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AN ASSESSMENT OF NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY UNDER PRESIDENT OLUSEGUN OBASANJO’S
ADMINISTRATION, 1999-2007
BY
OMOTERE TOPE N.C.E., B.A. (Ed)
SEPTEMBER, 2011
Published Online By:
EgoBooster Books www.omotere.tk
2
© 2011 Omotere Tope
ISBN: 978-1-105-18705-6
Published By: EgoBooster Books, Ogun State, Nigeria.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Omotere Tope attended Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Otto- Ijanikin, Lagos from 2002 to 2006 (N.C.E. in Christian Religious Studies/ History) and holds a B.A. (Ed) in History and Diplomatic Studies from Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State. He has undergone training at the United States Institute of Peace (Online Training Program) with a certificate of course completion in Conflict Analysis. He conducts researches (both online and offline) to produce academic works that students can use for their long essays, theses and dissertations. With access to his online project database www.omotere.tk, students in Colleges of Education, Polytechnics and Universities can download full texts of related works prepared by him and other researchers. This will enable them to read literature reviews, check for empirical evidences from data analysis and understand the methodology used.
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AN ASSESSMENT OF NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY UNDER PRESIDENT OLUSEGUN OBASANJO’S
ADMINISTRATION, 1999-2007
CHAPTER ONE Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study 1.2 Objectives of the Study 1.3 Statement of the problem 1.4 Literature Review 1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study 1.6 Significance of the Study 1.7 Research Methodology
CHAPTER TWO Evolution and Development of Nigerian Foreign Policy 2.1 Concept of Foreign Policy 2.2 Evolution of Nigerian Foreign Policy 2.3 Objectives of Nigerian Foreign Policy 2.4 Principles of Nigerian Foreign Policy 2.5 Instrument of Nigerian Foreign Policy 2.6 Institutional Actors of Nigerian Foreign Policy CHAPTER THREE President Olusegun Obasanjo's Foreign Policy 3.1 Foreign Policy Under Obasanjo’s Administration 3.2 Philosophy Guiding Nigerian Foreign Policy 3.3 Domestic Factors Influencing Nigeria’s Foreign Policy 3.4 Influence of the Personality of President Olusegun Obasanjo
on Nigerian Foreign Policy
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3.5 Nigeria’s Relations with Major Powers 3.6 Relations with Rising Powers and African Countries
CHAPTER FOUR Evaluation of President Olusegun Obasanjo's Foreign Policy, 4.1 Obasanjo’s Shuttle Diplomacy: Successes and Failures 4.2 Achievements of President Olusegun Obasanjo’s Foreign
Policy 4.3 Challenges Faced by President Olusegun Obasanjo in the
Implementation of Nigerian Foreign Policy CHAPTER FIVE Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation. Bibliography
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AN ASSESSMENT OF NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY UNDER PRESIDENT OLUSEGUN OBASANJO’S
ADMINISTRATION, 1999-2007
ABSTRACT
This study examines Nigeria’s foreign policy under President
Olusegun Obasanjo’s administration (1999-2007). It provides a
detailed background on the impact of Obasanjo’s shuttle
diplomacy in re-building Nigeria’s image in international politics.
The study analyses the domestic policies of the Obasanjo’s
administration and how it shaped the country’s policy of
partnership especially with the western powers and the
implication of this partnership on Nigeria economic growth
between 1999 and 2007. Historical research method was employed
in this study. Both primary and secondary source materials were
used by the researcher. The study established that while President
Olusegun Obasanjo had his shortcomings in foreign policy
7
implementation, the nation has achieved significant gains through
the regime’s shuttle diplomacy. Generally, Nigeria’s increasing
profile in its foreign relations implies that the nation has regained
its role as a leading player in multilateral politics and diplomacy.
8
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The history of Nigerian foreign policy since 1960 has
constantly been changing, though the principles guiding her
foreign relations remain the same.1 Nigerian leaders are largely
responsible for these unstable external relations. Since Nigeria’s
foreign policy is deeply rooted in Africa with strategic emphasis
on political and economic cooperation, peaceful dispute
resolution, and global nonalignment,2 Nigerian leaders also have
their attention fixed on the successful implementation of these
principles. However, the influence of personality on Nigeria’s
1 I. A. Gambari, Theory and Reality in Foreign Policy Making: Nigeria After the Second Republic, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press International, 1989, p.21. 2 M. B., Ogunbanjo, ‘’Theoretical Perspectives on Nigeria Foreign Policy’’ Monograph Series, Department of Political Science and Sociology, Babcock University, Ilisan Remo, 2002, No. 2, p.2
9
relations with other countries cannot be totally ignored as
different leaders adopt different styles in conducting external
relations.
Examining the personality of the leader both at the
theoretical and practical levels is therefore important in
understanding Nigeria’s foreign policy. Again, analysis of
Nigeria’s foreign policy show that her leaders operate within four
“concentric circles” of national interest. The innermost circle
represents Nigeria’s own security, independence and prosperity
and is centered on its immediate neighbours - Benin, Cameroon,
Chad and Niger; the second circle revolves around Nigeria’s
relations with its West African neighbors; the third circle focuses
on continental African issues of peace, development and
democratization; and the fourth circle involves Nigeria’s relations
with organizations, institutions and states outside Africa.3 With
3 A. Adebajo and A. R. Mustapha, eds. Gulliver's Troubles: Nigeria's Foreign Policy after the Cold War. Scottsville, South Africa: University of KwaZulu Natal Press, 2008.
10
this in mind, each Nigerian head of state or president work to
ensure that no single part is defected in pursuing the country’s
foreign policy. Evidences abound on how past Nigerian heads of
state or presidents have worked within these four concentric
circles.
At independence, Nigeria as a sovereign state began to
conduct her foreign relations under the political and governmental
leadership of its Prime Minister, the late Alhaji (Sir) Abubakar
Tafawa Balewa whose administration emphasized Africa to be
centre piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy. His own foreign relation
was pro-west particular with Britain, Nigeria’s erstwhile colonial
master. With the bloody military coup of January 15, 1966, the late
Major General J.T.U. Aguiyi Ironsi came to power only, to be
killed in a counter coup staged six months later. This development
brought the General Yakubu Gowon to power. Gowon borrowed a
leaf from Balewa by being pro-West in his foreign affairs. He
11
entered into agreement with Britain, the United States and other
Europeans countries. However, his administration reluctantly
allowed the Soviet Union to open its embassy in Lagos.
The Gowon led Federal Military Government was sacked in
a bloodless coup which led to the assumption of power by the late
General Murtala Ramat Mohammed and the General (now Chief)
Olusegun Obasanjo who was his second in command and Chief of
Staff Supreme Headquarters.
The assumption of power by these two men served as a
catalyst in the history of international relations as far as Nigeria
was concerned. Their government injected new innovations and
dynamism into the nation’s foreign affairs. Mohammed was
prepared to counter the imperial moves of the Western powers
especially the United States who had emerged as a major power
broker in Africa particularly in Angola. Britain and Portugal also
became targets of the new military administration while not
12
leaving Cube, a surrogate of the Soviet Union both of whom were
present in Angola, challenging the United States (US) presence
there. These Western Powers, Cuba as wells as South Africa
became the target of Mohammed/Obasanjo military regime in
Africa.4 One basic fact that must be stressed is the fact that this
was the age of the Cold War during which the US and the Soviet
Union were competing for military supremacy and searching for
satellite countries who would support them in their bid to
permanently polarize the world into Capitalist and Communist
Blocs under the US and Soviet Union respectively.
Given the above situation the Muhammed Obasanjo regime
arose as a diplomatic gadfly ready to sting these powers in its
resolve to emancipate African countries that were still under the
tyranny of colonial masters; eradicate neo-colonialism, racism and
4 A., Ogunsanwo, Nigerian Military and Foreign Policy, 1975-1979 Unpublished Manuscript, University of Lagos Pol. Science Dept. 1980, pp 190-201.
13
apartheid on the African continent particularly in Portuguese
colonies in Africa and racism/apartheid in Southern Africa.
With all these involvements in international politics, Nigeria
became a regional power and centre of influence, particularly in
Africa. This combined with a viable economy until the mid-1980s,
Nigeria was a toast of many states seeking either its influence or
support on global issues or financial assistance. Concomitantly,
Nigerians were respected abroad, while the tendency to emigrate
abroad was not popular. Fraudulent tendencies on the part of
Nigerians abroad were at the lowest ebb.
However, the post-Shagari administration’s military regimes
played deciding roles in the image- destruction of the Nigerian
state in foreign affairs. Thus, the period covering 1980-1999,
Nigeria’s foreign policy during this period received some setbacks.
First, the draconian policies of the Buhari regime attracted wide
14
criticism from the international community. Second, the failure of
the economic diplomacy of Gen. I.B. Babangida through the
Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) and subsequent
annulment of June 12, 1993 general elections led to the breakdown
of domestic policies in the country. Third, the Bazuka foreign
policy style of late Gen. Sani Abacha further deteriorated the
foreign image of Nigeria especially with its key allies in Europe
and America. These were the situations when President Olusegun
Obasanjo came to power in 1999. 5
President Olusegun Obasanjo, at inauguration in May, 1999,
inherited a nation with a battered image and without credibility
externally. In his determination to regain Nigeria’s lost glory and
re-integrate it to
5 U. B. Inamete, Foreign policy decision-making in Nigeria, Susquehanna University Press, 2001, Pp.
290-203
15
the civilized world, he engaged in a deft shuttle diplomacy across
the major capitals of the globe. The president, during his extensive
foreign trips, have addressed the UN, ECOWAS, the Group of 8
(G-8), Group 77 (G-77), the Commonwealth, African Union (AU)
and EU.
The nation has achieved significant gains through the
regime’s shuttle diplomacy. Apart from the psychological relief
following its re-integration and accommodations into the world
affairs, Nigeria had assumed the leadership of several
international organizations notably the ECOWAS, AU, and G-77.
It had hosted very important international summits including
those of the Commonwealth Heads of State and Government and
the AU in 2004, the New Partnership for African Development
(NEPAD) in 2005, and severally, the ECOWAS since 1999. The
nation had also hosted the All Africa Games in 2004. Obasanjo had
been the guest of honour to the UN Educational, Scientific and
16
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in May 2004.6 All these imply
that the international system has restored its confidence in
Nigeria. The regime’s economic diplomacy also has yielded
economic dividends for the nation. In addition to increased
Development Finance Inflow (DFI) and foreign investments, the
Paris Club had cancelled $18 billion (60%) of the nation’s over $30
billion external, a gesture, which signifies the Club’s confidence in
the nation’s economy and credibility as an external debtor.7
Generally, Nigeria’s increasing profile in its foreign relations
implies that the nation has regained its role as a leading player in
multilateral politics and diplomacy.
It can be said therefore that period covering 1999-2007
Nigeria’s foreign policy received a new turn in restoring the image
of the country through a global shuttle diplomacy of President
Olusegun Obasanjo Therefore, the focus of this present study is to
6 E. Okpokpo1999. The Challenges facing Nigeria's Foreign Policy in the Next Millenium African Studies Quarterly | Volume 3, Issue 3 | 2000, 3(2) P. 4. 7 U. B. Inamete, Op. Cit., P. 308
17
examine the role played by President Olusegun Obasanjo in
restoring the image of the country, analyse his foreign policy
posture and give a critical appraisal of the success and failures in
terms of domestic and international repositioning.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
This study seeks to achieve the following objectives:
(i) Provide a detailed background to Nigeria’s foreign policy
under President Olusegun Obasanjo from 1999 to 2007
focusing on his achievements and shortcomings;
(ii) Examine the impact of Obasanjo’s shuttle diplomacy in
re-building Nigeria’s image as a regional power in Africa;
(iii) Analyse Obasanjo’s policy of partnership especially with
the western powers and the implication of this
partnership on Nigeria economic growth between 1999
and 2007;
18
(iv) Discuss the contributions of Nigeria under the
administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo to the
security and peace-building in Africa; and lastly,
(v) Provide a critique of the personality of President
Olusegun Obasanjo and its influence in the
implementation of Nigeria’s foreign policy towards other
states as well as international organizations.
1.3 Statement of the problem
Relations between Nigeria and other state and non–state
actors in international politics from 1999 onward were based on
democratic principles. The tit-for-tat diplomacy of late Gen. Sani
Abacha, de facto President of Nigeria from 1993 to 1998 had greatly
damaged the image of Nigeria. The government was accused of
human rights abuses and was repeatedly condemned by the U.S.
State Department. There were break in relationship with many
countries with threats of economic sanctions from others. Apart
19
from this, the government was characterized by an inconsistent
foreign policy which made Nigeria a scorn in the comity of
nations. The coming of President Olusegun Obasanjo and the
various reforms which he embarked upon actually brought
Nigeria out of the messy situation that Gen. Sani Abacha led the
country into. For President Olusegun Obasanjo to have achieved
such a feat in restoring the image of the country deserves scholarly
attention. This study therefore aims to provide a critical appraisal
of Obasanjo’s foreign policy with emphasis on his use of
expatriates in the conduct of external relations; shifting of policy to
accommodate China, India and other rising powers; reintegration
of Nigeria into the African Union, the United Nations and other
international organizations; and the revolution in domestic
policies that favoured strategic repositioning of Nigerian
economy.
20
1.4 Literature Review
Review of literature in historical research is sin qua non in
determining the nature of the research as it provides the basis for
the understanding of what other have said or written about the
subject matter. It therefore becomes imperative to review what
other scholars have written about Nigerian foreign policy since
1960 with special attention on President Olusegun Obasanjo’s
foreign policy from 1999 to 2007.
One of the most important works on Nigerian foreign policy
is Ufot Bassey Inamete, Foreign policy decision-making in Nigeria,8
which examines Nigeria's foreign policy decision-making system
together with the other factors that shape and determine foreign
policy. It gives the reader an understanding of the foreign-policy
structures, processes, dynamics, and outputs in Nigeria. It also
looks at how personalities affect foreign policy decision making in
8 U. B. Inamete, Op. Cit., P. 2
21
Nigeria. The reader also gains an understanding of how foreign-
policy decision-making system impact on foreign-policy outputs
in medium-sized countries. Although, no special attention was
given to the administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo which
is the major concern of this study, this work is of importance to
this study as it discusses the issues of personality in the
development of Nigerian foreign policy.
Bassey Ate’s Decolonization and Dependence: The Development of
Nigeria-US Relations, 1960-19849 is a good contribution to the
study. Despite the variations in the years, the work systematically
analyses the development of the relationship between Nigeria and
the US during the dynamic era of decolonization with special
attention on General Olusegun Obasanjo first outing as head of
state. This study serves as a basis for analyzing Nigeria’s stand on
some key issues with the major world powers. Although, Bassey is
9 A. Bassey, Decolonization and Independence: The Development of Nigerian-US Relations, 1960-1984, Colorado: West View Press Inc., 1987, p. 193.
22
not directly connected to the present study, it gives a vivid
background on the historical past of the friendly Olusegun
Obasanjo when he was the military head of state between 1976
and 1979 and how this later helped in running the affairs of
Nigeria from 1999 to 2007.
Ray Ofoegbu’s Foreign Policy and Military Rule10 examined
three military governments in Nigeria and played much emphasis
on the third Military Government (1975-1979). To Ofoegbu, it was
the third Military Government first led by General Murtala
Mohammed that brought radicalism into Nigeria’s foreign policy.
The radicalism which was introduced into Nigeria’s foreign policy
led to confrontation with major powers which invariably caused
diplomatic conflict especially with the United States in 1975. From
1977, the relationship began to normalize. Lieutenant General
Olusegun Obasanjo, being the new leader of Nigeria, renewed
10 R. Ofoegbu, “Foreign Policy and Military Rule” in O. Oyediran (ed) Nigerian Government and Politics under military Rule. London and Basingstoke: The Macmillian Press, 1979, p. 135
23
Nigeria’s radical foreign policy and once again, began to make
close ties with President Jimmy Carter of the United States.
Ofoegbu’s work will be of immense value to this study. Once
again, one notices that the work does not centre on President
Olusegun Obasanjo but did provide a detailed background of his
past activities which will make us to understand his policy
positions between 1999 and 2007 on international relations.
Olayiwola Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military
Rule, 1966-1999,11 provides a significant and comprehensive
examination of Nigerian foreign policy (1966-1999) during the
almost 33 years of military rule, punctuated by the four-year
civilian interregnum, 1979-1983. He analyzes what led to the
military rule in 1966, and the foreign policy performance of each
military regime that ruled the country since 1966. He also
discusses extensively the economic dimension of the nation's
11
O. Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966-1999, Greenwood Publishing Group, Pp 2-10
24
foreign policy. He shows that the last 15 years, the period of
Generals Babangida and Abacha, were the most corrupt and
brutal that Nigeria had seen since independence. The mysterious
sudden death of General Sani Abacha led to the appointment of
General Abubakar, who handed power over to an elected civilian
government in May 1999, led by President Olusegun Obasanjo. Of
particular interest to scholars, students, and other researchers
involved with African politics and foreign policy and the role of
the military in political affairs. This work is directly useful to this
study as it help in providing information regarding nigeria’s
political and economic situations before the coming of President
Olusegun Obasanjo in 1999.
Adekeye Adebajo and Abdul Raufu Mustapha,(eds.)
Gulliver's Troubles: Nigeria's Foreign Policy after the Cold War12
examines Nigerian foreign policy during the first 12 years after the
12
A. Adebajo and A. R. Mustapha,(eds.) Gulliver's Troubles: Nigeria's Foreign Policy after the Cold War, Scottsville, South Africa: University of KwaZulu Natal Press, 2008, Pp . 1-22
25
end of the Cold War in order to answer questions associated with
changes in the global arena and determines whether Nigerian
foreign policy remains relevant in this new period of international
relations. Its sixteen chapters provide incisive analytical coverage,
conceptual insights and empirical richness, pointing to the factors
and imperatives which have shaped Nigeria’s foreign policy since
the end of the Cold War. That it succeeds so admirably is a tribute
to the editors and well-chosen authors. Each chapter helps to
impose order on this complex mosaic.
There are challenges for Nigeria’s foreign policy, especially
with a change of guard since the significant but deeply flawed
elections of April 2007. Critically, how it meets these challenges
will depend on how it balances the demands and dynamics of the
three concentric circles that underpin its foreign policy. This book
is path-breaking in helping us to understand why this ‘giant with
26
clay feet’ under the leadership of President Olusegun Obasanjo
shaped the fortunes of Nigeria in the world.
Osita C. Eze, Beyond 50 Years of Nigeria's Foreign Policy: Issues,
Challenges and Prospects,13 looks at fifty years of Nigeria's
relationship with the rest of the world and how it has generally
reflected its efforts at promoting Africa's interests and at the same
time grappling with its domestic development.
The work examines how other institutional actors affect
Nigerian foreign policy under Obasanjo. The foreign policy
implementers and monitors identified in part two are the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, the Directorate of Technical Aid Corps, the
Directorate of Technical Cooperation in Africa, and the Mass
Media. The issues and challenges with which they are faced are
explicated. For instance, Ummuna H. Orjiako of the Foreign
Ministry, analysed some major constraints facing the Ministry and
13 O. C. Eze, Beyond 50 Years of Nigeria's Foreign Policy: Issues, Challenges and Prospects, NIIA, P. 400
27
noted that ‘to stem the tide of eroding professionalism and
decline, to take advantage of the prospects and opportunities
presented by a changing domestic and external environment, the
Nigerian foreign policy establishment must seek to confront and
address the litany of known challenges in the Foreign Ministry.’14
However, as authoritative as these works were, there is
much to be covered on President Olusegun Obasanjo’s on
Nigeria’s foreign policy and how other countries view or relate
with Nigeria since 1999. This research work therefore seeks to
update and cover areas such as the long term effect of Obasanjo’s
foreign policy on Nigeria’s external relations.
14 ThisDay Newspaper, The New Roundtable on Nigeria’s Foreign Policy 09 Oct 2010, P. 12
28
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study focuses on Nigeria’s foreign policy under the
administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo from 1999 to 2007.
It looks at the influence of personality on the conduct of foreign
policy. Other areas which this study covers include the domestic
factors that influenced the foreign policy of President Olusegun
Obasanjo. Moreover, the key achievements of Obasanjo’s foreign
policy as regards domestic economic growth, political stability,
regional security, and international participation are covered in
this research. However, the research will be limited to the foreign
policy implementations of President Olusegun Obasanjo and does
not intend to provide a biography of the man nor do a
comprehensive study of all his political activities in Nigeria.
In producing such a work like this, the problem confronting
the researcher is not the scarcity of materials but its availability
some of which are bias in their presentation. Moreso, this research
29
work is contemporary and politically sensitive. The researcher
therefore is confronted with the problem of interpretation of the
actions of President Olusegun Obasanjo as some of the policies
initiated are still an on-ongoing process.
Finally, there is the question of time and fund which may
serve as impediments to this research. Nevertheless, these
limitating factors will greatly be managed to make the research
work more objective in its presentation.
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study is very important for certain reasons.
First, the study is of paramount importance to decision makers
and the would-be diplomats for it traces the historical
development of Nigeria foreign policy since 1960.
Second, it helps to re-affirm the bold attempt made by the
democratic government under the leadership of President
30
Olusegun Obasanjo to rebuild the lost image of Nigeria in the
comity of nations by addressing the issues of corruption, debt and
political tensions in the country.
Third, this research work will help in providing information
on the domestic factors that influenced Nigeria’s foreign policy
under President Olusegun Obasanjo from 1999 to 2007.
Fourth, it is useful to scholars’ especially diplomatic
historians, political scientists, economists and international
relations experts in their research. Diplomats like ambassadors,
high commissioners and staffers of foreign ministries will benefit
from the work.
Finally, the political and military class will learn, through
this study, the need for them to be patriotic like President
Olusegun Obasanjo who acted as Nigeria’s arrowhead in the
international arena.
31
1.7 Research Methodology
Historical research method is used in carrying out this
study. However, a critical examination of the dramatic relations
between Nigeria and other countries during President Olusegun
Obasanjo’s administration from 1999 to 2007 will be analyzed
using findings from both primary and secondary sources.
The primary sources include written documents such as
government publications, letters, correspondence, documentaries
and newspapers. Oral interviews were conducted to complement
the other sources.
Furthermore, this research work depends largely on archival
materials to gather relevant materials on the study. Field trips will
also be employed to access information from the Nigerian Institute
of International Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in
order to get relevant information regarding the research work.
32
Moreover, this study depends on secondary sources such as
books, journals, conference proceedings and internet sources
which are to be explored to enrich this work.
33
Endnotes
1. A. Gambari, Theory and Reality in Foreign Policy Making: Nigeria After the Second Republic, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press International, 1989, p.21.
2. M. B., Ogunbanjo, ‘’Theoretical Perspectives on Nigeria
Foreign Policy’’ Monograph Series, Department of Political Science and Sociology, Babcock University, Ilisan Remo, 2002, No. 2, p.2
3. A. Adebajo and A. R. Mustapha, eds. Gulliver's Troubles: Nigeria's Foreign Policy after the Cold War. Scottsville, South Africa: University of KwaZulu Natal Press, 2008.
4. A., Ogunsanwo, Nigerian Military and Foreign Policy, 1975-
1979 Unpublished Manuscript, University of Lagos Pol. Science Dept. 1980, pp 190-201.
5. U. B. Inamete, Foreign policy decision-making in Nigeria,
Susquehanna University Press, 2001, Pp. 290-203
6. E. Okpokpo1999. The Challenges facing Nigeria's Foreign Policy in the Next Millenium African Studies Quarterly | Volume 3, Issue 3 | 2000, 3(2) P. 4.
7. U. B. Inamete, Op. Cit., P. 308
8. U. B. Inamete, Op. Cit., P. 2
34
9. A. Bassey, Decolonization and Independence: The Development of Nigerian-US Relations, 1960-1984, Colorado: West View Press Inc., 1987, p. 193.
10. R. Ofoegbu, “Foreign Policy and Military Rule” in O.
Oyediran (ed) Nigerian Government and Politics under military Rule. London and Basingstoke: The Macmillian Press, 1979, p. 135
11. O. Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule,
1966-1999, Greenwood Publishing Group, Pp 2-10
12. A. Adebajo and A. R. Mustapha,(eds.) Gulliver's Troubles: Nigeria's Foreign Policy after the Cold War, Scottsville, South Africa: University of KwaZulu Natal Press, 2008, Pp . 1-22
13. O. C. Eze, Beyond 50 Years of Nigeria's Foreign Policy: Issues,
Challenges and Prospects, NIIA, P. 400
14. ThisDay Newspaper, The New Roundtable on Nigeria’s Foreign Policy 09 Oct 2010, P. 12
35
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