on a heuristic view points concerning mass and energy ... heuristic viewpoints concerning... ·...

European Journal of Scientific Research

ISSN 1450-216X Vol22 No4 (2008) pp584-601

copy EuroJournals Publishing Inc 2008

httpwwweurojournalscomejsrhtm

On Heuristic Viewpoints Concerning the Mass Energy and Light

Concepts in Quantum Physics

Bahjat R J Muhyedeen

Department of Chemistry College of Science

University of Baghdad Jadriyah Baghdad Iraq

Contact e-mail nucleardatagmailcom

Abstract

The concept of conversion of mass to energy is discussed in chemical and nuclear

reactions to show it is incorrect The annihilation reactions of electron-positron are

discussed to be disintegration processes A primitive nuclear model is suggested to focus on

three main points the outer shells of the nucleus called electromagnetic belt the inner

nuclear shells called sphere nuclear shell model and the magnetons The magnetons and

conservons are the main components of the protons and neutrons The nuclear fusion

reactions are discussed and showed they have to pass the fifth state of matter called nuclear

transparency then finally reach the sixth state of matter called nuclear magma (finally

collected as black hole) The quantization of light by Planck is argued to be of wave-form

and not particle-form represented by photons These discrete packets of energy are called

frequentons A novel non-relativistic mass-energy equivalence is derived as E=mbc where

b is a new universal particle speed constant equal to 0603797 x 108 ms which gives

Em= 18101351214 x 1016

Jkg or 1u= 187607 MeV The ratio of mbcmc2

(187607)(93149) is equal to 02014 The Total Kinetic Energy (TKE) of fission

fragments of 235

U is found to be 3721 MeVbc rather than 1847 MeVc2 based on the

speculative E=mc2 Other non-relativistic quantum equations are deduced for high speed

charged particles such as p=mb b=λυ λ=hmb E=mvb and E=mb2

Keywords E=mc2 E=mbc Mass-Energy Equivalence photon-frequenton photon new

fifth and sixth states for matter universal particle speed constant b

1 Introduction The physical concepts of mass and energy and their relation to the universe were continually changed

throughout history by Greek Arab and Chinese philosophers However the most acceptable definitions

for mass and energy were translated into formula by Leibniz over the period 1676-1689 The mass

concept is usually related to the energy The mass is a fundamental concept in chemistry and it is a

central concept of classical mechanics and related subjects Although inertial mass (f=ma) passive

gravitational mass (f=Mg) and active gravitational mass are conceptually distinct no experiment has

ever clearly demonstrated any difference between them The concept of energy and its transformations

is extremely useful in explaining and predicting most natural phenomena Energy transformations in

the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy which has been available

since the Big Bang later being released (ie transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic

or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available During the 19th

century and 20th

century

On a Heuristic Viewpoints Concerning the Mass Energy and Light Concepts in Quantum Physics 585

the concepts became more realistic for both issues with a number of scientists sharing in the

crystallization of these concepts enabling a greater depth of understanding the secret of the universe

In the early 20th

century scientists started an investigation of the atom structure after the

discovery of the electron theorized by Richard Laming (1838ndash1851) and G Johnstone Stoney (1874)

and discovered by JJ Thomson (1897) the proton theorized by William Prout (1815) and discovered

by Ernest Rutherford (1919) and the neutron discovered by James Chadwick (1932) The theoretical

and experimental researches on the mass-energy atom waves and particles led to the branch of

fundamental sciences that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call quantum

mechanics It is the basic mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry including

condensed matter physics solid-state physics atomic physics molecular physics computational

chemistry quantum chemistry particle physics nuclear physics and chemistry quantum

chromodynamics and quantum gravity The foundations of quantum mechanics were established

during the first half of the 20th

century by Max Planck Albert Einstein Ernest Rutherford Niels Bohr

Louis de Broglie Max Born Werner Heisenberg Erwin Schroumldinger John von Neumann Paul Dirac

Wolfgang Pauli and others

The theoretical and experimental works in nuclear physics result in the formation of the

Standard Model (1970 to 1973) (Glashow 1961 Weinberg 1967 Kane 1987 Bromley 2000)

Although the Standard Model well describes the elementary particles and composite particles it is still

considered as a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one Many physicists find this model

to be unsatisfactory due to its many undermined parameters many fundamental particles the non-

observation of the Higgs boson and other more theoretical considerations such as the hierarchy

problem

Therefore some new speculative theories beyond the Standard Model extruded attempts to

remedy these deficiencies According to Preon Theory -coined by Jogesh Pati and Abdus Salam in

1974- (Pati and Salam 1974 Dugne et al 2002) there are one or more orders of particles more

fundamental than those found in the Standard Model called preons which are derived from pre-

quarks which look like ldquoparticle zoo modelrdquo that came before it The interest in preons has vanished

since the simplest models were experimentally ruled out in the 1980s

The Grand unification Theory attempts to combine the electroweak interaction with the strong

interaction into a single grand unified theory (GUT) (Encyclopedia Britannica 2008) GUT predicts

that at extremely high energies (above 1014 GeV) the electromagnetic weak nuclear and strong

nuclear forces are fused into a single unified field (Parker B 1993 Hawking S 1988) Such a force

would be spontaneously broken into the three forces by a Higgs-like mechanism However the non-

observation of proton decay made it less important

The Supersymmetry tried to extend the Standard Model by adding an additional class of

symmetries to the Lagrangian These symmetries exchange fermionic particles with bosonic ones In

other words in a supersymmetric theory for every type of boson there exists a corresponding type of

fermion and vice-versa Such symmetry predicts the existence of supersymmetric particles

abbreviated as sparticles which include the sleptons squarks neutralinos and charginos But these

particles are so heavy that they need more experiments to be verified (Baer and Xerxes 2006) As of

2008 there is no direct evidence that supersymmetry is a symmetry of nature (Freund 1986 Martin

1999 Lykken 1996 Drees 1996 Arygres 2001)

String Theory is an incomplete mathematical approach to theoretical physics whose building

blocks are one-dimensional extended objects called strings rather than the zero-dimensional point

particles that form the basis for the standard model of particle physics (Arygres 2001 Cooper et al

1995 Junker 1996) The string theory mainly the M-theory out of the five string theories suggest that

all particles that make up matter and energy are comprised of strings measuring at the Planck length

equals 1616252x10-35

m that exists in an 11-dimensional universe to prevent tears in the fabric of

space using the uncertainty principle whereas our own existence is merely a 4-brane inside which

exist the 3 space dimensions and the 1 time dimension that we observe (Schwartz 1998 Troost 2005

586 Bahjat R J Muhyedeen

Witten 2005) The String theory is formulated in terms of an action principle either the Nambu-Goto

action (using the principles of Lagrangian mechanics) or the Polyakov action (using conformal field

theory) which describes how strings move through space and time These strings vibrate at different

frequencies which determine mass electric charge color charge and spin A string can be open (a line)

or closed in a loop As a string moves through space it sweeps out a two-dimensional surface f(τσ)

called a world sheet One particularly interesting prediction of the string theory is the existence of

extremely massive counterparts of ordinary particles due to vibrational excitations of the fundamental

string Another important prediction is the existence of a massless spin-2 particle behaving like the

graviton The main aim of this theory is to treat the universe through the quantum mechanics and

classical mechanic

The aim of this paper is to correct some concepts on mass-energy relationship mass of

radiation nuclear processes and quantization of light and to derive a new formula for mass-energy

equivalence in addition to derive some equations for the non-relativistic elementary and composite

particles that move in speed less than the speed of light

2 The mass-energy relationship The dualism behavior of mass and energy is a very old idea since Thales of Miletus (Greek

philosopher 624 BCndashca 546 BC) then Galileo (Italian) in 1638 (Singer 1941) then in 1676

mathematically formulated by Gottfried Leibniz (German) (E=mv2 called it Vis Viva) (Leibniz

1716 Mackie 1845) and others In 1717 Isaac Newton (English) speculated that gross bodies and

light are inter-convertible into each other (Newton 1704 1727) Lavoisiers experiments in 1774

supported the law of conservation of mass in primitive manner (Arthur 1993) In the literature the

recalibration of Leibniz formula to include the coefficient of a half viz (12mv2) was mainly the

consequence of the work of Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis (called it quantity of work) and Jean-Victor

Poncelet (called it mechanical work) over the period 1819-1839

3 Are mass and energy convertible The scientists at the era from 1500 up to 1800 were focused on the stars and planets and they thought

that the energy emitted from stars is finally converted to the mass and vice versa to keep the eternity of

the universe and they also thought that when body emits radiation it will lose some of its weight These

confused ideas grew up and were well crystallized as concepts of classical mechanics from 1800-1920

These concepts were clearly shown in the works of S Tolver Preston in 1875 (E Δmc2)

(Preston1875) Jules Henri Poincaregrave in 1900 [mv=(Ec2)c] (Poincarersquo 1900) Olinto De Pretto who

speculated E=mc2

in 1903-1904 (Pretto 1904 Bartocci 1999) Fritz Hasenoumlhrl in 1904 (m= 4E3c2)

(Ohrl and Sitzungen 1904 Ohrl 1905) Einstein in 1905 (E=mc2 from speculative origin) which is

only true under special conditions (Einstein 1905) and Max Planck in 1907 [(m-M)=Ec2] (Planck

1907 1908) and Einstein also in 1909 [(m-M)=Lc2] (Einstein 1909) Frederick Soddy and M

Henri Becquerel both have predicted that the energy of radiation is at the cost of mass (Soddy 1904)

In 1900 Poincaregrave and Abraham in 1904 showed that W = mc2 can be derived for the case that

the radiation is fully absorbed by a metal plate In the duration 1900-1905 Poincareacute Kaufmann

Abraham and Hasenoumlhrl have shown that the mass of electrons increase during acceleration The

mass increase can easily be derived for this case as the energy is transferred through an

electromagnetic wave by the help of the Poyntingndashvector (Poincaregrave 1900 Kaufmann 1902 Abraham

1903 1904 Hasenoumlhrl 1904) These ideas bred out two main imprecise concepts in physics that

firstly the mass and energy are convertible secondly the radiation has mass

In our belief that the idea of mass-energy conversion is incorrect The mass and the energy are

inconvertible Since the Big Bang the energy was stored mainly in two big reservoirs

1- binding energies of the electrons in the quantized atomic orbitals of the atoms

2- binding energies of the fermions in the quantized nuclear shells of the nuclei of the atoms


We daily use these stored energies in various chemical and nuclear reactions and there is no mass

converted to energy or vice versa This energy is continuously generated at these two big reservoirs

The speculative equation E=mc2

was misinterpreted when they considered c2 as the conversion

factor from mass to energy The correct understanding is that the head c has to be multiplied with the

mass (mc) to measure the momentum of the particle while next c is considered as the conversion factor

from the momentum unit to the energy unit We will explain this concept in forthcoming paper

4 Energy from chemical reactions In the chemical reactions it is absolutely clear that there is no loss in the mass of the material in any

reaction The process is based on breaking bonds and forming new others The difference in binding

energies which are stored in the atomic orbitals will be released in the case of exothermal reactions In

the case of endothermic reactions we have to supply energy to the electrons of the reactants to help

them to undergo reaction For example the combustion of the hydrocarbon will result in H2O and CO2

5 Energy from nuclear reactions Of course the nuclear visions of nucleus structure and its components is still the greatest obstacle in

the gaining a deep understanding of how can we calculate the energy of nuclear reactions via the

nuclear binding energies like the atomic orbitals far from the mass defect concept The

experimentalists need more time of hard works in nuclear science to collect more facts about the real

structure of elementary particles (Fermions QuarksLeptons etc) and composite particles (Hadrons

Baryons Hyperons Nucleons Mesons) They have to improve the optical model which uses optical

laws in its calculation (Fernbach S et al 1949) shell model of Eugene Paul Wigner Maria

Goeppert-Mayer and J Hans D Jensen which uses the Pauli principle to describe the structure of

the nucleus in terms of energy levels (Cohen 1971 Rohlf 1994) and liquid drop model of

Weizsaumlckers formula (Freedman and Young 2004) to reach to an integrated model that combine the

shell model (quantum mechanical) and the collective models

Anyhow the quark theory is still immature to explain the nuclear transformation of the proton

and neutron in a clear way The fundamental particles that form the neutron are still not clear The

quark theory tells us that the neutron is created from three quarks (two down and one up) But the mass

of neutron is not fixed in different nuclei (supposing the proton mass is fixed due to its high stability)

For example the mass of the free neutron in atomic mass units u is (1008665 u) and the mass of

neutron in deuterium is (10062767459 u) and the mass of the neutron in tritium is (10041121177 u)

The nuclear workers said that the decrease in the nuclide mass is converted into the binding energy in

the host nucleus Now we may ask which part of quark of neutron will convert to energy to form the

binding energy when the neutron gets inside the host nucleus

6 Proposal for new nuclear model The proposed nuclear model focus on three main points the outer shell of the nucleus which might be

called the electromagnetic belt (sheath) and the inner new nuclear shell model which might be called

the sphere nuclear shells in addition to modification of the Quark Model of Gell-Mann (Georgi

Eidelman S et al 2004) The aim of the model is to set up a new nuclear model which is capable to

show that the nuclear energy calculation is based on the energy generated by the sub-quark particles

and not on converting some mass of baryons to binding energy

In the present paper we will submit the basic idea of this model and later in the upcoming paper

we will try to give a more detailed structure This crude nuclear model supposes that both the

electromagnetic belt surrounding the nucleus the inner sphere nuclear shells and the sub-quarks

play an important role in nucleus concept We may outline the basic points of this model as below

I- This nuclear model predicts that the protons neutrons and all fermions are composed of integer

multiple of the sub-quarks These sub-quarks are of high magnetic field and align strongly as magnetic


dipoles in such a way that they build the fermion in form of N-S dipoles packages Their high magnetic

properties are responsible for the strong nuclear forces We call these magnetic sub-quarks magnetons

In addition there are new elementary particles inside the nucleus which may be called conservon that

keeps both neutron and proton to obey the conservation law and control the conservation of mass

number ∆A=0 linear momentum ∆p=0 total energy ∆E=0 charge ∆Z=0 and spins ∆I=0 during the

nuclear reactions The conservons are also responsible for keeping the mass stability of neutrons and

the proton inside the nuclei The mass of conservon is of integer multiple of the sub-quarks

magnetons mass The binding energy between the proton and the neutron occurs with help from

conservon particles The conservon particles control the nuclear processes The sub-quarks magnetons

and conservons are the main components of the protons and neutrons inside the nuclei

II- The sub-quarks magnetons are the basic building blocks of the fermions The annihilation reactions

of electron-positron are pseudo-annihilation processes The annihilation reactions break the laws of

conservations These pseudo-annihilation reactions are misinterpreted by nuclear workers These

reactions represent inelastic scattering When the electron and the positron collide their

electromagnetic fields will interfere in a deconstructive way (disintegration process) which results in

producing radiation This rule may apply to all matter and antimatter reactions

III- The model predicts that the electromagnetic belt controls the projectile and the target during the

nuclear reactions The electromagnetic belt represents the net charged electromagnetic field of the

nuclear forces of the nuclei We think that the profound understanding of the unfathomable coulomb

barrier surrounding the nucleus is very important The electromagnetic belt is also regulating the

strong nuclear force generated by the magnetons which controls the required mass of the baryon inside

the nuclei and the attraction force of the electrons in the atomic orbitals The charged nuclear forces

will create binding energy of nucleons in the nucleus The source of the binding energy is derived from

the charged nuclear forces rather than from converting some mass of hadrons during the entrance

IV- The model proposed that the protons have certain stable mass while the neutron has several stable

masses that depend on the isotope Z and N The neutron stable mass is available in the stable isotopes

V- The proposed new sphere nuclear shell model states that the nucleus is a composite of many spheres

occupied by 1-4 nucleons and these spheres are distributed among hypothetical nuclear shells It is an

independent-particle nuclear shell model to expect the decay modes and to identify the fertile and

fissile nuclide through shell configuration The sphere has to be filled in the form of (pnpn) ie the

proton first then the neutron next and so on The model explains why some isotopes emit alpha particle

The details of this model will be explained in the forthcoming paper

VI- In the core of the sun or any star this electromagnetic belt of small nuclei became less dense in a

region of high electromagnetic pressure and temperature above 10 million oK In such circumstances

the electromagnetic belt becomes loose (of very low barrier) and the protons and neutrons in their

nuclei are more free to undergo the fusion reactions in equilibrium state (or reversible nuclear

reaction) but the reaction will move toward the stable nuclei of magic numbers when these reactions

occurred at region place little far from the sun core (ie in the circumferences of the core region) which

releases high energies This phase represents a fifth state of matter beyond plasma (where the electrons

are free) in which protons and neutrons are moving more freely in their nuclei This phase is called

ldquoNuclear Transparencyrdquo which endures extra super high temperature and pressure and electromagnetic

field In such Nuclear Transparency phase there is good probability to build the more stable nuclei of

magic number in the sun core such as Fe Ni O Si S Mg C Ne Ca and Cr and even higher nuclides

(actinides) The fifth state may be responsible for the state of hydrostatic equilibrium neither

contracting nor expanding over time


VII- In the deep core of the sun and stars the nuclei become completely bare of the electromagnetic

belt and the nucleons become free of their nuclei after passing the Nuclear Transparency phase In this

region some of the fermions will be analyzed to their elementary particles the magnetic sub-quarks

magnetons which accumulated in nebulous form and might be called nuclear magma The nuclear

magma starts getting cold and dark because no heat can be absorbed or emitted due to the amorphous

structure The nuclear magma is denser than the nuclei and of high magnetic property and they bind

each other through very strong charged nuclear forces This nuclear magma will be born in the core of

the sun and it moves up toward the surface as ldquocold and darkrdquo mass so called a sunspot These

sunspots (nuclear magma) are collected together through a million of years to form a black hole state

and this nuclear magma state of matter may be called the sixth state of matter The black hole is the

source of the magnetons for creation of elements and then the compounds in the universe When the

star gets old it starts losing its gases and the plasma region will evaporate leaving the cold and

magnetic sunspot alone to form the black hole The number of sunspots in the stars is indicative of the

age of the star The end life of any star is a black hole If a big mass of hydrogen gas will strike the

black hole it will ignite it again to create a new star and so on

This phase ldquonuclear magmardquo is beyond the meta Nuclear Transparency and looks like the

results announced by CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) that stated they have

discovered a new state of matter in 2000 which they called quark-gluon plasma It is a phase of

quantum chromodynamics which exists at extremely high temperature andor density and consists of

(almost) free quarks and gluons which are the basic building blocks of matter We can say the CERN

quark-gluon plasma state is a transition state between Nuclear Transparency and the nuclear magma

(finally the black hole) sixth state of matter

VIII- We hope that the workers in nuclear research laboratories try to get a controlling fusion reaction

through three main settings 1- high force of electromagnetic field 2- high pressure 3- flash of high

temperature (Lasergt1018

W) via advanced inertial confinement fusion (AICF) integrated with ion

beam on Deuterium and Tritium nuclei to make their electromagnetic belt more loose in terms of

picoseconds to reach the Nuclear Transparency phase and get a controlled fusion reaction through

controlling the force of the electromagnetic field taking into consideration the Lawson criterion

(Lawson 1957) The trials should go farther than tokamaks and stellarators technology (as in

Torsatron Heliotron and Helias) The stellarator technology lacks high pressure The technologies used

in magnetic confinement fusion and inertial confinement fusion are usually using only two of the three

settings mentioned above thus lessening their efficiency But generally the magnetic field is more

important than the pressure therefore as we expect the future of magnetic confinement fusion

technology is more promising than the inertial confinement fusion The magnetic field is very

necessary to loosen the electromagnetic belts which help the nuclei get into Nuclear Transparency to

undergo fusion reactions

In conclusion the magnetons are basic building blocks of the fermions The protons and

neutrons are composed of the integer multiple of sub-quarks elementary particles magnetons The

protons have certain stable mass and the neutron have several stables masses depending on the isotope

Z and N The conservons control the conservation of mass number linear momentum total energy

charge and spins during the nuclear reactions law of conservations The nuclei in the universe have

been built in the Nuclear Transparency phase with huge binding energies saved in the nuclei and these

energies are liberated during the nuclear processes and no mass will be converted to energy The same

thing happens to nuclear fission and decay processes so no mass will convert to energy or vice versa


7 The nature of electromagnetic radiation1

The wave nature of electromagnetic radiation was first mathematically formulated by James Clerk

Maxwell in 1861 the Scottish mathematician and theoretical physicist [On physical lines of forcerdquo]

(Maxwell 1861) and in 1865 [ldquoA Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Fieldrdquo] (Maxwell 1865)

which reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and subsequently confirmed by the German physicist and

mechanic Heinrich Hertz in 1887 (Hertz1887) The electric and magnetic fields obey the properties

of superposition such as refraction and diffraction The main aspect of the nature of light is the

frequency Electromagnetic radiation carries energy through frequency which may be important when

it interacts with matter through interference The great success of Max Planck in treating the black

body radiation is due to his adoption of Boltzmannrsquos idea of statistical interpretation of the second law

of thermodynamics (the entropy) in 1877 that the wave consists of discrete packets of energy

(Boltzmann 1877) So Planck treated the vibrational energy of the resonator as discrete packets of

energy to simplify the treatment in a similar manner to that of the kinetic gas theory He was deeply

suspicious of his treatment and said that ldquoMy unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action

quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much troublerdquo Really he did

not aim to quantize the energy but his treatment was completely correct due to the emitted fixed

frequencies of the monochromatic light The emission spectra are quantized in nature due to the

electron-nucleus structure Therefore at that time in 1900 he did not realize that he revealed a great

fact on the atomic structure from a quantization point of view

Unfortunately these suggested wave-packets were misinterpreted by Einstein in 1909 as small

zero mass particles which must have well-defined momenta (hνc) and act in some respects as

independent point-like particles which were called photons in 1926 by the physical chemist Gilbert

Lewis and confirmed that ldquothe energy and momentum of light are concentrated in particlesrdquo (Einstein

1909) Actually Einstein was incorrect and these packets are still waves in nature

The gravitational redshift which based on the particle theory of light is also incorrect because

the nuclear materials of stars are full of magnetic property that interferes with magnetic vector of light

and not due to particulate property (photons) of light This misinterpretation by Einstein (Einstein

1911) also lead Compton (Compton 1923) and De Broglie to misbelieve that the light is of dual

character (De Broglie 1924)

As we think that the source of any light whether from sun or from our artificial sources is no

more than an emission spectra In this process the electrons of the atoms and molecules absorb energy

become excited jump to higher levels and then they get down emitting the electromagnetic radiation

These processes of jumping up and falling down will generate a series of waves (like heart pulses) and

not continuous electromagnetic wave The energy of these pulses is represented by their frequencies

Thus these discrete packets of energy are still waveform in nature and we may call each of these

discrete packets of energy as frequentons to differentiate them from discrete packets of photons of

particle nature The same thing can be said for gamma which is emitted from the nuclear energy levels

as energy quanta (frequentons) Subsequently the light does not need an energy carrier like photons

but it transfers its energy to the matter through interference We can say that ldquoThe energy of light that

1 From a particle theory point of view Reneacute Descartes (1596-1650) declared that light was a disturbance of the

plenum the continuous substance of which the universe was composed Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) an atomist proposed

a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s Isaac Newton studied Gassendis work at an early

age and preferred his view to Descartes theory of the plenum He stated in his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 that light was

composed of corpuscles (particles of matter)

From a wave theory point of view Robert Hooke published a wave theory of light in 1660s Christiaan Huygens

worked out his own wave theory of light in 1678 and published it in his Treatise on light in 1690 He proposed that light

was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the luminiferous ether As waves are not affected by

gravity it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium


propagate as a ray is not continuously distributed over steadily increasing spaces but it consists of a

finite number of energy quanta called frequentons which is absorbed and emitted as entitiesrdquo

In the sun the source of energy are the nuclear reactions (mainly fusion and rarely fission)

which emit gamma rays in energy quanta based on the shell model (spin-orbit interaction model) that

will strike the atoms of the gases that result in light This light when entering our atmosphere will strike

the electrons of all molecules of gases Molecules can absorb and emit light through its electrons Once

a molecule has absorbed light (energy) the molecule can rotate translate vibrate and undergo

electronic transition which leads to a full spectrum due to the electronic vibrational and rotational

energies of the molecules The rotation motion will increase the microwave background in the

universe

8 Notes on photoelectric effect The reason for creation the concept of particle behavior for electromagnetic radiations was due to the

erroneous explanation of photoelectric effect When Einstein interpreted the photoelectric effect

phenomenon using the particle concept in light his work was accepted at that time in 1905 because the

nucleus structure was not discovered until the work of Ernest Rutherford in 1911 The fundamental

picture of nucleus was completed in 1934 after the discovery of the neutron (Rutherford 1904-1933)

So in 1905 there was an unclear picture or vision about the atom and how the electrons are bound

with the nucleus and moving in specific orbital of quantized nature that results in absorption and

emission in specific frequencies based on the Bohr model (Bohr 1913) The zero mass photons could

not transfer the energy to the electrons through impact as its momentum is zero In spite of the

improper mechanism of the photon to explain the photoelectric effect the formula used by Einstein for

the photoelectric effect is still valid but in view of frequentons as follow

hf=Φ +EKmax

h is Planckrsquos constant f is the frequency of the incident frequenton Φ=hfo is the work function

(or W) EKmax =12m 2

mv the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons

fo is the threshold frequency for the photoelectric effect to occur m is the rest mass of the

ejected electron and 2

mv is the velocity of the ejected electron

In conclusion Einstein was obliged to use quantized particles such as photons to interpret the

photoelectric effect phenomenon because he did not realize at that time the energies of the electrons are

quantized in their atomic orbitals The success of Einstein in his treatment was not attributed for

photons proposal but for two main reasons 1- The use of the Max Planck conversion factor h and 2-

The real quantized nature of electrons (ie absorb and emit energy in quantized energies due to the

quantized levels of energy)

Based on our understanding we can interpret this photoelectric effect phenomenon from the

wave point of view energy frequenton that the traveling electromagnetic wave frequentons

incidents on atomic structure (even in crystal form) induces oscillation in the atom and result in

electrons excitation If the frequency (energy) of incident frequenton is equal to or larger than that of

the bound electron it will leave the atom with kinetic energy This process will take place through the

interference mechanism (ie obeys the superposition law of the light electric and magnetic vectors with

matter corresponding vectors of its electrons electric and magnetic vectors as a simple vector addition)

The simplest conception is that a light quantum frequenton transfers its entire energy to a single

electron through interference Finally we can say that the electromagnetic spectrum is a pure wave and

does not have dual character like electrons and any small charged particles

The use of the Max Planck conversion factor h also lead to success of the Bohr and

Schroumldinger theoretical treatments (Bohr 1913 Schroumldinger 1926) in spite of their different adoptions

such as the particle and wave concepts respectively Although Schroumldinger had made several

approximations on his theoretical treatments but the final solutions gave inaccurate description to the

final calculated orbitalrsquos functions especially in the molecular system due to inadequate wave


concepts In the thirties of twentieth century Slater (Slater 1960) and Clementi and Raimondi in 1963

(Clementi and Raimondi 1963 1967) treated the screening effect and effective Z to improve the

functions of the bases sets of Schroumldinger solutions Several basis sets have been published later to

describe the electrons in their orbits including such corrections The bound electron is affected by the

quantum defects D and other parameters such as the effective Z and N

The most update values for D

Z and N

were calculated and extended to radon by Derwish etal (Muhyedeen Al-Thib and Derwish

1993) and they are more accurate than those of Slater and Clementi values

9 The dual character of electrons-like particles As we discussed above the electron is a charged particle and when it moves it will generate a magnetic

field perpendicular on the electric field The resulted electromagnetic field is an inherent property and

it will affect its behavior and gives the electron the wave nature From this point of view it will show a

dual character But this behavior does not mean it converts from a particle form to a wave form or vice

versa Possibly only fermions can show this property and obeyed the De Broglie formula λ=hp The

process of generating the negative or positive charge to the electron depends on the wave configuration

deduced from the net electromagnetic field of its flexible mass

Of course the electron diffraction pattern showed by Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in

Bell Lab in 1927 (Davisson 1937 1965) was due to the inherent electromagnetic field of the electron

and not to the electron mass itself The Fresnel diffraction and specular reflection of neutral atoms

could be related to their electron electromagnetic clouds (Oberst et al 2005 Goodman 1996) We think

that the atoms look like spongy spherical balls in their behavior due to the great electromagnetic field

of their electrons and they show great elasticity and wave character through any impact

The new concept submitted by De Broglie of wave character of the electron led Erwin

Schroumldinger to overdo in wave nature of the electron and created the wave mechanic and described

the electron by pure wave nature which resulted in some errors in the final calculations Of course

Einstein in his late age 1950 believed with the wave nature of the electron to confirm the

deterministic character of the measurement and to defeat the probabilistic principles of Copenhagen of

Bohr and Heisenberg but he forgot that the wave nature of the electron will spoil the photoelectric

effect mechanism between the electron and the photon We can say the idea that the electron is of pure

wave nature is nonsense because if the electron nature is really pure wave without mass density then

the material structure will depend on the nuclei of small size and the universe will be in a different

style Furthermore if the electron is wave to whom the mass (me=9109x10-31

Kg) belongs Is it to the

wave

In conclusion the electron has a mass therefore it behaves as a particle and it has an

electromagnetic field thus it behaves as wave

10 Notes on Comptonrsquos effect Arthur Compton was incorrect when he used the particle character of light the photons in his

derivation in addition to that he used mec2 to describe the electron energy in the atom which does not

describe well the electron energy Eγ+Ee= Eγ+Ee where Ee=mec2

(Compton 1923)

We can easily interpret the Comptonrsquos effect through the reaction of the quantum of light

(frequentons) with the dual character of the circulating electron through its mass and its inherent

electromagnetic field Then the electron will absorb the energy of the incident frequenton through its

electromagnetic field and it recoils while the other frequentons will interfere with the electromagnetic

field and endures reflection based on the electromagnetic field of the electron direction In this process

we do not need the particle character of light represented by photons So neither the photoelectric

effect nor the Comptonrsquos effect need light photons to be understood or interpreted Of course other

charged particle will show the same dual property I prefer to rewrite the Comptonrsquos equation using the

universal particle speed constant b (see Section 14) instead of c speed of light as follow


thus the corrected Compton wavelength will equal to 112496 x 10

-11 m

rather than 243 x 10-12

m In the next paper we will explain the new understanding for this λ

11 Notes on Heisenberg uncertainty principle Since the uncertainty of Heisenberg (Heisenberg 1927) is based on the deflection of the electron by

the photon in Comptonrsquos effect therefore this principle become less accurate because of an incorrect

concept of the particular behavior of the photon Heisenberg thought at the time that the incident

photon will immediately impact the electron and causes it to shift he said that ldquothe reflected photon

will change the momentum of the atom by an uncertain amount inversely proportional to the accuracy

of the position measurementrdquo

But as we explained in the previous paragraph light does not have photons to impact and

deflect the electron Instead we can say that when the frequenton interact with the electromagnetic

field of the electron of the matter there is enough time to measure the position and the momentum of

the electron and currently we can talk about the new concept of the certainty principle as follows

The origin of the uncertainty principle came from the theorem in the Fourier analysis That the

standard deviation of the square absolute value of a function ltF2gt times the standard deviation of the

square absolute value of its Fourier transform is at least lt116π2gt (Folland and Sitaram theorem 11

ltF2gt lt116π

2) =1 if we take the square root of both sides we will get rarr ltFgt= (14π) In the wave

treatment the uncertainty in the wave number ύ with position x of wave is a well-known formula

ΔxΔύ =14π If we use De Broglie formula to get ύ value as ph then we get (ΔxΔp) ge h4π which

represents the Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Finally we can surely say that the position and the momentum can certainly be measured and

the value of (ΔxΔp) = h4π will give the exact value due to the interference of waves

12 Does radiation have mass Most scientists during the period 1890-1910 predict that the body loses some of its weight after

radiation Max Planck in 1907 reported after a deep investigation that ldquoThe inertia mass of body is

altered by absorption or emission of heat energy The increment of mass of body is equal to heat

energy divided by square of speed of light [(m-M)=Ec2]rdquo (Planck 1907 1908) Einstein also in 1909

showed in his paper The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation

that the inertial mass of an object decreases by (Lc2) when that object emits radiation of energy L

(Einstein1909)

Of course this concept again is incorrect because all types of energy have zero mass The heated

mass as long as it has been supplied by any energy source such as heating or electric potential radiates

emission spectra in the form of light with various frequencies as an electromagnetic radiation but it

does not lose any mass In other clear words the excited electrons will emit the absorbed energy and

there is no mass loss during radiation

13 Non-relativistic quantum mass-energy equivalence E=mbc We have explained above that the concept of conversion of mass to energy or vice versa are incorrect

The experimentalists and the theoreticians need more time to improve the theories that enable them to

calculate the actual nuclear forces and binding energies for the nuclides from their substructure

Regarding nuclear reactions calculations we use the speculative Einsteinrsquos mass-energy equivalence

formula E=mc2 which usually overestimates the nuclear energies In this regard we would like to

suggest a novel non-relativistic formula with a new conversion factor other than (c2) to help in the

calculation of nuclear energy

The treatment of black body radiation by Max Planck (Planck 1901) disclosed to us a fact that

the energy of the electrons in the atomic orbital are quantized From a physical point of view the peaks

of the thermal radiation of black body cover the range 400-800 nm (31-155 eV) which is below the IP


(eV) of any elements in the periodic table (IPCs= 389 eV) That means this thermal radiation is a type

of a condensed atomic emission radiation The energy of the thermal radiation was calculated by Max

Planck using the two universal constants (hPlanck= 662606957x10-34 Jsec) (kPlanck= 13806488x10

-23

JoK) which is given by E=hν and E=kT (please note that this constant kPlanck is improperly known in

the literature as Boltzmann2) The success of the Max Planck treatment which results in finding the

two constants hPlanck and kPlanck was based on three assumptions that the energy is quantized the

temperature θ is set to one Kelvin and the wavelength at its max value These three assumptions and

others such as Thiesen Stirlingrsquos theorem Kurlbaum empirical formula led him to a historical success

of black body radiation In the present treatment we followed some Planckrsquos assumptions to find the

new converting factor (through the novel mass-energy equivalence formula) We will derive the new

formula which will be based on the following points first - experimental principles second - semi-

empirical formula third - wave quantized character (energy frequenton) and fourth - universal

constants that reflect the frequentons characters which were called energy quanta by Max Planck

We may start from the relation between the temperature of the black body radiation and the

energy through the second constant kPlanck as follow

E=kPlanck

Tblackbody

(1)

The temperature of the thermal spectral of black body is well related with the wavelength of the

emitted radiation The relation between T and λmax (at high frequencies) is well described by Wienrsquos

displacement law (Mehra1982) which states that there is an inverse relationship between the

wavelength of the peak of the emission of black body and its temperature at equilibrium state as

follow

(2)

Where

is the peak wavelength in meter of the emission spectra at equilibrium

T is the temperature of the blackbody in Kelvinrsquos (oK) and

b is a constant of proportionality called Wienrsquos displacement constant and equals 2897768551x10-3

meter-Kelvin Hence we have

or

2 Of course the kPlanck constant is calculated by Max Planck through his treatment of black body radiation when he used

the entropy equation as appeared in his reprint in item 2 eq=3rdquo as follow

sect2 We now set the entropy SN of the system proportional to the logarithm of its probability W within an arbitrary additive

constant so that the N resonators together have the energy EN

(3) SN = k log W + constant

And in item 11 in eq no 14 he related both h and k as appeared in his reprintrdquo

(14) k4h

4 = 11682 x 10

15

And in item 12 he related both h and k in another formula as appeared in his reprint as follow

hk=(49561 x 0294)31010

=4866 x 10-11

From these two formulas he got k and h values

In the literature this kB is called Boltzmann constant (which is given by RNA ie the gas constant divided by the Avogadro

constant where R=kNA it is improper assignment due to trivial substitution loop ie k=kNANA) and this equation SN = k

log W + constant is called Boltzmann equation Planck used this formula and calculated the k constant with h constant Of

course Planck mentioned in his paper that such expression was used by L Boltzmann for a similar idea Planck said in

his Nobel Prize lecture in 1920 ldquoThis constant is often referred to as Boltzmanns constant although to my knowledge

Boltzmann himself never introduced itrdquo


Wien considered the thermal emission as an adiabatic process which means the waves of light is in

thermal equilibrium state3 Wien showed that the energy of cavity light changes in exactly the same

way as the frequency Wienrsquos law born due to the quantization of the atomic orbital but it was very

early for Wien to understand it If we substitute equation no4 into equation no1 we get

When the radiation energy is in equilibrium with the temperature this means that the emitted

energy from the electron is equal to the absorbed energy We think that the electromagnetic field EMF

of the electron absorbs and emits the electromagnetic energy through interference of both fields but the

electron EMF is confined by its mass m due to its magnetons Thus the wavelength λmax in eq no 5

belongs to energy absorbed by the EMF of the excited electrons The wavelength λmax of the excited

EMF and the mass m of the electrons are well related through the formula of duality The proper

relationship between m and λ is coming from De Broglie expression4 (De Broglie 1924) which relates

the wavelength and the momentum of the particles through Planck constant hPlanck Thus we can write

p = hPlanck

λmax (6)

Or

λmax = hPlanck

P (7)

The momentum of any high speed particle might be described by speed of light and can be given by the

following equation

p=mc (8)

where

m is the mass of the particle and

c is the velocity of light equals to 299792458 x 108 ms

We may substitute the value of momentum p from eq no 8 into the wavelength of the black body in

eq no 7 to get

And by substituting the value of the wavelength by its corresponding momentum from eq no 9 into

eq no5 we get

Substituting the value for kplanck which is known as Boltzmann constant kB in eq no 10 we get

Or

(12)

The derived equation may be rewrite as a general formula in form of E=(mb)c where (mb) is the

momentum of the particle and c is a conversion factor from momentum unit to energy unit or as

follow

E=mbc (13)

Now we can write the mass-energy equivalent as follow

3 Of course the b is a constant of proportionality called Wienrsquos displacement constant and equals 2897768551 x10

-3

meter-Kelvin which can be given by (hck)4965114 If you use these constants (hck) directly and not from Wien b

constant then you will get a similar formula E=(14965114) x mc2 or E=02014 x mc

2

4 We have a different understanding for De Broglie which will be published in details in the next paper where we think that

this wavelength represents the excited radius of the fermion


(

)

The mass-energy equivalence will gets its final value if we substitute for the speed of light 299792458

x108 ms as follow

For one atomic mass unit u the mass-energy equivalent is calculated as follow

1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)

The equivalent energy to one u in MeV is calculated as follow

1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)

A different value for Planck constant kPlanck (1429x10-23

J o

K)5 mentioned in the literature and

the corresponding value of universal particle speed constant equals b=0624942x108 ms which gives

an equivalent energy equal to194177 MeVu

Relating our value of the mass-energy equivalence in MeV from eq no 19 with that of

Einstein we get the following the ratio of mbcmc2 which equals to (187607 MeV 93149 MeV) =

020141 We may use our mass-energy equivalent of (Em) from our equation E=mbc in relation to the

speculative equation of Einstein E=mc2

in the calculation of the energy released from nuclear fission

Practically Einstein equation E=mc2

usually overestimates the Q-value while the max efficiency

achieved in nuclear reactors (ie SCWR) and weapons is 45 In the laboratory it is confirmed

(Hambsch1989 Thiereus 1981) that using thermal neutrons the Total Kinetic Energy (TKE) of fission

fragments (of the mass=355x10-28

Kg) that results from of 235

U and 239

Pu is 20-60 MeV less than Q-

value of reaction predicted by Einsteinrsquos equation E=mc2 (200MeV for

235U) The typical plot of the

distribution of the total of the kinetic energy of 235

U or 239

Pu shows a peak at 175 MeV Bakhoum has

attempted to calculate the TKE using the wave mechanical equation H=mv2 and he got 45 MeV at

v=45x107

ms (Bakhoum 2002) Some alternate suggestions have been made to explain the total

kinetic energy of fission fragments by extending the successful Liquid-Drop Model of Bohr and

Wheeler (Straede 1987 Wilkins 1976)

The Q-value for fission fragments6 of

is estimated based on the new mass-energy

equivalence E=∆mbc where ∆m is the mass defect to be 3482 MeVbc In the forthcoming paper we

will use E=mbc to calculate all types of nuclear reactions The energies of fission of are

compared with others as seen in Table-1

Table-1 The theoretical Q-value for fission reaction

The Experimental Value (Hambsch1989Thiereus 1981)

From Gaussian graph

(in lab)

From E=∆mbc (See footnote 6 )

From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2

175 MeVc2 3720 MeVbc

4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2

5 This value is the corrected value derived in 2007 by a mathematician The author has re-manipulated the statistical model

of the combinational theory which used by Max Planck and gave this k value Another source is from this link

httpdbhswvusdk12causwebdocsChem-HistoryPlanck-1901Planck-1901html

6The Q-value for

is equal to 3482 MeVbc the Q-value for

is equal to 3721 MeVbc and the Q-value for

is equal to 4113 MeVbc


14 Some derived equations for non-relativistic particles As we explained the b constant is a universal particle speed constant which represents the optimum

speed of the electron in the atomic orbitals and of all elemental particles that are emitted through all

nuclear reactions and processes and no particle can exceed this value unless it is accelerated Therefore

this speed constant b can be used to calculate the momentum of the fermions as shown below

p=mb (20)

The corresponding mathematical kinetic energy for momentum p=mb of the heavy particle can be

given by E=mb2 while the electromagnetic field EMF (energy) generated by the particle can be given

by following equation

E=mbc (21)

Equation no 21 can be used for the calculation the EMF generated by the fermions We can write a

novel equation similar to the De Broglie equation for non-relativistic relations to describe the

frequency of the EMF of the fermion as follows

(22)

The universal particle speed constant b can be used also to relate the wavelength and the frequency of

the EMF of the fermion as below

b=λυ (23)

The equation no 23 can be used in particle physics for any fermion moving with velocities less than

speed of light Now in particle physics we have c=λυ for wave and b=λυ for EMF of the particle The

charged EMF of the fermion is described by the universal particle speed constant b The non-

relativistic equivalent energy of the EMF of the fermion can be calculated as follows

E=hbλ (24)

The kinetic energy of heavy particle also can be calculated from its mass as follows

E=mb2 (25)

The energy of fission products or decay processes which are accompanied by neutrinos can be

calculated from the mass defect ∆m as follows

E=∆mbc (26)

We may apply the above equations to calculate the momentum p value for excited electron in atomic

orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms

The frequency of the electron EMF generated by its mass can be calculated from equation no 22 This

EMF dissipates only when it impacts the positron and result in the disintegration process

= 24909 x 10

18 Hz (in region of Gamma-ray)

The wavelength of the electromagnetic field of electron can be calculated from equation no 23 b=λυ as

follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12

m or 2424 picometer (in region of γ-ray which is identical to Comptonrsquos λ)

This wavelength (2424 pm) is depending on the electron mass and the universal particle speed

constant b It describes the strength of the charged EMF of the electron itself which is ready to absorb

and emit energy as seen in the derivation of E=mbc It is different from the wavelength that is

corresponding to the momentum of the electron with speed b Our interpretation to the wavelength

given by λ=hmb is to represents the excited radius of the fermion mass due to the flexibility of the

sub-structure (magnetons) of the fermion and not due to the duality concept For example the active

radius of the electron is given by the following equation

= 120438 x 10

-11 m or 012 picometer (which is close to primitive Bohr radius 529 x 10

-11 m)


Finally we can say that there are three difference concepts for the energy given by the E=mbc The first

meaning for E=mbc is to describe the mathematical energy corresponding to the momentum p=mb of

the fermion In current physics this energy is described by the kinetic energy formula E=1mv2 The

second meaning for the energy given by the E=mbc is to describe the energy generated by the fermion

The third meaning for the energy given by the E=mbc is to describe the energy of any nuclear reaction

or decay process such beta decay which may be calculated directly from E=Δmbc where Δm is the

mass defect (see Table-1)

15 b-constant components The two components of the light or the electromagnetic ray namely the magnetic constant μo and

electric constant εo7

are related to the speed of light due to Maxwell formula as follow

oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)

Therefore we can re-write the Maxwell formula for universal particle speed constant b and

calculate the magnetic component for the charged EMF of the fermion Here we suppose that the value

of electric constant εo is fixed due to the fixed electric charge while the value of the magnetic constant

μo will be changed and increased for these charged fermions or particles Consequently we can

calculate the new magnetic constant μb for the charged particle as follow

radic or

(28)

The calculated value of from equation no 28 is equal to 30979 x 10-5

NA2 which is larger

than that of magnetic constant μo=1256637061 x 10-7

NA2 of the electromagnetic waves by 2465

times and this gives a special magnetic property to the field of the charged particles The interaction of

the magnetic component of the charged particle with the exerted magnetic field will be stronger than

that of electromagnetic waves based on Lorentz force F=q[E+vxB] or F=q[E+vxμbH] This concept

explains the variance of the deflection of alpha beta and gamma through passing the magnetic field It

also explains the strong bonds in the chemical interactions which are attributed to the strong

interference of the charged electromagnetic field of the electrons Of course this concept is novel in

field of electrodynamics quantum science

16 Summary and concluding remarks We have discussed the idea of conversion of mass to energy and vice versa and we showed it is

incorrect both in the chemical and in the nuclear reactions We showed that the radiating body will not

lose any mass A new nuclear model is proposed The model predicts that the protons neutrons and all

fermions are composed of integer multiple of sub-quarks basic building blocks of matter called

magnetons This model proposes also a new elementary particle called conservons These conservons

are responsible for keeping the mass stability of neutrons and the proton inside the nuclei We also

proposed the fifth and sixth states of matter in the stars The fifth state represents the nuclear

transparency in which the nuclear components are loosely bound and free to endure a nuclear reaction

due to the weakness of the electromagnetic belt The sixth state represents the nuclear magma in

which there are no nuclei identities but only magnetons particles that combined with each other

through very strong forces The nuclear magma will be collected later as black holes The nature of

light has been discussed and explained to be composed of wave discrete packets of frequentons to

differentiate them from discrete packets of photons of particle nature We concluded that light is not of

7 All physical constants used in this article are taken from httpphysicsnistgov which depends on the Committee on Data

for Science and Technology (CODATA) values


dual character and unlike the fermion We also explained both the photoelectric effect and Comptonrsquos

effect based on the new wave concept of light represented by frequentons We attributed the duality of

the fermions due to their charged electromagnetic field and their flexible structure of the magnetons

Finally we derived a novel semi-empirical formula for non-relativistic mass-energy

equivalence E=mbc where b is universal particle speed constant equals to 0603797 x 108 ms This

speed constant is equal to 020141 of speed of light In our opinion that this derived universal particle

speed constant represents the optimum speed to be reached by the non-accelerated moving charged or

uncharged particles or fermions The concept of this semi-empirical formula will refute the relativity

idea of relative mass time dilation length contraction and other ideas of relativity Finally we can use

this universal particle speed constant to relate the wavelength and the frequency of the elementary

particles in such that b=λυ in similar to c=λυ for waves Other non-relativistic quantum equation are

derived for high speed charged particles such as p=mb ν=mbch λ=hmb E=hbλ E=mb2 and E=mbc

We believe that this b constant is of similar importance in non- relativistic quantum mechanics to

Planck constant h

Acknowledgement The author is highly indebted to Professor Dr G A W Derwish BSc PhD CChem FRSC for his

valuable and fruitful discussions suggestion and comments

References [1] Abraham M 1903 Ann d Phys vol 10 pp105 vol 14 pp236 1904

[2] Arthur D 1993 ldquoAntoine Lavoisier Science Administration and Revolutionrdquo Cambridge

University Press

[3] Arygres P 2001 ldquoAn Introduction to Global Supersymmetryrdquo

[4] Baer H and T Xerxes 2006 ldquoWeak Scale Supersymmetryrdquo Cambridge University Press

[5] Bakhoum E G 2002 Physics Essays 15 1 (Preprint archive physics0206061)

[6] Bartocci U Albert Einstein e Olinto De Pretto 1999 ldquoLa vera storia della formula pi`u famosa

del mondordquo (Ed Andromeda Bologna)

[7] Boltzmann L 1877 Proceedings of imperial Academy of Science Vienna (II) 76 pp 428

[8] Bohr N 1913 ldquoOn the Constitution of Atoms and Moleculesrdquo Philosophical Magazine

Series 6 26 pp 1-25

[9] Bromley D A 2000 ldquoGauge Theory of Weak Interactionsrdquo Springer ISBN 3-540-67672-4

[10] Clementi E and DL Raimondi 1963 J Chem Phys 38 pp 2686

[11] Clementi E DL Raimondi and WP Reinhardt 1967 J Chem Phys 47 pp 1300

[12] Cohen A B 1971 ldquoConcepts of Nuclear Physicsrdquo McGraw-Hill Chap 4

[13] Compton Arthur H 1923 ldquoA Quantum Theory of the Scattering of X-Rays by Light

Elementsrdquo Physical Review

[14] Cooper F A Khare and U Sukhatme 1995 Supersymmetry in Quantum Mechanicsrdquo Phys

Rep 251 pp 267-85

[15] Davisson C1965 The Discovery of Electron Waves Nobel Lectures Physics 1922-1941

Amsterdam Elsevier Publishing Company Retrieved on 2007-09-17

[16] Davisson C1937 Nobel Foundation The Nobel Prize in Physics 1937 Les Prix Nobel

Retrieved on 2007-09-17

[17] Drees M 1996 ldquoAn Introduction to Supersymmetryrdquo

[18] De Broglie L 1924 ldquoRecherches sur la theacuteorie des quantardquo (Researches on the quantum

theory) Thesis Paris

[19] Dugne J-J Fredriksson S and Hansson J Preon Trinity 2002 ldquoA Schematic Model of

Leptons Quarks and Heavy Vector Bosonsrdquo Europhys Lett 57 pp 188

[20] Eidelman S et al 2004 ldquoParticle data group the quark modelrdquo Physics Letters

B 592 pp 1


[21] Einstein A 1905 Annalen der Physik 18 pp 639

[22] Encyclopedia Britannica 2008 Grand unified theory (GUT) Ultimate Reference

Suite Chicago Encyclopedia Britannica

[23] Fernbach S R Serber and TB Tayler 1949 ldquoThe Scattering of High-Energy

[24] Neutrons by Nucleirdquo Phys Rev 75 pp1352

[25] Freedman R and HYoung 2004 ldquoUniversity Physics with Modern Physicsrdquo

11th international edition Sears and Zemansky 1633-4 ISBN 0-8053-8768-4

[26] Freund P G O 1986 ldquoIntroduction to Supersymmetryrdquo Cambridge University Press

[27] Georgi H ldquoLie algebras in particle physicsrdquo Addison-Wesley Longman

ISBN 0-7382-0233-9

[28] Glashow SL 1961 Partial-symmetries of weak interactions Nuclear Physics 22(4) 579ndash

588

[29] Goodman J W 1996 ldquoIntroduction to Fourier opticsrdquo New York McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-

024254-2

[30] Hambsch FJ et al 1989 Nucl Phys A 491 pp 56

[31] Hasenoumlhrl F 1904 Ann d Phys vol 15 pp344

[32] Hawking S 1988 ldquoA Brief History of Timerdquo

[33] Hertz HR1887 May Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingingungen Annalen der

Physik2 31 pp 421

[34] Hertz HR1888 March Ueber Einwirkung einer geradlinigen electrische Schwingingung

Annalen der Physik 2 34 pp 155

[35] Hertz HR1888 May Ueber Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der electrodynamische Annalen

der Physik 2 34 pp 551

[36] Heisenberg W 1927 Uumlber den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen

Kinematik und Mechanik Zeitschrift fuumlr Physik 43 pp 172-198

[37] Junker G 1996 ldquoSupersymmetric Methods in Quantum and Statistical Physicsrdquo Springer-

Verlag

[38] Kane G L 1987 ldquoModern Elementary Particle Physicsrdquo Perseus Books ISBN 0-201-11749-

5

[39] Kaufmann W 1902 Phys Z vol 4 pp 55

[40] Lawson J D 1957 Proceedings of the Physical Society B Vol 70 pp 6

[41] Leibniz G W 1717 ldquoPhilosophical Essaysrdquo Ed and trans by Roger Ariew and Daniel

Garber Indianapolis Hackett 1989 Indianapolis Indiana 46204

[42] Lykken J D 1996 ldquoIntroduction to Supersymmetryrdquo

[43] Mackie J M 1845 The Life of Godfrey William von Leibnitzrdquo Written by G E Guhrauer

in 1809-1854 Full text PDF trans by Mackie Boston USA

[44] Martin S 1999 ldquoA Supersymmetry Primerrdquo

[45] Maxwell J M 1861 ldquoOn Physical Lines of Forcerdquo

[46] Maxwell J M 1865 ldquoA Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Fieldrdquo

[47] Mehra J and H Rechenberg 1982 The Historical Development of Quantum Theory

Volume 1 Chapter 1 Springer

[48] Muhyedeen B R J A T Al- Thib and G A W Derwish 1993 Iraqi J Chem 11 3

[49] Newton I 1704 ldquoOpticksrdquo pp CVX (reprinted by Dover Publications Inc New York

(1952)

[50] Newton I 1726 ldquoThe Principia Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophyrdquo (Trans I B

Cohen and A Whitman) Berkeley CA University of California Press 1999

[51] Ohrl H and Wien F Sitzungen 1904 F Ann der Phys IIA 113 pp 1039 Ohrl H 1905 F

Ann der Phys 16 pp 589

[52] Oberst H D Kouznetsov K Shimizu J Fujita F Shimizu 2005 ldquoFresnel diffraction mirror

for atomic waverdquo Physical Review Letters 94 pp 013203


[53] Parker B 1993 ldquoOvercoming some of the problemsrdquo pp 259-279

[54] Pati J C and A Salam 1974 ldquoLepton number as the fourth color Phys Rev D10 pp 275-

289

[55] Planck M 1901 rdquoOn the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrumrdquo Annalen der

Physik 4 pp 553

[56] Planck M 1908 Ann Phys 26 pp 1

[57] Planck M 1907 Sitz der preuss AkadWiss Physik Math Klasse 13 (June)

[58] Poincaracutee JH 1900 Arch neerland sci 2 5 pp 232

[59] Poincaracutee JH 1900 In Boscha pp 252

[60] Preston S T 1875 ldquoPhysics of the Etherrdquo E amp F N Spon London see also

httpitisvoltaalessandriaitepistemeep6ep6-bjerk1htm

[61] Pretto O De 1904 ldquoIpotesi dellrsquoetere nella vita dellrsquouniversordquo Reale Istituto Veneto di

Scienze Lettere ed Arti Feb 1904 tomo LXIII parte II pp 439-500

[62] Rohlf J W 1994 ldquoModern Physics from a to Z0rdquo Wiley

[63] Rutherford E 1904 ldquo Radio-activity 2nd ed (1905) ISBN 978-1-60355-058-1

[64] Rutherford E 1906 ldquoRadioactive Transformationsrdquo ISBN 978-160355-054-3

[65] Rutherford E 1904 ldquoRadiations from Radioactive Substancesrdquo

[66] Rutherford E 1926 ldquoThe Electrical Structure of Matterrdquo

[67] Rutherford E 1933 ldquoThe Artificial Transmutation of the Elementsrdquo

[68] Schroumldinger E 1926 An Undulatory Theory of the Mechanics of Atoms and Molecules

Phys Rev 28 6 pp 1049ndash1070 doi101103 Phys Rev 28 pp 1049

[69] Schroumldinger E 1926 Annalen der Physik (Leipzig) Main paper

[70] Schwarz P 1998 ldquoThe Official String Theory Web Siterdquo Retrieved on December 16 2005

March 2008

[71] Singer C 1941 ldquoA Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century Clarendon Press pp

217

[72] Soddy F 1904 ldquoRadioactivity An Elementary Treatise from Standpoint of the Disintegration

Theoryrdquo (ldquoThe Electrician ldquoPrinting and Publishing London)

[73] Slater J C 1960 ldquoQuantum Theory of Atomic Structure Volumes I amp II McGraw-Hill NY

[74] Straede C et al 1987 Nucl Phys A 462 pp 85

[75] Thiereus H et al 1981 Phys Rev C 23 pp 2104

[76] Troost J 2002 ldquoBeyond String Theoryrdquo Vrije Universiteit Brussel Theoretical Physics

(TENA) Retrieved on December 16 2005 ndash An ongoing project by a string physicist working

for the French CNRS

[77] Weinberg S 1967 A Model of Leptons Physical Review Letters 19 (21) 1264ndash1266

[78] Wilkins B D et al 1976 Phys Rev C 14 pp1832

[79] Witten E 1998 ldquoDuality Spacetime and Quantum Mechanicsrdquo Kavli Institute for Theoretical

Physics Retrieved on December 16 2005

Rybczyk
Typewritten Text
More Articles13Millennium Relativity home page13


the concepts became more realistic for both issues with a number of scientists sharing in the

crystallization of these concepts enabling a greater depth of understanding the secret of the universe

In the early 20th

century scientists started an investigation of the atom structure after the

discovery of the electron theorized by Richard Laming (1838ndash1851) and G Johnstone Stoney (1874)

and discovered by JJ Thomson (1897) the proton theorized by William Prout (1815) and discovered

by Ernest Rutherford (1919) and the neutron discovered by James Chadwick (1932) The theoretical

and experimental researches on the mass-energy atom waves and particles led to the branch of

fundamental sciences that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call quantum

mechanics It is the basic mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry including

condensed matter physics solid-state physics atomic physics molecular physics computational

chemistry quantum chemistry particle physics nuclear physics and chemistry quantum

chromodynamics and quantum gravity The foundations of quantum mechanics were established

during the first half of the 20th

century by Max Planck Albert Einstein Ernest Rutherford Niels Bohr

Louis de Broglie Max Born Werner Heisenberg Erwin Schroumldinger John von Neumann Paul Dirac

Wolfgang Pauli and others

The theoretical and experimental works in nuclear physics result in the formation of the

Standard Model (1970 to 1973) (Glashow 1961 Weinberg 1967 Kane 1987 Bromley 2000)

Although the Standard Model well describes the elementary particles and composite particles it is still

considered as a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one Many physicists find this model

to be unsatisfactory due to its many undermined parameters many fundamental particles the non-

observation of the Higgs boson and other more theoretical considerations such as the hierarchy

problem

Therefore some new speculative theories beyond the Standard Model extruded attempts to

remedy these deficiencies According to Preon Theory -coined by Jogesh Pati and Abdus Salam in

1974- (Pati and Salam 1974 Dugne et al 2002) there are one or more orders of particles more

fundamental than those found in the Standard Model called preons which are derived from pre-

quarks which look like ldquoparticle zoo modelrdquo that came before it The interest in preons has vanished

since the simplest models were experimentally ruled out in the 1980s

The Grand unification Theory attempts to combine the electroweak interaction with the strong

interaction into a single grand unified theory (GUT) (Encyclopedia Britannica 2008) GUT predicts

that at extremely high energies (above 1014 GeV) the electromagnetic weak nuclear and strong

nuclear forces are fused into a single unified field (Parker B 1993 Hawking S 1988) Such a force

would be spontaneously broken into the three forces by a Higgs-like mechanism However the non-

observation of proton decay made it less important

The Supersymmetry tried to extend the Standard Model by adding an additional class of

symmetries to the Lagrangian These symmetries exchange fermionic particles with bosonic ones In

other words in a supersymmetric theory for every type of boson there exists a corresponding type of

fermion and vice-versa Such symmetry predicts the existence of supersymmetric particles

abbreviated as sparticles which include the sleptons squarks neutralinos and charginos But these

particles are so heavy that they need more experiments to be verified (Baer and Xerxes 2006) As of

2008 there is no direct evidence that supersymmetry is a symmetry of nature (Freund 1986 Martin

1999 Lykken 1996 Drees 1996 Arygres 2001)

String Theory is an incomplete mathematical approach to theoretical physics whose building

blocks are one-dimensional extended objects called strings rather than the zero-dimensional point

particles that form the basis for the standard model of particle physics (Arygres 2001 Cooper et al

1995 Junker 1996) The string theory mainly the M-theory out of the five string theories suggest that

all particles that make up matter and energy are comprised of strings measuring at the Planck length

equals 1616252x10-35

m that exists in an 11-dimensional universe to prevent tears in the fabric of

space using the uncertainty principle whereas our own existence is merely a 4-brane inside which

exist the 3 space dimensions and the 1 time dimension that we observe (Schwartz 1998 Troost 2005











classical mechanic




















speculated E=mc2





















































































































































































































universe












hf=Φ +EKmax


(or W) EKmax =12m 2

































Z and N



























wave






(Compton 1923)












-11 m
















ltF2gt lt116π













(Einstein1909)




















-23













E=kPlanck

Tblackbody

(1)





follow

(2)

Where





or







(14) k4h

4 = 11682 x 10

15


hk=(49561 x 0294)31010

=4866 x 10-11





















p = hPlanck

λmax (6)

Or

λmax = hPlanck

P (7)


following equation

p=mc (8)

where




eq no 7 to get


eq no5 we get


Or

(12)



follow

E=mbc (13)



-3



2




(

)


x108 ms as follow


1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)


1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)


J o















U and 239





U or 239



v=45x107











From Gaussian graph

(in lab)


From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2


4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2




6The Q-value for









p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text











classical mechanic




















speculated E=mc2





















































































































































































































universe












hf=Φ +EKmax


(or W) EKmax =12m 2

































Z and N



























wave






(Compton 1923)












-11 m
















ltF2gt lt116π













(Einstein1909)




















-23













E=kPlanck

Tblackbody

(1)





follow

(2)

Where





or







(14) k4h

4 = 11682 x 10

15


hk=(49561 x 0294)31010

=4866 x 10-11





















p = hPlanck

λmax (6)

Or

λmax = hPlanck

P (7)


following equation

p=mc (8)

where




eq no 7 to get


eq no5 we get


Or

(12)



follow

E=mbc (13)



-3



2




(

)


x108 ms as follow


1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)


1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)


J o















U and 239





U or 239



v=45x107











From Gaussian graph

(in lab)


From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2


4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2




6The Q-value for









p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text





































































































































































































universe












hf=Φ +EKmax


(or W) EKmax =12m 2

































Z and N



























wave






(Compton 1923)












-11 m
















ltF2gt lt116π













(Einstein1909)




















-23













E=kPlanck

Tblackbody

(1)





follow

(2)

Where





or







(14) k4h

4 = 11682 x 10

15


hk=(49561 x 0294)31010

=4866 x 10-11





















p = hPlanck

λmax (6)

Or

λmax = hPlanck

P (7)


following equation

p=mc (8)

where




eq no 7 to get


eq no5 we get


Or

(12)



follow

E=mbc (13)



-3



2




(

)


x108 ms as follow


1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)


1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)


J o















U and 239





U or 239



v=45x107











From Gaussian graph

(in lab)


From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2


4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2




6The Q-value for









p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text








Z and N



























wave






(Compton 1923)












-11 m
















ltF2gt lt116π













(Einstein1909)




















-23













E=kPlanck

Tblackbody

(1)





follow

(2)

Where





or







(14) k4h

4 = 11682 x 10

15


hk=(49561 x 0294)31010

=4866 x 10-11





















p = hPlanck

λmax (6)

Or

λmax = hPlanck

P (7)


following equation

p=mc (8)

where




eq no 7 to get


eq no5 we get


Or

(12)



follow

E=mbc (13)



-3



2




(

)


x108 ms as follow


1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)


1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)


J o















U and 239





U or 239



v=45x107











From Gaussian graph

(in lab)


From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2


4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2




6The Q-value for









p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text



-11 m
















ltF2gt lt116π













(Einstein1909)




















-23













E=kPlanck

Tblackbody

(1)





follow

(2)

Where





or







(14) k4h

4 = 11682 x 10

15


hk=(49561 x 0294)31010

=4866 x 10-11





















p = hPlanck

λmax (6)

Or

λmax = hPlanck

P (7)


following equation

p=mc (8)

where




eq no 7 to get


eq no5 we get


Or

(12)



follow

E=mbc (13)



-3



2




(

)


x108 ms as follow


1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)


1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)


J o















U and 239





U or 239



v=45x107











From Gaussian graph

(in lab)


From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2


4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2




6The Q-value for









p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text





-23













E=kPlanck

Tblackbody

(1)





follow

(2)

Where





or







(14) k4h

4 = 11682 x 10

15


hk=(49561 x 0294)31010

=4866 x 10-11





















p = hPlanck

λmax (6)

Or

λmax = hPlanck

P (7)


following equation

p=mc (8)

where




eq no 7 to get


eq no5 we get


Or

(12)



follow

E=mbc (13)



-3



2




(

)


x108 ms as follow


1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)


1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)


J o















U and 239





U or 239



v=45x107











From Gaussian graph

(in lab)


From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2


4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2




6The Q-value for









p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text














p = hPlanck

λmax (6)

Or

λmax = hPlanck

P (7)


following equation

p=mc (8)

where




eq no 7 to get


eq no5 we get


Or

(12)



follow

E=mbc (13)



-3



2




(

)


x108 ms as follow


1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)


1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)


J o















U and 239





U or 239



v=45x107











From Gaussian graph

(in lab)


From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2


4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2




6The Q-value for









p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text


(

)


x108 ms as follow


1u = (1660538921 x 10-27

kg) x (1810137886817 x 1016

Jkg) (16)

1u = 30058 x10-11

J (17)


1 u (in MeV) = 30058x10-11

J x MeV160218x10-13

J (18)

Or

1 u = (187607) MeV (19)


J o















U and 239





U or 239



v=45x107











From Gaussian graph

(in lab)


From E=mc2

(Einstein1905)

From H=mv2

(Bakhoum2002)

140 -180 MeVc2


4113 MeVbc

1847 MeVc2

2042 MeVc2

45 MeVv2




6The Q-value for









p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text






p=mb (20)




E=mbc (21)




(22)



b=λυ (23)





E=hbλ (24)


E=mb2 (25)



E=∆mbc (26)


orbital as follows

p=meb (me=910938291 x 10-31

Kg b= 0603797 x108 ms)

p=0603797 x 108 ms x 910938291 x 10

-31 Kg

p=550021807290927 x 10-23

Kg ms



= 24909 x 10



follow

λ=bυ = 24240 x 10-12









= 120438 x 10


-11 m)












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text












oo

c

1 εo= 8854187817 x 10

-12 Fm μo= 1256637061 x 10

-7 NA

2 (27)






radic or

(28)


NA2 which is larger







































Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text















Planck constant h





University Press








Series 6 26 pp 1-25








Rep 251 pp 267-85











B 592 pp 1











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text











ISBN 0-7382-0233-9


588


024254-2





Physik2 31 pp 421








Verlag


5















(1952)










289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text




289


Physik 4 pp 553



















March 2008


217








for the French CNRS





Rybczyk
Typewritten Text

on a heuristic view points concerning mass and energy ... heuristic viewpoints concerning... ·...

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