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Oils Lab VivaSandeep Badarla

ContentsArticles

Acid value 1Iodine value 2Saponification value 3Hydroxyl value 4Total fatty matter 4Saponification 5Sunflower oil 8Peanut oil 13Castor oil 16

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 24Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 25

Article LicensesLicense 26

Acid value 1

Acid valueIn chemistry, acid value (or "neutralization number" or "acid number" or "acidity") is the mass of potassiumhydroxide (KOH) in milligrams that is required to neutralize one gram of chemical substance. The acid number is ameasure of the amount of carboxylic acid groups in a chemical compound, such as a fatty acid, or in a mixture ofcompounds. In a typical procedure, a known amount of sample dissolved in organic solvent (often isopropanol), istitrated with a solution of potassium hydroxide with known concentration and with phenolphthalein as a colorindicator.The acid number is used to quantify the amount of acid present, for example in a sample of biodiesel. It is thequantity of base, expressed in milligrams of potassium hydroxide, that is required to neutralize the acidicconstituents in 1 g of sample.

Veq is the volume of titrant (ml) consumed by the crude oil sample and 1 ml of spiking solution at the equivalentpoint, beq is the volume of titrant (ml) consumed by 1 ml of spiking solution at the equivalent point, and 56.1 is themolecular weight of KOH. WOil is the mass of the sample in grams.The molar concentration of titrant (N) is calculated as such:

In which WKHP is the mass (g) of KHP in 50 ml of KHP standard solution, Veq is the volume of titrant (ml)consumed by 50 ml KHP standard solution at the equivalent point, and 204.23 is the molecular weight of KHP.There are standard methods for determining the acid number, such as ASTM D 974 and DIN 51558 (for mineral oils,biodiesel), or specifically for Biodiesel using the European Standard EN 14104 and ASTM D664 are both widelyutilised worldwide. Acid number (mg KOH/g oil) for biodiesel should to be lower than 0.50 mg KOH/g in both EN14214 and ASTM D6751 standard fuels. This is since the FFA produced may corrode automotive parts and theselimits protect vehicle engines and fuel tanks.As oil-fats rancidify, triglycerides are converted into fatty acids and glycerol, causing an increase in acid number. Asimilar observation is observed with biodiesel aging through analogous oxidation processes and when subjected toprolonged high temperatures (ester thermolysis) or through exposure to acids or bases (acid/base ester hydrolysis).

Iodine value 2

Iodine valueThe iodine value (or "iodine adsorption value" or "iodine number" or "iodine index") in chemistry is the mass ofiodine in grams that is consumed by 100 grams of a chemical substance. Iodine numbers are often used to determinethe amount of unsaturation in fatty acids. This unsaturation is in the form of double bonds, which react with iodinecompounds. The higher the iodine number, the more C=C bonds are present in the fat.[1] It can be seen from the tablethat coconut oil is relatively saturated, which means it is good for making soap. On the other hand linseed oil ishighly unsaturated, which makes it a drying oil, well suited for making oil paints.

Table of iodine values

Fat Iodine number[1]

Palm oil 44 – 58

Olive oil 80 – 88

Coconut oil 7 – 10

Palm oil 16 – 19

Cocoa butter 35 – 40

Jojoba oil ~80

Cottonseed oil 100 – 117

Corn oil 109 – 133

Sunflower oil 125 – 144

Linseed oil 170 – 204

Soybean oil 120 – 136

Peanut oil 84 – 105

MethodologyThe analysis is an example of iodometry. A solution of iodine is yellow/brown in color and any chemical group(usually C=C double bonds) in the substance that reacts with iodine will discharge the yellow color. The amount ofiodine solution thus required to keep the solution yellow/brown is a measure of the amount of iodine sensitivegroups.In a typical procedure, the fatty acid is treated with an excess of the Hanuš or Wijs solutions, which are, respectively,solutions of iodine monobromide (IBr) and iodine monochloride (ICl) in glacial acetic acid. Unreacted iodinemonobromide (or monochloride) is then allowed to react with potassium iodide, converting it to iodine, whoseconcentration can be determined by titration with sodium thiosulfate.[2]

The chemical reaction associated with this method of analysis involves formation of the diiodo alkane (R and R'symbolize alkyl or other organic groups):

The precursor alkene (RCH=CHR') is colourless and so is the organoidine product (RCHI-CHIR').

Iodine value 3

Related methods of analysis•• Saponification value•• Acid number•• Bromine number•• Hydroxyl value

References[1] Thomas, Alfred (2002). "Fats and Fatty Oils". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.

doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_173.[2] Firestone D (May-Jun 1994). "Determination of the iodine value of oils and fats: summary of collaborative study". J AOAC Int. 77 (3):

674–6. PMID 8012219.

Saponification valueSaponification value (or "saponification number"/"Koettstorfer number",[1] also referred to as "sap" in short)represents the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to saponify 1g of fat under the conditionsspecified. It is a measure of the average molecular weight (or chain length) of all the fatty acids present. As most ofthe mass of a fat/triester is in the 3 fatty acids, it allows for comparison of the average fatty acid chain length. Thelong chain fatty acids found in fats have a low saponification value because they have a relatively fewer number ofcarboxylic functional groups per unit mass of the fat as compared to short chain fatty acids. If more moles of baseare required to saponify N grams of fat then there are more moles of the fat the chain lengths are relatively small,given the following relation:Number of moles = mass of oil/relative atomic massThe calculated molar mass is not applicable to fats and oils containing high amounts of unsaponifiable material, freefatty acids (>0.1%), or mono- and diacylglycerols (>0.1%).Handmade soap makers who aim for bar soap use NaOH (sodium hydroxide, lye). Because saponification values arelisted in KOH (potassium hydroxide) the value must be converted from potassium to sodium to make bar soap;potassium soaps make a paste, gel or liquid soap. To convert KOH values to NaOH values, divide the KOH valuesby the ratio of the molecular weights of KOH and NaOH (1.403).Standard methods for analysis are for example: ASTM D5558 for vegetable and animal fats, ASTM D 94 (forpetroleum) and DIN 51559.

References[1] "Koettstorfer number" (http:/ / www. encyclo. co. uk/ define/ Koettstorfer number). .

External links• Majestic Mountain Sage's Lye Calculator (http:/ / www. thesage. com/ calcs/ lyecalc2. php) - A quick calculator

allowing for sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, in either solid or liquid form.

Hydroxyl value 4

Hydroxyl valueIn chemistry, the hydroxyl value is a measure of the content of free hydroxyl groups in a compound, typically a fat,oil, or natural or synthetic ester. This value is a useful measure of the degree of esterification in ester synthesis. Themethod involves acetylation of the free hydroxyl groups of the compound with acetic anhydride in pyridine solvent[1]. After completion of the reaction, water is added, the remaining acetic anhydride is converted to acetic acid, andmeasured by titration with potassium hydroxide. Other functional groups, such as primary or secondary amines, willbe reported as hydroxyl. It is expressed as the mass of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in milligrams equivalent to thehydroxyl content of one gram of the chemical substance, corrected for carboxyl hydroxyl groups by titration of anunacetylated sample of the same material.

Where VB is the amount of titrant (ml) consumed by the blank, at the equivalent point, Wacet is the weight of sample(in grams) used for acetylation, Vav is the amount of titrant used for determining the acid value, Wav is the weight ofsample used for determining the acid value, Vacet is the amount of titrant used for the acetylated sample, N is thenormality of the titrant, and 56.1 is the molecular weight of KOH.The standard method for determining the hydroxyl value is ASTM D 1957

References[1] http:/ / www. astm. org/ Standards/ D1957. htm

Total fatty matterTotal Fatty Matter (TFM) is one of the most important characteristics describing the quality of soap and it isalways specified in commercial transactions. It is defined as the total amount of fatty matter, mostly fatty acids, thatcan be separated from a sample after splitting with mineral acid, usually hydrochloric acid. The fatty acids mostcommonly present in soap are oleic, stearic and palmitic acids and pure, dry, sodium oleate has TFM 92.8%, whiletop quality soap noodles now increasingly used for making soap tablets in small and medium size factories, aretypically traded with a specification TFM 78% min., moisture 14% max. But besides moisture, finished commercialsoap, especially laundry soap, also contains fillers used to lower its cost or confer special properties, plus emollients,preservatives, etc. and then the TFM can be as low as 50%. Fillers, which are usually dry powders, also make thesoap harder, harsher on the skin and with greater tendency to become 'mushy' in water and so low TFM matter isusually associated with hardness and lower quality. In older days in Europe and in some countries now, soap withTFM 75% minimum was referred to as Grade 1 and 65% minimum as Grade 2.

Total fatty matter 5

References• "Making Natural Soap from Scratch" [1]. Retrieved May 13, 2012.• "How to Make Soap" [2]. Retrieved May 13, 2012.

External links• Soap Making Instructions [3]

References[1] http:/ / www. cranberrylane. com/ soapmaking. htm[2] http:/ / www. essortment. com/ all/ soapmakingcraf_reln. htm[3] http:/ / www. teachsoap. com/

Saponification

Saponification of a triglyceride (left) with sodium hydroxide to give soap and glycerine(right).

Saponification is a process thatproduces soap, usually from fats andlye. In technical terms, saponificationinvolves base (usually caustic sodaNaOH) hydrolysis of triglycerides,which are esters of fatty acids, to formthe sodium salt of a carboxylate. Inaddition to soap, such traditionalsaponification processes producesglycerol. "Saponifiable substances" arethose that can be converted into soap.[1]

Saponification of triglyceride

Vegetable oils and animal fats are the main materials that are saponified. These greasy materials, triesters calledtriglycerides, are mixtures derived from diverse fatty acids. Triglycerides can be converted to soap in either a one- ora two-step process. In the traditional one-step process, the triglyceride is treated with a strong base (e.g., lye), whichaccelerates cleavage of the ester bond and releases the fatty acid salt and glycerol. This process is the main industrialmethod for producing glycerol. If necessary, soaps may be precipitated by salting it out with saturated sodiumchloride. The saponification value is the amount of base required to saponify a fat sample. For soap making, thetriglycerides are highly purified, but saponification includes other base hydrolysis of unpurified triglycerides, forexample, the conversion of the fat of a corpse into adipocere, often called "grave wax." This process is morecommon where the amount of fatty tissue is high, the agents of decomposition are absent or only minutely present,and the burial ground is particularly alkaline.

Saponification 6

Mechanism of base hydrolysisThe mechanism by which esters are cleaved by base involves a series of equilibria.[2] The hydroxide anion adds to(or "attacks") the carbonyl group of the ester. The immediate product is called an orthoester:

Expulsion of the alkoxide generates a carboxylic acid:

The alkoxide is more basic than the conjugate base of the carboxylic acid, and hence proton transfer is rapid:

In a classic laboratory procedure, the triglyceride trimyristin is obtained by extracting it from nutmeg with diethylether.[3] Saponification to the sodium salt of myristic acid takes place with NaOH in water. The acid itself can beobtained by adding dilute hydrochloric acid.[4]

Steam hydrolysisTriglycerides are also saponified in a two-step process that begins with steam hydrolysis of the triglyceride. Thisprocess gives the carboxylic acid, not its salt, as well as glycerol. Subsequently, the fatty acid is neutralized withalkali to give the soap. The advantage of the two-step process is that the fatty acids can be purified, which leads tosoaps of improved quality. Steam hydrolysis proceeds via a mechanism similar to the base-catalysed route, involvingthe attack of water (not hydroxide) at the carbonyl center. The process is slower, hence the requirement for steam.

ApplicationsKnowledge of saponification is relevant to many technologies and many aspects of everyday life.

Soft vs hard soapDepending on the nature of the alkali used in their production, soaps have distinct properties. Sodium hydroxide(NaOH) gives "hard soap", whereas, when potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used, a soft soap is formed.

Lithium soapsLithium derivatives of 12-hydroxystearate and several other carboxylic acids are important constituents oflubricating greases. In lithium-based greases, lithium carboxylates are thickeners. "Complex soaps" are alsocommon, these being combinations of metallic soaps, such as lithium and calcium soaps.[5]

Saponification 7

Fire extinguishersFires involving cooking fats and oils (classified as class K (US) or F (Australia/Europe/Asia)) burn hotter thanflammable liquids, rendering a standard class B extinguisher ineffective. Flammable liquids have flash points under100 degrees Fahrenheit. Cooking oil is a combustible liquid, since it has a flash point over 100 degrees. Such firesshould be extinguished with a wet chemical extinguisher. Extinguishers of this type are designed to extinguishcooking fats and oils through saponification. The extinguishing agent rapidly converts the burning substance to anon-combustible soap. This process is endothermic, meaning that it absorbs thermal energy from its surroundings,which decreases the temperature of the surroundings, further inhibiting the fire.

Saponification in art conservationSaponification can occur in oil paintings over time, causing visible damage and deformation. The ground layer orpaint layers of oil paintings commonly contain heavy metals in pigments such as lead white, red lead, or zinc white.If those heavy metals react with free fatty acids in the oil medium that binds the pigments together, soaps may formin a paint layer that can then migrate upward to the painting's surface.[6]

Saponification in oil paintings was first described in 1997.[7] It is believed to be widespread, having been observed inmany works dating from the fifteenth through the twentieth centuries, works of different geographic origin, andworks painted on various supports, such as canvas, paper, wood, and copper. Chemical analysis may revealsaponification occurring in a painting’s deeper layers before any signs are visible on the surface, even in paintingscenturies old.[8]

The saponified regions may deform the painting's surface through the formation of visible lumps or protrusions thatcan scatter light. These soap lumps may be prominent only on certain regions of the painting rather than throughout.In John Singer Sargent’s famous Portrait of Madame X, for example, the lumps only appear on the blackest areas,which may be because of the artist’s use of more medium in those areas to compensate for the tendency of blackpigments to soak it up.[9] The process can also form chalky white deposits on a painting’s surface, a deformationoften described as "blooming" or "efflorescence," and may also contribute to the increased transparency of certainpaint layers within an oil painting over time.[10]

The process is still not fully understood. Saponification does not occur in all oil paintings containing the rightmaterials. It is not yet known what triggers the process, what makes it worse, or whether it can be halted.[11] Atpresent, retouching is the only known restoration method.

References[1] K. Schumann, K. Siekmann “Soaps” in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim[2] John McMurry, Organic Chemistry (2nd Edition).[3] Organic Syntheses 1:538 Link (http:/ / orgsynth. org/ orgsyn/ pdfs/ CV1P0538. pdf)[4] Organic Syntheses 1:379 Link (http:/ / orgsynth. org/ orgsyn/ pdfs/ CV1P0379. pdf)[5][5] Thorsten Bartels et al. "Lubricants and Lubrication" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Weinheim.

doi:10.1002/14356007.a15 423[6] Silvia A. Centeno and Dorothy Mahon, "The Chemistry of Aging in Oil Paintings: Metal Soaps and Visual Changes." The Metropolitan

Museum of Art Bulletin’’, Summer 2009, pp. 12-19.[7] Researchers in the Netherlands discovered it while analyzing Rembrandt's The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632). See Centeno, p.

14.[8][8] Centeno, p. 16.[9][9] Centeno, pp. 12-13, 15.[10][10] Centeno, pp. 16, 19.[11][11] Centeno, p. 19.

Saponification 8

External links• Soapmaking at Bellaonline (http:/ / www. bellaonline. com/ site/ soapmaking) - Soapmaking articles, forum and

supplier links.• Soap Naturally Web and Mailing List (http:/ / www. soapnaturally. org/ ) - Resources for natural handmade

soapmakers.• Soap Recipe Corner (http:/ / www. aquasapone. com. au/ soapmaking) - Soapmaking explained.• About Candle and Soap Making (http:/ / candleandsoap. about. com) - Soap making at About.com• Glossary for the Modern Soap Maker (http:/ / www. ccnphawaii. com/ glossary. htm) - A collection of terms,

definitions and acronyms for today's soap maker.• The Handbook of Soap Manufacture (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 21724) - A book from 1908.

Sunflower oil

Sunflower oil

Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil compressed from sunflower (Helianthusannuus) seeds. Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and incosmetic formulations as an emollient. Sunflower oil was first industriallyproduced in 1835 in the Russian Empire. The world's largest sunflower oilproducers now are Ukraine and Russia.[1]

Composition

Sunflower oil is mainly a triglyceride, a typical constituent is shown.[2] The BritishPharmacopoeia lists the following profile:[3]

• Palmitic acid : 4 - 9%• Stearic acid : 1 - 7%• Oleic acid : 14 - 40%• Linoleic acid : 48 - 74%

Sunflower oil is mainly triglycerides (fats), typically derived from the fatty acids linoleicacid (with is doubly unsaturated) and oleic acid.

Several types of sunflower oils areproduced, such as high linoleic, higholeic and mid oleic. Mid-oleicsunflower oil typically has at least 69%oleic acid. High oleic sunflower oil hasat least 82% oleic acid. Variation inunsaturated fatty acids profile isstrongly influenced by both geneticsand climate. In the last decade, highstearic sunflower lines have beendeveloped in Spain to avoid the use ofpartially hydrogenated vegetable oils in the food industry.

Sunflower oil also contains lecithin, tocopherols, carotenoids and waxes. Sunflower oil's properties are typical of avegetable triglyceride oil. Sunflower oil is produced from oil type sunflower seeds. Sunflower oil is light in taste andappearance and has a high vitamin E content. It is a combination of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats withlow saturated fat levels.

Sunflower oil 9

Physical propertiesSunflower oil is liquid at room temperature. The refined oil is clear and slightly amber-colored with a slightly fattyodor.

Smoke point (refined) 232 °C 450 °F[4]

Smoke point (unrefined) 107 °C 225 °F[4]

Density (25 °C) 918.8 kg/m3[5]

Refractive index (25 °C) ≈1.4646[5]

Viscosity, 25°C, unrefined: 0.04914 kg/(M*S)[6]

UsesAs a frying oil, sunflower oil behaves as a typical vegetable triglyceride. In cosmetics, it has smoothing propertiesand is considered noncomedogenic. Only the high oleic variety possesses shelf life sufficient for commercialcosmetic formulation. Sunflower oil's INCI name is Helianthus annuus (Sunflower) Seed Oil.Sunflower oil is also an ingredient in sunflower butter.Sunflower oil can be used to run diesel engines when mixed with diesel in the tank.

Nutrition

Sunflower oil, high oleic (70% and over)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 3,699 kJ (884 kcal)

Carbohydrates 0 g

Fat 100 g

- saturated 9.748 g

- monounsaturated 83.594 g

- polyunsaturated 3.798 g

Protein 0 g

Vitamin E 41.08 mg (274%)

Vitamin K 5.4 μg (5%)

Percentages are relative toUS recommendations for adults.

Sunflower oil 10

Sunflower oil, standard

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 3,699 kJ (884 kcal)

Carbohydrates 0 g

Fat 100 g

- saturated 10.3 g

- monounsaturated 19.5 g

- polyunsaturated 65.7 g

Protein 0 g

Vitamin E 41.08 mg (274%)

Vitamin K 5.4 μg (5%)

Percentages are relative toUS recommendations for adults.

Sunflower oil (NuSun), mid oleic

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 3,699 kJ (884 kcal)

Carbohydrates 0 g

Fat 100 g

- saturated 9.009 g

- monounsaturated 57.344 g

- polyunsaturated 28.962 g

Protein 0 g

Vitamin E 41.08 mg (274%)

Vitamin K 5.4 μg (5%)

Percentages are relative toUS recommendations for adults.

Several varieties of sunflower oilseeds have been developed by standard genetic methods. The original oilseed washigh in linoleic acid (LA), a polyunsaturated n-6 fatty acid. A premium high oleic acid strain, a monounsaturated n-9fatty acid, was developed in the late twentieth century. Early in the 21st century, a mid-oleic strain marketed asNu-Sun was introduced as an improved frying oil that would have a low level of saturated fat, but would not requirehydrogenation. These three major strains differ greatly in their levels of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.There are also minor differences in their saturated fat content.

Sunflower oil 11

Comparative properties of common cooking fats (per 100g)

Total fat Saturated fat Monounsaturated fat Polyunsaturated fat Smoke point

Sunflower oil 100g 11g 20g 69g 225 °C (437 °F)[7]

Soybean oil 100g 16g 23g 58g 257 °C (495 °F)[7]

Olive oil 100g 14g 73g 11g 190 °C (374 °F)[7]

Corn oil 100g 15g 30g 55g 230 °C (446 °F)[7]

Peanut oil 100g 17g 46g 32g 225 °C (437 °F)[7]

Vegetable shortening(hydrogenated)

71g 23g (34%) 8g (11%) 37g (52%) 165 °C (329 °F)[7]

Lard 100g 39g 45g 11g 190 °C (374 °F)[7]

Suet 94g 52g (55%) 32g (34%) 3g (3%) 200°C (400°F)

Butter 81g 51g (63%) 21g (26%) 3g (4%) 150 °C (302 °F)[7]

Health benefitsThere are a variety of health benefits associated with the consumption of sunflower oil.

Diet and cardiovascular benefitsSunflower oil is high in the essential vitamin E and low in saturated fat. The two most common types of sunfloweroil are linoleic and high oleic. Linoleic sunflower oil is a common cooking oil that has high levels of polyunsaturatedfat. It is also known for having a clean taste and low levels of trans fat. High oleic sunflower oils are classified ashaving monounsaturated levels of 80% and above. Newer versions of sunflower oil have been developed as a hybridcontaining linoleic acid. They have monounsaturated levels lower than other oleic sunflower oils. The hybrid oil alsohas lower saturated fat levels than linoleic sunflower oil.[1]

Restaurant and food industry usesRestaurants and food manufacturers are becoming aware of the health benefits of sunflower oil. The oil can be usedin conditions with extremely high cooking temperatures. It may also help food stay fresher and healthier for longerperiods of time.[2] A number of common snack foods currently contain sunflower oil, including NewYork FriesFrench fries, Majans bhuja Mix healthy snacks, the Sri Lankan style Bombay Mix - Rani Mix, Kettle Chips, SunChips, Sunflower Chips, Ruffles, Walkers and Lay's potato chips. The recipe of Lay's potato chips was modified inlate 2006 to use sunflower oil as the only frying oil;[3] by 2009, the recipe again included other "natural oils".[4]

Sunflower oil 12

Skin protectantSunflower oil, like other oils, can retain moisture in the skin. It may also provide a protective barrier that resistsinfection in premature infants. Studies using sunflower oil have been conducted involving low birth weight infantswho are often susceptible to infection due to their underdeveloped skin. The study determined that infants receivinga daily skin treatment of sunflower oil were 41% less likely to develop infections in the hospital.[5]

Negative health effectsA high consumption of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are found in most types of vegetable oil,including sunflower oil, may increase the likelihood postmenopausal women may develop breast cancer.[6] A similareffect was observed on prostate cancer - however, the study was performed on mice.[7] Another study indicated that,when heated to frying temperature for extended periods, sunflower oil produces aldehydes, which may be associatedwith some neurodegenerative diseases.[8]

Preparation and storageBecause sunflower oil is primarily composed of healthier but less stable polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fattyacids, it can be particularly susceptible to damage by heat and light. Keeping sunflower oil at low temperatures bothduring processing and storage can help to minimize rancidity and nutrient loss, as can storage in darkeramber-colored bottles.

Methods of extractionSunflower oil can be extracted using chemical solvents such as hexane, or squeezed directly from sunflower seeds bycrushing them in an expeller press. Cold pressing sunflower oil using an expeller press under low-temperatureconditions is a preferred method for those seeking an extraction process that doesn't involve chemical solvents, aswell as for people following a raw foods diet.

Refined versus unrefinedRefining sunflower oil through solvent extraction, degumming, neutralization and bleaching can make it more stableand suitable for high-temperature cooking, but will also remove some of the oil's nutrients and flavor, including colorpigments, free fatty acids, phospholipids, polyphenols and phytosterols. Unrefined sunflower oil is less heat stable,but will retain more of its original nutrient content and flavor, and is well suited to dishes that require low- orno-heat.

References[1] National Sunflower Association : Health and Nutrition (http:/ / www. sunflowernsa. com/ health/ default. asp?contentID=45)[2] New Healthful Sunflower Oil Resists Breakdown / June 11, 1998 / News from the USDA Agricultural Research Service (http:/ / www. ars.

usda. gov/ is/ pr/ 1998/ 980611. htm)[3] Oil changes allows Frito-Lay to slash saturated fat (http:/ / www. foodprocessing. com/ industrynews/ 2006/ 060. html)[4] (http:/ / www. fritolay. com/ about-us/ press-release-20090216. htm) New Advertising Campaign[5] Sunflower Oil May Help Reduce Nosocomial Infections in Preterm Infants (http:/ / www. medscape. com/ viewarticle/ 501077)[6] Emily Sonestedt, Ulrika Ericson, Bo Gullberg, Kerstin Skog, Håkan Olsson, Elisabet Wirfält (2008). "Do both heterocyclic amines and

omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids contribute to the incidence of breast cancer in postmenopausal women of the Malmö diet and cancercohort?" (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 120780752/ abstract). The International Journal of Cancer (UICC InternationalUnion Against Cancer) 123 (7): 1637–1643. doi:10.1002/ijc.23394. PMID 18636564. . Retrieved 2008-11-30.

[7] Yong Q. Chen, at al (2007). "Modulation of prostate cancer genetic risk by omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids". The Journal of ClinicalInvestigation 117 (7): 1866–1875. doi:10.1172/JCI31494. PMC 1890998. PMID 17607361.

[8] Maria Guillén, Patricia Uriarte (2012). "Aldehydes contained in edible oils of a very different nature after prolonged heating at fryingtemperature: Presence of toxic oxygenated α,β unsaturated aldehydes" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/S0308814611013562/ ). Food Chemistry 131 (3): 915–926. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.079. .

Sunflower oil 13

External links• http:/ / www. sunflowernsa. com/ all-about/ default. asp?contentID=41• http:/ / journeytoforever. org/ biofuel_library/ oilpress. html

Peanut oil

A bottle of peanut oil, with Vitamin E added as apreservative

Peanut oil, also known as groundnut oil or arachis oil, is a mildtasting vegetable oil derived from peanuts. The oil is available inrefined, unrefined, cold pressed, and roasted varieties, the latter with astrong peanut flavor and aroma, analogous to toasted sesame oil.[1][2]

It is often used in Chinese, South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine,both for general cooking, and in the case of roasted oil, for addedflavor. Peanut oil has a high smoke point relative to many othercooking oils, so is commonly used for frying foods. Its majorcomponent fatty acids are oleic acid (46.8% as olein), linoleic acid(33.4% as linolein), and palmitic acid (10.0% as palmitin).[3] The oilalso contains some stearic acid, arachidic acid, arachidonic acid,behenic acid, lignoceric acid and other fatty acids.

Antioxidants such as Vitamin E are sometimes added, to improve theshelf life of the oil.[4]

History

The oil had increased use in the United States during World War II, because of war shortages of other oils.[5]

Nutritional content

Peanut Oil

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 3,699 kJ (884 kcal)

Carbohydrates 0 g

Fat 100 g

- saturated 17 g

- monounsaturated 46 g

- polyunsaturated 32 g

Protein 0 g

Zinc 0.01 mg (0%)

Cholesterol 0 mg

Selenium 0.0 mcg

Peanut oil 14

Fat percentage can vary.Percentages are relative to

US recommendations for adults.Source: USDA Nutrient Database [6]

According to the USDA data upon which the following table is based, 100 g of peanut oil contains 17.7 g ofsaturated fat, 48.3 g of monounsaturated fat, and 33.4 g of polyunsaturated fat.[3]

Comparative properties of common cooking fats (per 100g)

Total fat Saturated fat Monounsaturated fat Polyunsaturated fat Smoke point

Sunflower oil 100g 11g 20g 69g 225 °C (437 °F)[7]

Soybean oil 100g 16g 23g 58g 257 °C (495 °F)[7]

Olive oil 100g 14g 73g 11g 190 °C (374 °F)[7]

Corn oil 100g 15g 30g 55g 230 °C (446 °F)[7]

Peanut oil 100g 17g 46g 32g 225 °C (437 °F)[7]

Vegetable shortening(hydrogenated)

71g 23g (34%) 8g (11%) 37g (52%) 165 °C (329 °F)[7]

Lard 100g 39g 45g 11g 190 °C (374 °F)[7]

Suet 94g 52g (55%) 32g (34%) 3g (3%) 200°C (400°F)

Butter 81g 51g (63%) 21g (26%) 3g (4%) 150 °C (302 °F)[7]

Allergens and toxins

4 gallons of peanut oil

Most highly refined peanut oils remove the peanut allergens and havebeen shown to be safe for "the vast majority of peanut-allergicindividuals".[1] Cold-pressed peanut oils may not remove the allergensand thus could be highly dangerous to people with peanut allergy.[2]

Since the degree of processing for any particular product is oftenunclear, "avoidance is prudent".[3][4] Peanuts that contain the mold thatproduces highly toxic aflatoxin can end up contaminating the oilderived from them.[5]

Peanut oil 15

Other uses

"Peanut oil will make medicine"

Peanut oil, as with other vegetable oils, can be used to make soap bythe process of saponification.[6] The oil is safe for use as a massage oil.Noted peanut researcher George Washington Carver marketed a peanutmassage oil.[7][8]

Biodiesel

At the 1900 Paris Exhibition, the Otto Company, at the request of theFrench government, demonstrated that peanut oil could be used as asource of fuel for the diesel engine; this was one of the earliestdemonstrations of biodiesel technology.[9]

References[1] Crevel, RW; Kerkhoff, MA; Koning, MM (April 2000). "Allergenicity of refined

vegetable oils" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 10722892). Food andChemical Toxicology 38 (4): 385–93. PMID 10722892. . Retrieved 3 August 2011.

[2] Hourihane, Jonathan O'B., et al. (12 April 1997). "Randomised, double blind,crossover challenge study of allergenicity of peanut oils in subjects allergic topeanuts" (http:/ / www. bmj. com/ content/ 314/ 7087/ 1084. full). BMJ 314 (7087): 1084. . Retrieved 3 August 2011.

[3] "Peanut Allergy" (http:/ / www. faiusa. org/ page. aspx?pid=362). Food Allergy Initiative. . Retrieved 3 August 2011.[4] Carlson, Margaret (13 January 2012). "Deaths Show Schools Need Power of the EpiPen: Margaret Carlson" (http:/ / www. bloomberg. com/

news/ 2012-01-13/ deaths-show-schools-need-power-of-the-epipen-margaret-carlson. html). Bloomberg. .[5] "Aflatoxin suspected in cooking oil" (Dec. 29, 2011) United Press International (http:/ / www. upi. com/ Top_News/ World-News/ 2011/ 12/

29/ Aflatoxin-suspected-in-cooking-oil/ UPI-23501325165198/ ?spt=hs& or=tn)[6] "Saponification Table Plus The Characteristics of Oils in Soap", Soap Making Resource (http:/ / www. soap-making-resource. com/

saponification-table. html)[7] "Peanut Oil", Meridian Institute (http:/ / www. meridianinstitute. com/ echerb/ Files/ 1peanut. html)[8] "Oil Treatment for the Hands Gaining Favor" (Jun 24, 1939) Spokane Daily Chronicle (http:/ / news. google. com/

newspapers?id=Ve5XAAAAIBAJ& sjid=NvUDAAAAIBAJ& pg=7389,5850461& dq=peanut-oil+ massage& hl=en)[9] "Peanut Biodiesel" (http:/ / www. boiled-peanut-world. com/ biodiesel. html). Boiled Peanut World. 2010. . Retrieved 3 August 2011.

External links• Peanut oil at the Peanut Institute website (http:/ / www. peanut-institute. org/ peanut-products/ peanut-oil. asp)• Peanut oil at WebMD (http:/ / www. webmd. com/ vitamins-supplements/ ingredientmono-483-PEANUT OIL.

aspx?activeIngredientId=483& activeIngredientName=PEANUT OIL)

Castor oil 16

Castor oil

Castor beans.

Castor oil (castor is Latin for beaver—before it was discovered inplants, castor oil was extracted from beavers groin [1]) is a vegetableoil obtained from the castor bean (technically castor seed as the castorplant, Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae), is not a member of the beanfamily). Castor oil is a colorless to very pale yellow liquid with mild orno odor or taste. Its boiling point is 313 °C (595 °F) and its density is961 kg/m3.[2] It is a triglyceride in which approximately 90 percent offatty acid chains are ricinoleic acid. Oleic and linoleic acids are theother significant components.[3]

Background

Structure of the major component of castor oil.

Ricinoleic acid, a monounsaturated, 18-carbon fatty acid, is unusual inthat it has a hydroxyl functional group on the 12th carbon. Thisfunctional group causes ricinoleic acid (and castor oil) to be unusuallypolar, and also allows chemical derivatization that is not practical withmost other seed oils. It is the hydroxyl group which makes castor oil andricinoleic acid valuable as chemical feedstocks. Compared to other seedoils which lack the hydroxyl group, castor oil commands a higher price.As an example, in July 2007, Indian castor oil sold for about US$0.90 perkilogram (US$0.41 per pound)[4] while U.S. soybean, sunflower andcanola oil sold for about US$0.30 per kilogram (US$0.14 per pound).[5]

Industry uses yearly 600-800 million pounds of castor oil and itsderivatives have applications in the manufacturing of soaps, lubricants,hydraulic and brake fluids, paints, dyes, coatings, inks, cold resistantplastics, waxes and polishes, nylon, pharmaceuticals and perfumes.[6]

The castor seed contains ricin, a toxic protein. Heating during the oilextraction process denatures and inactivates the protein. However,harvesting castor beans may be not without risk.[7] Allergenic compoundsfound on the plant surface can cause permanent nerve damage, makingthe harvest of castor beans a human health risk. India, Brazil, and Chinaare the major crop producers, and the workers suffer harmful side effectsfrom working with these plants.[8] These health issues, in addition toconcerns about the toxic byproduct (ricin) from castor oil production,have encouraged the quest for alternative sources for hydroxy fattyacids.[9][10] Alternatively, some researchers are trying to geneticallymodify the castor plant to prevent the synthesis of ricin.[11]

Castor oil 17

Castor oil fatty acids

Average composition of castor seed oil / fatty acid chains

Acid name Average Percentage Range

Ricinoleic acid 95 to 85%

Oleic acid 6 to 2%

Linoleic acid 5 to 1%

Linolenic acid 1 to 0.5%

Stearic acid 1 to 0.5%

Palmitic acid 1 to 0.5%

Dihydroxystearic acid 0.5 to 0.3%

Others 0.5 to 0.2%

Uses

Castor oil in polyurethaneCastor oil can be used as bio-based polyol in the polyurethane industry. The average functionality of castor oil is 2.7,so it is widely used as rigid polyol of polyurethane industry.

Castor oil in foodIn the food industry, castor oil (food grade) is used in food additives,[12] flavorings, candy (e.g., Polyglycerolpolyricinoleate or PGPR in chocolate),[13] as a mold inhibitor, and in packaging. Polyoxyethylated castor oil (e.g.,Kolliphor EL)[14] is also used in the food industries.[15]

As food grain preservativeIn India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh, food grains are preserved by applying castor oil. It stops rice, wheat, andpulses from rotting. For example the legume Toor dal is commonly available coated in oil for extended storage.Also, by applying castor oil, the food becomes easy to digest.

Medicinal use of castor oilThe United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has categorized castor oil as "generally recognized as safeand effective" (GRASE) for over-the-counter use as a laxative with its major site of action the small intestine.[16]

Castor oil is a stimulant and lubricating laxative. It is not a preferred treatment, because it can produce painfulcramps, fecal incontinence and explosive diarrhea. Its action can go on for hours, sometimes unpredictably andpowerfully causing an involuntary bowel movement at inconvenient locations and during sleep.[17]

Undecylenic acid, a castor oil derivative, is also FDA-approved for over-the-counter use on skin disorders or skinproblems.[18] Castor oil penetrates deep into the skin due to its molecular mass, which is low enough to penetrateinto the stratum corneum. Castor isostearate succinate is a polymeric mixture of esters with isostearic acid andsuccinic acid used for skin conditioning, such as in shampoo, lipstick and lip balm.[19]

Ricinoleic acid is the main component of castor oil, and it exerts anti-inflammatory effects.[20] It is believed that theantibacterial properties of the castor oil are mainly due to its high ricinoleic acid content.[21]

One study has found castor oil decreased pain more than ultrasound gel or Vaseline during extracorporealshockwave application.[22]

Castor oil 18

Therapeutically, modern drugs are rarely given in a pure chemical state, so most active ingredients are combinedwith excipients or additives. Castor oil, or a castor oil derivative such as Kolliphor EL (polyethoxylated castor oil, anonionic surfactant), is added to many modern drugs, including:• Miconazole, an antifungal agent;[23][24]

• Paclitaxel, a mitotic inhibitor used in cancer chemotherapy;[25]

• Sandimmune (cyclosporine injection, USP), an immunosuppressant drug widely used in connection with organtransplant to reduce the activity of the patient's immune system;[26]

• Nelfinavir mesylate, an HIV protease inhibitor;[27]

• Saperconazole, a triazole antifungal agent (contains Emulphor EL-719P, a castor oil derivative);[28]

• Tacrolimus, an immunosuppressive drug (contains HCO-60, polyoxyl 60 hydrogenated castor oil);• Xenaderm ointment, a topical treatment for skin ulcers, is a combination of Peru balsam, castor oil, and

trypsin;[29][30]

• Aci-Jel (composed of ricinoleic acid from castor oil, with acetic acid and oxyquinoline) is used to maintain theacidity of the vagina.[31]

Traditional or holistic medicines

The use of cold pressed castor oil in folk medicine predates government medical regulations. It is tasteless andodorless when pure. Its uses include skin disorders, burns, sunburns, cuts, and abrasions. It has been used to draw outstyes in the eye by pouring a small amount into the eye and allowing it to circulate around the inside of the eyelid.Note that most bottles of castor oil indicate it is to be kept away from the eyes. The oil is also used as a rub or packfor various ailments, including abdominal complaints, headaches, muscle pains, inflammatory conditions, skineruptions, lesions, and sinusitis. A castor oil pack is made by soaking a piece of flannel in castor oil, then putting iton the area of complaint and placing a heat source, such as a hot water bottle, on top of it. This remedy was oftensuggested by the American psychic Edgar Cayce, given in many healing readings in the early mid-1900s. Castor oilhas also been noted for its acne-healing abilities. (See Oil cleansing method.)The use of castor oil to induce labor is controversial. One study showed that women who receive castor oil have anincreased likelihood of initiation of labor within 24 hours compared to women who receive no treatment( Followingadministration of castor oil, 30 of 52 women (57.7%) began active labor compared to 2 of 48 (4.2%) receiving notreatment).[32] However, another study showed that castor oil had no effect on the time to birth in women whosepregnancy exceeds 40 weeks.[33]

Castor oil, when ingested, triggers cramping in the bowel, making it an effective laxative. Thus, it is intended thatsuch cramping extend to the uterus. In an overdue pregnancy in which the mother's cervix is already effacing andpartially dilated, this cramping can lead to labor contractions. The irregular, painful contractions of castoroil-induced labor can be stressful on the mother and fetus. It also leaves the laboring woman quite dehydrated as aresult of the vomiting and diarrhea which result when the recommended dose of castor oil for labor induction istaken—2 oz, or about 4 tbsp. This leaves her without access to the energy she could otherwise derive from food ordrink throughout her labor process. Using castor oil for induction is not recommended without consulting a medicalpractitioner and is not recommended in a complex pregnancy.Ricinus communis var minor, administered orally once to each of 12 women volunteers at a dose of 2.5-2.7 g per 8months, protected against pregnancy over a period of 7–8 months of study.[34]

In Ayurvedic medicine it is used to enhance memory.[35] In Ayurvedic medicine it is used to treat "Pitta Dosha" byusing "Virechana therapy". Castor oil has also been claimed to promote eyelash growth; there is, however, nosupporting scientific data.[36]

Castor oil 19

Orthopedics

The use of the castor oil-based polyurethane has been expanded into medicine, specifically in orthopedics. In thesearch for a new material that could be used as a bone substitute, the Analytic Chemistry and Polymer TechnologyGroup of the University of São Paulo's São Carlos School of Engineering developed a polyurethane derived fromcastor oil in 1984. Experimental studies have confirmed the polyurethane potential for some orthopedic proceduresboth in human medicine and in veterinary medicine.[37]

Industrial castor oilCastor oil has numerous applications in transportation, cosmetics and pharmaceutical, and manufacturing industries,for example: adhesives,[38] brake fluids,[39] caulks, dyes,[38] electrical liquid dielectrics, humectants,[38] Nylon 11plastics,[38] hydraulic fluids, inks,[38] lacquers, leather treatments,[38] lubricating greases, machining oils, paints,[38]

pigments, polyurethane adhesives,[40] refrigeration lubricants, rubbers,[38] sealants, textiles,[38] washing powders,and waxes.Since it has a relatively high dielectric constant (4.7), highly refined and dried castor oil is sometimes used as adielectric fluid within high performance high voltage capacitors.

Lubricants

Vegetable oils, due to their good lubricity and biodegradability are attractive alternatives to petroleum-derivedlubricants, but oxidative stability and low temperature performance limit their widespread use.[41] Castor oil hasbetter low temperature viscosity properties and high temperature lubrication than most vegetable oils, making ituseful as a lubricant in jet, diesel, and race car engines.[42] However, castor oil tends to form gums in a short time,and its use is therefore restricted to engines that are regularly rebuilt, such as race engines. Biodegradability resultsin decreased persistence in the environment (relative to petroleum-based lubricants[43]) in case of an accidentalrelease. The lubricants company Castrol took its name from castor oil.Castor oil is the preferred lubricant for bicycle pumps, most likely because it does not dissolve natural rubberseals.[44]

Uses in early aviation and aeromodelling

Castor oil was the preferred lubricant for rotary engines, such as the Gnome engine after that engine's widespreadadoption for aviation in Europe in 1909. It was used almost universally by the rotary engined Allied aircraft in WorldWar I. Germany had to make do with inferior ersatz oil for its rotary engines, which resulted in poor reliability.The methanol-fuelled two-cycle glow plug engines used for aeromodelling, since their adoption by model airplanehobbyists in 1948, have used varying percentages of castor oil as a dependable lubricant. It is highly resistant todegradation when the engine has its fuel-air mixture leaned for maximum engine speed. Gummy residues can still bea problem for aeromodelling powerplants lubricated with castor oil, however, usually resulting in eventual ballbearing replacement when the residue builds up too much within the engine's bearing races. One Britishmanufacturer of sleeve valved four-cycle model engines has, however, stated the "varnish" created by using castoroil in small percentages can improve the pneumatic seal of the sleeve valve, improving such an engine's performanceover time.

Castor oil derivatives

Castor oil is the raw material for the production of a number of chemicals, notably sebacic acid, undecylenic acid,nylon-11. A review listing numerous chemicals derived from castor oil is available.[45][46] The production of lithiumgrease consumes a significant amount of castor oil. Hydrogenation and saponification of castor oil yields12-hydroxystearic acid which is then reacted with lithium hydroxide or lithium carbonate to give high performancelubricant grease.[47]

Castor oil 20

Other derivatives are produced by first transesterification of the castor oil to methyl ricinoleate, followed by steamcracking to methyl undecylenate and n-heptaldehyde.[48]

Turkey red oil

Turkey red oil, also called sulphonated (or sulfated) castor oil, is made by adding sulfuric acid to vegetable oils, mostnotably castor oil.[49] It was the first synthetic detergent after ordinary soap. It is used in formulating lubricants,softeners, and dyeing assistants.[50]

Biodiesel

Castor oil, like currently less expensive vegetable oils, can be used as feedstock in the production of biodiesel. Theresulting fuel is superior for cold winters.[51]

Initiatives to grow more castor for energy production, in preference to other oil crops, are motivated by socialconsiderations. Tropical subsistence farmers would gain a cash crop.[52]

Use as a means of intimidation in Fascist Italy and SpainIn Fascist Italy under the regime of Benito Mussolini, castor oil was one of the tools of the Blackshirts.[53][54][55]

Political dissidents were force-fed large quantities of castor oil by Fascist squads. This technique was said to havebeen originated by Gabriele D'Annunzio. Victims of this treatment did sometimes die, as the dehydrating effects ofthe oil-induced diarrhea often complicated the recovery from the nightstick beating they also received along with thecastor oil; however, even those victims who survived had to bear the humiliation of the laxative effects resultingfrom excessive consumption of the oil.[56]

It is said Mussolini's power was backed by "the bludgeon and castor oil". In lesser quantities, castor oil was also usedas an instrument of intimidation, for example, to discourage civilians or soldiers who would call in sick either in thefactory or in the military. Since its healing properties were widely exaggerated, abuse could be easily masked underpretense of a doctor's prescription. It took decades after Mussolini's death before the myth of castor oil as a panaceafor a wide range of diseases and medical conditions was totally demystified, as it was also widely administered topregnant women, elderly or mentally-ill patients in hospitals in the false belief it had no negative side effects.It was also often used as both a punishment and torture by the Spanish Nationalists, led by Francisco Franco, as theypurged Spain of those who supported the democratic, left-wing Republic during the Spanish Civil War.[57]

Linguistic connotationsToday, the Italian terms manganello and olio di ricino, even used separately, still carry strong political connotations(especially the latter). These words are still used to satirize patronizing politicians, or the authors of dislikedlegislation. They should be used with caution in common conversation. The terms Usare l'olio di ricino, ("to usecastor oil") and usare il manganello ("to use the bludgeon") mean "to coerce or abuse," and can be misunderstood inthe absence of proper context.As a means of punishment, the force-feeding with castor oil still lives on in animated cartoons such as Tom andJerry.

Castor oil 21

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pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2008-08-10.[6] http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1002/ ejlt. 200900138/ abstract[7] Auld, Dick L.; Pinkerton,Scott D.; Rolfe, Rial; Ghetie, Victor and Lauterbach, Brenda F. (1999). "Selection of Castor for Divergent

Concentrations of Ricin and Ricinus communis Agglutinin and references therein" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081012215450/ http:/ /crop. scijournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 39/ 2/ 353) (PDF). Crop Science 39 (MARCH–APRIL): 353–357. . Retrieved 2007-07-31.

[8] "Hazards of harvesting castor plants" (http:/ / www. linnaeus. net/ problem_with_castor. htm). . Retrieved 2007-07-31.[9] Dierig, David A. (1995). "Lesquerella" (http:/ / www. hort. purdue. edu/ newcrop/ cropfactsheets/ Lesquerella. html). New Crop FactSHEET.

Center for New Crops & Plant Products, at Purdue University. . Retrieved 2007-08-01.[10] Dierig, David A. (2002). "Lesquerella" (http:/ / www. nnfcc. co. uk/ crops/ info/ lesquerella. pdf) (PDF). The National Non-Food Crops

Centre. . Retrieved 2007-08-01.[11] Wood, M. (2001). "High-Tech Castor Plants May Open Door to Domestic Production" (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ is/ AR/ archive/ jan01/

plant0101. htm). Agricultural Research Magazine 49 (1). . Retrieved 2007-08-02.[12] Castor Oil Facts (http:/ / www. kristinasoil. com/ fyi. html#food)[13] Wilson R, Van Schie BJ, Howes D (1998). "Overview of the preparation, use and biological studies on polyglycerol polyricinoleate

(PGPR)" (http:/ / linkinghub. elsevier. com/ retrieve/ pii/ S0278-6915(98)00057-X). Food Chem. Toxicol. 36 (9-10): 711–8.doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(98)00057-X. PMID 9737417. .

[14] "BASF Technical data sheet on Cremophor EL" (http:/ / www. basf-korea. co. kr/ . . . / 04_finechemicals/ document/ cosmetic/ tech/surfactants/ down. asp?file=cremophorel. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2007-08-01.

[15] Busso C, Castro-Prado MA (March 2004). "Cremophor EL stimulates mitotic recombination in uvsH//uvsH diploid strain of Aspergillusnidulans" (http:/ / www. scielo. br/ scielo. php?script=sci_arttext& pid=S0001-37652004000100005& lng=en& nrm=iso& tlng=en). An. Acad.Bras. Cienc. 76 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1590/S0001-37652004000100005. PMID 15048194. .

[16] "Ingredient List A-C" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061217173035/ http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cder/ Offices/ OTC/ Ingredient_List_A-C.pdf) (PDF). FDA (see page 52 of this link). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cder/ Offices/ OTC/ Ingredient_List_A-C. pdf)on 2006-12-17. . Retrieved 2006-12-28.

[17] Castor Oil. DRUGDEX System. n.d. Thomson Micromedex. Retrieved February 19, 2007 (http:/ / www. thomsonhc. com)[18] "Ingredient List P-Z" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061016115347/ http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cder/ Offices/ OTC/ Ingredient_List_P-Z.

pdf) (PDF). FDA (see page 65 of this link). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cder/ Offices/ OTC/ Ingredient_List_P-Z. pdf)on 2006-10-16. . Retrieved 2006-12-28.

[19] Skin-Conditioning Agents (http:/ / www. cosmeticsdatabase. com/ ingredient. php?ingred06=701157& refurl=/ product.php?prod_id=99990& & nothanks=1) by the Environmental Working Group.

[20] Vieira C, Evangelista S, Cirillo R, Lippi A, Maggi CA, Manzini S (2000). "Effect of ricinoleic acid in acute and subchronic experimentalmodels of inflammation". Mediators Inflamm. 9 (5): 223–8. doi:10.1080/09629350020025737. PMC 1781768. PMID 11200362.

[21] "Castor oil - What you HAVE to know about castor oil" (http:/ / vegetableoils. org/ castor_oil/ ). Retrieved 2012-04-04.[22] Maier M, Staupendahl D, Duerr HR, Refior HJ (1999). "Castor oil decreases pain during extracorporeal shock wave application" (http:/ /

link. springer. de/ link/ service/ journals/ 00402/ bibs/ 9119007/ 91190423. htm). Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 119 (7-8): 423–7.doi:10.1007/s004020050013. PMID 10613232. .

[23] Marmion LC, Desser KB, Lilly RB, Stevens DA (September 1976). "Reversible thrombocytosis and anemia due to miconazole therapy"(http:/ / aac. asm. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=984785). Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 10 (3): 447–9. PMC 429768.PMID 984785. . See page 1, Methods and Materials.

[24] Fromtling RA (1 April 1988). "Overview of medically important antifungal azole derivatives" (http:/ / cmr. asm. org/ cgi/pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=3069196). Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1 (2): 187–217. PMC 358042. PMID 3069196. . See page 6, /192, Clinicalstudies

[25] Micha JP, Goldstein BH, Birk CL, Rettenmaier MA, Brown JV (February 2006). "Abraxane in the treatment of ovarian cancer: the absenceof hypersensitivity reactions". Gynecol. Oncol. 100 (2): 437–8. doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2005.09.012. PMID 16226797.

[26] "Sandimmune ingredients" (http:/ / dailymed. nlm. nih. gov/ dailymed/ search. cfm?startswith=sandimmune& x=10& y=6). DailyMed. .Retrieved 2007-01-06.

[27] Zhang KE, Wu E, Patick AK, et al (April 2001). "Circulating metabolites of the human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitor nelfinavirin humans: structural identification, levels in plasma, and antiviral activities". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45 (4): 1086–93.doi:10.1128/AAC.45.4.1086-1093.2001. PMC 90428. PMID 11257019.

[28] Sugar AM, Salibian M, Goldani LZ (February 1994). "Saperconazole therapy of murine disseminated candidiasis: efficacy and interactionswith amphotericin B" (http:/ / aac. asm. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=8192469). Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38 (2): 371–3.PMC 284460. PMID 8192469. .

Castor oil 22

[29] "Product Information: Xendaderm topical ointment, balsam Peru, castor oil and trypsin topical ointment. Healthpoint,Ltd., San Antonio, TX,2002" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070831031827/ http:/ / www. healthpoint. com/ divisions/ tm/ prodXenaderm. cfm). Archived fromthe original (http:/ / www. healthpoint. com/ divisions/ tm/ prodXenaderm. cfm) on 2007-08-31. . Retrieved 2007-10-11.

[30] Beitz JM (June 2005). "Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia syndrome bullous lesions treated with trypsin-balsam of peru-castor oilointment: a case study". Ostomy Wound Manage 51 (6): 52–4, 56–8. PMID 16014993.

[31] "Aci-Jel (Vaginal Jelly) drug description - prescription drugs and medications at RxList" (http:/ / www. rxlist. com/ cgi/ generic/ acijel.htm). RxList. . Retrieved 2007-10-26.

[32] Use of castor oil in pregnancies at term. Garry D. Figueroa R. Guillaume J. Cucco V. Alternative Therapies in Health & Medicine.6(1):77-9, 2000 Jan.

[33][33] Castor oil for induction of labour: not harmful, not helpful. - Boel ME - Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol - 01-OCT-2009; 49(5): 499-503[34][34] Chemical, pathological and toxicological studies of the effects of RICOM-1013-J of Ricinus communis var minor on women volunteers and

rodents. Das SC. Isichei CO. Okwuasaba FK. Uguru VE. Onoruvwe O. Olayinka AO. Ekwere EO. Dafur SJ. Parry O. Phytotherapy Research.14(1):15-9, 2000 Feb.

[35][35] Role of traditional medicine in neuropsychopharmacology Dua J.S., Prasad D.N., Tripathi A.C., Gupta R. Asian Journal of Pharmaceuticaland Clinical Research 2009 2:2 (72-76)

[36] Can The World’s Deadliest Poison Make Your Eyelashes Grow Longer (http:/ / thebeautybrains. com/ 2006/ 10/ 20/ 117/ )[37] "Comparison Between Polyurethanes Containing Castor Oil (Soft Segment) and Cancellous Bone Autograft in the Treatment of Segmental

Bone Defect Induced in Rabbits" (http:/ / jba. sagepub. com/ content/ 21/ 3/ 283. abstract). . Retrieved 2010-08-26.[38] "Multiple uses of castor oil" (http:/ / whc-oils. com/ castor-oil. html). . Retrieved 2007-08-02.[39] "Castor oil as a component of brake fluid" (http:/ / stinet. dtic. mil/ oai/ oai?& verb=getRecord& metadataPrefix=html&

identifier=AD0737879). . Retrieved 2007-08-03.[40] Azambuja, Maximiliano dos Anjos; Dias, Antonio Alves (2006). "Use of castor oil-based polyurethane adhesive in the production of glued

laminated timber beams" (http:/ / www. scielo. br/ scielo. php?script=sci_arttext& pid=S1516-14392006000300008& lng=en& nrm=iso). Mat.Res. [online] 9 (3): 287–91. doi:10.1590/S1516-14392006000300008. . Retrieved 2007-08-02.

[41] "Chemical modification to improve vegetable oil lubricants" (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ research/ publications/ publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=166442). . Retrieved 2007-08-02.

[42] McGuire, Nancy (2004). "Taming the Bean" (http:/ / www. chemistry. org/ portal/ a/ c/ s/ 1/ feature_pro.html?id=c373e9faf603d46b8f6a4fd8fe800100). The American Chemical Society. . Retrieved 2007-08-02.

[43] "Petroleum Oil and the Environment" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ kids/ energyfacts/ sources/ non-renewable/ oil. html#Environment). DOE.. Retrieved 2006-12-28.

[44] Older, Jules (2000). Backroad and offroad biking. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 37. ISBN 0-8117-3150-2. " Here's a good tip:Instead of lubricating your pump with petroleum oil, which will rot the pump's rubber parts, use castor oil, available at your local drugstore(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=INNM7b2bQzkC& pg=PA35& dq="Jules+ Older"+ "Backroad+ and+ Offroad+ Biking"&sig=2u6-HyT5x1ON0ab8juHLYhguMw4)"

[45] http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1002/ ejlt. 200900138/ abstract, Castor oil as a renewable resource for the chemical industry[46] Ogunniyi, D.S. (June 2006). "Castor oil: A vital industrial raw material" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL&

_udi=B6V24-4G7NSTG-3& _user=432163& _coverDate=06/ 30/ 2006& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& view=c&_acct=C000020718& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=432163& md5=fb81fe7480f87cd089cc1ff182a001fb). Bioresource Technology97 (9): 1086–91. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2005.03.028. PMID 15919203. .

[47] Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 30116043/ Castor-Oil). . Retrieved 2010-07-12.[48][48] Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Third edition, 2011, page 6162[49] Turkey Red Oil - A defoaming & wetting agent (http:/ / www. porwal. net/ turkeyredoil. htm)[50] CastorOil.in – Home of Castor Oil Online (http:/ / www. castoroil. in/ reference/ glossary/ turkey_red_oil. html)[51] Biodiesel from Castor Oil: A Promising Fuel for Cold Weather (PDF) (http:/ / www. icrepq. com/ full-paper-icrep/ 222-barajas. pdf) by

Carmen Leonor Barajas Forero, 2004-10-12. Retrieved 2012-01-24.[52] The Promise of the Castor Bean (http:/ / www. biodieselmagazine. com/ articles/ 622/ the-promise-of-the-castor-bean) by Elizabeth Johnson,

Biodiesel Magazine, 2004-12-01. Retrieved 2012-01-24.[53] "Italy The rise of Mussolini" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-27762/ Italy). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia

Britannica. 2007. . Retrieved 2007-08-03.[54] "Benito's Birthday" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,716284,00. html?iid=chix-sphere). Time, in partnership with

CNN. August 6, 1923. . Retrieved 2007-08-03.[55] Bosworth, R. J. B. (2002). Mussolini. New York: Arnold/Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-340-73144-3.[56] The Straight Dope: Did Mussolini use castor oil as an instrument of torture? (http:/ / www. straightdope. com/ classics/ a4_028. html)[57] Paul Preston, The Spanish Holocaust.

Castor oil 23

External links• International Chemical Safety Card 1452 (http:/ / www. inchem. org/ documents/ icsc/ icsc/ eics1452. htm)• Castor biofuel farming starts in Ethiopia (http:/ / www. scidev. net/ en/ sub-suharan-africa/ news/

sub-saharan-africa-news-in-brief-25-march-9-april. html)Shop For Castor Oils (http:/ / castoroilforhair. co)

Article Sources and Contributors 24

Article Sources and ContributorsAcid value  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=521279659  Contributors: Anir1uph, Bad Logarithm, Bisco, Dave Heenan, Edgar181, GTBacchus, Giraffedata, Hibisco-da-Ilha,Mcrtoffeeman, Michał Sobkowski, Olin, Pablogrb, Peter G Werner, Physchim62, R'n'B, Robert Weemeyer, Saxbryn, TRBP, Tracyvznh, V8rik, 16 anonymous edits

Iodine value  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=515387500  Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Amatulic, Bellemonde, Bisco, Dave Heenan, Dave314159, DinosaursLoveExistence,Eno-ja, Gaius Cornelius, Hydrargyrum, Learnerteacher, Mc schafer, Michel Awkal, PaulHanson, Peter G Werner, Physchim62, Rifleman 82, Rrius, Smaines, Smokefoot, Thorwald, V8rik,Waftabw, Whoop whoop pull up, 26 anonymous edits

Saponification value  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510658175  Contributors: Amatulic, Belg4mit, Berichard, Bisco, Blackknight12, Blurpeace, Charles Matthews, DaveHeenan, Dawn Bard, Dgourd, Dirac1933, Jaerik, Jennavecia, Julesd, Kristian are, Lucretiab, MrSomeone, Paweł ze Szczecina, Philwkpd, Physchim62, PierreAbbat, Rocket to mars, Soap, V8rik,Vertigo, Waftabw, 40 anonymous edits

Hydroxyl value  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=498018969  Contributors: Dave Heenan, DinosaursLoveExistence, R'n'B, 3 anonymous edits

Total fatty matter  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=511231003  Contributors: Fabrictramp, Frankpantzaris, GaryColemanFan, John of Reading, Kimchi.sg, Ktr101, LKensington, MatthewVanitas, Mayalld, RHaworth, Sarahj2107, Vrk1219, 5 anonymous edits

Saponification  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=518908121  Contributors: Ace Class Shadow, Armeria, ArnoLagrange, Aronzak, Arthena, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Avoided, Axl,Beachclub, Beakerboy, Belg4mit, Blackcats, Bubalub, Charles Matthews, Crescentia moonshine, Curmudgeon3, Cyberoidx, DaGizza, Dawn Bard, Deepblue123, DocKrin, Donarreiskoffer,Drpagel, Drphilharmonic, Dylanlucas, Epbr123, Escape Orbit, Fish and karate, Foolip, Gelladar, Geni, Giraffedata, Hadal, Headbomb, Hellbus, Hemmer, IdahoEv, Irishguy, Itub, Iulius,IvanLanin, Jj137, Jmaes123, Kirrages, Kjkolb, Logan, Lucretiab, MKoltnow, Magister Mathematicae, Maimai009, Malcolmd83, Mboverload, MuffinTheGeek, Nmulder, OMCV, Oashi, Paweł zeSzczecina, Peregrine981, Phoenix.v2, Postdlf, Queenholly, Qweeer, RG2, Refsworldlee, RichardMcCoy, Rickproser, Riventree, Roadrunner, Scm83x, Smokefoot, Soap, Stevegallery, Tabletop,TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Thubten108, Uncle G, V8rik, Veesicle, Vegaswikian, Veinor, Walkerma, Wizard191, WpZurp, Xenowiki, Yyy, 166 anonymous edits

Sunflower oil  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=518704914  Contributors: Acalamari, Acroterion, Alexhangartner, AppetiteDynamo, Arsene, Auntof6, Austegard, Beetstra,Bigfridge, Bless sins, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, ChemGardener, D, Daytona2, Deor, Docpi, Dr.frog, Dracavia, E. Ripley, Ealdgyth, Epbr123, Erianna, Evercat, Ewkaa, Factsearch,Fieldday-sunday, FloraDawn, Fram, Gigemag76, Ginsengbomb, GoingBatty, Halogenated, Health Camp, Hennessey, Patrick, Hgrosser, Husaaved, Istvan, Jahnavisatyan, JamesBWatson, JayL09, Johner, LGreiner, Landon1980, Little Mountain 5, Majans, Markthemac, Msjacoby23, Nalexpereira, Nk, Olaffpomona, PEiP, Patrus, Peter G Werner, Pmj005, QQ2000QQ, Radzewicz,RafaAzevedo, Renseim, Rjwilmsi, RobertStar20, Rod57, Romarin, Sci girl, Shaddack, Slashme, Sleigh, Smokefoot, SwartMC, T34, That Guy, From That Show!, Thingg, Timotab, Tom harrison,Ufinne, Ultimatesunnyboy, Vic van Dijk, Waitak, Wetman, Yo-sei Shoshi, Zanimum, Zserghei, Žiga, 142 ,24.غامدي.أحمد anonymous edits

Peanut oil  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=520315161  Contributors: AgniKalpa, Alansohn, Allens, Anna Frodesiak, Bdushaw, Bfinn, Bigturtle, Bobber0001, Brianski,Caesura, ChazYork, CiTrusD, Cmh, Crystallina, Curb Chain, David H Braun (1964), Dgw, DocKrin, DocWatson42, Dwandelt, Erianna, Firefishy, Frymaster, Futurephysicist96, GeeJo, GeneNygaard, Gfrankson, Gobonobo, GraemeLeggett, Gyrofrog, Hatch68, HenkvD, JDP90, Jacobsdad, Jay L09, Jeffq, Jfpierce, Kevin W., Krellis, Lisnabreeny, Mailer diablo, Markaci, Mcbruno,Mcpusc, Meiskam, Mercurywoodrose, Mightfly, Mike hayes, Mmarre, Neutrality, Nirvana2013, Ondenc, Osarius, Peter G Werner, Piano non troppo, Pigman, Ponydepression, Pwjb, Rccoms,Rich Farmbrough, SCEhardt, Salmaakbar, Samsara, Shawnc, Smooth O, Solipsist, Someguy1221, Strom, TheListUpdater, Thebestofall007, Thomas Blomberg, Thumperward, Tightwitjc,Trovatore, Unfree, Waitak, Wikipelli, William Avery, Womble, Yosri, Zia cosmo, 140 anonymous edits

Castor oil  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=519120225  Contributors: Abmcdonald, Acalamari, Ae7flux, AlexR, Anastrophe, Anypodetos, Ap, Arcadian, Ask123, Attys,Auric, B. Meijlink, Babypozzi, Badagnani, Basicdesign, Benluo, Benrr101, Berean Hunter, Bert Hickman, Biasoli, Billylin76, Blahblahnyahnyah, Bobblewik, Bobbo924, Bobbyb373, Bondrake,Bongwarrior, Brad Eleven, Bubba hotep, Bubbha, Bushytails, CJWilly, Caltas, Castoroil, Castoroil101, Ceridhwen, Chairman S., Chamal N, CheesemonkeyFrenchperson, Chowbok, Cryonic,Cuthbertwong, Cybercobra, Danger, Danmartyn33, Dave Runger, DeMonsoon, DeadEyeArrow, Dina, Diyasp, DocWatson42, Doctorhawkes, Dodiad, Donreed, Dzol, Elderjack21, Emerson7,EoGuy, Epbr123, Eras-mus, Extransit, Ezuku, Frecklefoot, FuriousFreddy, Furyofnasa, GSMR, Gigemag76, Groggy Dice, Groyolo, Halogenated, Hamamelis, Harold f, Hede2000, Hhaithait,HippoNorm, Hooperbloob, Iantresman, Ihatecastorbeans, Ike9898, Incrediblehunk, Infrogmation, Iridescent, Istvan, Ithunn, Jahnavisatyan, JamesBWatson, Jamespenn1234, JasminFlower, Jbarta,Jennica, Jerem43, Jimp, Jkherson, Jmrowland, John of Reading, John254, Jose Luis Cirelli, Joyous!, Jusses2, Jwit, Kandar, Katalaveno, Kida78, Korinkami, La Bicyclette, Lamro, Ldbio130,Lightmouse, Lineslarge, Littleolive oil, Lunarmys, Mar bells87, Martinp23, MaxVeers, Meeples, Meewam, Menchi, Michael Bailes, Michael Hardy, MightyWarrior, Mike45, Miyadeh, Mr.Stradivarius, Nairebis, Neutrality, Noozgroop, Obytheby, Oneiros, Ortolan88, PhilKnight, Physchim62, Pinethicket, Pol098, Prari, Prlambert76, Quackslikeaduck, Queenmomcat, Quota,RDBrown, RJFerret, Raffinate2, Ratiocinate, Reynolds329, Ribrsiq, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rifleman 82, Rjwilmsi, Rockhopper10r, Rogerzilla, Ron Ritzman, Ronjm,Rrose Selavy, Rumiton, SMcCandlish, Sam Spade, Sassf, Schneelocke, Sd31415, Shaddack, Shoefly, Silverchemist, Snowgrouse, Somamary, Stevegallery, Stroppolo, Subsolar,Subversive.sound, Syrthiss, TJRC, Tabletop, TallNapoleon, Taxman, The Founders Intent, The PIPE, The RedBurn, The chemistds, ThurnerRupert, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Timrollpickering,Tinawi10, ToLLIa, Tombright, Tony Webster, Topbanana, Ucanlookitup, Van helsing, Varlaam, Versus22, Vsmith, Waitak, Wayiran, Wayne Slam, West.andrew.g, Whitebox, Wikipedius,Wipsenade, Woohookitty, WriterHound, Yoctobarryc, Zeimusu, Zenswashbuckler, 351 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 25

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:SaponificationGeneral.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SaponificationGeneral.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:V8rik (talk). Original uploader was V8rik at en.wikipediaImage:Verseifungsreaktion 1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Verseifungsreaktion_1.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: YikrazuulImage:Verseifungsreaktion 2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Verseifungsreaktion_2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: YikrazuulImage:Verseifungsreaktion 3.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Verseifungsreaktion_3.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: YikrazuulImage:Zonnebloemolie (Sunflower oil).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zonnebloemolie_(Sunflower_oil).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Basilicofresco, PDH, RasbakFile:TriglycerideSunflower.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TriglycerideSunflower.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:SmokefootFile:Peanut oil bottle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Peanut_oil_bottle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Adam EngelhartFile:4 gallons of peanut oil.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:4_gallons_of_peanut_oil.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:emilee rader from Lansing, MI, USAFile:PEANUT OIL WILL MAKE MEDICINE - NARA - 515169.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PEANUT_OIL_WILL_MAKE_MEDICINE_-_NARA_-_515169.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Smooth OImage:Castor beans.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Castor_beans.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ayacop, Franz Xaver, Ies, Mayhem, Quadell, Slinger,WayneRay, 1 anonymous editsImage:Castor oil.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Castor_oil.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: benrr101

License 26

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/