on-farm water recycling as an adaptation strategy for...

On-FarmWaterRecyclingasanAdaptationStrategyforDrainedAgriculturalLandintheWesternLakeErieBasin

On-FarmWaterRecyclingasanAdaptationStrategyforDrainedAgriculturalLandinthe

WesternLakeErieBasin

JaneFrankenberger,

Professor,AgriculturalandBiologicalEngineeringPurdueUniversity

LarryC.Brown,ProfessorStephanGunn,Post-Doctoral

ResearcherFood,Ag&BiologicalEngineering

TheOhioStateUniversity

BarryJ.Allred,ResearchAgriculturalEngineer;DebraGamble,Research

TechnicianUSDAAgriculturalResearch

Service,SoilDrainageResearchUnit

GLISAteammembersthatwereintegraltotheproject

William'B.J.'BauleClimatologist,UniversityofMichiganClimate

CenterGreatLakesIntegratedSciences+Assessments

GrahamSustainabilityInstitute

JeffAndresenProfessorofGeography

StateClimatologistforMichiganMichiganStateUniversity

ThisprojectwasfundedbyGreatLakesIntegratedSciences+Assessmentsthrougha2014GreatLakesClimateAssessmentGrant.

RecommendedCitation:

Frankenberger,J.,Allred,B.,Brown,L.,Gamble,D.,Gunn,S.,Baule,W.,Andresen,J.2016.On-FarmWaterRecyclingasanAdaptationStrategyforDrainedAgriculturalLandsintheWesternLakeErieBasin.In: Project Reports. D. Brown, W. Baule, L. Briley, E. Gibbons, and I. Robinson, eds. Available from the Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessments (GLISA) Center.

Forfurtherquestions,pleasecontactJaneFrankenberger([email protected])

ON-FARMWATERRECYCLINGASANADAPTATIONSTRATEGYFORDRAINEDAGRICULTURALLANDINTHEWESTERNLAKEERIEBASIN

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ContentsExecutiveSummary..............................................................................................................................................................3

Introduction:Theneedforon-farmwaterstorageandrecyclingforclimatechangeresilience...................................3

Overviewofon-farmwaterrecyclingondrainedcropland..............................................................................................3

Siteswhereon-farmwaterrecyclinghasbeenimplemented...........................................................................................4

OHIOWRSISsites..............................................................................................................................................................4

Michiganirrigationponds................................................................................................................................................4

EssexCounty,Ontario,Canada........................................................................................................................................5

Quantifyingincreaseincropyieldbenefitsunderclimatechange...................................................................................6

ExaminingimpactsusingtheDRAINMODsimulationmodel.................................................................................................6

Stakeholderviewsonbarriersandopportunitiesforon-farmwaterrecycling..............................................................7

PotentialofthispracticefortheMidwest.......................................................................................................................7

Barrierstoaddress...........................................................................................................................................................8

Locationconsiderationsandsitingstrategies................................................................................................................8

KeyLessonsLearned............................................................................................................................................................8

Additionalquestionstobeansweredtomovethepracticeforward................................................................................9

Futurework..........................................................................................................................................................................9

References...........................................................................................................................................................................10


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ExecutiveSummaryThegoalofthisprojectwastobeginaprocessofanalyzingthepotentialforincreasingon-farmwaterstorageasaclimatechangeadaptationstrategy.Togainunderstandingoftheopportunitiesandbarrierstoon-farmwaterrecyclingintheGreatLakesregion,wetalkedwithdrainagecontractors,agencystaff,farmers,extensionspecialists,irrigationdealers,andfarmerswhohaveandhavenotinstalledon-farmwaterrecycling.WeusedhistoricyielddatatogetherwithclimateprojectionstoestimatepotentialyieldbenefitsthatcouldbeachievedbytheOhioWRSISwaterrecyclingsystemsunderexpectedfutureclimateconditions.Wehavesharedthisinformationatdrainageworkshops,scientificconferences,andmeetingsandaredevelopingfactsheetsdescribingthesesystemsthatprovideinformationthatwillbenefitproducerandagencydecision-makingaboutthisnewandpromisingpractice.

Introduction:Theneedforon-farmwaterstorageandrecyclingforclimatechangeresilienceAgricultureintheGreatLakesregionhasbenefitedhistoricallyfromregularprecipitationpatterns.Therelativelysteadyprecipitation,coupledwithsoilswithgoodwater-holdingability,hasallowedagricultureintheregiontobecomehighlyproductiveandasubstantialcontributortotheregion’seconomy.However,predictedshiftsintemperatureandprecipitationpatternstowardswarmerandwetterwintersandsprings,agreaterfrequencyofintensestormsthroughouttheyear,andmoresevereandlongerdroughtsinthesummersuggestthepotentialfordecreasedcropyieldsinthefutureunlesswaysarefoundtoprovideadditionalwatertocropsduringthegrowingseason,whilealsobeingabletoquicklyremoveexcesssoilwaterwhenconditionsarewet.

Subsurface(tile)drainageiswidelyusedincropproductioninthisregion,removingexcesswater,particularlyinthespring,toenabletimelyfieldoperations(Figure1).Whileexcesswaterneedstobedrainedinthespringandotherperiodsofexcessiveprecipitation,cropsindrainedareasalsoexperiencestressfromlackofwaterduringthedriersummermonthsatthepeakofthegrowingseason.Thissuggeststhatstoringdrainagewateronthefarmandrecyclingitthroughirrigationduringsummer,whencropsexperiencewaterdeficit,willbecomemoreandmorebeneficialasthepatternofexcesswaterattimesanddroughtatothertimesisexacerbatedbyclimatechange.

Figure1:Installationofdraintile,afeatureofcroplandacrosstheGreatLakesregion.

Thegoalofthisprojectwastoadvanceon-farmwaterrecyclingasanadaptationstrategy,byanalyzingdatafromhistoricalresearchsitesfromtheperspectiveofclimatechange,identifyingopportunitiesforthispracticetobeimplementedmorewidelyintheregion,andprovidingoutreachtostakeholdersintheregion.

Overviewofon-farmwaterrecyclingondrainedcroplandOn-farmwaterrecyclingisthepracticeofcapturingwaterdrainedfromfieldsduringhigh-flowperiods,storingitinapondorreservoir,andirrigatingitontocropslaterintheseason.Whenthispracticecapturestiledrainagewater,wearecallingitdrainagewaterrecycling,apracticethathastwomajorbenefits:

• Itwillimprovewaterqualitybecausedrainedwater,thattypicallycontainsnitrateandphosphorus,isdivertedintothewaterstoragepond.StoringthewaterandrecyclingitontocropspreventsitfromcausingwaterqualityproblemssuchasalgaebloomsinLakeErieorhypoxiaintheGulfofMexico.

• ItwillincreasecropyieldsbecausealthoughprecipitationintheMidwestisgenerallyplentiful,itdoesnotoccurexactlywhenneededbythecrop.Tiledrainageoccursmostlyinthespring,whilecropwateruseinmid-tolatesummermayresultinperiodswheninsufficientwaterisavailable.

Drainagewaterrecyclingcanbeaclosed-loopsystemwherethedrainedwaterfromafieldisrecirculatedontothesamefield,orwaterdrainedfromonefieldcanbeused


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toirrigateadifferentfield.Irrigationmaybethroughsubirrigationthatraisesthesoilwatertablebyfloodingthesubsurfacedraintiles,sprinklersystemssuchasacenterpivot,orothertechnologies(Figure2).

Siteswhereon-farmwaterrecyclinghasbeenimplementedTheOhioWetlandReservoirSubirrigationSystem(WRSIS)siteswerethefocusofthisprojectandaredescribedbelow.WealsomadeanextensiveefforttoidentifyothersiteswheredrainagewaterrecyclinghadbeenimplementedintheGreatLakesregiontobetterunderstandthepotential.Thesesitesarealsodescribedbelow.WeidentifiedandvisitedsitesinthreelocationsintheGreatLakesBasin:Ohio,Michigan,andOntario.Wehadexpectedmoresuchsitestohavebeenimplementedbutfoundthatbarrierstoimplementationareextensiveandnoteasytoovercome.

OHIOWRSISsitesInnorthwestOhio,researchersdevelopedasysteminthelate1990scalledWRSIS,whichincludedaconstructedwetlandandwaterstoragereservoir(Figure3).Runoffandsubsurfacedrainagefromcroplandwerecollectedintothewetlandforpartialtreatmentofnutrientsandsedimentandecologicalbenefits(SmileyandAllred,2011;Allredetal.2014a))beforebeingroutedtoastoragereservoiruntilneededtosubirrigatethecropsduringdrypartsofthegrowingseason(Figure4).Allredetal.(2014)showedthattheincreaseincornyieldover13yearsaveraged19%overall,witha27%increaseindryyears.Thesoybeanyieldincreasewas12%overalland23%indryyears.Yielddatafromthesesystemswereusedto

analyzethepotentialcropyieldbenefitsunderfutureclimatechangeinthisproject.(See“Quantifyingincreaseincropyieldbenefitsunderclimatechange”)

Figure3:TheOhioWRSISWetlandReservoirSubirrigationSystem(WRSIS)components.

Figure4:WetlandReservoirSubirrigationSystematVanWertCounty,Ohio.

MichiganirrigationpondsInMichigan,specialtyandothercropsareoftenirrigated.Becauseofinadequategroundwaterinsomeregions,aswellaslimitationsongroundwaterwithdrawaltopreventadverseimpactsonstreams,somegrowershaveimplementeddrainagewaterrecycling.Theirpurposewastoensureareliablewatersupplyforcropirrigationwherewellsalonewouldnotbereliable.WevisitedseveralsitesintheSaginawBayarea,wheresuchpondshadbeen

Figure2:Adrainagewaterrecyclingsystemsconsistsofdrainageintothepond(topleft),whichisirrigatedontoafield(right)


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installedbyMichiganValleyIrrigation.On-farmstoragereservoirsaslargeas30to50acre-feet(40,000to60,000m3)havebeenexcavatedtoprovidestorageforirrigationwater(Figure5).Thefarmerswithwhomwediscussedthesepondsbelievetheyareprofitable,andmoresuchpondsarebeingbuilt.TheirrigationdealerestimatedthathisfirmhasworkedwithfarmerstoinstallaboutthreedozenofthesepondsintheSaginawBayarea.

Costsforthesepondshavebeenmorethan$100,000,butinsomecasesthecosthasbeenreducedbyleveragingresourcesandopportunities.Atonefarm,thepondwasoriginallyaborrowpitforaroadconstructionprojectthroughthefarmer’sproperty,whichresultedinaverycost-effectiveinstallation.Otherfarmerswereabletosellthesandexcavatedfromthepond,whichprovidedanadditionaleconomicbenefit.Wearenotawareofanysystematicstudyoftheseon-farmstoragereservoirs,andarediscussingpossiblegrantapplicationswithengineers

atMichiganStateUniversitytoimproveourunderstandingofhowthesystemswork.

EssexCounty,Ontario,CanadaInsouthwestOntario,wevisitedsiteswhereresearchersattheHarrowResearchStationhaveconductedresearchonwaterrecyclingfornearly25years(Druryetal.,1996,2009;Tanetal.,1993;2007).

On-farmwaterrecyclinghasalsobeenusedbytomatofarmersintheareabecausegroundwaterwasinsufficienttoensureirrigationthroughoutthesummer.Manyfarmersconstructedlargestorageponds,similartothoseinMichigan,around2005to2010,.Wewereabletodiscussthesystemwithonetomatofarmerwhotoldusthattheirrigationsystemhadworkedwellandthepondisstillused.However,agroupoffarmersintheareaeventuallyformedacooperativetobuildalargeirrigationpipefrom

Figure5:Drainagewaterrecyclingponds(top)justafterconstruction,and(bottom)afterseveralyearsofuse,showingthedrainagepumpingstructureintoitaswellastheintakefortheirrigation.

Figure6:On-farmwaterrecyclinginOntarioincludespondsattheWhelanExperimentalFarm,Woodslee,Ontario(top)andapondattheEssexCountyDemonstrationFarmconstructedwithamorenaturalshapeforaesthetics(bottom).


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LakeErietoensuresufficientwaterquantities,makingthepondunnecessary.Wealsodiscussedtheseon-farmpondswithanengineerattheEssexRegionalConservationAuthority,whowasresponsibleforpermittingtheseponds.Conclusionsfromvisitingallthesesitesaresummarizedin“ExaminingimpactsusingtheDRAINMODsimulationmodel.”

QuantifyingincreaseincropyieldbenefitsunderclimatechangeToquantifyyieldincreasesfromon-farmwaterrecyclingthatcouldbeexpectedunderfutureclimatechange,historicaldatawereassembledfromthe12-yearstudyofWRSISinstalledatthreesitesinnorthwestOhiodescribedindetailinAllredetal.,2013and2014;andsummarizedinTable1.

Table1:SummaryofthethreeOhioon-farmrecyclingsites.Allsiteswereinacorn-soybeanrotation.

Site Location Sizeofsubirrigated;controlfield

(ha)

Dominantsoiltype

DefianceCounty

41.33N,84.43W

2.2;8.1

PauldingClay

FultonCounty

41.60N,83.98W

8.1;8.1

NappaneeLoam

VanWertCounty

40.88N,84.56W

12.2;6.1

HoytvilleClay

Historicalprecipitation,temperature,andsolarradiationdatawereanalyzedandusedtoderivePriestly-TaylorPotentialEvapotranspiration(PET),cropadjustedPET,andtoclassifyeachgrowingseasonintoquintilesofextremelydry,dry,nearaverage,wet,andextremelywet,andtheyieldincreasesusingon-farmwaterrecyclingweredetermined.FutureclimateprojectionsandamodeledhistoricalperiodfromtheNorthAmericanRegionalClimateChangeAssessmentProgram(NARCCAP;Mearnsetal.,2007)werealsoexaminedandbias-correctedtoevaluatethreemodeledprojectionsoffutureclimateoverNorthwesternOhioforthemid-21stcentury(2041-2070)..Futureclimatewerealsodividedintothequintilesbasedonhistoricaldata,showingthatthedistributionofgrowingseasonprecipitation,temperature,andsolarradiationareexpectedtoshiftfromhistoricpatterns.TheseshiftswilllikelyhavedramaticeffectsonPETpatterns.Thenewdistributionwasusedtoestimatetheexpectedyieldbenefitsunderthesameon-farmwaterrecyclingpractices.

Forcorn,theyieldincreasedbyanaverageof20%underhistoricalprecipitationand28-30%(dependingonthe

model)undermodeledclimatefor2041-2070(Figure7).Forsoybeans,theyieldbenefitincreasedfrom12-13%underhistoricalprecipitationto20-24%inthemodeled2041-2070climateTheincreaseinyieldbenefitswasexpected,butquantifyingitusinghistoricalrecordsprovidesusefulinformationforfarmers,contractors,andagencystakeholdersthatsupportsthegrowingusefulnessofstoringdrainagewater.Theseresultsarebeingdevelopedintoaresearchpaper,whichwillbesubmittedforpublication.

Examining impacts using the DRAINMOD simulation model ThehistoricalandfutureclimatedatasetsgeneratedintheanalysisdescribedabovewereusedinDRAINMODmodel,whichisthemostwidelyusedandinternationallyrecognizedmodeltopredictanddesignsubsurfacedrainagesystems(Skaggsetal.,2012).Annualsubirrigationanddrainagemanagement,aswellascropyieldsdocumentedinAllredetal.(2014)wereusedtosetup,calibrate,andvalidatethemodel.Soilhydraulicproperties(watercharacteristicdata,Green-Amptinfiltrationequationsparameters,upfluxvs.watertabledepth,volumedrainedvs.watertabledepth)werecalculatedusingthesoilutilityprogramofDRAINMODbasedonpedotransferfunctionparametersobtainedusingtheROSETTAsoftware(Schaapetal.,2001).Simulationsofthecontrolfieldwithdrainageonly,aswellasthesubirrigatedfieldwithcontrolleddrainage,werecompared.

Aftercalibration,DRAINMODsimulationswereconsideredtobeadequateandusedtofurtheranalyzethehistoricand

Figure7:Increaseinpercentcornyieldduetosubirrigrationunderhistoricalclimateandthreefutureclimateprojections.


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potentialimpactsofsubirrigationoncropyields(Figure8).DRAINMODpredictscropyieldbyestimatingstressoncropsduetolackofmoisture(droughtstress),excessmoisture,anddelayinplantingduetoexcessmoisture.Droughtstressdecreasedsignificantlyundersubirrigation,from33cm-daysto1cm-day,whichisresponsibleforthestrongcropyieldbenefitsmeasuredatthissite.Stressduetoexcessmoistureincreased,however,whichdemonstratestheimportanceofmanagementinsuccessfullysubirrigatingcrops.Simulationshavealsobeenrunwitheachofthefutureclimateprojectiondatasets,whichshowincreasingbenefitsasthegrowingseasonclimatebecomeshotter.Theamountofwaterneededforsubirrigationtomaintainthewatertableatthedesiredlevelwillalsobecomegreater,whichsuggeststhebenefitofconstructingpondstostorewaterfromthespring.Theseresultsarestillpreliminarybutwillprovidethebasisforafutureresearchpaperexaminingbenefitsandmanagementstrategiesforsubirrigationunderfutureclimateconditions.

Stakeholderviewsonbarriersandopportunitiesforon-farmwaterrecyclingInadditiontothewaterrecyclingsiteswevisited,wecollectedfeedbackfrompeopleknowledgeableaboutMidwesternagriculturaldrainageonthepotentialofthispracticeandbarrierstobeaddressed.Thiswasnot

intendedtobeascientifically-validsurvey,butrathertoelicitgeneralreactions,concerns,andideas.

PotentialofthispracticefortheMidwestMostrespondentseasilyseethepotentialofon-farmwaterrecycling.Oneevenwentsofarastosay“Ifthiscanbedoneinsuchawaythatitisfeasible,thiscouldbethefutureofdrainage.”,andanotherrespondedthatthepotentialwas“tremendous.”However,theyalsopointedouttheconsiderablecosts,particularlyforthelandusedbutalsoinpondconstructionandirrigationcostssuchaspumping.ExampleresponsesontheoverallpotentialforthispracticeintheMidwestarebelow:

• “Ifarm800acres,havebeeninterestedintilewatercaptureandirrigationusefor25years.Everyyear,wecouldusesomesupplementalwaterinJuly-Aug.ItwouldalsosupplysomelateseasonNside-dress.”

• ”Ifyouaddupallthepotentialbenefits,cropinsurance,nutrientreductionetc.itmaypay.”

• ”Iamunsureaboutthefeasibility.Iunderstandtheprocessbutthinkitwillbehardtomotivate/convincefarmerstochangetheirpractices.”

• ”Asgrainpricesrise,thispracticewillrise.”• ”Thispracticecouldincreasecropyieldsby10-20%by

justirrigatingcorn-soybeansinthemonthofAugust

Figure8:Dailywatertabledepthwithandwithoutsubirrigation(redlines)simulatedusingDRAINMODforthreeyearsofthehistoricdata(1997-1999)attheFultonCountysite,showingtheimpactofsubirrigationduringthesummerperiodswhenitwasapplied.Precipitationanddrainflowarealsoincluded,withsubirrigationshownasnegativedrainflow.


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alone.Plus,wecouldutilizenitrogenfromdrainagewater.Thiswouldbeanexcellentapproachinresponsetoclimatechange.Earlier…weusedtogetadroughtyearoncein10years,butinlast10years,weareseeingmoreextremeevents.”

• “Limitedtoareasitwillfitinthelandscape,butifkeptopenenoughtoproviderecreationorirrigation,andNRCSorotherfundsavailable,wouldbeworthitforlandowners.”

BarrierstoaddressDrainagestakeholdersalsoprovidedwhattheyseeastheprimarybarrierstoimplementation.Responsesinclude:• “Dollars.Ifafarmercanseeachancethiswillbenefit

himfinanciallyhewilldoit.”• “Cost,liability,uncertainty,andskepticism.”• “Permits–EPAorstate”.(Plusmanysimilar

responses.)Itbecameclearthatinadditiontocosts,themajorbarrierthestakeholdersperceivedwasrelatedtopermits.Giventhisconcern,wehavebegunworkingwithregulatorstoclarifysituationsinwhichpermitswouldberequired.WeheldameetingwithUSDANaturalResourcesConservationServicestaffinIndiana,togetherwiththestatepermittingagencyandtheUSArmyCorpsofEngineers,tobegintoclarifypermitsneeded.Althoughthisissometimesperceivedasinsurmountable,permitsareregularlyissuedinthesesituations,andthewaterqualitybenefitsofon-farmrecyclingpondsmayoutweighotherconcernsinmanycases.

LocationconsiderationsandsitingstrategiesWereceivedmanysuggestionsonsitingconsiderationsthatwillmakethepracticefunctionbetter.

• Thepracticeis“limitedbytopography.Totallyexcavatedstorageisexpensive.”

• “Limitedtoareaswheregoodgroundwateraquifersavailableforprolongeddryperiodsincasenotenoughdrainagewatertofillreservoir”

• “Inlandscapeshavingvariabletopography,sitereservoirsonhighestground.Havetopumpwateranyway,pumpintoreservoirandgravitysubirrigate.SitingreservoirsinlowgroundresultsineffectivewaterstorageduringApril-Juneexcessperiodonlyabovegroundlevelbecausegroundwatertableatornearlandsurface.Canusedeepexcavation,smallerfootprintstorageonhigherground.”

• “Ifthereisahighwatertablethepondwillfillnaturallysoanyextrawaterfromthetilewouldoverflow.”

• “Pumptilebaseflowintoreservoir—cheaperthanpumpinghighflows.”

• “Ditchescouldserveasalreadybuilt“reservoirs”,althoughtherewouldbechallengessuchaswaterbackingupinfields/tiles.”

• “Tosuccessfullysubirrigatemayrequireadditionallateralstoincreasedrainageintensity.”

KeyLessonsLearnedThestakeholderswithwhomwediscussedthispracticeunderstoodthatclimatechange,orincreasingclimatevariability,willleadtoincreasedneedforandbenefitsofpracticesthatenhancewaterstorageonthefarm.Thepotentialforthispracticewasviewedasverypositive,eventhoughmoststakeholderscorrectlyraisedquestionsaboutcostsinland,construction,andtime.

On-farmwaterrecyclingpondsarerareinthelandscapetoday,butafewexamplesexistintheGreatLakesregion.Theyhavebeenimplementedprimarilywherebothirrigationisneededforhighvaluecropsandgroundwaterisinadequatetoprovidetheratesneeded.Regulatoryconsiderationsrelatedtogroundwaterwithdrawalsimpactshavealsoplayedarole,althoughthatwasnotexploredindepthandmorestudyisneeded.

Cropyieldbenefitsofirrigationfrompondscanbeconsiderable.AttheWRSISsites,cornyieldincreasedbyanaverageof20%underhistoricalprecipitationandwasprojectedtoincreaseby28-30%(dependingonthemodel)undermodeledclimatefor2041-2070.Forsoybeans,theyieldbenefitincreasedfrom12-13%underhistoricalprecipitationto20-24%inthemodeled2041-2070climate.

Constructioncostscanbemorethan$100,000perpondbutcanbereducedbyopportunitiessuchassandoraggregateremovalorservingastheborrowpitforroadconstruction.Recreationaluseofthesepondsistheoreticallypossible,butwedidnotseethatasaco-benefitofthepondsweidentified.

Theon-farmeconomicbenefitswilldependonthepriceofthecrops,thespecificsoilsateachlocation,andotherconsiderations.On-farmwaterrecyclingsystemsaremosteconomicalinlocationssuchas:

• wherehighvaluecroplikeseedcornorspecialtycropsaregrown,asirrigationismorelikelytobeprofitable,


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• wheregroundwaterisinadequatetomeetirrigationneeds,

• wherecostsofexcavatingapondcanbeoffsetbyeconomicopportunitiesforthespoil,and/or

• whereapondisalreadyplannedorexists,forexampleduetoroadconstruction.

Off-siteeconomicbenefitstosocietybasedonthenutrientlossreductionarelikelytobeaddconsiderablevaluetothesystemsbutwerenotquantifiedinthisproject.Reducingphosphoruslossfromdrainedcroplandisacriticalandurgentneed,andon-farmwaterrecyclingisonetoolthatshouldbeincludedintheconservationtoolkit.Moreresearchisneededtoquantifythebenefitsandprovideabasisforpaymentsfortheseconservationpractices.

AdditionalquestionstobeansweredtomovethepracticeforwardAsweknewatthebeginningoftheproject,manyquestionsremainunanswered.Thisprojecthasprovidedinformationabouttheexpectedincreaseinyieldbenefitsunderfutureclimateconditions,andthesefindingswilllikelyencourageinterestinthepractice.Similaranalysesneedtobedonethroughouttheregion,andfutureanalyseswillbenefitfromthemethodsdevelopedintheproject.Designguidelinesandtoolsneedtobedevelopedtoguidedesignersinmakingdecisions.Costsareveryuncertainandwillneedtobeestimatedforvarioussituations.Examplequestionsthatdrainagestakeholdersraisedarelistedbelow.Thesequestionscaninformfuturestudiesandprojects.

1. Howlargedoesthepondneedtobetostorewaterforvariousrisklevels,forexampletosupplyneededirrigation8outof10years?Whatratioofdrainageareatostorageisneededtoaccomplishthis?

2. Howshouldsystemsbemanaged,andwhatmaintenanceisneeded?

3. Whatistheagronomicvalueofnutrients,bothNandP,thatcanberecycledtomeetcropneeds?

4. Istherepotentialforpaymentsforadditionalecosystemservicesorotherbenefitssuchasreducinggreenhousegasemissions,orreducingcropinsurancerisk?

Severalquestionsrelatedtodownstreamhydrologyhavebeenraised:5. Ifdownstreamflowisreducedduringsomeperiods,

whatwouldbetheimpactonaquaticecosystems?6. Towhatextentisdownstreamfloodriskreduced?

7. Whatisthepotentialforgroundwaterrecharge,bothintoandoutoftheponds?

Inadditiontotheseconcernsandquestionsaddressedbydrainagecontractorsandotherstakeholders,wehavegatheredtogetherotherquestionsfromfederalagencies,designengineers,andothers.

8. Howcanreservoirs/pondsystemsbedesignedtoenhancewildlifebenefits?

9. Whatotherenvironmentalconsiderationsshouldbetakenintoaccounttomaximizesocietalbenefits,especiallyifcost-shareisprovidedbyconservationagencies?

10. Whatsafetyconsiderationsneedtobeincludedifthereservoirisraised?

11. Whatisthelifeexpectancyofsuchponds?

Thislonglistofquestionsisdauntingbutnotsurprising,whenconsideringapracticethatcouldaffecttheagriculturallandscapeinsuchasignificantway.Answeringthemwillrequireadditionalresearch,on-farmdemonstrations,analyses,anddiscussionsinthefuture.Thisprojecthaslaidafoundationforunderstandingtheneedforandbenefitsofon-farmwaterrecycling,allowedforin-depthanalysisofhistoricaldataonthesesystems,andprovidedtheopportunitytoassessexistingsystemsandperceptionsofstakeholderswhohaveusedorconsideredthem.

FutureworkBecauseoftheneedtoansweradditionalquestions,weareverypleasedthatalarger,regionalefforthasbeenfundedbytheUSDANationalInstitutesofFoodandAgriculturetocontinuethiswork.Thatproject,called“ManagingWaterforIncreasedResiliencyofDrainedAgriculturalLandscapes”,whichwehaveshortenedto“TransformingDrainage”toconveythetransformationenvisioned

Figure9:On-farmwaterrecyclingresearchandoutreachwillcontinuethroughaneight-stateprojectfundedbyUSDA-NIFAthrough2020.Theprojectlogoprovidestheurlformoreinformation.


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(http://transformingdrainage.org),involveseightstates,fifteenresearchers,and$5millioninfunding.

TheprojectfundedbyGLISAprovidesanexcellentfoundationforthenewproject,throughthesynthesisofhistoricaldata,analysiswithfutureclimateprojections,thecultivationofnewpartnerships,anddevelopmentofoutreachstrategiesthatwillleadtomoreimpactincomingyears.

Acknowledgements

WewouldliketothankSteveMillerandLyndonKelleyofMichiganStateUniversityforarrangingvisitstotheMichigansites,NeilKriegerofMichiganValleyIrrigationinVassarMIforprovidinginformationonthesesystems,andBobandEdManteyofCaroMIforsharingtheirexperiences.WealsothankChinTanandTQZhangofAgricultureandAgri-FoodCanadainHarrow,Ontarioforprovidingatouroftheirextraordinaryresearchsitesaswellasanon-farmsysteminEssexCounty,andforsharinginsightsfromdecadesofresearchonthesesystems.

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