
BUL
ROM
POL
FIN
KOR
A. Lindén
E. Matiasson
F. Andersen
K. Westerlund
E. Westerlund
E. Sperling
V. Väli
K. Ferencz
M. Athanasov
G. Tóth
G. Freij
D. Gvantseladze
P. Galaktopoulos
G.-M. Ranzi
H.-H. Wehling
L.-E. Skiöld
J. Martinez
T. Sipilä
FIN
SWE
NOR
FIN
FIN
GER
EST
HUN
TCH
HUN
SWE
URS
GRE
ITA
GDR
SWE
USA
FIN
In 1908 the weight limit was 66.60 kg. From 1912 to 1928: 67.50 kg. In 1932 and 1936 it was 66 kg. From 1948 to 1960: 67 kg. In 1964 and 1968: 70 kg.
WrestlingGreco-RomanUp to 68 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
E. Porro
E. Wäre
E. Wäre
O. Friman
L. Kereszles
E. Malmberg
ITA
FIN
FIN
FIN
HUN
SWE
N. Ortov
G. Malmström
T. Tamminen
L. Kereszles
E. Sperling
A. Kurland
RUS
SWE
FIN
HUN
GER
DEN
A. Undén
E. Matiasson
F. Andersen
K. Westerlund
E. Westerlund
E. Sperling
FIN
SWE
NOR
FIN
FIN
GER
450
In 1908 the weight limit was 93 kg. From 1912 to 1928: 82.50 kg. From 1932 to 1960: 87 kg. In 1964 and 1968: 97 kg. At the 1912 Games A. Ahlgren and I. Bölingwere declared equal second after hours of wrestling. The gold medal was not awarded.
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
Gold
L. Kosela
G. Freij
S. Safin
K. Lehtonen
A. Koridze
K. Ayvaz
M. Munemura
S. Jisamutdinov
S. Nalbandian
S. Rusu
V. Usjak
L. Dzhulfalakian
FIN
SWE
URS
FIN
URS
TUR
JPN
URS
URS
ROM
YUG
URS
Silver
J. Herda
A. Eriksen
G. Freij
R. Dogan
B. Martinovic
V. Bularca
S. Horvat
S. Apostolov
S. Rusu
A. Supron
T. Sipilä
S.-M. Kim
TCH
NOR
SWE
TUR
YUG
ROM
YUG
BUL
ROM
POL
FIN
KOR
Bronze
V. Väli
K. Ferencz
M. Athanasov
G. Tóth
G. Freij
D. Gvantseladze
P. Galaktopoulos
G.-M. Ranzi
H.-H. Wehling
L.-E. Skiöld
J. Martínez
T. Sipilä
EST
HUN
TCH
HUN
SWE
URS
GRE
ITA
GDR
SWE
USA
FIN
In 1932 and 1936 the weight limit was 72 kg. From 1948 to 1960 it was 73 kg. In 1964 and 1968 it was 78 kg.
WrestlingGreco-RomanUp to 82 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
F. Mårtensson
C. Johanson
C. Westergren
E. Westerlund
V. Kokkinen
V. Kokkinen
I. Johansson
A. Grönberg
A. Grönberg
G. Kartoziya
D. Dobrev
B. Simic
L. Metz
C. Hegedüs
M. Petkovic
G. Korban
I. Draica
M. Mamiashvili
SWE
SWE
SWE
FIN
FIN
FIN
SWE
SWE
SWE
URS
BUL
YUG
GDR
HUN
YUG
URS
ROM
USR
M. Andersson
M. Klein
A. Lindfors
A. Lindfors
L Papp
J. Földeák
L. Schweickert
M. Tayfur
K. Rauhala
D. Dobrev
L. Metz
J. Kormanik
V. Olenik
A. Nazarenko
V. Cheboksarov
J. Dolgowicz
D. Thanopoulos
T. Komáromi
SWE
RUS/EST
FIN
FIN
HUN
GER
GER
TUR
FIN
BUL
GER
TCH
URS
URS
URS
POL
GRE
HUN
A. Andersen
A. Asikainen
M. Perttilä
R. Steinberg
A. Kuznets
A. Cadier
J. Palotás
E. Gallegati
N. Belov
K.-A. Rune Jansson
I. Taranu
L. Metz
B. Smic
M. Nenadic
I. Kolev
P. Pavlov
S. Claeson
S.-K. Kim
DEN
FIN
FIN
EST
EST
SWE
HUN
ITA
URS
SWE
ROM
GER
YUG
YUG
BUL
BUL
SWE
KOR
In 1908 the weight limit was 73 kg. From 1912 to 1928: 75 kg. From 1932 to 1960: 79 kg. In 1964 and 1968: 87 kg.
WrestlingGreco-Roman
Up to 90 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1908 V. Weckman FIN
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
C. Johanson
C. Westergren
I. Mustafa
R. Svensson
A. Cadier
K.-E. Nilsson
K. Gröndahl
V. Nikoliev
R. Kis
B. Radev
B. Radev
V. Rezantsev
V. Rezantsev
N. Növényi
S. Fraser
A. Komchev
SWE
SWE
EGY
SWE
SWE
SWE
FIN
URS
TUR
BUL
BUL
URS
URS
HUN
USA
BUL
Y. Saarela
A. AhlgrenI. Böhling
E. Rosenqvist
R. Svensson
A. Rieger
O. Pellinen
E. Bietags
K. Gröndahl
S. Chijladze
P. Sirakov
K. Bimbalov
P. Svensson
N. Yakovenko
J. Corak
S. Ivanov
I. Kaniguin
I. Matei
H. Koskela
FIN
SWEFIN
FIN
SWE
GER
FIN
LAT
FIN
URS
BUL
BUL
SWE
URS
YUG
BUL
URS
ROM
FIN
C. Jensen
B. Varga
J. Eriksen
O. Pellinen
O. Pellinen
M. Gruppioni
A. Neo
I. Orabi
K.-E. Nilsson
K.-E. Nilsson
G. Kartoziya
H. Kiehl
N. Martinescu
C. Kwiecinski
C. Kwiecinski
P. Dicu
F. Andersson
V. Popov
DEN
HUN
DEN
FIN
FIN
ITA
EST
EGY
SWE
SWE
URS
GER
ROM
POL
POL
ROM
SWE
URS
451
WrestlingGreco-RomanUp to 100 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
N. Martinescu
N. Balboshin
G. Raikov
V. Andrei
A. Wroñski
ROM
URS
BUL
ROM
POL
N. Yakovenko
K. Goranov
R. Bierla
G. Gibson
G. Himmel
URS
BUL
POL
USA
FRG
F. Kiss
A. Skrzydlewski
V. Andrei
J. Tertelje
D. Koslowski
HUN
POL
ROM
YUG
USA
WrestlingGreco-RomanUp to 130 kg
Gold Silver Bronze
1896
1908
1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
C. Schuhmann
R. Weisz
Y. Saarela
A. Lindfors
H. Deglane
R. Svensson
C. Westergren
K. Palusalu
A. Kireççi
Y. Kotkas
A. Parfenov
I. Bogdan
I. Kozma
I. Kozma
A. Roshchin
A. Kolchinski
A. Kolchinski
J. Blatnick
A. Karelin
GER
HUN
FIN
FIN
FRA
SWE
SWE
EST
TUR
URS
URS
URS
HUN
HUN
URS
URS
URS
USA
URS
G. Tsitas
A. Pretov
J. Olin
P. Hansen
E. Rosenqvist
H.-E. Nyström
J. Urban
J. Nyman
T. Nilsson
J. Ružicka
W. Dietrich
W. Dietrich
A. Roshchin
A. Roshchin
A. Tomov
A. Tomov
A. Tomov
R. Memiševic
R. Guerovski
GRE
RUS
FIN
DEN
FIN
FIN
TCH
SWE
SWE
TCH
GER
GER
URS
URS
BUL
BUL
BUL
YUG
BUL
S. Jristopoulos
S. M. Jensen
S. M. Jensen
M. Nieminen
R. Bado
G. Gehring
N. Hirschl
K. Hornfischer
G. Fantoni
R. Kovanen
A. Bulgarelli
B. Kubát
W. Dietrich
P. Kment
V. Dolîpschi
R. Codreanu
H. Bchara
V. Dolîpschi
T. Johansson
GRE
DEN
DEN
FIN
HUN
GER
AUT
GER
ITA
FIN
ITA
TCH
GER
TCH
ROM
ROM
LIB
ROM
SWE
This upper category (called heavyweight until 1968) did not have a weight limit until the 1988 Games.
YachtingMenLechner A-390
Gold Silver Bronze
1984
1988
S. van den Berg
B. Kendall
NED
NZL
27.70
35.40
R. S. Steele
J. D. Boersma
USA
AHO
46.00
42.70
B. Kendall
M. Gebhardt
NZL
USA
46.40
48.00
In 1984 Windglider class was used; in 1988, it was Division II class.
YachtingMen470
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 FRA 34.7 URS 46.0 USA 51.0
YachtingMenFinn
Gold Silver Bronze
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
L. Huybrechts
S. Thorell
J. Lebrun
D. Kagchelland
P. Elvström
P. Elvström
P. Elvström
P. Elvström
W. Kuhweide
V. Mankin
S. Maury
J. Shümann
BEL
SWE
FRA
NED
DEN
DEN
DEN
DEN
GER
URS
FRA
GDR
2
87
163
5,543
8,209
7,509
8,171
7,638
11.7
58.0
35.4
H. Robert
H. Robert
A. Maas
W. Krogmann
R. Evans
C. Currey
A. Nelis
A. Chuchelov
P. Barrett
H. Raudaschl
I. Hatzipavlis
A. Balashov
NOR
NOR
NED
GER
USA
GBR
BEL
URS
USA
AUT
GRE
URS
7
85
150
5,408
5,449
6,254
6,520
6,373
53.4
71.0
39.7
H. Dittmar
B. Broman
S. Amat Cansino
P. Scott
J. de Jong
R. Sarby
J. Marvin
A. Neils
H. Wind
F. Albarelli
V. Potapov
J. Bertrand
FIN
FIN
ESP
GBR
NED
SWE
USA
BEL
DEN
ITA
URS
AUS
8
76
131
5,204
5,051
5,953
5,934
6,190
55.1
74.7
46.4
452
1980
1984
1988
Gold
E. Rechardt
R. Courts
J. L. Doreste
FIN
NZL
ESP
36.7
34.7
38.1
Silver
WO. Mayrhofer
J. Bertrand
P. Holmberg
AUT
USA
ISV
46.7
37.0
40.4
Bronze
A. Balashov
T. Neilson
J. Cutler
URS
CAN
NZL
47.4
37.7
45.0
This event had been open to women.
YachtingWomen
470
Gold Silver Bronze
1988 USA 26.7 SWE 40.0 URS 45.4
YachtingOpenSoling
Gold Silver Bronze
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
USA
DEN
DEN
USA
GDR
8.7
46.7
23.0
33.7
11.7
SWE
USA
URS
BRA
USA
31.7
47.4
30.4
43.4
14.0
CAN
GDR
GRE
CAN
DEN
47.1
47.4
31.1
49.7
52.7
YachtingOpenFlying Dutchman
Gold Silver Bronze
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
NOR
NZL
GBR
GBR
FRG
ESP
USA
DEN
6,774
6,255
3.0
22.7
34.7
19.0
19.7
31.4
DEN
GBR
FRG
FRA
GBR
IRL
CAN
NOR
5,991
5,556
43.7
40.7
51.7
30.0
22.7
37.4
GER
USA
BRA
FRG
BRA
HUN
GBR
CAN
5,882
5,158
48.4
51.1
52.1
45.7
48.7
48.4
YachtingOpenStar
Gold Silver Bronze
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1980
1984
1988
USA
GER
USA
ITA
USA
URS
BAH
USA
AUS
URS
USA
GBR
46
80
5,828
7,635
5,876
7,619
5,664
14.4
28.1
24.7
29.7
45.7
GBR
SWE
CUB
USA
ITA
POR
USA
NOR
SWE
AUT
FRG
USA
35
64
4,949
7,216
5,649
6,665
5,585
43.7
44.0
31.74
41.4
48.0
SWE
NED
NED
POR
BAH
USA
SWE
ITA
FRG
ITA
ITA
BRA
28
63
4,731
4,903
5,223
6,269
5,527
44.7
44.4
36.14
43.54
50.04
YachtingOpen
Tornado
Gold Silver Bronze
1976
1980
1984
1988
GBR
BRA
NZL
FRA
18.0
21.4
14.7
16.0
USA
DEN
USA
NZL
36.0
30.4
37.0
35.4
FRG
SWE
AUS
BRA
37.7
33.7
50.4
40.1
453
YachtingOpen470
In 1988 this category split into two different events, one for men and the other for women.
1976
1980
1984
FRG
BRA
ESP
42.4
36.4
33.7
ESP
GDR
USA
49.7
38.7
43.0
AUS
FIN
FRA
57.0
39.7
49.4
Gold Silver Bronze
454
4.6. Tables, maps and photo credits
2.
3.
2.
3.
List of tables
The Summer Olympic Games of the modern eraOlympic Games Programme. MenOlympic Games Programme. Women
Sports competitions held annually in BarcelonaInitial budget of the Organising CommitteeCompanies forming the Barcelona Olímpica'92 Business AssociationPublic opinion in the Barcelona metropolitan area
concerning the Barcelona candidatureOrganising Committee BudgetPublications of the Olympic OfficeIncome from television rights since the Munich Games in 1972The official delegation in Lausanne
List of maps
The Greek world in the fifth century B.C.Olympic cities of the modern area
Route of the Olympic Bus around Spain
192194195
212241253
259283285286312
102193
313
List of photographs
Initials used:
AOMSA:AOI:BES:BPG:COI:COOB'92:DCCT:
ICC:IEDB:IMBE:IMPU:MAB:MAM:MEMC:
MAMB:MC:
OCSA:OTI:PMT:SIE:VOSA:
The Olympic Ring CompanyInternational Olympic AcademySports Library, Secretariat General of Sport, Generalitat of CataloniaBarcelona Posa't Guapa campaignInternational Olympic CommitteeBarcelona'92 Olympic Organising CommitteeDepartment of Commerce, Consumer Affairs and Tourism, Generalitatof CataloniaInstitute of Cartography of CataloniaInstitute of Publications, Barcelona Provincial CouncilBarcelona Municipal Institute of Public PerformancesMunicipal Institute of Town-Planning PromotionBarcelona Museum of ArcheologyMuseum of Modern ArtMelcior Colet Museum of Sport, Secretariat General of Sport,Generalitat of CataloniaCommunity of Municipalities of the Barcelona Metropolitan AreaMelcior Colet Museum and Study Centre, Secretariat General of Sport,Generalitat of CataloniaThe Cultural Olympiad CompanyTechnical Image Office, Barcelona City CouncilMunicipal Tourist BoardSports Information Service, Barcelona City CouncilThe Olympic Village Company
456
457
AHB
All Sport/Firo Foto
AOI
Argelich, Agustí(COOB'92)
AOMSA archive
Archive IOC
53202203209210213220
387193110111115118119122123126127130131134135138139143147150151154158159162163167170171174175178179182183186187190191240268269284304
103
268277309
250252
103105109110111113114
2,4,5,62
4,53,4
112
1251
4,56141
4,5,61,2,3
62,34,5
2425
5,74,5
1,2,45,6
21,3
52,46,8
61,2,3,4
5,61
4,51
4,61
4,5,6,7,81,2,3,4,5
6,7,8,91,2,3
4,5,6,7334
1,21
3
24
3,4,5
21
1,45
4,523
2,31,2
Bert
Archive COOB'92
115117118119121122123125126127129130133135137138139141142143145146147149150153154155157158159161162163165166167169173177181185189256260302
202203204205206207208214215216
79100103104105134142145146147149153157165169171173177
3,4,52,3
23,52,3
23
2,34541
5,65,6
51
3,44
1,2,46
2,523
2,53
2,61
3,4,5,6224
2,41,35,7
21,3,5
82
2,4,72,4,7
2,42,52,4
111
16
1,2,35,6,71,2,3
4,511
3,4,51
41
2,51,3
61341
6,745
4,5,634735
ArchiveEl Mundo Deportivo
Archive Mas-IEDB
Archive Thema
180184181185189216219220226228229232233234237244245248249257258264265266267270272273274275279280281282289290291294296297298299301303308316318
115662211
1,2,3,4514222413
2,3,41,2
231
3,41
1,57,101,2,3
56,9
23,4,5,6
1,24121
1,2,3414622
2,31,3
358-365368-381
159167174175178179182284299
306
108112116120124128132136140144148152
672
3,62
3,52,3
33
1
111111111111
A
156160164168172176188
1111111
B Bertran, Lluís(PMT)
BES
Bofill, Eugeni(COOB'92)
Bofill, Eugeni(PMT)
BPG
75
208210211
268271272273275277278
65
93
3
223
12
2,36,8,9
651
3
3
Carbonell, Agustí
Casanovas, A./Narváez, A.(IMBE)
Casas, Jaume
Castells, Joaquim(Lunwerg Ed.)
Castillo, Eugenio
Català-Roca, Francesc
Colita
396769769195243
65
153161165169173177181185189
33475777
22724925026060
230
2221255
2
464566335
4363
32121
1
C
(VOSA)
Coronilla, Josep
238254
321
31
2
D
E
Dalda(COOB'92)
242 1
Elvira, Paco(AOMSA)
Elvira, Paco(COOB'92)
Elvira, Paco(Lunwerg Ed.)
227251252
300
64
442
5
1
Fris
Fris(OTI)
7782848592
56
21131
1
F
G Gomà, F(DCCT)
Gómez, Alicia(SIE)
González, Miquel(COOB'92)
42
33
72-7383859195240262269278280
1
6
2234
1,215
2,41
I ICC
IEDB
IMPU
6970
213219
238
31
23
2
J Jansana, Lurdes(VOSA)
276 1,2,3
L Labler, Hans(COOB'92)
Lajusticia, Antonio(OTI)
Llobet, JordiNika 7
Loaso, J.(Firo Foto)
Lunwerg Editores
236255
33279
40-4188-89
45
61243
13
52
3
44
M MAB
MAM
MAMB
Manent, Ramon(Lunwerg Ed.)
Martín, Julián(EFE)
Maspons, Oriol
Maury, Christian
MC
Mercader, Joan(DCCT)
Miserachs, Xavier(Firo Foto)
201
243
71
4647484950-5168200
317
57
3361287288
205
36
45287288
2,3
2
4
121
2,3,4,5
11
5
4
3333
4
1
211
O OCSA
OTI
57
43
3
3
458
459
47495357596567225231233244266272278279300316318320
4632
2,3,4,5,64
3,423
3,5324572121
PPaisajes Españoles(VOSA)
Pérez, Manel
Pérez, Manel(BPG)
Pérez, Manel(Lunwerg Ed.)
PMT
Povo, Marta
224
32333993
3395
71748791239254
79
34-355254-555862-638695221
1
2244
72
313442
3
1
1
134
R Ramis, Raimon(Foundation Tàpies)
Raurich, Felipe
Raurich, Miguel
Raventós, Ramon(Lunwerg Ed.)
66
44
397894287
577580-81
1
1
3,5112
52 Taf 218 1
T
Sabaté, Sebastíà
Sagarra i Torrents(AHB)
Sánchez, Augusto(COOB'92)
Sans, Lluís
Seguí, Rafa
Seguí, Rafa(COOB'92)
SIE
109129133137141145149153157161165169173177181185189
202211
104105221227231232234237250252263264297298300307308310311314317319
436179879093
315
244269
214222
2,32,3
2,3,42,3,4
2,33333
3,55
3,653643
34
243222133321
5,6,72
1,3,421
1,2,34,5,6
1,244
22,5
2212
3
16
21
S
243288
32
Todó, JordiTavisa
Tous, Joan(DCCT)
3783
37
43
2
VVidal, Toni(DCCT)
Villieres, Jordi(COOB'92)
Yilluendas, Pìlar(COOB'92)
VOSA
37
278
238
91275
3,5,6
3
1
54
This first volume of the OfficialReport has been printed in Barcelonaat the Grafos workshops, 25 May1992, just two months before theopening ceremony of the Games of theXXV Olympiad.
Copyright, © 2003, Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles
Notes on the digitized version of the Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad,Barcelona, 1992 (Volume I)
The digital version of the Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad was created withthe intention of producing the closest possible replica of the original printed document. Thesetechnical notes describe the differences between the digital and printed documents and thetechnical details of the digital document.
The original document
The original paper version of the 1992 Official Report (V o l u m e I) has dimensions of9 ¼ x 11 ¾” (24cm x 30cm).
The volume’s spine is of blue cloth. The title, “Official Report of the Games of the XXVOlympiad, I: The challenge”, appears in white lettering. The title also appears in three other
The book has 459 numbered pages.
The fonts used in the digital version book for text, photograph captions and chapter headings areTimes New Roman and such system fonts as best approximate the original fonts.
Special features of the digital version:
• The spine is not included in the digital version.
• Blank pages have been retained in the digital version to maintain correct pagination.
• The icons have been converted from color to b/w.
• The digital version includes a bookmark list that functions as a hyper linked table of contents.Selecting a topic heading will take you to the corresponding section in the document.
Profile of the digital version:
File name: 1992s1.pdfFile size: 97,859 KBFormat: Portable Document Format (PDF) 1.3 (Adobe Acrobat 4.0)Source document: Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad, I: The challengePublished by COOB’92, S.A. (Barcelona’92 Olympic Organising Committee) Ed. Romà CuyàsCreation Platform: Windows XPCreation Date: April 2003Conversion Software: Adobe Acrobat, FineReader, VistaScan, FahrenEXImage Resolution: 200 dpi for color and grayscale imagesDigital Fonts: Times New Roman, HelveticaConversion Service: Fahrenheit 452, Thane (W), MH, INDIAwww.fahrenheit452.com
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with the permission of the Fundació Barcelona Olímpica (Barcelona Olympic Foundation).The Fundació Barcelona Olímpica is the copyright owner of the report.
The 1992 Barcelona Games Official Repor t was digitized by the Amateur Athletic Foundation