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Sex Roles, V ol. 22, Nos. 11/12, 1990

The Inf luence o f Gender Ro le Typing on theExpress ion o f Depress ive SymptomsS a r a h J . O l iv e r a n d B r e n d a B . T o n e rUniversity o f Toronto

Thi s s t ud y i nvest iga t ed t he i n f l uence o f gender ro l e typ ing on t he express iono f depr es s iv e s y m p t om s . P r e v i ous r es earc h ( P ade s k y & H am m e n , 198D hasfo u n d tha t men a nd wom en d i f f e r in t hei r express ion o f depress ive sym ptom san d has pro pos ed gender ro l e expec ta t ions as a poss ib l e exp lanat ion . Th i ss tud y considered gend er role typing as a poss ible m odera t ing fac tor o f depres-s ive sym ptom s. Undergraduates (99 men , 360 wo me n) were div ided into mas-c u li ne and f e m i n i ne g r oups ac c ord ing t o t he B e m Se x R o l e I nv e n to r y .Depressive sym pto m s were mea sured by the Beck Depress ion Inven tory (BDI) .G e nde r r o l e t y p ing d i ff e re nc e s e m e r ge d on t he B D I w i th f e m i n i ne s ub j ec t sr e por ti ng m or e e m o t i ona l s y m p t om s t han m as c u li ne s ub j e ct s (p < . 05 ) andm as c u l ine s ub je c t s re por ti ng m o r e w i thdr aw a l and s om a t i c s y m p t o m s t hanfem in in e sub j ec t s (p < .05). The re su lt s are cons i s ten t w i th t he hypothes i stha t depress i ve symptoms are i n f l uenced by soc i e ta l expec ta t i ons . Futureresearch s ho uld cons ider t he i n f l uence o f gender ro l e t yp ing on t he expres -s ion o f de pr es s iv e s y m p t om s .

Prev io u s r e sea r ch h as co n s i s t en t ly fo u n d g en d e r d i f f e r en ces in th e ex p re s -s i o n o f s y m p t o m s a s s o c i a t e d w i th d e p r e s s io n ( C h e v r o n , Q u i n l a n , & B l a tt ,1 97 8; Ch in o & Fu n ab ik i , 1 98 4; K le in k e , S tan esk i, & M aso n , 1 98 2; Ha m m en& P a d e s k y , 1 97 7; P a d e s k y & H a m m e n , 1 98 1; V r e d e n b u r g , K r a m e s , & F l et t,1 98 6). Th ese s tu d ie s f o u n d th a t m e n an d wo m en d id n o t d i f f e r i n th e i r d eg reeo f d ep re ss io n , y e t i n t e r e s t in g ly , m en an d wo m en d id d i f f e r i n th e i r ex p re s -s i o n o f d e p r e s s i v e s y m p t o m s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , H a m m e n a n d P a d e s k y ( 1 9 7 7 )r ep o r t ed th a t t h e d ep re ssed f em a le co ll eg e s tu d en t s in th e ir s tu d y were m o rel ik ely th an th e d ep re ssed m a le co l leg e s tu d en t s to r ep o r t t h e d ep re ss iv e sy m -p to m s o f se l f-d is l ik e an d in d ec is iv en ess , w h e reas th e d ep re ssed m a le co l leg es tu d en t s w e re m o re l i k e ly to r ep o r t t h e d ep re ss iv e sy m p to m s o f so c ia l w i th -d r awa l , sen se o f f a i lu r e , an d s l eep d i s tu rb an ce .

7750360-0025/90/0600-0775506.00/0 1990 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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7 7 6 O l i v e r a n d T o n e r

Based on this research, it appears that men and women may not differin level of depression but in their manner o f expressing their depressive sym-ptoms. Accordingly, subsequent research focused on why men and womendiffer in their reporting of depressive symptoms. Studies successfully repeatedHammen and Padesky's findings with college students (Chevron et al., 1978;Chino & Funabiki, 1984; Funabiki, Bologna, Pepping, & FitzGerald, 1980;Padesky & Hammen, 1981) and extended the findings to psychiatric inpa-tients (Vredenburg et ai., 1986). In general, these studies found that depressedmale college students and male psychiatric inpatients reported symptoms indica-tive of social withdrawal and somatic concerns, whereas depressed female collegestudents and female psychiatric patients reported self-blame and self-dislike.

One proposed explanation for gender differences in the expression ofdepressive symptoms is that men and women are expected to behave accord-ing to different gender roles (Astor-Dubin & Hammen, 1984; Vredenburget al., 1986). Gender roles are defined as the prescribed behaviors, attitudes,and traits socially defined as appropriate for one's gender (Lips, 1988). Studieshave found substantial agreement in the beliefs of people regarding mascu-line and feminine gender roles. In particular, feminine individuals are ex-pected to be passive, nur turant, warm, emotional, and dependent. In contrastmasculine individuals are expected to be independent, unemotional, and high-ly self-confident (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz,1972; Deaux & Lewis, 1984; Kagan, 1964; Williams & Bennett, 1975).Researchers have proposed that the expression of emotional depressivesymptoms is incompatible with the socially defined masculine gender role(Vredenburg et al., 1986). This hypothesis is indirectly supported by studiesof how depressed men and depressed women are treated. Hammen and Peters(1977) studied the reactions of students to the description of men and wom-en experiencing depressive emotions. Students evaluated the depressed menmore negatively than the depressed women. This pattern of differential nega-tive evaluation of men and women did not occur when the descriptions in-volved unemotional detached responses to stress. In addition, significantlymore feminine traits were attributed to descriptions of depressed men thannondepressed men (Hammen & Peters, 1978). These researchers suggest thatdepressed men are especially at risk fo r rejection because of their failure todisplay masculine characteristics. Accordingly, the expression o f depressionin a less emotional manner (e.g., somatic concerns, work inhibition, socialwithdrawal) may be more acceptable for men. The feminine gender role,however, appears to permit emotional expression of depressive symptoms(Hammen & Peters, 1978).

The proposed influence of gender roles on the expression of depressivesymptoms is related to research on the general effects of gender roles on be-havior. The work of Bem has suggested that people differ in the extent to

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G ender Role Typ ing 777

wh ich th ey u se g en d e r r o le s a s an id ea l ized s t an d a r d ag a in s t wh ich th e i r o wnbehavior is evaluated (Bern, 1974, 1975, 1979, 1981) . The degree to whichin d iv id u a l s r eg u la t e t h e ir b e h av io r b y g en d e r r o l e s i s d e f in ed a s t h e ir g en d e rr o l e t y p in g ( Gr een g la ss , 1 98 2). "M ascu l in e" an d " f em in in e" in d iv id u a ls a r ed e f in ed a s t h o se wh o h av e in t e r n a l i zed th e i r ap p r o p r i a t e g en d e r r o l e ( Bem ,1974).M ascu l ine and fem in ine ind iv idua ls a re mot iva ted to keep the i r behav iorconsis ten t wi th the i r in te rna l ized gender ro le (Bem, 1974) . Th is goa l i sp r e s u m a b l y a c c o m p l i s h e d b y s u p p r e s si n g a n y b e h a v i o r t h a t m i g h t b e c o n s i-dered undesi rab le o r inappropr ia te fo r the i r gender ro le (Bern , 1975; Ka-gan , 1964). In her research , Bern (1975) has a l so iden t i f ied an dro gy no us a ndu n d i f f e r en t i a t ed in d iv id u a l s a s t h o se l e s s i n f lu en ced b y th e m ascu l in e an df em in in e g en d e r r o l e s . S in ce Bem ( 1 97 5) h as p r o p o se d th a t t h e se in d iv id u a l sd o n o t m o d i f y th e i r b eh av io r i n acco r d an ce w i th g en d e r r o le s , t h ey will n o tb e co n s id e r ed in t h e p r e sen t r e sea r ch .

Rese arch on gender d i f fe rences in the express ion o f depress ive sym ptom sh a s d e m o n s t r a te d d i ff e re n c e s b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n (e .g ., H a m m e n &Pad e sk y , 1 9 7 7) . I f m en an d wo m e n a r e d iv id ed in to th o se wh o a r e i n f lu en cedby the masculine gender role and thos e w ho are influenced by the feminine gend-er ro le , a d i f fe ren t pa t te rn o f depress ive sym ptom s may em erge . For exam ple ,a f em in in e m an m ay n o t ex p r e ss h i s d ep r e ss io n in a so m a t i c m an n e r , an da m a s c u l i n e w o m a n m a y . T h i s f i n d i n g m a y b e o v e r l o o k e d i f s u b j e c t s a r egrouped by gender a lone , and gender ro le typ ing i s no t considered .

The p resen t inves t iga t ion ' s p roposa l tha t gender ro les in f luence depres-s i v e s y m p t o m e x p r e s s i o n d o e s n o t a i m t o u n d e r m i n e p r e v i o u s f i n d i n g s o fgender d i f fe rences in the mani fes ta t ions o f depress ion . R ather , i t impl ies tha tt h e g e n d er d i f fe r e n c e i n s y m p t o m r e p o r t i n g m a y b e f u r th e r u n d e r s t o o d b ya l so co n s id e r in g th e in f lu en ce o f g en d e r r o l e s .

Prev ious research (Pida no & Tennen , 1985) has considered the in fluenceo f g en d e r r o l e t y p in g o n th e ex p e r i en ce o f d ep r e ss io n , u s in g th e Dep r ess iv eExper iences Quest ionnai re (Bla t t , D 'Aff l i t t i , & Quin lan , 1976) and a semi-s t r u c tu r ed in t e r v iew d es ig n ed b y th e au th o r s . Th e r e sea r ch f o u n d th a t t h ein f lu en ce o f g en d e r r o l e t y p in g was g r ea t e s t f o r m en in t r ad i t i o n a l ly f em i -n in e a rea s o f d ep en d en c e an d in t im a te r e l a tio n sh ip s, wh e r eas f o r wo m en th es t e r eo ty p ica l ly m ascu l in e co n ce r n s o f c o n t r o l a c t iv i ty an d e f f i cacy wer e m o s ta f f ec t ed b y g en d e r r o le t y p in g . T h e p r e sen t s tu d y i s r e l a t ed to P id a n o an dTen n en ' s w o r k in i ts f o cu s o n th e in f lu en ce o f g en d e r r o l e t y p in g o n d ep r e s -s iv e sy m p to m s . Th e p r e sen t r e sea r ch d i f f e r s i n i t s f o cu s o n th e in -f lu en ce o f g en d e r r o l e t y p in g o n th e ex p r e ss io n ( i .e . , s e l f -r ep o r t ) o f d ep r e s -s iv e sy m p to m s r a th e r t h an o n th e ac tu a l d ep r e ss iv e ex p e r ien ces . Th e p r e sen tr e sea r ch d o es n o t c l a im to ex ten d it s r e su lt s to ac tu a l b e h av io r a l sy m p to m s .Ra th e r , i t is stu d y in g h o w u n d e r g r ad u a te s r ep o r t t h e ir d ep r e ssiv e sy m p to m s .

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778 Ol i ve r an d Ton e r

Th e p u r p o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to i n v es t ig a t e t h e in f lu en ce o f g en d e rr o l e ty p in g a s d e f in ed b y th e Be rn Sex Ro le I n v en to r y ( BSR I ; Be rn , 1 98 1)o n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f d e p r e s si v e s y m p t o m s a s d e f i n e d b y t h e B e c k D e p r e s s i o nI n v e n to r y ( BD I ; Beck , Ru sh , S h aw, & Em er y , 1 97 9) in u n d e r g r ad u a te s tu -d e n t s. T h i s s t u d y e x te n d e d t h e f in d i ng s o f H a m m e n a n d P a d e s k y ( 19 77 ) b yco n s id e rin g g en d e r r o l e t y p in g a s a m ed ia to r o f d ep r e ss iv e sy m p to m s ex p r es -s i on . F i r st , f o l l o w i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e o f H a m m e n a n d P a d e s k y , t h e B D Ir e s p o n s e s o f m e n a n d w o m e n w e r e c o m p a r e d t o t e st f o r g e n d e r d if fe r e n c es .Th en , t o t e s t th e cen t r a l t h e s is , t h e su b jec t s we r e d iv id ed in to m ascu l in e an df em inin e g r o u p s . T h e B DI sy m p to m s en d o r sem en t o f t h e m ascul in e an d f em i-n i ne g r o u p s w a s c o m p a r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n f lu e n c e o f g e n d e r r o le t y p in go n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f d e p r e s s i v e s y m p t o m s .

I t was h y p o th es i zed th a t m ascu l in e an d f em in in e su b jec ts wo u ld r ep o r td ep r e ss iv e sy m p to m s o n th e BDI co n s i s t en t w i th th e i r g en d e r r o l e t y p in g .Sp ec i f i ca l ly , i t was p r ed ic t ed th a t t h e d ep r e ss iv e sy m p to m s o f f em in in e in -d iv id u a l s w o u ld in v o lv e a f f ec t iv e sy m p to m s su ch a s se l f- d is l ik e , i n d ec is ive -n ess , an d in c r ea sed c r y in g . I n co n t r a s t , i t was ex p ec ted th a t m ascu l in ein d iv id u a l s wo u ld r ep o r t d ep r e ss iv e sy m p to m s in v o lv in g so m a t i c co n ce r n san d so c i a l w i th d r awa l .

I n o r d e r t o t e s t t h e e f f ec t o f so c i e t a l ex p ec ta t io n s o f g en d e r r o l e o n th ee x p r es s i on o f d e p re s s iv e s y m p t o m s , B D I i t e m e n d o r s e m e n t o f b o t h t h e t o ta ls a m p l e a n d t h e d e p r e s s e d s u b s a m p l e w e r e a n al y z e d. I t w a s e x p e c te d t h a t t h ein flu en ce o f g en d e r r o le s o n th e sy m p to m ex p re ss io n o f t h e to t a l sam p le wo u ldb e accen tu a t ed in t h e d ep r e ssed su b sam p le , a s p r ev io u s r e sea r ch h as f o u n d( H a m m e n & P a d e s k y , 1 97 7; P a d e s k y & H a m m e n , 1 98 1).

T h e r e le v a n c e o f s tu d y i n g d e p r e ss i v e s y m p t o m s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s a san an a logu e to c linica l depress ive sym ptom s has been ques t ioned b y research-ers (Go t l ib , 1984; Hi l l , Kem p-W heeler , & Jone s , 1986 , 1987). Fo r the p resen tresearch it was considered appropr ia te to s tud y undergraduates , s ince researchh as in d ica t ed th a t u n d e r g r ad u a te s tu d en t s ' r e sp o n ses o n th e BDI a r e s im i l a rto tho se o f c lin ica lly depre ssed p a t ien ts (Hi l l e t a l ., 1986 , 1987) . I t has beend em o n s t r a t ed th a t d ep r e ss iv e sy m p to m s o f c l i n i ca l p a t i en t s an d o f m i ld lyd ep r e ssed u n d e r g r ad u a te s m a in ly d i f f e r i n sev e r i ty an d n o t i n t h e ty p e o fsy m pto m (Bla t t e t a l . , 1976 ; C hino & Fu nab ik i , t984 ; H i l l e t a l . , 1987) .

M E T H O D

SubjectsU n d e r g r a d u a t e p s y c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s i n s e co n d - a n d t h i rd - y e a r c l as s esa t t h e Un iv e r s i ty o f To r o n to v o lu n tee r ed to p a r t ic ip a t e i n th e s tu d y . N o p ay -

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Gender Role Typ ing 779

ment or class credit was provided. The final sample was 360 female and 99male single students. The mean age was 21.52 (S D = 2.70) with a range from18 to 33. Of the sample, 15 were part-time students. Their scores on the threeinventories did not d iffer significantly from the full-time students and weretherefore included in the study.

Mater ialsBeck Depress ion Inventory . The revised BDI (Beck et al., 1979) is a

21-item multiple choice self-report measure o f depression. The items assessthe symptoms of depression and are rated by the subject from 0 to 3 in termsof intensity. Subjects were considered depressed if their summed score ex-ceeded 9 out o f a possible 63 (Beck et al., 1979). The BDI has been validatedfor use with several populations including undergraduates (Bumberry, Oliver,& McClure, 1978; Hammen, 1980).Sho r t Bern Sex Role Inventory . The short BSRI (Bem, 1981) measuresthe extent to which individuals identi fy themselves along tradit ional genderroles. The short BSRI asks the respondent to indicate on a 7-point scale howwell each of the 30 attributes describes him- or herself. Ten of the attr ibutesreflect cultural definitions of masculinity (e.g., independent) and 10 reflectdefinitions of femininity (e.g., sympathetic), with the remaining attributesserving as filler items. Each respondent receives both a masculinity (Masc)and a femininity (Fem) score. Following the suggested scoring procedure(Bem, 1981), subjects were divided into gender role typing groups accordingto the medians provided by Bem (1981). Accordingly, subjects with a Femscore above or equal to 5.5 but a Masc score below 4.8 were labeled femi-nine (N = 87). Likewise, subjects with a Masc score above or equal to 4.8and a Fern score below 5.5 were labeled masculine (N = 84).

The 30-item short version was chosen over the 60-item original BSRI(Bem, 1975) for two reasons. First, in response to psychometric criticismsof the original BSRI (Locksley & Colten, 1979; Pedhazur & Tetenbaum,1979), Bern has deleted items from the original inventory, creating a shorterinventory with increased internal consistency. Second, the overlap in itemcontent of the original BSRI and the BDI was decreased by the removal ofthe common items in the formation of the short BSRI. The decreased over-lap between the inventories lessens the probability of an inflated positive corre-lation between the inventories due to similar test content (Hogan, Hogan,Briggs, & Jones, 1983; Nicholls, Licht, & Pearl, 1982).

M arlo w e- -C row ne Soc ia l Des i rabi li ty Sca le (MC SDS ) . The MCSDS(Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) is a measure of social desirability of responsestyle. It consists of 33 items rated in a true-false format. The MCSDS is made

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u p o f i te m s t h a t r e fl e ct c u lt u r al ly s a n c t i o n e d a n d a p p r o v e d b e h a v i o r s t h a ta r e r e l a t iv e l y u n l i k e l y to o c c u r . T h e s c a le te s ts t h e n e e d s o f s u b j e c t s t o p r e s e n tt h e m s e l v e s i n a s o c i a l ly d e s i r a b l e l ig h t . T h e s c a le is b e s t s u i t e d f o r m e a s u r i n ga m o t i v e to a v o i d n e g a ti v e e v a l u a ti o n o r o t h e r - d e c e p t i o n ( N e d e r h o f , 1 98 5).A d m i n i s t r a t i o n u n d e r a n o n y m o u s c o n d i t i o n s h a s b e e n s h o w n t o d e c r e a s eM C S D S s c o r e ( P a u l h u s , 1 9 84 ). I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , th e M C S D S w a s u s e dt o s c r e e n f o r o t h e r - d e c e p t i o n . A c c o r d i n g l y , s u b j e ct s s c o r in g a b o v e t w o s ta n -d a r d d e v i a ti o n s o f t h e m e a n ( M = 1 3 .3 6 , S D = 4 .9 1 ) w e r e r e m o v e d f r o mt h e s a m p l e ( N = 3 ).

ProcedureS u b j e c t s w e r e a s k e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h is s t u d y d u r i n g t h e i r r e g u l a r l y

s c h e d u l e d p s y c h o l o g y c la s s, i n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e i r p r o f e s s o r . T h e r e q u e s tw a s m a d e b y e i th e r a m a l e o r a f e m a l e in v e s t i g a t o r [ n o s e x o f a d m i n i s t r a t o re f f e c t w a s f o u n d , t (4 5 7 ) = 1 . 6 9 , p - - . 1 1 ]. S u b j e c t s w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t t h ea i m o f t h e s t u d y w a s t h e i n v e s t ig a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l i -t y a n d m o o d . C o n s e n t in g s u b j e c ts w e r e g iv e n 2 5 m i n u t e s i n o r d e r t o c o m -p l e te t h e th r e e q u e s t io n n a i r e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , p r e s e n t e d i n c o u n t e r b a l a n c e do r d e r . N o p a r t i c i p a n t n e e d e d e x t r a ti m e . S u b j e ct s w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e irr e sp o n s e s w o u l d b e a n o n y m o u s ; a c c o r d in g l y , s u b je c ts ' n a m e s a p p e a r e d o n l yo n t h e c o n s e n t f o r m , w h i c h w a s i m m e d i a t e l y d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e q u e s t i o n -n a i r es b y t h e s u b j e c t a n d c o l l ec t e d s e p a r a t e l y t o e n s u r e c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y a n da n o n y m i t y .

R E S U L T SGender Di f f erences

Tota l Sample . T h e m e a n d e p r e ss io n s c o re o n t h e B D I f o r m e n w a s 7 .6 2(S D = 6 . 26 ; N = 9 9 ) a n d f o r w o m e n w a s 7 . 95 (S D = 6 . 2 9 , N = 3 6 0 ) . M e na n d w o m e n d i d n o t d i f f e r s ig n i f i ca n t l y i n th e i r le v e l o f r e p o r t e d d e p r e s si v es y m p t o m s [ t( 4 5 7 ) = 0 . 4 6 , p < . 6 4 ].F o l l o w i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e o f H a m m e n a n d P a d e s k y ( 1 97 7 ), a s te p w is ed i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s w a s p e r f o r m e d o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l B D I i t e mr e s p o n s e s t o t e s t t h e e x p e c t e d f i n d i n g o f g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s in r e s p o n s e p a t -t e r n s . U s i n g a m i n i m u m F r a t i o o f 1 . 0 a s t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r i t e m e n t r y , a n8 - v a r i a b l e f u n c t i o n w a s d e r i v e d , [ W i l k s ' l a m b d a = . 9 6 , X 2 (8 , N = 4 5 9 ) =1 9 .2 7 , p < .0 1 ]. T h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c o r r e c t l y c l a ss i fy i n g t h e s u b j e c ts a s m a l e

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G e n d e r R o l e T y p i n g 7 8 1

T a b l e 1 . I t e m s a n d S t a n d a r d i z e d D i s c r i m i n a n tF u n c t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r T o t a l S a m p l e

I t e m s C o e f f i c i e n t s bC r y i n g . 5 4 8D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n - . 5 4 3E x p e c t a t io n o f p u n i s h m e n t . 47 7S o c ia l w i t h d r aw a l - . 4 0 3F a t i g u e . 3 7 4I n s o m n i a - . 37 3L o s s o f l ib i do - . 3 4 0S o m a t i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n . 31 6a l t e m d e s c r i p t io n s a r e f r o m B e c k ( 19 6 7 , p . 1 8 9) .b M e n w e r e m o r e l i k el y t o e n d o r s e i te m s w i t h n e g a -t iv e c o e f f ic i e n t s. W o m e n w e r e m o r e l i k e ly t o e n -d o r s e i t e m s w i t h p o s i t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t s .

o r f e m a l e u s i n g th e o b t a i n e d f u n c t i o n is . 6 2. T h e i t e m s a n d t h e i r c o e f f ic i e n t sa r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e I .

A s e x p e c t e d , t h e a n a l y s is r e v e a l e d t h a t m e n i n t h e s a m p l e w e r e c h a r a c -t e r iz e d b y m o r e s o m a t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d p r o b l e m s ( p r o b l e m s s l e e p in g , d e c r e a s e dl ib i d o ), m o r e s o ci al w i th d r a w a l , a n d m o r e d i s s a ti s fa c t io n t h a n w e r e w o m e n .W o m e n w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y m o r e e m o t i v e s y m p t o m s ( c r y i n g , s e n s e o fp u n i s h m e n t ) t h a n w e r e m e n . W o m e n i n t h is s a m p l e w e r e m o r e l i ke ly t h a nm e n t o e n d o r s e t h e s o m a t i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n s y m p t o m .Depressed Subsample. A c u t o f f s c o r e o f 1 0 a n d a b o v e o n t h e B D I w a su s e d t o c l a s si f y s u b j e c t s a s m i l d l y d e p r e s s e d . T h i s c u t o f f s c o r e w a s u s e d a si t m o s t e f f ic i e n tl y d i f f e re n t i a te s m i ld l y d e p r e ss e d f r o m n o n d e p r e s s e d u n d e r -g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s ( B e c k , S t e e r , & G a r b i n , 1 98 8; K e n d a l l , H o l l o n , B e c k , H a m -m e n , & I n g r a m , 1 9 87 ). T h e m e a n d e p r e s s i o n s co r e f o r m e n w a s 1 5 .1 9 (SD= 4 . 93 ; N = 3 1 ) a n d f o r w o m e n w a s 1 5 .3 0 (SD = 5 . 31 ; N = 116 ) . T h ed i f f e r e n c e i n d e g r e e o f r e p o r t e d d e p r e s s io n o f d e p r e ss e d m e n a n d d e p r e s se dw o m e n w a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t [ t( 1 4 5 ) = 0 . 1 0 , p = . 9 2 ].

A s te p w i s e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y si s w i th t h e d e p r e s s e d s u b s a m -p i e y i e l d e d a s i g n i f i c a n t f u n c t i o n [ W i l k s ' l a m b d a = . 8 2 9, X 2 (9 , N = 1 4 7)= 2 6 . 3 6 , p < . 00 1 ]. T h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c o r r e c t c la s s i fi c a t io n b y s e x u s i n g

t h e 9 - i t em f u n c t i o n w a s .7 3 . T h e i t e m s a n d t h e i r c o e f f i c ie n t s a re l is te d i nT a b l e I I .

T h e a n a l y si s r e v e a l e d t h a t d e p r e s s e d m e n w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e m o r es o m a t i c a l ly o r i e n t e d s y m p t o m s o f sl e ep d i s t u r b a n c e , s u i c i d a l t h o u g h t s , s o -c i al w i t h d r a w a l , a n d d e c r e a s e d l ib i d o r e l a ti v e t o d e p r e s s e d w o m e n . D e p r e s s e dw o m e n w e r e d is t i n gu is h ab l e f r o m m e n b y t h e ir e m o t i v e sy m p t o m s o f c r y -i n g , s e n se o f f a il u r e , a n d s a d n e s s . D e p r e s s e d w o m e n , i n a d d i t i o n , t e n d e d t oe x h ib i t a s o m a t ic p r e o c c u p a t i o n t h a t d i f f e r e n ti a t e d t h e m f r o m d e p r e ss e d m e n .

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T a b l e I i . Items and Standardized DiscriminantFunction Coefficients for Depressed SubsampleItems* CoefficientsbSomatic preoccupation .591Insomnia - .560Suicidal ideas -.492Dissatisfaction - .353Crying .341Sense of failure .340Social withdrawal -.329Loss of libido -.327Sadness .294Item descriptions are from Beck (1969, p. 333).bMen were more likely o endorse items with nega-tive coefficients. Womenwere more likely to en-dorse items with positive coefficients.

G ender R o l e Typ i ng and Sym p t om E xpr es s i onHaving demonstrated gender differences in the report of BDI symptoms,

it was of central importance to this investigation to assess the influence ofgender role typing on the report of BDI symptoms. A discriminant functi onanalysis of masculine and feminine groups was not used as this analysis isnot reliable with small samples and many variables (Tatsuoka, 1970). Instead,by factor analysis, BDI items were grouped into factors that were then usedto compare the masculine and feminine groups.

The 21 items of the BDI for the total sample were submitted t o a prin-cipal component s fac tor analysis and rotate d to a varimax solution. Five fac-tors emerged account ing for 5070 of the total variance in the BDI items. Thestandard procedure of retaining items with a factor loading over .40 to de-fine that factor (accounting for 15070 of the variance) was observed . The fac-tors and the BDI item loadings are presented in Table III.The factors have been named Self-Dislike, Withdrawal, Somatic Con-cerns, Listlessness, and Weight Loss, as indicated in Table I II. Facto r namesare based on the BDI items with the strongest loadings. The factors foundin the sample are similar to BDI f actors f oun d previously with undergradu-ate samples (Hill et al., 1986). Factor scores fo r subjects were com put ed foreach factor based on the sum of the defining factor items.

Using these factors as dependent variables, in dependent t-test compar -isons were completed to compare masculine and feminine individuals on theirsymptom expression. Men and women were considered separately.W omen: Tota l Sample . The mean BDI score for masculine women (N= 53) was 6.66 (SD = 4.44). For the feminine women (N = 105), the mean

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Gender Role Typing 783Table II1. Beck Depression Inventory F actor an dItem Loadings for Total SampleFac tor Item loadingFactor 1: Self-DislikeGuilt .71Self-dislike .70Expectation o f punishment .68Sense o f failure .64Sadness .60Pessimism .59Self-accusation. .50Factor 2: WithdrawalW ork retardation .69Social withdraw al .62Fatigability .56

Dissatisfaction .53Suicidal ideas .49Factor 3: Somatic concernsSom atic preoccup ation .67Loss of l ibido .67Crying .51Irritability .42Factor 4: ListlessnessFatigability .42Insomnia .75Anorexia .62Factor 5: Weight lossW eight loss .81Body image change .45

B D I s c o re w a s 8 . 1 4 ( S D = 6 . 6 0 ) . T h e m e a n s d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t ly [ t( 1 56 )= 1 .47 , p = .14 ] .

T h e t -t es t c o m p a r i s o n s o f m a s c u l in e a n d f e m i n in e g r o u p s c or e s o n t h eB D I f a c t o r s f o r th e t o t a l g r o u p a r e p r e se n t e d i n T a b l e I V .

A s p r e d i c t e d , t h e s y m p t o m s o f t h e S e l f -D i s l i k e f a c t o r ( i .e . , g u i l t, s e lf -d i sl ik e , e x p e c t a t i o n o f p u n i s h m e n t , s e n s e o f fa i lu r e , s a d n e s s , p e s s i m i s m , s e lf -a c c u s a t i o n s ) w e r e r e p o r t e d b y f e m i n i n e w o m e n t o a s i g n i f ic a n t l y g r e a t e rd e g r e e t h a n m a s c u l i n e w o m e n . F u r t h e r , f e m i n i n e w o m e n r e p o r t e d h a v i n gs i g n if ic a n t l y m o r e s e ve re s y m p t o m s r e p r e s e n te d b y t h e W e i g h t L o s s f a c t o r( i. e. , w e i g h t l o ss , b o d y i m a g e c h a n g e ) t h a n d i d m a s c u l i n e w o m e n .

A l s o c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e p re s e n t h y p o t h e s e s , m a s c u l in e w o m e n r e p o r t -e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f L is t le s s n e s s s y m p t o m s ( i .e . , f a t i g a b i l i t y ,i n s o m n i a , a n o r e x i a ) t h a n d i d f e m i n i n e w o m e n .Wom en." Depressed Subsample. T h e m e a n B D I s c o r e f o r m a s c u li n e w o m e n( N = 7 ) w a s 1 4 . 1 4 (S D = 6 . 74 ) . F o r t h e f e m i n i n e w o m e n ( N = 3 6 ), t h e m e a nB D I s c o r e w a s 1 5 . 50 ( S D = 5 . 8 3 ) . T h e m e a n s d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l yI t ( 4 1 ) = 0 . 5 5 , p = . 5 9 ] .

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Tab l e I V . C o m p a r i s o n s o f M a s c u l in e (M a s c ) a n d F e m i n i n e ( F e m )W o m e n o n B e c k D e p r e ss i o n I n v e n t o r y F a c t o rs : T o t a l S a m p l e

G e n d e r r o l e t y p i n gM a s c ( n = 53 ) F e m ( n = 1 05)F a c t o r s M SD M SD t

S e l f - D i s l i k e 2 . 1 1 1 . 5 4 3 . 2 1 3 . 1 4 2 . 4 0 "W i t h d r a w a l 2 . 4 2 2 . 1 5 2 . 7 2 2 . 53 0 . 7 6S o m a t i c C o n c e r n s 1 . 38 1 . 3 0 1 . 4 0 1. 5 7 0 . 0 9L i s t l e s s n e s s 1 . 4 5 1 . 6 4 0 . 9 8 0 . 9 1 2 . 3 0 *W e i g h t L o s s 0 . 3 7 0 . 0 8 0 . 8 0 1 .1 7 2 . 4 0 aa p < . 0 5 .

B D I f a c t o r c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e w o m e n in t h ed e p r e s s e d s u b s a m p l e a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e V . A s w i t h t h e t o t a l s a m p l e ,d e p r e s s e d f e m i n i n e w o m e n s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n d e p r e s s e d m a s -c u li n e w o m e n o n t h e S e l f- D i s li k e f a c to r . I n a d d i t io n , d e p r e s s e d m a s c u l i n ew o m e n r e p o r t e d a s ig n i f ic a n t ly g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f s y m p t o m s o n t h e L i st le s s-n e ss fa c t o r t h a n d i d f e m i n i n e w o m e n .Men: Total Sample. T h e m e a n B D I s c o r e f o r m a s c u l i n e m e n ( N =1 9 ) wa s 8 . 3 7 (SD = 5 .9 2 ). F o r th e fe m i n i n e m e n ( N = 1 2), t h e m e a n B D Is c o r e w a s 9 . 6 7 (SD = 5 . 5 0) . T h e m e a n s d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t ly [ t( 29 )= 0 .6 1 , p = .55] .

F a c t o r c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e m e n a r e p re s e n t-e d in T a b l e V I . A s p r e d ic t ed , m a s c u l in e m e n r e p o r t e d s y m p t o m s o f t h e W i th -d r a w a l f a c t o r t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n d i d f e m i n i n e m e n . C o n t r a r y t o t h ep r e s e n t p r e d i ct i o n s , h o w e v e r , n o s i g n if ic a n t d i f fe r e n c e w a s f o u n d b e t w e e nm a s c u l in e a n d f e m i n in e m e n i n t h e ir r e p o r t o f s y m p t o m s in d i c at in g s o m a t i cc o n c e r n s o r s e l f - d i s l i k e .

Tab l e V . C o m p a r i s o n s o f M a s c u l in e (M a s c ) a n d F e m i n i n e ( F em )W o m e n o n B e c k D e p r e s s io n I n v e n t o r y F a c to r s : D e p r e s s e dS a m p l e

G e n d e r r o l e t y p i n gM a s c ( n = 7 ) F e m ( n = 3 6)

F a c t o r s M SD M SD tS e l f - D i s l i k e 3 . 1 4 1 . 9 5 6 . 4 2 3 . 1 7 2 . 6 0 bW i t h d r a w a l 5 . 6 0 3 . 4 1 5 . 3 3 2 . 4 7 0 . 2 2S o m a t i c C o n c e r n s 2 . 71 1 . 5 0 2 . 6 4 1 . 8 4 0 . 1 0L i s t l e s s n e s s ( 4 . 0 0 ) - - ( 1 . 0 0 ) - - ( 4 9 ) bW e i g h t L o s s 1 . 2 9 0 . 9 5 1 . 5 8 1 . 4 6 0 . 5 2* T h e L i s t l e ss n e s s f a c t o r w a s te s t e d b y a n o n p a r a m e t r i c t e s t d u et o h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f v a r i a n c e . M e d i a n v a l u e s a r e g i v e n i n p l a ceo f m e a n s , M a n n - W h i t n e y U i n p la c e o f t r a ti o .~p < .05.

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G e n d e r R o l e T y p i n g

T a b l e VI. Com parisons of M asculine (Masc) and Feminine (Fern)Men on Beck Depression Inventory Factors : Total SampleGender ro le typ ing

M a s c ( n = 1 9 ) F e m ( n = 1 2 )Fac to rs M SD M SD tS el f- D is li ke 2 . 9 5 2 . 5 1 4 . 6 7 3 .1 4 1 .6 9W ithdrawal 4 .16 2 .9 1 2 .0 8 1 .73 2 .23 aSom atic Concerns 1 .1 6 1 .2 6 1 .17 1 .03 0 .02List le ssness 1 .26 1 . 2 0 1 .75 1 .29 1 .07W eight Loss 0 .42 0 .69 0 .42 0 . 67 0 .02ap < .05.

"/85

Men: Depressed Subsample. T h e m e a n B D I s c o r e f o r m a s c u l i n e m e n( N = 6 ) w a s 1 5 .8 3 (SD = 2 . 32 ) . F o r t h e fe m i n i n e m e n ( N = 6 ) , t h e m e a nB D I s c o r e w a s 1 4 .3 3 (SD = 2 . 25 ) . T h e m e a n s d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y[ t ( 1 0 ) = 1 . 1 4 , p - - .2 8 ] .

A s w i t h t h e t o t a l s a m p l e , t h e d e p r e s s e d s a m p l e i n d e p e n d e n t t t e s t s r e v -e a l e d th e W i t h d r a w a l f a c t o r t o b e s i g n if i c a n t , as s h o w n i n T a b l e V I I . A sp r e d i c t e d , s y m p t o m s i n d i c a t in g w i t h d r a w a l w e r e r e p o r t e d a s b e in g s i g n if i c -n a t l y m o r e s e v e r e f o r d e p r e s s e d m a s c u l i n e m e n t h a n d e p r e s s e d f e m i n i n e m e n .T h e W i t h d r a w a l f a c t o r c o m p a r i s o n o f m a s c u l i n e t o f e m i n i n e m e n a c h ie v e dg r e a t e r s ig n i f i c a n c e w i t h t h e d e p r e s s e d s u b s a m p l e t h a n w i t h t h e t o t a l s a m -p l e . T h e s a m p l e s iz e , h o w e v e r , h a d d e c r e a s e d t o 1 2 m e n f r o m 3 1 . A c c o r d -i n g l y , t h e s e d a t a s h o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h c a u t i o n .

D I S C U S S I O NT h e r e s u l ts o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f

g e n d e r a n d g e n d e r r o l e t y p i n g o n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f d e p r e s s iv e s y m p t o m s . I n

T a b l e VII. Comparisons of Mascul ine (Masc) and Feminine(Fem) Men o n B eck Depression Inventory Factors : D epressedSampleGender ro le typ ing

M a s c ( n = 6 ) F e m ( n = 6 )Fac to rs M SD M SD tSelf-Dislike 6.00 1. 55 7 .3 3 1.37 1.58W ithdrawal 7 .33 1 .51 2 . 3 3 2 .26 4 .52 Som atic Concerns 1 .5 0 1 .6 4 1 .67 1 .03 0 .21Listlessness 2.50 1.0 5 2.50 1. 05 0.00W eight Loss 1 .0 0 0 .89 0 .67 0 . 67 0 .67"p < .001.

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786 Ol iver and To ner

keeping with previous research (e.g., Hammen & Padesky, 1977), men andwomen differed in their BDI symptom endorsement. In support of the presenthypothesis, it was found that masculine men and women differed from femi-nine men and women, respectively, on their endorsement of BDI symptoms.

Gender Di f f erencesIn general, the results of the present sample are consistent with those

of previous studies using the BDI (Hammen & Padesky, 1977; Vredenburget al., 1986). No difference in the level of depression as assessed by the BDIwas found between men and women. As expected, men and women differedin their pattern o f symptom expression. Specifically, men endorsed more so-matic and withdrawal symptoms (i.e., social withdrawal, dissatisfaction, in-somnia, suicidal ideas, and loss of libido) than did women. Women in thissample reported more emotional symptoms (i.e., crying, sadness, expecta-tion of punishment, and sense of failure) than did men.

Inconsistent with previous research, however, the symptom of somaticpreoccupation was found to be reported by women more than men, espe-cially in the depressed subsample. This finding appears to challenge the con-clusion that men, as compared to women, are highly somatic in theirexpression of depression (Hammen & Padesky , 1977). Future research willneed to systematically investigate this discrepancy further.

Although the importance o f the somatic preoccupation finding cannotbe overlooked, it should be noted that the somatic preoccupation symptomis one of many somatically oriented symptoms on the BDI. In keeping withprevious research (Hammen & Padesky, 1977; Kleinke et al., 1982), men inthis sample were characterized by their endorsement of o ther somatic symp-toms (i.e., loss of libido, insomnia). Somatic preoccupation excepted, thesymptoms discriminating men and women appear similar to those of previ-ous investigations (e.g., Hammen & Padesky, 1977).

Gender Role TypingIt was proposed that the self-reporting of depressive symptoms may

be influenced by masculine and feminine gender roles (Astor-Dubin & Ham-men, 1984; Vredenburg et al., 1986). By dividing subjects into gender roletyping groups, it was possible to test this proposal. Support for thishypothesis is found in the present results. The depressive symptoms thatdifferentiated masculine and feminine individuals appear to reflect genderroles.

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Gender Role Typing 78"/

Co n s i s t en t w i th th e p r ed ic t io n th a t f em in in e in d iv id u a ls w o u ld en d o r sem o r e s e l f -d e p r e ca t in g a n d e m o t i o n a l s y m p t o m s t h a n m a s c u l in e i n d iv i d ua l s,femin ine w om en repo r ted s ign i f ican t ly mo re sym ptom s wi th in the Se l f-Dis likean d th e W eig h t Lo ss f ac to r s th an d id m ascu lin e wo m en . Th e sy m p to m s d ef in -ing the Self-Disl ike fac tor ( i .e . , self -dislike, sadness, sense of fai lure) are em o-t iona l an d con sis ten t wi th the femin ine gender ro le (Brov erm an e t a l. , 1972).Al th o u g h Weig h t Lo ss co u ld b e co n s id e r ed a s a so m a t i c sy m p to m , wh enr e p o r t e d w i th S e l f -D i s li k e a n d B o d y I m a g e C h a n g e , i t m a y b e m o r e i n d ic a -t iv e o f a g en e ra l co n ce rn fo r ap p ea ran ce , a s h a s b een fo u n d wi th an o rex ian e rv o sa p a t i en t s (Garn e r , Ga r f in k e l , S t an ce r , & M o ld o f sk y , 1 9 76 ). I t i s p ro -p o sed th a t b e cau se th e se sy m p to m s a re co n s i s t en t w i th th e f em in ine g en d e rro le , t h ey h av e b een r ep o r t ed b y f em in in e w o m en m o re th an m ascu l in e o n es .

As p r ed ic t ed , m ascu l in e in d iv id u a l s r ep o r t ed s ig n i f i can t ly m o re sy m -p to m s o r i en ted a ro u n d wi th d rawa l an d l i s t l e s sn ess th an d id f em in in e in -d iv id u a l s . Th e sy m p to m s d e f in in g th e Wi th d rawa l f ac to r ( i . e . , wo rkre t a rd a t io n , so c ia l w i th d raw a l , an d f a t ig ab i l it y ) a r e co n s i s t en t w i th th e m as-cu l in e g en d e r r o l e . Acco rd in g to r e sea r ch , t h is g en d e r r o l e d i c ta t e s th a t m ena re th e f am i ly f in an c ial p ro v id e r s (Dea u x & Lewis , 1 98 4) an d th a t t h ey a r eh igh ly ac t ive and compet i t ive (Broverman e t a l . , 1972; Deaux , 1984) . Themascu l ine depress ive symptoms in the p resen t s tudy appear o r ien ted a roundth ese ex p ec ted ro l e s an d b eh av io r s .

F in a l ly , i t was d em o n s t r a t ed th a t sy m p to m s o n th e L i s t l e s sn ess f ac to rwere repor ted to a s ign if ican t ly g rea te r degree by m ascu l ine wom en than femi-n in e wo m en . Th e sy m p to m s d e f in in g th e L i s t l e s sn ess f ac to r ( an o rex ia , i n -so m n ia , f a t ig ab i l i t y ) a r e so m a t i ca l ly o r i en ted an d n o t se l f -d ep reca t in g . Asm asc u l in e wo m en h av e in t e rn a li zed th e m ascu l in e g en d e r r o l e (Bem , 1 97 5),em ot iona l i ty ma y be inconsis ten t wi th the i r in te rna l ized g ender ro le . Ins tead ,m a s c u l in e w o m e n h a v e r e p o r t e d t h ei r d e p r e s s i o n b y s y m p t o m s r e fl e ct in g s o -m a t i c co n ce rn s .

In th e p r e sen t s tu d y , t h e o b se rv ed g en d e r r o l e ty p in g d i f f e r en ces in B DIs y m p t o m s e n d o r s e m e n t w e r e v e r y s i m i l a r f o r t h e t o t a l s a m p l e a n d t h ed ep re ssed su b sam p le . Mascu l in e an d f em in in e in d iv id u a l s in th e d ep re ssedsubsa m ple d i f fe ren t ia l ly endo rsed sym ptom s on the Se l f -Dis like , L is t lessness,and W ithdrawal fac to rs to a g rea te r ex ten t than the to ta l sample . These resu lt ssu g g es t t h a t t h e in f lu en ce o f g en d e r r o l e s o n th e s y m p to m ex p re ss io n o f th eto t a l sam p le a r e accen tu a ted in th e d ep re ssed su b sam p le .

The depressed subsam ple resul ts a re consis ten t wi th the p resen t hy pothe-s is o f g en d e r r o l e ty p in g a f f ec t in g d ep re ss iv e sy m p to m s ex p re ss io n . D u e toth e sm a l l sam p le s ize an d to th e p ro p o s a l t h a t BD I m easu re s t r an s ien t d ep re s -s io n in s tu d en t s th a t m ay n o t p e r s is t f o r l o n g e r th an a d ay (Sacco , 1 98 1; Z im -m e rm a n , 1 98 6), t h e r esu l ts o f t h e d ep re ssed su b sam p le sh o u ld b e in t e rp r e tedcau t io u s ly .

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This study has found support for the hypothesis that masculine andfeminine gender roles may be influential in the expression of depressive sym-ptoms. The findings of previous research that depressed men are character-ized by withdrawal symptoms may be more applicable to masculine men thanfeminine men. Similarly, the emotional symptoms associated with womenmay be more appropriately associated with feminine women than masculinewomen. Accordingly, gender role typing should be considered in additionto gender in an understanding of the expression of depressive symptoms.

The investigators are aware of the suggestion that , when used with stu-dents, the BDI may be a measure of general psychopathology (Gotlib, 1984), andthat elevated BDI scores may be due to a number of factors other thanprimary depression (Depue & Monroe, 1978). Although the BDI may notbe valid for identify ing depression as a nosological entity distinct from otherdisorders (Depue & Monroe, 1978), the use of the BDI in the investigationof the syndrome of depression (i.e., constellation of depressive symptoms)is defensible (Deardoff & Funabiki, 1985; Kendall et al., 1987). Furthermore,it has been found that the BDI symptoms of student samples showed goodcomparability with psychiatric patients diagnosed as depressed (Hill et al.,1986, 1987). Hill and his colleagues concluded that the similarity of sym-ptoms in the psychiatric and student groups provides evidence that the BDImeasures the same qualitative kind of depression at subclinical and clinicallevels, and that this offers some justification for the use of analogue studies(Hill et al., 1986, 1987). Therefore, although it cannot be proposed that thepresent results are unique to the diagnosis of depression, the comparabilitybetween depressed psychiatric and student samples suggest that these resultscould be extended to a clinical setting. Accordingly, future research shouldinvestigate the influence of gender role typing on depressive symptom ex-pression with a clinical population.Two additional limitations should be noted in interpreting the presentresearch. First, it cannot be assumed that the present results can be general-ized to actual depressive behavior. This investigation has considered the reportof depressive symptoms and the influence of gender role typing on this report-ing. Based on the responses of the self-report inventories alone, no conclu-sions can be drawn about the influence of gender role typing on the depressivebehavior. Second, given that students answered both the BSRI and the BDIat the same sitting, the direction of the causality cannot be deduced. Researchhas indicated that gender role typing may result from depression (Flett,Vredenburg, Pliner, & Krames, 1985). The present study indicates thepresence of a relationship between gender role typing and depressive sym-ptom expression, but no directionality.The results of the present study of undergraduate college students sug-gest that the relationship between gender, gender role typing, and the presen-

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t a t i o n o f d e p r e s s i v e s y mp t o ms me r i t s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D e s p i t e t h el i mi t a t i o n s me n t i o n e d , t h e f i n d i n g t h a t ma s c u l i n e a n d f e mi n i n e i n d i v i d u a l sd i f f e r in t h e ir d e p r e s s iv e s y m p t o m e x p r e s s i o n i s o f i n t e r e s t. I f t h e s o c i a l iz a -t i o n o f m e n a n d w o m e n i n t o g e n d er r o le s a f f e c t s th e e x p r e s s io n o f d e p r e s-s i v e s y mp t o ms , t h e n g e n d e r r o l e s s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e ns t u d y i n g d e p r e s s i v e s y mp t o ms .

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De ardo ff , W . W ., & Funabiki, D . (1985). A diagnostic cau tion in screening for depressed collegestudents . Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 277-284.De aux , K. (1984). Fr om individ ual differences to social categories: Analysis o f a decade's researcho n g e n d e r . American Psychologist, 39, 105-116.Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. L. (1984). Structure of gender stereotypes: interrelationship among com-ponen t s and gender l abe l . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 991-1004.Depue , R . A . , & M onro e , S . M. (1978). L earned he lp lessness in the pe r spec tive o f t he depres -s ive d i so rder s : C oncep tua l an d de f in i t i ona l is sues. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,87, 3-20.F le t t , G . L . , V redenburg , K . , P l ine r , P . , & Kram es , L . ( 1985) . Sex- ro les and depress ion : Apre l iminary inves t iga t ion o f t he d i r ec t ion o f causa l i ty . Journal o f Research in Personali-ty, 19, 429-435.Funabiki, D ., Bologna, N. C., Pepping, M ., & FitzGerald, K . C. (1980). Journal of AbnormalPsychology, 89, 194-202.Garner, D. M ., Garfinkel, P. E ., Stancer, H . C., & Moldofsky, H . (1976). Bo dy image distur-bances in anorex ia ne rvosa and obes i ty . Psychosomatic Medicine, 38, 327-336.

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