5.1. INTRO b UCTION

ON OF SULTS

The fisheries sector in Uganda plays an important role in food security through the provision of supplies offish to the fisher-folk communities, rural poor, and the urban populations. Adding to this is the provision ofemployment opportunities, especially in rural areas and in its contribution to economic growth. Thefindings show Nile perch as the dominant fish targeted for commercial purposes, while other importantspecies are Tilapia and mukene Nile perch is mainly targeted for the fish processing factories for export, butthe local market also claims a large volume of it. The drive for profit means that more and more Nile perchhas to be fished and this puts stress on the fishery. The fishery is mainly artisanal and the commercial gearused is predominantly gill nets. Seines of various types, hooks, long line and cast nets are also mostly usedby artisanal fishers, mainly for subsistence as well as cash. The use of large seines with smaller mesh sizes(mosquito net), fish poisoning and other destructive methods have increased in recent years, contributing toa decline in fish catches. Catching methods are dominated by labour intensive gears used on an individualbasis or by small groups; high efficiency commercial gears are rare. The high level of artisanal and informalactivity leads to a high degree of participation. Notwithstanding the importance of informal aspects ofsubsistence fisheries, there is a significant commercial fishery on Lake Victoria, which is taking on anappearance associated with industrial marine capture fisheries characterized by 'boom-bust' cycleselsewhere in the world.

Previous studies by Harris et al(1995) concluded that fish export industry ¡n the Lake Victoria fisheries hadgreatly affected the traditional fisheries and the different groups of people who depend on it at different"levels": individual and household level, community, national and international level. The effects werenoted to be economic, political and social, and they related to the distribution of benefits, especially withrespect to the relative role of small-scale and larger-scale fishery operations, and to the fundamentalquestion of sustainability. The findings from this study to a greater extent concur with viewpoints ofHarrisand his colleagues on the impact of the fish export trade on Lake Victoria as now explained here.

5.2. SOCIO-ECONO\ IC CHARACTERISTICS OF FISHERS AND THE SUSTAINABLEMANAGEMENT OF LAKE VICTORIA FISHERIES

5.21 LAKE VICTORIA FISHERIES ARE VER YIMPOR TANT TO FISHER-FOLK COMMUNITIESSOCIO -ECONOMICALL Y

The supposition that fisheries is an important component of the fisher-folk communities' socio-economywas supported by the survey findings in terms of employment, income and food supply indication (seeSection 4.1.3, Tables 12 and 13), Fishing, as already mentioned, is the main source of protein and incomewith some small subsistence farming also practiced. Fishing is important as a means of generating cash andtherefore capital for recycling into fishing (inputs and labour) and to a lesser extent agriculture and otherbusinesses (hiring labour and opening up shops) as revealed by this study. A survey on Lake Victoria fisher-folk communities by Kirema-Mukasa and Reynolds (1991) also indicated that 76 percent of adults wereengaged in fish-related activities as their principal occupation. Only 17 percent were engaged in farming and6 percent in the food and refreshment services. This again confirms the importance of fishing as a source oflivelihood. Fishing, which entails production, processing and marketing is therefore the most importanteconomic activity for the fishers and is almost continuous throughout the year.

522 THERE IS NO TAELE GENDER AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DIFFERENTIA TIONIN TEEFISHERIES.

Males dominate, and the more powerful players are the fish factory agents and/or boat owners and fishtraders, against the weaker real fishers and crews or helpers. Women are involved mainly in the localprocessing of fish, which is under threat, and in the foods and refreshment services around the beaches. Thefishers exhibit significant heterogeneity in terms of demographic and socio-economie characteristics.

61

Studies on social differentiation within the fisheries of Uganda have previously been carried out by Asowe-Okwe, (1939), Kirema-Mukasa and Reynolds (1991), and SDAWOG, 1999. Overall, however, the socialand economic organization of fishers has not been extensively studied in the Lake Victoria fisheries.Consistent with findings by these researchers, this research established that the fishing sector is dominatedby males (96 %), mainly of age group 20-40 years (86 %) and are largely married. Fishing is generallyregarded as a demanding activity, mainly undertaken by men. Women usually are involved in subsistencefarming and look after other domestic chores, or aie involved in food and refreshment services at thebeaches. The imbalance in employment distribution, where males engage in relatively more profitablethough energy-demanding jobs, coupled with the over-dependence on fishing, has implications on familyincomes and the sustainability of the fishery resource. The importance of identifying and characterizingsocial differentiation has received an increasing amount of attention in attempting to improve policydevelopment and implementation. In recognizing that fisheries policy cannot address the needs and concernsof all participants in a fishery, actions should target particular groups. In the case of fisheries developmentpolicy, it has been widely suggested that the poor and underprivileged fishers are obvious targets (e.g.Smith, 1979; Konstapel and Noort, 1995) for assistance. In this case, attention should focus ou women, whoseem to be losing out as the fish export drive even displaces them from their traditional rote of local fishprocessing. Local fish processors have greatly reduced since the liberalization of the fish export trade asrevealed from the survey findings (see Table 15).

52.3 THE THREA T OF O VEREXPL Ql TA TION OF THE FISHERIES OF LAKE VICTORIA ISMORE REAL THANEI/ER BEFORE

This survey's findings and analysis supports the hypothesis that the fisheries are increasingly threatened byoverexploitation. In particular, fishers reported that they have noticed a decline in catches over the last 20years, and this they attribute to over-fishing and environmental factors (e.g. bad weather and the waterhyacinth weed). Destructive fishing methods, increased effort in the form of boats, improved gear, andincreased number of fishers, are the underlying factors explaining over-fishing according to fishers. This issupported by results from Figure 11 showing a larger entry into fishing in early 1990s, which is thought tohave put pressure on the fishery resulting in declining catches. This also agrees with FAO and SEDAWOGfindings that the fisheries are under pressure from increased fishing activities on the lake. However, asindicated by FAO (1995a), accurate assessment of the resource situation is obscured by the rapid responsesof many freshwater fish stocks to fluctuating environmental conditions. For example, a fishery may beoverexploited in one season and with the same fishing regime may be under-exploited the next.Furthermore, Welcomme (1985) indicated that tropical inland fisheries can sustain high yields in the face oflarge effort increases but there can come a point when fisheries collapse.

The consensus however, is that most inland fisheries are now fully exploited or some cases overexploitedand Lake Victoria is not any better. Due to the paucity of appropriate dala currently, even the application ofa conventional effort/yield curve approach to assess the fisheries is inappropriate. On the stock assessmentof tropical multi-species fisheries, however, Larkin (1982) suggests that it should be appropriate andpragmatic to monitor indicators such as catch returns, catch size, composition, arid diversity. Findings fromthis study show that catch returns are evidently attractive enough to encourage fishing by large numbers offishers each year, and so increasing the danger of overexploitation of the fisheries.

In addition, both illegal fishing and the invasion of the lake by water hyacinth are still of significant threat tothe fish stocks in Lake Victoria. Although the water hyacinth had been cleared on the Ugandan side by thetime of the survey, there still remain substantial 'mats' on most parts of the lake, which affects airconcentration in breeding water, leading to premature deaths. Still rampant illegal fishing goes on in the lakeand sometimes even real destructive fishing. Worst of all episodes was the poisoning of fish that triggeredthe ban on fish by EU countries. This has created serious implications, soclo-economically for all the peoplewho depend on Lake Victoria fisheries for livelihoods and food, and biologically for the whole sustainabilityof the fisheries.

5.3 THE ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL FISH PROCESSING Si-10W MIXEDIMPLICATIONS ON THE FISHERIES SUSTAINABILITY.

In Lake Victoria fisheries, international trade is a somewhat recent activity according to Odongkara andOkaronon (1998). Demand for the lake fisheries has emerged and has grown with the introduction and boomof the Nile perch. The fisheries were previously largely controlled and exploited by local small-scale fishers,often using rudimentary technologies but on a sustainable basis. However, in recent years there has been arapid development in the fish export trade resulting from the Nile perch boom in Lake Victoria. This hastriggered a transition from the localized fisheries to the liberalized international system with foreign andcapital intensive fisheries. Evidence of this was deduced from the recorded large growth in the number ofprivate fish processing and export factories since early 1990s. This rapid build up of fish processing capacityaround Lake Victoria and the continuing growth of international demand for such fish as Nile perch is aprofound cause for fears that this would lead to increased exports, and affect the overall sustainability of thelake fisheries and the entire ecosystem.

5.3.1 THE NL/MBER OF FA CTOPJES, THEIR CAPACITIES, AND OUTPUT HA VE INCREASED ¡NTHE LASTS YEARS.

As revealed from the findings and analysis fi-orn this survey, the number of fish factories processing mainlyNile perch, have increased from three in 1990 to 11 at the time of this survey (1999). The perfonnance andgrowth of these factories however, have recently been put in check by occasional fish-bans andaccompanying quality regulations from their main EU market. For example, there is an observed increase incapacity and daily output by fish factories, although the mean volumes of fish processed by factory show aclear decline over the years from 1996 (Figure 15). The explanation to this decline is partly attributed to thefact that the fish processing industries in Uganda have been suffering reversals since 1996 due to the EUfish-ban (discussed in the next section). There have been relentless efforts to meet the quality regulationsstipulated by EU market, their number one export market (80 %). Most fish factory owners mentioned thatthe operations were less regular, and they were only depending on occasional orders from limited marketsoutside the European Union. The increases in capacities and real output is also partly due to the pressure toupgrade to meet quality regulations and market demands, and the need to maximize on the limitedoccasional orders. It is therefore rather difficult and calling for some caution, in ascertaining the relationshipof the exploitation of Nile perch by factories to the overall sustainability of the lake. Before the fish ban byEU in 1996, however, there was much growth in the fish processing industry as shown in Table 5. At onetime, the fish processing factories build-up even reached 19 but now most of them have quit the market ordecided to concentrate on upgrading to the standards required by EU. This was a real 'boom'. Theexplanation for the current 'bust' is however, a controversial issue with several hypotheses being thought tobe responsible.

53.2. m'E EU FISH-BAN SCENARIO IN UGANDA - DAUNTiNG FOR THE FISH EXPORTSTRADE

The dependency on the European Union market by all the fish factories dictates that they must adhere to EUmarketing regulations. This requirement has greatly affected the factories and the whole export fish businessto Europe recently whereby fish factory owners have had to cope with interruptions time and again. Forexample, in 1996 during the Rwandan genocide, a ban was placed on fish from Lake Victoria because ofdead bodies that were thrown in the lake. The following year, due to El Nino extreme weather, the wholeregion of the great lakes was affected by floods and cholera, again prompting EU to ban fish from the EastAfrican countries including Mozambique (Mail and Guardian, 1998). Many factories reacted by upgradingto meet the quality standards as demanded by the EU market. In line with the EU quality regulations, mostfactories have largely adapted renovations, though some factories have had to quit the business completely.Uganda, which specializes in the export of fresh chilled fillets, has suffered most from the turbulent marketand a lot has been done to improve the industry's business. The competent authorities (Uganda NationalBureau of Standards, UNBS) were striving to upgrade Uganda's EU export status from "List 2" to "List 1"(like Tanzania) by early April 1999, but at this time again another fish ban was placed on fish from LakeVictoria/Uganda, due to fish poisoning (destructive fishing method employed by fishers). "List 1', exports

63

have total free access to the EU markets, an arrangement referred to as "full harmonisation." The fish entersthe EU market free of further checks and counter-controls and trade with individual countries is unlimited.Uganda being a "List 2" exporter, its tights to trade on the EU market depend on bilateral country-to-country arrangements and the fate of its fish export trade being in the hands of individual countries. Thismeans that fish upon arrival in Europe is subject to scrutiny, but the recent ban suspended even thisarrangement. Attempts to attain "full harmonization" status were in high gear in Uganda when the ban againcame into place (New Vision, 2000). Thus the fish ban is Uganda's biggest impediment to up-grading itstrade status to "List 1" according to Kasirye (Pers. Comm.). As Philip Bordi, the chairman ofUganda FishProcessors and Exporters Association (UFPEA) remarked, "The latest ban, which followed an earlierinterdiction put in place in July 1998 and lifted in December 1998, has brought the region's US $ 350million fish industry to its knees, local prices plummeting and processing factories laying off workers.Uganda alone earns from US $ 60-80 million from fish exports, the largest foreign exchange earner aftercoffee. More than 700,000 people depend directly or indirectly on the fish industry in Uganda. Theseinclude fishers, fish traders/fishmongers, fish processors, fish exponers, wholesalers and retailers and thelocal administration in the districts, which collects taxes on landing sites and markets" (East AfricanNewspaper, 1999). \Vith the protracted fish-ban dragging on by the time of writing this thesis, thecumulative loses are daunting. An estimated US 1 66 million, or, an average of US $ 6 million per month inexport revenue has been lost since the ban was imposed in April 1999. This is a loss that can never berecovered, though exporters have since been trying to find alternative markets. Thus, the findings andanalysis from this study closely reflect the changes that have rocked the fish export industry in Uganda andsubsequent improvements. The capacity and real output for most factories have been greatly upgraded, butsome factories have remained at the same level, while others have downsized. By and large, the decline inmean volumes of fish processed by factories over the years does reflect changes dictated by the fish ban asexplained earlier. Most factories have been concentrating on upgrading quality and capacity to meet the EUquality regulations, since 1997. This means that while there has been a decline in mean volumes of fishprocessed by factories, the factors responsible for the overall decline in catches on Lake Victoria should betreated as a matter of debate. Some evidence from this survey indirectly attributes the decline to thediscontinuation of the main fish export market due to EU fish-ban that called for much upgrading in qualityrequired on the part of fish factories. (More information on the fish-ban is in Appendix D). A survey carriedout by SEDAWOG (1999) ou fish factories established that on average each factory processed 14 tonnes perday in 1998, but it had declined to about 8 tonnes per day in 1999 from findings of this study, evidently as aresult of the EU fish ban. ihe fish ban has also affected the export earnings, which have fallen from ca.US$100 mill ion per year befoie the fish ban to US$30 million per year at the moment of writing when thefish ban is still in place (New Vision, 2000). Adding to this, a significant number ofjobs have been lost inthe processing sector as a result of the unstable export trade. From the perspective of the sustainability of thefishery resource, however, the ban is probably a good thing. The drop in prices and demand should reducefishing effort. Additionally, the price drop will make Nile perch more accessible to local small-scale fishprocessors and rural communities.

3.3. AN APPARENT 'DOOM-BUST' SITUATION TYPICAL OF "TRAGEDY OF COMMONS"SCENARIOS.

Data findings from this survey (see Table 8) fundamentally confirm what seems obvious to most observers,including fishers: that over-fishing is taking place (Odongkara and Okaronon, 1997; Abila and Jansen, 1997;Harris et al, 1995). The policy of encouraging fish export trade may seem consistent with the strategy ofmarket liberalization that underlies economic policies, but this policy is greatly inconsistent with sustainablenatural resources use. This has resulted in uncontrolled fishing effort with a drastic increase from 3470fishing canoes in 1989 to 8000 canoes in 1990 and about 10,000 canoes currently on Lake Victoria alone.Resulting from this level of fishing effort, the population of fish is reduced in catch volumes, in size, in age-structure, and in ability to reproduce itself. The simple answer to why over-fishing is taken place is thatthere are too many people after a limited fishery resource, without adequate signals of trouble and incentivesto stop. This situation is often called the 'Tragedy of the Commons" referring to the notion of the commonsas an open-access, essentially unregulated or anarchic regime. The idea that fishery problems in LakeVictoria might be "tragedies of the commons" has also been widely reflected in recent official writings from

64

different researchers (Gibbon, i 997). Of course, there are regulations iii place but these regulations are noteffective enough to yield good impact especially on such an open-access resource such as ¡s Lake Victoria).Similarly, Acheson (1992:152-7) reports on violation of the conservation laws as responsible for the 'boom'and 'bust' episodes of the lobster fishery in Maine inthe 1920s and 1930s.

The study findings (Chapter 4, part I) indicate that there was a spate of rapid growth in the number of fishersand the numbers, sizes, and fishing power of boats. The number of processing plants also grew rapidlyduring the i 990s as well as the capacity of the vertically integrated corporations to purchase and processfish, indicating a real 'boom'. This 'boom' was followed by an apparent 'bust', which started in 1996 andhas continued.

This kind of situation is similar to the Newfoundland fisheries where studies indicate that globalization ofthe fisheries was accompanied by "over-fishing" characterized by 'boom-bust' cycles. In this case, fishingeffort was less attuned to local needs and signs of the health of the resource than to signals from markets andthe manipulations of nìeichants to serve those markets (MeCay and Finlayson, 1995).

5.3.4. THE MARJTSYSTEM, AM) FISH SUPPL YARRANGEMENTS

The new system of fish marketing resulting from the Nile perch export trade benefits mostly the factoryowners and their agents, although most boat owners and fish traders believe they have also benefited fromthe market. The Nile perch was found to be the main target commercial fishery attesting to the views ofmost researchers who say that it is the one driving the fish industry with prices rising and stabilizing inphases. For example, many powerful people in the fishery business consider the Nile perch a saviour, not anecological disaster, since the lake is still producing record numbers of perch that are bringing in badlyneeded foreign exchange. The strategies they use to procure fish combine making credit available to fishersin return for regular supplies, boat engines and collection boats, and resident agents on larger beaches. Eventhough there was no recorded competition between processing plants and local traders for fish during thetime of this survey, accounts of cases where competition is augmented by demand during times of scarcitywere noted. The findings indicated that the supply arrangements used in the procurement of fish byprocessing plants are the best and most efficient for factory owners, to the extent that regular and adequatesupplies are ensured as required (see Tables 25 and 25). This to a great extent concurs with what Gibbon(1997) describes about the developments in Nile perch markets on the Tanzanian side of Lake Victoria.Gibbon describes how industrial fish processors managed to win control of the fish market by u sing localagents, offering higher prices for fish and supplying vessel owners with gear, an arrangement that wasassociated with increases in total catches. Apparently, Tanzania and Kenya had well-developed local fishmarkets much earlier than Uganda, and theirs was more complicated than was the case in Uganda.Therefore, Uganda has not felt so much of the exploitative capitalistic marketing systems found in the othertwo countries as described by Gibbon (1997) and Jansen (1997). In fact, the contract systems in Uganda arerather loose due to complications associated with them. Contracts imply a rent that normally takes the formof exclusive delivery of fish to a value equivalent to the loan, that is, to the traders' investment costs.However, this rent also contains an implicit additional sum, which is the difference between what price forfish the trader actually pays through such an agreement and what he would pay if no vessel-owner were tied.Most traders are certainly aware of the benefit of not contracting and they gave considerations of this kind asthe basis for their own decisions to avoid tied contract sales with fish factories.

Factory own ers reason that they are not being unfair to fishers. They argue that faced with the realities of themarket place, and the consumers' demand for quality at the lowest price and the competitive pressure ofrival firms, they are forced to pursue cost-efficient business strategies. While such strategies entail manyfacets of production engineering and management organization, they also entail obtaining factors ofproduction and other business and marketing-related services at the lowest cost possible.

65

SUSTAIN 'LE MANAGEMENT OF THE LAKE VICT5.4. FISHERS' AND THE [N)USTRIAL FISH PROCESS

0O

A FISHE E.

5.4.1. PERCEPTIONS OF FISHERS TO WARDS FISH PROCESSING PLANTS

For most fishers, processing plants have been more of a blessing than a curse. They give very favourableviewpoints, such as job creation for fishers and other Ugandaiis (71 %), creation of a good fish market forfishers (82 %), and enhancement of fishers' incomes (73 %). This is very encouraging, given that mostcritics of trade liberalization argue to the contrary.

The processing plants, naturally, see themselves as crucial to the economic development of the sector. Theprocessing plants' owners clearly consent that despite all that is being done by government officials tomanage the fishery resource, destructive fishing among the fishers is still a force to reckon with. They seethemselves as very much on the side of rational, long-term management of the fishery. This even extends tocontrols on their own industry. This is reinforced by the fishers' view of the processing plants on issues offishery resource management, where most fishers say that fish factories are not responsible for illegal anddeteriorating fishing practices on Lake Victoria.

There is a willingness to organize, particularly around security issues. There is, however, also a feeling ofdependency on outsiders (government) for catalysing organization and providing leadership. For example,the processing plants feel that the EU fish ban and poor legislation on the fishery resource are the majordisabling factors, which the government has to address. The issues of inadequate research and corruptionamong government officials are also cited among the limitations in management.

Given current potentials the best outcome might be that the export processing industry expands theorganisational efforts they are currently investing in setting up a procurement system to include enablingmanagement efforts. As suggested from the survey findings, this could be done by providing appropriategear, training of the local fishers, funding researchers in monitoring and fishery, and providingorganizational support at the local level for co-management organization. One effect of this would be toreduce competition for fish on particular beaches, which would put downward pressure on prices. Fishers ontheir part are willing to co-operate in issues relating to the management of their resource as expressed intheir desire for all destructive fishing to be discouraged, among other things (see Table 17).

Such an effort would require government intervention to provide a legal framework that ensures that localfishers receive a just price for their fish. Lower prices will reduce fishing effort, which will reduce over-fishing and perhaps mean higher catch rates ¡n the future. Lower prices would also make fish more availableto local consumers. The increased involvement of the export industry, whether or not it involves anexpanded management role, will have to be monitored to ensure that it does not become a situation wherethe local fishers are exploited by large organizations.

5.5. FISHERIES SUSTAINABILITY AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND CO-MANAGEMENT.

55.1. MANYMOREPEOPLE VS LIMITED RESOURCE

From the survey findings, fishers noted that fish catches have generally declined on the whole lake. Fishersrevealed that while they used to get more fish with little effort when they entered the fishery, today a lot ofeffort is used only to get very little. For example, Tables 47 and Figures 10 and 11 show, that averagecatches per day currently are less than average catches per day during the fishers' year of entry into fishing.The Z test of 5.590 is indicative of the large variation in the means of the catches currently and during entryinto fishing confirming that there is less fish caught by fishers currently.

The rising population, particularly in fishing villages along the lakeshore, has hastened the switch to moreefficient fishing methods and to the fishing of previously unexploited fish species to keep up with growing

RS' ATTIITWES TOWARDS

66

demand. Recent estimations Iiidicate that between 1970 and 1999, the population whose livelihood dependson fishing grew from 2,500 to 700,000 besides their families, effectively increasing the nutritional demandsof the community (East African Newspaper, 1999). This increase is enormous and it is associated with theeconomic incentive resulting from the Nile perch boom, and the general ease of entry into the fishingbusiness. This growth brought with it a corresponding rise in the number of fishers attempting to makemoney from the fish resources. For example, the number of fishers grew from 80,000 in 1989 to 140,000 in1997 excluding porters. (It is important to note here that fishing had never seriously been a traditionalactivity of most Ugandans. lt was always associated with the poor small groups of people living near thelake until the population and economic pressure pushed them into fishing). Uganda has more than doubledits population from only 10 million in 1969 to an estimated 22.2 million at the time of writing (New Vision,2000). Adding to these growing numbers of people is a large influx of refugees from Sudan, Rwanda, andZaire, making it difficult to meet the demand for food. Fish from the lake 'provides about 70 percent ofanimal protein consumption in the country. As noted in the World Resources Institute report, as thepopulation grows, so does the consumption of fish, thereby creating pressure on the lake's fish. Hig1population growth rate contributes to over-fishing, species loss, and pollution of lake resources (WRI1994). Certainly, Lake Victoria fish resources are already showing signs of overexploitation by srnall-scakfishers. Therefore, with the increasing industrial fish processing and a strong pressure to enter the fisheriesno improvement in food security should be expected from these sources unless effective resourcmanagement is carried out to prevent further deterioration.

The fishers are willing to enter organizations for better fisheries management but they lack the political will.There is a real opportunity for the effective management of the Nile perch fishery. For example, the size ofthe Nile perch that the processors will give the best prices for is the size caught in the recommended gearsizes. Gill nets are selective by size, not by species, but the Nile perch is the only species being caught, saveTilapia and mukene that require even smaller mesh sizes. The incentives of both the fishers and theprocessing plants are compatible with maintaining a sustainable fishery through selective gears and mostconventional fishing methods.

67

68

6 SU MARY AND CONCLUS NS6.1. INTRODUCTION

This thesis has drawn together a wide range of basic information on the Lake Victoria fish export tradeindustry and its impact on the fisher-folk communities and sustainability of Lake Victoria in Uganda. In thischapter, a brief summary of this research's findings will be given, as well as some conclusions andrecommendations for future research and policy intervention.

6.2. SUMMARY OF IMPLICATIONS

62. 1. SOCIO -ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

Conventionally, international trade is to enable countries to specialize in what they do best and acquire thethings they have difficulty in producing. By so doing, resources are more, efficiently used on a global, aswell as a domestic basis, and these efficiencies are passed on in the form of lower prices and economicgrowth. This research has shown that industrial fish processors in Uganda are presently the main linkbetween the artisanal fisher-folk and the overseas export markets. Their entry into the market has tended tostabilize and expand the market for artisanal fisher-folk while increasing their average earnings. There havebeen changes in the distribution of wealth resulting from the Nile perch fisheiy, different from that of theoriginal artisanal fishery. Most local fishers actually do consent that things are better off now as a result ofihe Nile perch boom, although large-scale operations that exploit the Nile perch for foreign currency aredoing much better.

lt was found that more quantitative and qualitative transformations in capital flows in the fisheries sectoremerged and accelerated faster in early 1990s. Hitherto, lots of investments had been undertaken by thefactories in plant supply and back-up systems. Furthermore, there had been significant investment by many"artisanal" vessel-owners themselves, independently of the gear and engines supplied to them by thefactories. Accompanying these sharply rising investment levels had been a steep increase in the number offull time equivalent fishers and auxiliaries (except "artisanal" processors), and a more than correspondingincrease in total real income to the artisanal sector as a whole (much of which has been ploughed back intothe industry) (see Section 4.1).

This is supported by the findings on changes in the marketing system, which most fishers think is the mostpreferable because it ensures that all their fish are sold and that the price is better. Most fishers wereattributing improvement in incomes and living standards to good changes in the market (see Table 15). Forexample, when fishers were asked to mention major changes in the last 5 years they were keen to mentionincrease in incomes and assets and improved fish market (see Table 16). That there have been improvedstandards of living according to most fishers (75 %) is evidenced from increased incomes and localinvestments in form of houses, assets, and increased capital for fishing (Figure 14). A good number offishers said that they have been able to acquire land, build houses, marry and raise children plus the basicrequirements (see Table 12). Some fishers have acquired vehicles and other income generating activities likeshops, etc. Thus, for most fishers, in spite of the changes occurring on the lake, the future of Lake Victoria isbright and what they need is a rectified fish market, some credit facility and good governance on the part ofgovernment fisheries officials. Notwithstanding, a precautionary approach at this point would serve as amove in a right direction.

62.2. IMPLICATIONS FOR FOOD SECURITY

Findings from this survey indicated that fish protein requirements for fisher-folk communities in Uganda arenot seriously affected by the Nile perch export trade (see Table 17), in spite of protein malnutrition fears inthe lake basin as expressed by socio-economists especially on the Kenyan side (Mugabe et aI, 1999). Theexplanation to this is that fishers in Uganda normally have easy access to cheap fish at prices much less than

urban prices (about 50 % less), and due to dependency on alternative fish species of less internaLionai value(Tilapia, Iungfish, mukcne, cat fish, etc.) by fishers. Moreover, the prices at landing sites, wian markets andexport markets are generally in the range 1:2:7. However, given the greater exportability of fish andincreasing demand from fish factories, it is practically possible that the rural consumers ave receiving lessfish than before the fish export drive. The dramatic increase in fish exports promoted by higher export pricesand favourable exchange rates and the attractive markets in the urban centres are the underlying factors tothe diversion of fish demand and supply.

62.3. LOCAL FISH DEMA ND

TIse demand for Uganda fish, according to government sources (Fish Master PIan 1996), is divided into fivemarket segments as for 1995-1996. The rural fish markets take up to 55 percent followed by urban fishmarket at 16 percent, then export market at 14 percent. Subsistence consumption by fishing communitiesand fish farmers was estimated at 11 percent and regional markets at 3 percent. This again concurs with thefindings that most fish is sold to local market traders by fishers (see Table 9). With such a high demandfrom rural markets coupled with the ever-growing demand from the export market, it is therefore certain thatthere is a shortage of fish for local people recently as most observers have speculated. What is consoling forUganda, however, is that the fish species preference for most people is Tilapia (70 % for the whole lakeregion) against Nile perch (SEDAWOG, 1999). This means that the potential to make good 'losses' of Nileperch has little implication for the food security of fisher-folk communities and most local populationsexcept for the lower price and thus income they may obtain on their competing export fish product. Thepotential to increase the catches (or destroy through destructive fishing) of less global value (Titapia andwukene) have more direct implications for the food security particularly of urbau poor and ruralcommunities. These species are most economically caught, handled and distributed ¡n large quantities andaxe thus suitable for urban markets and rural communities.

.24. IMPLiCA TÍONS FOR TilE FISHER-FOLK COMMUNITIESAND THE LAKE'SSUSTAINABiLiTY

Referring to Table 5, in 1996 the total commercial catch of fish from Lake Victoria was 106,400 tons ofwhich 13,650 tons were exported. In 1997. the total commercial catch almost stagnated at 106,800 tons ofwhich only 11,580 tons were exported. By 1998 the total catch was 105,200 tons and the exports went downto 10,530 tons. These figures show a small but steady decline in the fish harvest from the lake, which untilthat point had been increasing. The poor subsistence fisher-folk communities of Lake Victoria who rely onfish for their daily food requirements lose out as demand and prices increase. Usually the price of Nile perchgreatly influences the price of other fish species like Tilapia. Whenever, the price of Nile perch goes up thatfor other fish automatically goes up too. This means that as prices ai-e hiked by the export market thedomestic consumers and some fisher-folk communities become vulnerable to the high prices, which theycannot afford. In fact, Odongkara and Okaronon (1997) expressed such fears that expansion of export-oriented fishing industry for Nile perch was likely to drive the cost of the fish beyond the reach of manyfisher-folk communities Interostingly, the findings of this study confirm the steady rise in fish prices (Table5), ever since the international fish market was established in early i 990s. Already some domesticconsumers have resorted to alternative low priced fish consisting mainly of juveniles. This in turn isencouraging fishers who use illegal gear to fish (actually fishers say that they use this type of gear because itis affordable compared to the legal gear). Defiuiiteiy this is a more ill fated activity for the sustainability ofthe fishery resource. When hard pressed by the iseed to survive and sustain the family the fishers will haveno alternative but to fish regardless of the stress put on the resource. Widespread poverty within thepopulation plays a significant role in environmental degradation (Pinstrup-Andersen and Pandya-Loch,1996). It is particularly difficult for poor and hungry people to make the critical trade-offs necessary forlong-term sustainability of natural resources because of their pressing immediate needs.

69

6.3. CONCLUSIONS

The fisheries sector plays ali important role in food security through provision of supplies of fish, theprovision of employment opportunities especially for the rural poor fisher-folk communities and hi itscontribution to economic growth.

There lias been a significant increase in the fish export trade in the last decade stimulated by the boom inNile perch fishery and international fish demand. This has resulted in increases in real prices and stimulationof investments in industrial fish processing for export trade and boosted domestic fish market trade.However, the international fish export trade is also associated with a remarkable increase in fishing effort(fishers and gears).

Many fishers have benefited from the boom in terms of employment, income, and living standards, Eualiythough, some people have been sidelined. Of particular mention are local fish processors. Deprived of workand unable to afford this higher priced (and less palatable) catch, some local people face a serious economicthreat. The growing capital-intensive factories are implicitly decimating the primary economic andnutritional resource of most fisher-folk communities, particularly of local fish processors who traditionallyhave always been mostly women.

Fishers mention as their major constraints, the increasing use of destructive fishing methods, insecurity onthe lake, very expensive inputs, lack of credit facilities and the EU fish ban, which distorts the market all thetime. Fishers argue that the poverty and the prevalent destructive fishing methods (including illegal gears)are due to the prohibitively expensive legal inputs for fishers. Prices of inputs have gone up with the boomin export trade for Nile perch affecting small-scale fishers who mainly deal in fish other than Nile perch. Ofimportance too is the rampant insecurity on the lake, where fishers say that gears are stolen and piracy isprevalent on the lake among other problems (Table 19). This can form a good basis for encouraging fishersto co-operate in adaptive management schemes like co-management.

Fishers are less organized making it difficult for them to have proper control over their market for bettorprofits. This has opened up another link group-.the fish agents and fish traders who 'exploit' the fishers bygiving low prices because they are somewhat more organized. Fishers, however, are willing to co-operatefor the better management and sustainability of the lake resources.

No significant competition for fish purchases by domestic consumers with the fish factories was observedsuggesting that there are no serious negative implications for the nutrition of the fisher-folk communities.The export processing industry, however, will continue to be the driving force in the Nile perch fishery forsome time to come. There is too much invested and too much support from the Ugandan government toexpect any other outcome. The encouraging observation is that, the industry has demonstrated an interest ineffective management to ensure that there is a sustainable fisheries resource.

However, iii spite of some partial economic optimism by fishers as expressed from the results of this study,the worries of many fishers about their catches becoming sporadic and fish smaller should be takenseriously. The day-to-day operational reality of the artisanal fishing community should form the basis foradaptive management in a situation where science-based construction of reality is scanty.

Finally, let it suffice to say that several conflicting issues influence the sustainability of the Lake Victoriaresources. These derive from the recent history of the lake fisheries and they range from ecological stress onthe lake, increasing economic activities on the lake and socio-demographic aspects of the fisher-folkcommunities.

Sustainability concern need to be taken seriously and addressed through, amongst other approaches, co-management arrangements including fishers, Government (as well as wider co-operation between the threecountries sharing the lake) and, due to its significance in this context, the private sector in the form of theprocessors.

70

7 RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS7.1. EDUCATION AND TRAiNING

Education of the population is necessary to protect natural resources. Fisheries management is a low priorityfor a people whose survival is in question. They will become concerned about and invest in environmentalconservation only once a certain level of income is attained and when they have a stake in the resource. It isencouraging that the study findings indicate most fishers to be literate, suggesting that any implementationof training programs should be met with less resistance at all if any. Seventy percent of the fishers have atleast had some format education and this would make management easier if fishers were educated on basicfisheries management aspects. This can be conducted through the mass media and other established meansof dispensing information. For government policies to work, people must be sensitized about the importanceof the lake and the serious threat they pose to its survival. Relating to this, Hutton and Larnberth (1997),about the South African line fishery, emphasized the need to invest in information sharing and education oflocal fishing communities, while Pinkerton (1989) suggested that strong local institutions with human andfinancial resources are a precondition for co-management.

Education is particularly crucial for people whose culture and lives have directly depended on fish for manyyears. The education and training should balance immediate consumption need with sustainability andconservation for futuro generations.

7.2. A PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH SHOULD BE ADOPTED

Given that the export processing industry will continue to be the driving force in the Nile perch fishery forsome time to come, a precautionary approach to the exploitation of the resource is recommended. Newapproaches are needed if fishing is to continue to provide for poor people and sustain livelihoods of fisher-folk communities. A "precautionary approach" to fishery management, which aims to protect fishpopulations before they crash, is now being discussed in international debates and this would be timely forapplication in the Lake Victoria fisheries. Action must also be taken to restrict if not ban destructive andwasteful fishing technologies, and to address the industries excess capacity.

The government should develop a national fisheries policy and action plan that seeks to balance factorycapacity with available fishery resource on a sustainable basis. An essential first step in the management ofcapacity is to develop responsible policies and consequent management plans.

Limit reference points and target reference points should be developed. Limit reference points will be setaccording to resource sustainability measures. The target reference point will seek to maximize the netsocial benefits from the fishery over time.

7.3. ENCOURAGE ALTERNATIVE INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES

The government must find alternative ways for the excess fishers and women to earn an income other thanby fishing Poverty Alleviation Programs that aim to address the wide income disparity between niral andurban areas, and between rich and poor should be encouraged among the fisher-folk communities. Thedisadvantaged groups especially women and poor fishers should be identified for assistance, and inputprices should be controlled especially by encouraging competition on supply side. This can also be achievedthrough initiation of poverty alleviation programmes and fmancial credit schemes extended to the fisher-folkcommunities to help them diversify and afford legal inputs for fishing. Normally government attempts toaddress the problem of over-fishing, often mistakenly put additional and undue restrictions on subsistencefishers. However, economic development should be part of any efforts to reduce over-fishing and loss ofspecies. It ¡s not enough to discourage small fishers from catching fish when they are forced to do so inorder to survive. Those living in these fishing villages do not always understand government conservationpolicies. Unlike large commercial

71

boats, which carry out fishing in all parts of the lake, poor fishers rely on simple dugout canoes, which onlyreach the shallow waters near the shore. The fishing population, still holding onto traditional practices,suffers as a result of the government's conservation policies and consequent over-fishing of the commercialindustry. Rural people must be rewarded for their efforts to conserve the fish species: if those living in thelakeshore areas receive concrete benefits from conservation, they may change their behaviour. Otherwise,they will continue to resist outside conservation efforts as long as their needs are not taken intoconsideration.

7.4. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

More research is needed on the economic aspects of the fish export trade in order to gaiiier the underlyingprinciples of the dynamism of modem marketing of seafoods. There is need for benchmarking in order tounderstand how other commercial (Tilapia, mukenc, etc.) fish produced in Lake Victoria can be diversifiedinto other useful products that can be used locally and that can attract market internationay, instead ofrelying on only Nile perch. This would lift the pressure on one species while helping to create jobs throughthe diversification of products. Research particularly focusing on women fish processing enterprises wouldgo a long way to help women upgrade their fish-processing sector and improve on their livelihoods. A goodplace identified by this research to begin with would be Ggaba beach where there is already an elaboratediversification in Nile perch by-products.

A study on the overall impact of the fish export trade should be carried further to encompass the wholecountry so as to ascertain the changes in demand and supply for fish in rural areas over the years in order tocomprehend the implications for food security.

7.5. SUGGESTIONS FOR POLICY INTERVENTION

75.1. CO-MANAGEMENT - A WA YFOR WARD.

Community management of fisheries constitutes an interesting alternative to centralized fisheriesmanagement and the institution of particular fisheries management systems from above. It means "power-sharing in the exercise of resource management between a government agency and a community ororganization of stakeholders" (Pinkerton 1992: 331). However, before the benefits of this approach can bejudged it is necessary to specify more precisely what is contained in the concept of co-management,delineate the community decision making process and the sharing of management and enforcementresponsibilities between the community and the fisheries department. This requires a sound knowledge ofthe socio-demographic characteristics and survival strategies of local communities. In all cases, thefollowing approaches would contribute to improving the planning and management of the fisheries sector:

Assess quantitatively and qualitatively the labour force and total population involved in the fisheries sectorand sub-sectors, first through reanalysis of censuses and surveys, then if necessary through specific surveys.

Review the performance and constraints of the respective sub-sectors in light of biophysical and economicconditions.,

Assess the population-supporting capacity of the sector, and its prospects, in light of population projectionsand productivity assumptions.

Examine policies and strategies (including economic diversification), which would improve the productivityof labour and quality of life in fishing communities.

72

Z 5.2. ENSURiNG FOOD SECURITY

To protect future national food security and fisheries sustainability, there is an urgent need to initiate long-term market-based changes that link consumer fish-±bod choices with aquatic ecosystem impact. Thismarket adjustment will significantly contribute toward countering environmentally destructive economicforces that have historically motivated counter-productive fishing behaviour. These circumstances havecontributed to collapsing of many local fisheries elsewhere ¡n the world. The effects have socially andeconomically devastated their dependent communities. The broader negative implications transmit intolarger issues including food security, biological diversity, and ecosystem health of the global community(FAO, 1 995a; Sproul and Qucirolo, 1994).

The market's failure to incorporate social and environmental externalities in the price mechanism is wellrecognized (Munro and Scott, i 95; Clark, 1990; van I(ooten, G. 1993). 11sli-foods as observed byconsumers, partially reflect a fishery's operational costs associated with a given harvesting method.Obviously, species availability, dIstribution cosa, government taxes or subsidies, and profit mark-up,potential in a products respective competitive market also contribute significantly to retail price.Regrcttably absent in the pricing mechanism is a fïshery s impact cost" to the ecosystem. Fishersharvesting in an ecosystem-degrading manner can expect to receive the same price as their counterpartspursuing the same resource but in a sustaining manner. Worse still, often unsustaiiutbte means ofexploitation and production have historically been considered less expensive for industry to operate thanmore stewardship-based alternatives. Usually, fish factory operations are either unaware of, or indifferent to,the negative environmental and social consequences they may be endorsing when buying the "cheapest"fish. For fish, as with nearly all goods and services, in-tandem presentation of defensible and concise socio-environmental product information does not yet adequately exist for consumers. Essentially, environmentaland social information must be transformed into primary value-added component of fish-food products andbe credibly presented in the marketplace as notably as price (Sproul, 1997).

Zi3. HARMONIZING FISHERIES MANAGEMENT, DEVELOFMENTAND CONSER VATIONFOR THE COUNTRIES SHARING L. VICTORIA

Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya, the three countries benefiting directly from the lake, should co-operate anddo much to protect the Lake and its fish and other species through good management and conservationmeasures. Already the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Program and other related bodies areworking hand in hand with the three riparian countries, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya to assist in themanagement and conservation of the lake's resources. Already the disappearance of many fish species hasaltered the ecological balance in the take, reducing the numbers and species of fish and affecting otherwildlife such as birds, which feed on fish. In much of Africa and South America, over-harvesting of speciesand the introduction of exotic species are among the greatest threats to freshwater biodiversity (WRI, 1994).Researchers and environmentalists are particularly worried about the biodiversity of L. Victoria, where theintroduction of the Perch lias led to destruction of most indigenous fish species. lt is often feared thai afterexhausting most of its food reserves, the Nile perch may turn on itself with catastrophic consequences to thefishery, which now supports most of the livelihoods. Stimulating economic growth to increase employmentopportunities and incomes must be the foundation nf environmental protection.

Z54. MAJOR RESEARCH ISSUES RELA TED TO JNCENTIVEADJUSTMENT

Clearly, assessing the implications of alternative policy options requires adequate knowledge not only of thetechnical aspects of the sector but also of its actors. Particularly, it is important to know what impact policiesaddressing the industrial sub-sector are likely to have on the survival and progress of the mass of small-scalefisher communities. Furthermore, since administrative regulation of entry into the fishery activity is notfeasible for a country like Uganda with limited control over individual economic activities, devising meansto influence the sector requires a good knowledge of its workings. All this requires as a minimum, reliablestatistics on

73

fisher-folk communities, good enumeration by age and gender with information on labour force,participation patterns, and exhaustive income sources.

Z15. DECENTRALIZED CONTROL

There are plans for the government to decentralize the control- a creative strategy of letting the fishingcommunities contro! their own fisheries. Under the new approach people living in the lakeshore areas shallbe responsible for protecting the fisheries. The Fisheries Department will only provide technical advicewithout directly enforcing regulations. Enforcement and management will be in the hands of local fishermenand women. It will be interesting to see the results of this new approach.

At the same time, current government regulations to protect the most vulnerable fish at the most vulnerabletimes of the season must be strongly enforced. When looking at appropriate fish management techniques, itis important to study the historical background to over-fishing and loss of species. In Lake Victoria, as thecatch of the favoured species diminishes and the demand for fish increases, fishers inevitably will turn to theless favoured species and other underdeveloped species. This has already been observed- the use ofdestructive fishing method like the recent use of fish poisoning and illegal gear is on the increase. The resulthas been a rapid decline of larger species, which has encouraged more fishers to switch to small-mesh nets.With this situation it is unlikely that the fishers will manage their catch effectively without the FisheriesDepartment actively enforcing fishing regulations. While it is important to let fishers make their owndecisions it is also important for the government to work with local people in the management of thefisheries.

74

IBLIOGRAPHY

Ab lia, R. 0. (1996). Economic analysis oldie thmestic and export marketing olKenys 's Nile perch and itsproducts. Paper presented at the 6f" FAO Expert Consultation on Fish Technology in Africa, Kisumu 27th

30th August, 1996.

Abila, R. O. and Jansen, E. G. (1997). From local to global markets: the fish exporting and fishmealindustries of Lake Victoria - structure, strategies and socio-economie impacts in Kenya. IUCN EasternAfrica Programme. Socio-economies oldie Lake Victoria fisheries: Report No. 2, September 997. TheWorld Conservation Union, Nairobi.

Abramovitz, J.N. (1996). Imperilled Waters, Impoverished Future: The Decline of Freshwater Ecosystems.WorldwatchpaperNo. 128. Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C.

Acere, TO. (1985). Observations on the biology of the Nile perch (L. niloticus) and growth of its fishery inthe northern waters of Lake Victoria, FAOFish. Rep., 335: 42-61.

Acheson, J. (1992). Capturing the commons: Legal and illegal strategies. In: Anderson, T. L. and R. T.Simmons (Eds.). The political economy of customs and culture. Infonnal solutions to commons problems.Lanham, MD: Rowrnan and Littlefield Publishers, Inc. :152-157.

Anderson, A. M. 1961. Further observations concerning the proposed introduction of Nile Perch into LakeVictoria. East A.(rican Agricultural and Forestry Journal 26 (4): 195-201.

Asowe-Okwe, C. (1989). Capital and conditioning of fisher-labourers of Lake Kyoga and Victoria canoefisheries. C'PR Working paper no. 3; Labour Studies project paper no.2. Kampala, Centre for BasicResearch.

Asowe-Okwe, C. (1996). Modern Fisheries and its Impact on Access to Common Property Management. Acase study of Lake Victoria Fisheries, Uganda. Paper presented at the Symposium on common propertymanagement, 26-28 March 1996, Kampala. Makerere University, Kampala.

Berkes, F. (1986). Marine inshore fishery management in Turkey. In proceedings of the conference oncommon property resource management, National Research Council. Washington D.C. National AcademyPress, 63-83.

Broinley, D.W. and Champagain, D.P. (1984). The village against the centre: resource depletion in SouthAsia. Am. J Agr. Econ. 66; 868-873.

Clark, C. (1990). Mathematical Bioeconomics. 2" Edition. New York: Wiley-lnterscience

Cordell, J. (1972). The developmental ecology of an estuarine canoe fishing system in Northeast Brazil.Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Stanford University, Stanford, CA.

Costanza, R. (1991). Ecological economics: the science and management of sustainability. New York:Columbia University Press, 1991. p 525.

Daly, H.E. and Cobb, Jr, John B. (1994). For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy TowardComm unity, the Environment and a Sustainable Future. Beacon Press, Boston. USA.

Donald, R. L. (1996). Community-Run fisheries: 'Avoiding the Tragedy of the Commons'. PoliticalEconomy Research Centre (PERC) policy series. Issue No. PS-7. perc@perc.org.

75

Dorsey, S.D., Hill, J.M. and Woods, M.E. (1989). The human development spectrum: Sub-spectra andsocial indicators for use in development project planning design, and implementation. Social indicatorsresearch 1989. Feb. Vol.21 No. 1,93-1 IO.

East African Newspaper, (1999). Uganda Fish Still a 'No' 'No', says EU Inspection Team. The EastAfrican, August 30-Septeober 5, 1999. The Nation group. P.24.

Electronic Mail and Guardian (1998). EU bans Kenya fish 18th June 1998, by J. Mwaura. Johannesburg,South Africa

Electronic Mail aacl Guardian (1998).Africa begs EU to lift fish ban, l5'', Jan. 1998, by Judith Achieng.Johannesburg, South Africa

FAO (1990). Source Book for the Inland Fishery resources of Africa. Rome: FAO. CIFA Tech. Paper 18(2)24Opp.

FAO (1993a). Fishery Statistics, Commodities. Vol. 77. FAO, Rome Italy.

FAO (1993 b). FAO Fisheries Circular No.853, p.26. Fisheries Department. FAO, Rome Italy.

FAO (1995a). Review of the State of the World Fisheries Resources: Inland Capture Fisheries. FisheriesCircular No. 885. 63pp.

FAO (1995 b). The state of the world fisheries and aquaculture. Fisheries statistics p. 5. Rome Italy.

FAO (1996). Fisheries and Aquaculture in sub-Saharan Africa: Situation and outlook in 1996. FAOFisheries Circular No. 922 FIPP/C922. Fisheries Department. FAO, Rome Italy.FAO (1997). The state of world Fisheries and Aquaculture, 1996. Fisheries Department. FAO, Rome Italy.p.5.

(FAO, 1997). Agriculture and Food Security: The Situation Today-- Hunger Amid Plenty. Available onlineat: http://www.fao.org/wfs/fs/e/agricultlAgSit-e.lìtm (September 25, 1997).

FAO (1999). The state of Food Insecurity in the World, 1999. Fisheries Department. FAO, Rome Italy.

Fearne, A. (1990). 'Communications in Agriculture: Results of a Farmer Survey', Journal of AgriculturalEconomics, 41, pp. 371-380.

Filhol, A. (1995). Impact of the Uraguay Round on International Fish Trade. July 1995. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Fryer, G. (1960). Concerning the proposed introduction of Nile Perch into Lake Victoria. East Africanagricultural Jo urna], 25(4): 267-270.

Fryer, G. (1986). Enemy-free space: a new name for an ancient ecological concept. Bio]. J Limieurz, Soc., 4(27): 287-292.

Gibbon, P. (1997). Of saviours and punks: the political economy of the Nile perch marketing chain inTanzania. CDR WorkingPaper97.3. Copenhagen, Centre for Development Research, June 1997.

Gleick, PH. (1993). Water in C'rith: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources. Oxford UniversityPress, New York.

Goodlarid, R. and Daly, FL, (1996). Environmental sustainability: Universal and Nonnegotiable. EcologicalApplications 6 (4): 1016.

Goulding, 1. (1997). "Perch on a Precipice," SeaFood International, April 1997.

Greboval, D. (1989). Managemeat ofthe new fisheries olLa/ce Victoria. rnajorsocio-economic issues.UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IF IP). RAF/87/0991TD/ 04/89 (En.). Rome,Food and Agricultural Organization.

Greboval, D. arid Mannini, P. (1992). The fisheries of Lake Victoria: Review of Basic data. UNDP(FAORegional Project, Inland Fisheries Planning RAF/87/099/-WP/1 6/92, Rome, Food and AgriculturalOrganization.

Hamblyn, E.L. (1960). The Nile perch Project. Anno. Rep. E. Alt. Frcshwat. Fish. Org., (1960): 26-32.

llardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the Commons. Science 162: 1243-48.

Harris, C. K., Wiley, D. S. and Wilson, D. C. (1995). Socio-economie impacts of introduced species in LakeVictoria fisheries. In Pitcher, T. J. and Hart, P. J. B. (Eds.) The impact ofspccies change ¡u African /aicew.London, Chapman and Hall: 215-242.

Hollirig, C. S., ed. (1978). Adaptive environmental Assessment and Management. New York: John Wileyand Sons.

Huffman, W.E. (1985). Human Capital, Adaptive Ability, and the Distributional Implications ofAgricultural Policy. Axa. .1 Agi-. Econ. 67 (May 1985):429-434.

Hutton, T. and Lamberth, S. J. (1997). Opportunities for co-management: The application of a researchframework to a case study from South Africa. In: Normann et al. 1998.

Jackson, P.B.N. (1971). The African Great Lakes fisheries. Past, present and future. Aft. J Trop. Hydrobiol.Fish. 1:35-49.

Jansen, E. G. 1997. Rich fisheries - poor fisherfolk: some preliminary observations about the effects of tradeand aid in the Lake Victoria fisheries. Socio-economies of the Lake Victoria fisheries: Report No. J,September 1997. IUCN Eastern Africa Programme. Nairobi, The World Conservation Union.

Kamanyi, J. R., Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. and Wandera, S. B. (1998). Impact of fishing gears and methods onlakes Victoria and Kyoga fishery resources. FIKI, Jinja.

Kirema-Mukasa, C .T. and Reynolds, JE. (1991). Marketing and Consumption of fish in Uganda. FISHINNotes and Records: Occasional Papers No. 4. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems (FISHTN):FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007; Republic of Uganda; United Nations Development Programme; FAO ofthe United Nations.

Konstapel, K. and Noort, L. (Eds) (1995). Fisheries in Developing Countries: towards Sustainable Use ofLiving Aquatic resources. (Sectoral Policy Document) The Hague, Netherlands. Ministry of Foreign Affairs,96pp.

Larkin, P.A. (1982). Directions for Future Research in Tropical Multi-species Fisheries. In: Pauly, D. andMurphy, G.I. (F4s), Theory and Manageaient of Tropical Fisheries, ICLARMICSIRO, 309-329.

77

Lee, Kai N. (1993). compass and Gyroscope; Integrating science and Politics for the envfronment,Washington, DC: Island Press.

Loftas, T. (1996). Not enough fish in the sea. Mariiw policy Journal.

LVEMP, (1996). Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda: Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project. Projectdocument, June 1996.

McCay, B.J. and Finlayson, A.C. (1995). The political Ecology of Crisis and Institutional change: The Caseof the Northern Cod. A paper presented to the Annual Meetings of the American AnthropologicalAssociation, Washington, D.C., 15th , November 1995. Rutgers the State University, New Brunswick,New Jersey, USA.

MEGAPESCA (1997). Typical Issues in fisheries Development: Nile perch- marketing success orecological disaster? htt . ://www.me_a esca.coîn/nileperch.html.

MFPEDI, (1998). Background to the budget, 1998/99.

MFPED2, (1998). Statistical Abstracts 1998.

Mugabe, J., Jansen, E.G. and MaK'Ochieng, B. (2000). Foreign Cash for local food Insecurity? Socio-economic Impacts of Liberalised Trade in Lake Victoria's Fisheries. A Policy paper for African Centre forTechnology Studies (ACTS). ICRAF Complex; United Nations Avenue, Girigiri. Nairobi, Kenya.http://www.acts.or.ke/LV%20%20Pol icy%2oBrief.htm.

Munro, G. and Scott, A.D., (1985). The Economics of Fisheries Management. In: Knees, A. V. and Sweeny,J. L., (Eds). Handbook of Natural Resource and Energy Economics. Vol. 2. Amsterdam, NY: NorthHolland.

Neiland, A. E., Sarch, M. T., Madakan, S. P., Ladu, B. M. and Jaffry, S. (1997). Characterisation of theinland fisheries of northeast Nigeria including Nguru--Gashua Wetlands. CEMARE Rep. No.120,Portsmouth, UK. University of Portsmouth, 72 pp.

New Vision news paper (2000). Various articles of May 31, 2000: a)Fish stocks for export will be

inspected by the ministry of fisheries as Uganda seeks to recapture the European Union market.; b)

Ugandans to number 32 million by year 2015 as reported by John Eremu of New Vision daily

paper from a speech delivered by Qerald Ssendaula, Finance and Economic Planning Minister at

the World Population Day celebrations at Mityana Uganda.

Norse, E.A. (1993) Global Ma.rine Biological Diversity, Island Press, Washington, p. 93

Nyagambi (1992). Fish and national food policy. In: Ogutu, O.E.M. (Ed.). Artisanal Fisheries of LakeVictoria, Kenya: Options for manageaient, production and marketing, Proceedings of the Artisanal Fisheries(Kenya) Workshop, Kisumu, 2126th November 1988. Shirikon Publishers for the Artisanal Fisheries(Kenya) Project, Nairobi.

Odongkara, O. K. and Okaronon, J. 0. (1997). The impact of trade and investment policies on theenvironment with regard to the fishing industry. Paper presented to EPRC, Makerere University Kampala.FIR], unja.

78

Ogari, J. (1985). Distribution, food and feeding habits of Latos nhloticus in Nyanza Gulf of Lake Victoria(Kenya). FAO Fish. Rep., (335): 68-80.

Ogutu-Ohwayo, R., (1998). Ecological consequences of alternative gill net fisheries for Nile perchin Lake Victoria: Conservation Biology, y. 12, p. 56-64.

Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. (1994). Adjustments in fish stocks and in life history characteristics of the Nile perch,Lattes niloticus in Lake Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo. PhD thesis, Univ. of Manitoba. 21 3pp.

Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. (1990). The decline of the native fishes of lakes Victoria and Kyoga (East Africa) andthe impact of introduced species, especially the Nile perch, Lates niloticus, and the Nile tilapia,Oreochromis niloticus. Environ. Biol. Fishes. 27: 8 1-96.

Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. (1985). The effect of predation by the Nile perch Lates niloticus (Linne) introduced intoLake Kyoga (Uganda) in relation to fisheries of Lakes Kyoga and Victoria. FAO Fish. Rep. No. 335. 18-41.Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization.

Ogutu, E. M. (1988). Artisanal Fisheries of Lake Victoria, Kenya. Social and Economic aspects ofproduction and marketing. Paper presented at the regional workshop on the fisheries of Lake Victoria,Kenya.

Okaronon, J. 0. (1994). Current composition, distribution and relative abundance of the fish stocks of LakeVictoria, Uganda. Afr. J Trop. Hydrobiol. Fish., 5(2): 89-100.

Okaronon, J. O., Acere, T. O. and Ocenodongo, D. L. (1985). The current state of the fisheries in thenorthern portion of Lake Victoria (Uganda). FAO Fish. Rep., (335):89-98.

O'Riordan, B. (1995). Reconciling International Trade with Food Security. DEEP, FAO, Rome, October1995, p.17.

O'Riordan, B. (1996). An assessment of the current status of Kenya' s Lake Victoria fisheries. Nairobi:Intermediate Technology Development Group.

Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Owino, J.P (1997) "Fish Agents/Middlemen and their influence on the fish market", Lake VictoriaBulletin publication issue no. 7 pp4.

Panayotou, T. (1982). Management concepts for Small-scale Fisheries: Economic and Social aspects. FAOFish. Tech. Pap., (228): 53pp.

Panayotou, T. (1985). Small-scale Fisheries in Asia: Socio-economic Analysis and Policy Ottawa: IDRC.283pp.

Payne, 1. (1987). A lake perched on piscine peril. NewScientist, 115(1575): 50-54.

Pinkerton, E. (Ed.). (1989). Co-operative Management of Local Fisheries: New Directions for ImprovedManagement and Community Development. Vancouver, B.C.: University of British Colombia Press.

Pinkerton, E. (1992). Translating legal Rights into Management Practice: Overcoming Barriers to theExercise of Natural Resources: The Case of the Northern Cod Co-Management. Human Organization51:330-341.

79

Pinstrup-Andersen, P. and Pandya-Loch, R., (1996). Food for ali iii 2020: Can the world be fed withoutdam aging the en vironmnt? International Food policy Research Institute. Reprint No. 363.

Pitcher arid Bundy (1995). Assessment of the Nile perch fishery in Lake Victoria. In Pitcher, T. J. and P. J.B. Hart (Eds.). The Impact of Species Changes in African La/ces. London: Champman and Hall, Fish andFisheries series No. 18: 163-180.

Postel, S. (1996). Dividing the waters: Food Security, Ecosystem Health, and the New Politics of Scarcity.Worldwatch,PaperNo. 132. Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C., p. 29.

Reynolds, J. E. and GrebovaL, D. F. 1988. Socio-eoonomic effects of the evolution ofNile Perch fisheries inLake Victoria: a review. CIFA Technical PaperNo. 17. Rome, Committee for the Inland Fisheries of Africa,Food and Agricultural Organization.

Reynolds, J.E. and Ssali, W.M. (1990). Lake Victoria Fisheries Industrialisation: Recent developments inUganda. SEC Field Report No.13, Fishing notes and records. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems(FISt-uN): FAO/IJNDP Project UGA/87/007 No.1; Republic of Uganda; United Nations DevelopmentProgramme; FAO of the United Nations.

Reynolds, J.E. and Kitakule, S., (1991). Socio-economie aspects of Lake Victoria and Albert: The 1991FISHIN' No.2. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems (FESHIN): FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007No.1; Republic of Uganda; United Nations Development Programme; FAO of the United Nations.

Ribbink, A. J. (1987). African lakes and their fishes: Conservation Scenarios and suggestions. Environ. 13/al.Fish., 19(1): 3-26.

Rothschild, B. J. (1996). How Bountiful are Ocean Fisheries? Consequences2 (1) Harvard Univ. Press.

Schurinan, R. (1996). Snails, southern Hake and Sustainability: Neo-libera! ism and natural resource exportsin Chile. World Dcve/opment24 (11).

SD Dimensions/Environmental Policy, Planning and Management/specials (1998). Biodiversity fer food andAgriculture. Fish and Aquatic life.

SEDAWOG, (1999). Marketing survey. LVFRP Technical DocwnentNo. 2. LVFRP/TECW99/02. unja,Socio-economie Data Working Group of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project.

Smith, !.R. (1979). A research Framework for Fisheries Development. ICLARM Studies and Reviews No.2. Manita, Philippines: International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, 45pp.

Sprout, J.T. (1997). Sustainable Fisheries Certification and Labelling Protocol. Fisheries Centre andSustainable Development Research Institute, Vancouver, B.C. Canada. Working paper.

Sprout, J.T. and Qucirolo, L. (1994). Trade and Management: Exclusive Economic Zones and the ChangingJapanese Surimi Market. Marino Fisheries Review56 (1).

Ssali, W.M., Reynolds, JE. and Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. (1992). Industrial processing investment anddevelopment for the fisheries of Lake Victoria: Present and future concerns; in National seminar onmanagement of the fisheries of Lake Victoria; FISHIN notes and records: Occasional papers No. 5.Fisheries statistics and information systems (FESE-uN); FAO/EJNDP project UcJA/87/007; Republic ofUganda; United Nations Development Programme; Food and Agricultural Organisation of the UnitedNations.

80

Sten Sverdrup (1997). Policy issues deriving from the impact of Fisheries on food security and theenvironment in developing countries: Issues, Priorities and needs. Discussion paper No. 4. The North Seacentre, Hirtshals, Denmark, 25th June 1997.

Turner OF. (1996). Maximisation of yields from African lakes. In: Cowx, I. G. (Ed.) (1996). StockAssessment in In/a dFicheries. Fishing News Books, UK. 465-481.

UFD (Uganda Fisheries Department, Various years 1985 to 1999). Annual reports, Technical reports(Fisheries Master Plan) and Fisheries Records. Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries,Fisheries Department, Entebbe, Uganda

United Nations (1992). Agenda 21: Programme of action for sustainable development. New York: UnitedNations.

Vaiiden Bossche, J-P. and Bernacsek, G. M. 1990. Source book for inland fishery resources of Africa. IFAThchnicalPaperNo. 18. 3 vol.s. Committee for the Inland Fisheries of Africa. Rome, Food and AgriculturalOrganization.

Van Kooten, G.C. (1993). Land resources Economics and Sustainable Development. UBC Press,Vancouver, Canada.

Van Sommeren, \' .D. (1963). Freshwater fishery research in East Africa. Sci. Progr., 51(201): 1-11.

Walters, C.J. (1986). Adapri ve Manageaient ofRenewa bic Resources. New York: Macmillan.

Walters, C. J., Goruk, R. D. and Radford, 0. (1993). Rivers Inlet Sockeye salmon: An Experiment inAdaptive Management. North Anicrican Journal ofFisficries Managenient 13: 253-262.

Weber, P. (1992). Net Loss: Fish, Jobs, and the Marine Environment. Woridwatch Paper 120, pg. 16.

Welcommne, R.L (1972). The inland waters of Africa. CIFA TeclmicaiPapeilDoc. Tech. CPCA, (l):ll7p.

Welcommne, R.L. (1985). River fisheries. FAOFish. Tech. Pap. 262. Rome: FAO 330pp

Wilson, D. C., Medard, M., Harris, C. K. and Wiley, D. S. 1996. Potentials for co-nia.aagenwnt of the Nileprcli uïsheiy - T'ikc Victorñj, Tanzauia. Paper presented at 'Voices from the Commons' Conference of theInternational Association for the Study of Common Property, Berkeley CA, June 5-8 1996.

World Bank (1992). A study of International Fisheries Research. Policy andResearch Series, No. 19.

World Resource Institute (WRI) (1994). World resources 1994-1995: A guide to the Global Envfroizrnent.Oxford University Press, Washington D.C., p. 358.

Yongo, E.O. (1994). Socio-economie aspects of artisanal Nile perch Processors, pp. 78-81 in KENYAMARINE AND FISHERIES Research Institute. The utilisation of Nile perch by-products, K.M.F.R.T.seminar held at Hotel Sunset- Kisuniu, Kenya, 7-10 June 1994; K.M.F.RI., Kisurnu.

81

APPE a IXA

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE FISHERMEN AND FISH-T

Name of survey site:

: ERS

i

Date:

A Socio-demographic information

Al Sex of respondent: [1] male [2] female Al 2

A2 Age A2 13

A3 Marital status: [1] married [2] single A3 14

A4 Education: [1] none [2] primary [3] secondary [4]others A4 Is

A5 Employed by [1] factory fish processorssuppliers [4] independent boat owner [5]

[2] fish traders [3] factoryothers

AS 6

A6 How long have you been employed in your current employment? A6 I 7

[1] less than one year [2] 2-5 years [3] 6-10 years [4] more than tenyears [5] Dont know

A7 What was your former employment (if any)? [1] Fisheries Apart From A7 8

Nile Perch [2] Fisheries Inputs [3] Outside Fishing [4] Unemployed[5] First Job (go to B)

A8 What was the reason for changing your job? [1] Less Payment [2] A8 9

Unreliable Market [3] Lacked Capital [4] Others

B Operation Of The Fisheries

Bi Target species? [1] Nile perch [2] Tilapia [3] "Mikuni" Bi 10

[4] Others

B2 What do you use for catching the fish? [1] Gill-Net [2] Purse B2 IiiSeine [3] Long Line [4] Others (Specify)

B3 Give the average catch per day/week ofWhen you first started (year)

fish landedkgs

B3 112

Currently (year ) kgs

B4 What is the reason for the changes in B3?[1]

[2]

C Investment

C2 Give two reasons for the changes in Cl[1][2]

besides fishing inputs)?Source of income

C3 What assets do you have (material itemItem

D Fish Supply Arrangements

Dl To whom do you sell your fish? (can tick more than one)[1] Independent fish agents [2] Local market traders [3] Local fishprocessors [4] Directly to fish factories [5] Others

D2 Under which conditions do you supply your fish to the buyers?[1] Informal Contract (Provide Outboard Engine, Collecting BoatsWith Ice, Provide Nets, Fuel, Etc.) [2] Formal Contract Where LoansAre Provided For Investment And Operations [3] Sell ToMiddlemen/Traders [41 Hired By Factory [5] None [6] Others

D3 Comment on the supply arrangement in relation to:

Catch effort [1] High [2] low [3] moderate [4] don't knowPayment [1] good and prompt [2] poor and unreliable [3] no

difference[4] cheat and unfair to fishers

IT

Cl Mention inputs used inAt the start (yr.)

fishing (i.e. transport,Income source

boats, gear, iceToday (year )

labour):Incomesource

Cl 15-21

C3 I 24-28

Dl 129

D2 130

D3 3 1-32

B4 I 13-14

F Suggestions

F45 Give suggestions of what can be done to improve the fisheries

III

Statement Agree Disagree Not SureVery Useful In Providing I 2 3Employment to poor fisherfolk;Provide Credit And legal Inputs tofishers

2 3

By Buying Our Fish they Createready Market for our fish

2 3

Have generally helped improvefishers' incomes

2 3

Organise For Us Educational 2 3Programmes on better post-harvesthandling of Fish and We Can WorkTogether For Better FisheriesManagement,Have marginalised/isolated fishersby only dealing with special agents.

2 3

They are indirectly Responsible Forillegal Fishing practices

i 2 3

Take away much needed fish fordomestic consumption by fishingcommunities;

2 3

They Are likely to deplete the lakeof its fish resource if not checked;

2 3

D4

E

El

State three major changes among fisher community that you havenoticed ever since fish factories started coming.

D4 33-35

2.

3.

Attitudes Of Fishers And Traders Towards Nile Perch ProcessingPlants

Consider the Following Statements and Give Your Opinion about Fish processing plants

ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICSA Ownership and Integration

Al Ownership: [I] sole [2] partnership [3] Others(specify)

A2 Nationality of owners: [1] UgaridanUgandan + others (specify)others

A3 Previous experience of owners in fisheries or fisheries business:[1] none [2] only trained in relevant field [3] trained and experienced in the business[4] others

A4 Do you have sister companies in the neighbouring countries?[1] Yes [2] No

M Why did you decide to invest in Nile perch and not in other species?

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE FISH PROCESSORS

I Name of sun'ey site:

Date:

B Demand and Quantity of fish Processed

B2 What are the possible reasons for the changes in BI?

2.

BI Give the full capacity (expected output in Tonnes/day)

B3 Of the quantity of fish sipplied what percentage is rejected.Initially (year ) Currently 1998/

Iv

Initially (year ) Currently 1998/99Factory's real capacity

Day's real out put

B4 State the size of fish bought by the factory. B4 lo

Al 2

A2 3

A3 4

B5 Why?

'J

C Price Mechanisms And Buying Price Of Fish

Cl Who detennines the buying price of fish at the beaches/factory gates?[1] factory owners [2] fish agents [3] fish traders [4] all the above [5] others

C2 If you are the ones who determine the price for buying, what is the reaction of fishers tothis?[1] complain seriously [2] no complaint [3] satisfied[4] others

C3 Give your opinion about the price you offer for Nile perch compared to other fish speciesprices.[1] much higher [2] same price [3] lower [4] no idea

C4 State two impacts for this price you offer.

2.

D Fish Supply Arrangements

Dl How do you get your fish? (can tick one) [1] buy directly from fishermen[2] independent agents (tied up) [3] caught by factory

[4] Others

D2 If not directly from fishers, what are the reasons? (can tick more than one)[1] High price, [2] poor quality [3] Unreliable supply[4] Others (specif')

D3 Give weekly average tonnage of fish processed and number of agents engaged in thesupply.

Tons/wkAgents/wk

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

D4 How do you ensure a regular supply of fish?[1] offer them better prices [2] "Tie' them by offering loans and inputs [31 offer free fishscrap [4] pay them promptly

provide boats and engines on contractothers

D2 I!!

D6 I22

V

Initially (year ) Currently 1998/

19D3

D5 If you make agreements between fishermen and agents, what kind?[I] Supply gear, boats, outboard engines, and nets [2] Give them loans and investmentcapital [3] Provide transport and handling facilitfes (ice, etc.). [4] Not at all [5]Others

D6 How have the supply arrangements affected quantity of fish supplied?

2.

D7 Give reasons why you think so.

2.

E Motivation (f ncentives) to Fishermen

El Do you have any policy that ensures legal fishing by fishers?[I] Yes [2] No (go to E3)

E2 If Yes, mention what is done.[ I] offer better inputs i.e., outboard engines, legal nets andboat sizes,

offer credit to tradersconduct lessons on quality and better handling practiceswe don't offer at all [5] Accept only a minimum fish size and above

[6] Others

E3 Give your opinion on the state of fishing practices by fishers.

2.

E4 If no incentive is offered, give reasons: [1] Not enough money to give out[2] fisher/traders are unreliable [3] they do not need it

[4]. Others (specify)

F Development Policy Framework Of Operation

FI Have fish factories contributed to the development of the fishing industry in Uganda?[I] Yes [2] ¡ don't know [3] No (to F3)

F3 Can fish factory processors be of any use to the management of the L. Victoria fisheries?[I] Yes [2] 1 don't know [3] No

F4 If Yes, give three ways in which fish processors can help in the management of thefisheries?

D7 J 23

D8 24

urniE2 26

29-31

F4 33-35

VI

F2 If yes, mention three ways in which the factory has helped in the development of the F2fishing community.

F6 Give three suggestions on how you think fishers can be helped to ensure better fisheriesmanagement.

2.

3.

F7 Mention three ways in which you view the future of the Nile perch fisheries of LakeVictoria?

2.

3.

F6 39-4

VII

36-3

F5 Mention three limitations which you as industrial fish processors have towards the F5management of the fisheries

1131

APPENDIX C

SOME TOPICAL ISSUES ABOUT THE EU FISH BAN ON LAKE VICTORIA

i BAN ON FISH AFFECTS OTHER PERISHABLESBy Dusman A,Okce

Early this year, fishermen invented an easy way of catching the stubborn fish. Armed with poison, alongsidetheir usual nets and hooks, tIcy descended on Ugandas vaLers,

lt was ofcourse easy io catch the already poisoned fish hut the fish was io longer food. It was poison. Witha few fish eaters dead and others hospitalised, the government had to act. The selling offish was banned, butonly for a little while.

Locals are now free to sell and eat fish. But the major importer of Uganda's fish, the European Union stillcan't touch it. And the effects of the ban are diverse. Sources at Entebbe International Airport say the effectsof the ban have spilled over other perishable commodities. The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) boss,Ambrose Akandoiida told the press recently that the ban on fish has drastically affected couriers, in that attimes, they have corne in and gone back without the specified amount of cargo. "The flights used to come inand take fish, flowers, papairi, coffee beans and other fresh produce,' he said. 'But now it's so costly forflight companies because they come in and at times take quarter of the cargo which they expected to find atthe Entebbe Airport," lie added. Akandonda also said the modern refrigerator build at the airport by CAA inconjunction with different non-governmental organisations (NGOs) has been reiidered useless as a result ofthe ban on fish export. l-le citcd lack of cooperation among the Ugandan business community where by,each of them prefers to ship their cargo individually yet, it would have been cheaper if it was done as agroup. "Unlike other business communities elsewhere in the world, Ugandans prefer to do individualshipping yet, their cargo cannot measure up to the required tonnage," he said. " This lias made many flightowners look for business in other parts of the world, "lie explained.

Statistics available show that itt 1994, Uganda exported 2,979 tonnes of fish through Entebbe while thefollowing year, the tonnes rose to 5,219. In 1996, the tonnage sky-rocketed to 9,703 while in 1997 thetonnage reduced to 5,989. Officiais say the reduction was as a result of resentment from the Europeanmarket when it was said that Uganda was catching young fish.

But in 1998, fish exports slightly increased to 6,550 tonnes, after government had put in place a linkingpolicy. And by January this year, CAA liad recorded only 747 tonnes. The European Union imposed a banon fish imports from East Africa the following month aiid figures stalled.

The ban may be reviewed this month but it lias drastically affected the people in the industry both big andsmall. Gomba Fishing lndustty in Jinja was forced to reduce its workers while its Sabulenya (Nile Perch)leather turning industry which liad captured the Italian market is slowly crumbling.

The local fishermen liad to also go for many months without essential commodities until they pledged theircommitment to police.

2. IS FISH BACK ON YOUR DINNER TABLE?By Titus W. Kakembo

Three months after the ban on eating fish was lifted by Kampala City Council, people have begunenjoying the delicacy both at home and in restaurants. The Personnel Manager of Mamamia inSpeke Hotel, Raymond Musoke, said they resumed preparing fish to their guests as soon as the bariwas lifted. "Guests today dine on fish like it is going out of fashion," he adds.

At the Sheraton, fish is back on the menu though a source says they serve kingfish from the saltwaters of Tanzania only. "We strictly serve prawns, lobsters and kingfish from Tanzania, thoughwe expect to

VIII

stall preparing local fish late in September or early October," said an official who did not want tobe named.

Torn Malaba and Geofrey Ndaula of Uganda Investment Authority (UIA) concur that fish has come back tothe tables with a vengeance. "With a big fresh fish which can feed a whole family going for between Shs1,500 and 2,000, we find the prices pocket friendly," Ndaula said.

A survey done in town and in the outskirts revealed that people have resumed biting the fish hard. Fishprices are steadily climbing. A dealer in Nakasero Market, Francis Serwadda said though meat dealers weregetting a good deal at the height of the ban while they (fish dealers) looked on, they are now back tobusiness. "Restaurants and homes are regaining confidence in fish," he added.

At the stalls, fish prices range between Shs 1,500 and 2,500 for ngege (tilapia) and Shs 3,500 to 7,000 forsemutunda. Mukene and emputa (Nile perch) dealers have also resumed the roadside deep frying of fish.

However, some people still eat fish with caution. Asuman Kalule of Luwum Street says though he now eatsfish, he is still afraid of taking it home. 'If there is dying t don't want the whole family to perish".

The ban on fish came in place early this year amidst reports of poisoning of fish on Lake Victoria waters.The ministry of fisheries and local authorities have since put strict regulations in place regarding fishing onthe lake. Fishermen are for example required to register their vessels, rehabilitate landing sites and the entireinfrastructure.

A source from the ministry of State for Fisheries said there is now intensified community education,sensitization, mobilisation, legislation, law enforcement, strict individual monitoring, control andsurveillance on the landing sites.

3. FISH SHOPS TO OPEN iN TOWNBy Titus W. Kakembo

In 1997, Bernard Tugumisirize set up a small pond at his home in Kajjansi to rear fish. And today, Sun FishFarm is not only supplying fresh fish to restaurants and individual fish eaters around, but also helpingfarmers to stock their ponds with preferred species.

At the farm, fish breeding is done to supply out breeders who would otherwise depend on mirror-cap, aspecie from Israel. The Mirror-cap is not a good type of fish and the fish farmers have to get better species."This specie is not appreciated by the consumers who complain about it being bonny and less palatable,"Tugumisirize who is Sun Fish Farm executive director said yesterday.

He said he is overwhelmed by the high demand for fish by both the locals and the expatriate community. Totake services closer to the people, he is planning to open up fish shops in Kansanga, Bukoto and Kabalagalaso that customers can be able to select a live fish in vessels transported down to town.

Sun Fish will soon get an ice plant to enable a hygienic chain of handling fish right from the ponds to thekitchen." We are also due to start smoking fish to meet the preference for local consumers of semutundu andother species," he added. Tugumisirize said pond fish is now a must for the foreign community who prefersimilar fillet in size. "The fish from ponds has an advantage since it is of the same size, age and taste. Thismakes it easier to make fillet," lie explained.

The executive director says that when the fish from Lake Victoria was poisoned early this year, peopleflocked the farm for fish. Potential farmers in Mukono and Masindi have been going for fish as thegovernment breeder is unable to serve them.

With David Ochora, Dr Nelly Isiagi and Ruteyisire Justas as partners, Sun Farm is set to increase productionof Cut fish and tilapia which consumers prefer. "There is need for a service of providing fish feeds andspecies for stocking ponds," he added.

lx

4. UGANDA IN BIG LOSS OVER FISH BANBy Tom MaJaba

Uganda has so far lost US $IO.4m of its total income from fish exports since a ban was slammed on fishexports to the European Union (1U) in March this year. The EU was the leading importer of chilled Nileperch.

The Secretary General of Uganda Fish Processors and Exporters' Association (UFPEA), Marina Reusenssaid yesterday that Uganda's fish income hit its highest in February when it earned the countryUS$4. I million.

"The figure declined to US$ 3.7m in March and it has continued to fall todate. In May, Uganda exportedonly 490 tonnes of fish, down from 1200 tonnes in January. The figure is expected to fall further because theEU market is being saturated with fish from other suppliers," Marina Reusens explained.

The secretary general said due to catching fish with poison, Uganda had lost the EU market and it would bedifficult to regain ¡t. The EU gets a lot of sea fish supplies from South America and Asia which are asubstitute to Uganda's fish," Reusens lamented.

Though there are other markets like Japan, Australia and Middle East, they can only take 30 per cent of thetotal frozen fish exports.

Even the upcoming market for chilled fish in the United States of America can not reach the EU levelbecause the Europeans like fish.

Chilled fish is exported at zero degrees Celsius by air as opposed to frozen fish which is exported atnegative 18 degrees Celsius and mainly goes by sea.

Another UFPEA official said they have put in place quality control systems, including hazard contaminationchecks for all the eleven member companies to follow so as to ensure that the quality of fish for export ismaintained.

Quality control starts from the fishing gear, transport, and each fish ¡s checked for spoilages and signs ofpoisoning while a sample is taken from each consignment and checked by the government chemist before itleaves the country. This is done by the Uganda National Bureau of Standards (tJNBS) and Fish InspectionServices.

The association also has a project to up-lift the standards of landing sites to conform to the EU standards.These include having a landing site with flowing water and raised cemented platform where fish is weighedand then loaded on trucks. Toilet facilities at the landing sites is another requirement.

Reusens said UEFEA was negotiating with Mukono district to up-grade Senyi landing site.

She said in order to harmonise the quality of fish from East African, fish process from the three East Africannations had formed the Lake Victoria Coordinating Committee of lake Victoria, Fish Processors'Association.

UFPEA is also working closely with the European Nile Perch Importers' Association to convince the EU tolift the ban. UFPEA's Chairman Philip Burel is currently in Europe on this mission.

However the ban on fish export to the EU is not the only fish exporters' nightmare. Officials talk of airporthandling charges which, they say, are the highest in the region.

5. FIVE YEARS DOWN THE ROAD, LVFO HAS LITTLE TO SHOWBy Isaac Mufumba.

Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO) formed in 1994 by the three East African countries wasintended to harmonise national policies that will ensure sustainable utilization of all the lake's resources.

X

According to the LYFO executive secretary, Professor Micheni Ntiba, this meant that the organization hadto promote and ensure proper utilization of the fisheries, the waters and other lake creatures, and coordinateresearch among member countries.

They also needed to strengthen the existing research institutions, examine the water quality, the nature andextent of pollution into the lake, as well as setting up a data bank and information centre, and introduce alienplants and animals into the lake.

However, all this remained on paper until December 1996 when the Executive Secretariat of LVFO wasappointed and the LVFO itself was officially inaugurated. The following year the organization's offices andthe secretariat based in Jinja were opened.

So what has the organisation achieved so far? "We have been able to establish a functional secretariat. Thatwas the main function. We have the buildings and the man power.. We are working with fisheriesdepartments and fisheries research organisations. We've also established working relationships with peopleand institutions in the three nations" says Professor Ntiba.

Ntiba further says that LVFO is working closely with the committee on the East African Cooperation andwith the World Bank-funded Lake Victoria Environment Management Project (LVEMP), and that it hasestablished very strong working relationships with a number of international organisations.

Ntiba will not say what impact his organization has had on the ground . He says as a first measure towardsachieving tangible results, one has to build working relationships with people.

"What you need to understand is that the going has hot been cheap. I have however proved that first youhave to build these working relationships. You are new and unknown. You need to build thcse relationshipsfirst, which we have done", he argues.

The LYFO boss says he has developed a 15- year vision plan through which Lake Victoria issues will beaddressed until the year 2015.

The vision, he says, will focus on maintaining the lake as a living ecosystem by planting trees to stoperosion in the lake basin and tackling pollution among others.

On the recent fish ban which also saw the European Union (EU), slam a ban on fish from the East Africanregion, Ntiba said that right now LVFO and other government departments are working round the clock toensure that they meet all the conditions set by EU before the ban can be lifted.

6. NEW LAB COULD LIFT EU FISH BANBy Tom Mataba

Belgian company Chemiphar (U) Ltd has invested USS 70,000 in a laboratory to test fish for pesticides,fuelling hopes that the European Union may soon lift its ban on Uganda's fish.

"If the EU knows there is a lab, competent and ready to do testing, it will be a step for the union to lift theban on Ugandan fish," said the company's managing director Kristof De Graeve, Oct. 26.

Located in Nabuti zone, Kansanga, the fully equipped laboratory will do chemical, microbiological andsafety tests.

EU banned Uganda fish exports to its markets earlier this year after inspectors found fish-handling sitesunhygienic, and widespread reports of fish poisoning.

Government has reportedly been losing close to US$ 1m a week per week in exports.

De Graeve told The Monitor on tour of the lab that it was the ban that prompted their parent company,Belgian Laboratories, to make the investment.

"The lab is starting specifically for fish but other iiidustries will come in later," De Oraeve disclosed.

"All our equipment conforms to the ISO guide 25, Now we are doing test runs and waiting to be recognizedby the Uganda National Bureau of Standards."

XI

He said the laboratory will be available for hire by UNBS, the fisheries department of Uganda, and fishexporters, and that they had worked closely with the Uganda Fish Processors and Exporters Association inthe initial stages of setting up the lab.

'We are looking at Belgian Beltest to certi1' that whatever we test is up to international standards," DeOraeve said.

UNBS Public Relations Officer Moses Ssebunya confirmed that they had approved the lab and expected itto start tests next week.

De Graeve said Belgian Laboratories is certified by EU to cariy out safety tests on food and water; to test forprotein, fat and salt; and to do DNA and forensic tests.

De Graeve said chemical tests are easy to do but pesticide tests take about two weeks.

The investment has excited the fish industry.

"We are grateful for the investment and hope EU will take the lab into account to lift the ban on fish," saidUFEA chairman Sebunnya.

Ssebunya said some exporters have found alternative markets in Japan, Singapore, Malayasia, Israel andUnited Arab Emirates, but EU remained their single largest fish market.

EU TIGHTENS FISH BAN; UGANDA IN SHS 1.4 BILLION LOSS PER WEEKBy Sylvia Juuko

The European Union (EU) has tightened a knot on the temporary ban on fish exports from East Africa as alocal officials announce a Shs I .4bn loss per week.

"Over US $1 million per week is lost due to the ban on fish exports from Uganda," Principal FisheriesOfficer, Fisheries Resources Department, Nsirnbe Bulega has revealed.

He said the fisheries department has embarked on monitoring of landing sites and submitted fish samples togovernment chemists as one of the measures to evaluate methods to stem fish poisoning.

Executive Director Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS), Dr Kasirye-Alemu said during a pressconference yesterday that the EU has issued guide-lines to East African countries before EU lifts the ban.She said EU expressed concern over reports of death as a result of fish poisoning in Uganda.

The EU demanded for comprehensive information on the control of sources of contamination whichincludes list of possible pesticides from products on the market, results of current and previous checks anddetails of sampling methodology for the fish, water and sediments.

"They also asked for the details of control of the quality supply at the level of individual fishing vessel toinclude guarantees concerning the fishermen's knowledge of good hygiene practices," she said.

The EU also wants information on details of poisoning incidents including available information onpoisoning ofNile Perch.

"Control before and after poisoning incidents to include iii particular details of financial resources, staff andtechnical equipment like vessels, communication equipment and vehicles," she said.

The conditions were issued during a meeting held on April 14-15 in Brussels by members of EU andrepresentatives from East African region.

She revealed that a copy of EU decision approved on April 12 to temporarily suspend importation of fishfrom Kenya and Tanzania did not feature Uganda because the country liad already effected the ban.

"Uganda did not feature in the decision because it had already taken action on March 22 but the samesuspension is applied to Uganda export to EU," she said.

Europe Bans East African Fish Caught with PoisonBy Nicodemus 0db jambo

XII

DAR ES SALAAM, Tanzania, May 13. 1999 (ENS)

The European Union has declined lo lift the ban it slammed ou fresh and frozen fish imports from EastAfrica. East African delegates from Tanzania, I(enya and Uganda who had gone to Brussels to petition the15-nation European Union (EU) over the ban were sent away empty handed minus the coveted prize accessto European markets they had gone to plead for.

The EU imposed a ban on East African fish after a poisoning crisis came to a head with the deaths of threepeople in Kampala, Uganda early March. The three reportedly died after eating fish suspected to have beencaught by use of poison. Since the March 30 ban, fishing activities in East Africa have almost run aground.

This is the second time in a year the EU imposed a ban on East African fish. Last December, it acted after amajor cholera outbreak in the region threatened the fishing industry. The EU officials told East Africandelegates to submit a list of pesticides sold in the region which fishermen allegedly use to catch fish. TheEU also wants the three countries to draft new legislation to control fishing activities. The EU conditions forlifting of the ban imposed March 30, include a report on the toxicity of the pesticides to humans and theirpersistence in fish and water. Fish exporters from the three governments, fish processors and exporters'bodies have also been told to coordinate their activities to burst fish poisoning.

Representatives from the three countries were in Brussels April 14 to 15 to explain the measures taken tocurb the use of poison to catch fish in the Lake Victoria which the states share among them.

The leader of the Tanzanian delegation to the EU, Thomas Maembe, who is also the director of fisheries inthe Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism says, "We presented our case and it was understood.Whether the EU will revisit their decision or not depends on them." Uganda has recently lifted a unilateralban on the domestic sale of fish, imposed after the death of its people. The country has reportedly lost aboutUsh 7 billion (US$5 million) since the March 15 domestic ban.

Kenyan authorities also concede the ban has caused large losses. The EU imports about 56 percent ofKenyas fish catch, which cams the country some Ksh 4 billion (US$66 million) annually. The country alsoexports fish to Israel, which imposed a ban on the fish three weeks ago. Marine products account for fivepercent of Uganda's export earnings; in 1995, it earned US$22.5 million. Kenya earned an about US$85.4million from the fish industry in 1996.

While lamenting that the EU ban may cost the nation up to US$85 million a year in lost exports, Tanzanianminister for natural resources and tourism Zakia Meghji says the EU should consider Tanzania's caseseparately as samples of fish exported from the country sent to establish the veracity of poisoned fish reportshad yielded negative lab results. According to Meghji, 1,097 tonnes of fish that were ready for export byMarch 29 are now stranded. Out of these, 484 tonnes are raw fish. Following the ban, fishmongers by theirthousand have been thrown out of employment. Marine products in Tanzania account for five percent of thecountry's export earnings.

Lake Victoria

Meghji says the EU ban on Tanzania was unjustified because Tanzania had harmonised its standards withthose of the EU in the wake of the earlier ban triggered by the December 1998 cholera outbreak. "If therewere a serious health hazard, we should have been consulted, but surprisingly, the ban just came like that,"she said.

The chairman of the Lake Victoria Fish Processors Association of Tanzania, Harko Bhagat says the EUdisregarded laboratory tests conducted by a renowned Brussels pharmacist, Dr. Jan Cordonnier, exoneratingTanzania's fish exports. Meghj i has said that Tanzanian Prime Minister Frederick Sumaye has written to theEU president, Jacques Santer, asking him to rescind the ban on Lake Victoria fish. A reply is awaited. Mostfishmongers have reported low business volume. Besides lack of buyers, some have been thrown out ofjobs.

Tanzanian fish processing plants have now reduced their production to 40 percent of their total capacity of200 tonnes per day.

Bhagat estimates that the processing plants are losing about Us$4 million per month. The plants includeTanzania Fish Processors, VieFish Ltd, Nile Perch Fisheries, Victoria. Fisheries, Tanperch, MwanzaFishing Industries and Omega Fishing, all in Mwanza; and Fishpak of Musoma. Until recently, fishpoisoning methods were being increasingly used by Kenyan and Tanzanian fishermen, who share LakeVictoria- with Uganda.

Nile perch from Lake Victoria, not caht by poisoning

Fish processors ¡n Mwanza and Mara regions of Tanzania are meanwhile stocking fish in anticipation of thelifting of the ban. Sources in the industry say owners are buying fish and storing them in huge refrigeratedcontainers, hoping that the ban will be lifted soon. Some claim that poison fishing is carried out with thefull knowledge of authorities - who receive fat commissions to turn a blind eye. One pesticide used isThiodan, which is for agricultural purposes. But Meghji says, "We have stepped up surveillance systems inLake Victoria in order to fight this illegal fishing method."

Poisoned fish emit reddish chemicals from the mouth and anus four hours after being caught. The poisonremains potent even in landed fish. Medical experts warn that severe health hazards await those whoconsume fish caught by use of poison. They say expectant mothers are at risk of delivering abnormal babiesif they eat poisoned fish. However, critics of the ban say some EU member states such as Spain, Italy andFrance could have been pressurised by stakeholders in their local fishing industries to protect their marketfrom the Nile perch from Lake Victoria. The Nile perch is preferred by consumers as it is unsalted andrelatively cheaper.

Environment News Service (ENS) 1999. All Rights Reserved.

9. NAIROBi - LAKE VICTORIA IS BACK IN TI{E NEWS.By Jeff OtienoNairobi - Lake Victoria is back in the news. Not because its waters have claimed lives in a boating accident,but because it is reportedly awash with toxic chemicals insecticides and pesticides that threaten marine andhuman life, Fishermen ¡n the lake are accused of using chemicals to harvest fish.

Although local fishermen and fishmongers were overjoyed when the government withdrew a health alert onfish from the lake, problems bedevilling the industry are far from over. The future of the Sh6 billion fishingindustry is now in jeopardy as another ban slapped on fish and its products by the European Union on March30- the major importer of fish from East Africa - begins to bite.

Dr Moses Ikiara, an environmental economist who lectures at Moi University, says the problem affectingfishing in Lake Victoria is more grave than the use of poisonous chemicals to catch fish. Dr Ikiara, whorecently researched on fishing in Lake Victoria, blames poor policies and weak regulations by thegovernment for the problems that face the industry. He said most policies and regulations only existed onpaper as they were never enforced on the ground. Fish scouts have allowed trawling to thrive in the lake forthe past 15 or so years, although it is illegal ¡n Kenya. "The trawlers," Dr Ikiara says, "are owned byoutsiders and have cut off the indigenous people from the fish industry. Trawling has destroyed breedinggrounds and, worst of all, the technology is destructive as its use ignores selective fishing which is importantin sustainable resource development"

Worse still, he noted, the expanding number of the unemployed who enter the unregulated but competitiveindustry has exerted pressure on the lake's resources - forcing fishermen to use unorthodox fishing methods.Since the mid-1980s, Lake Victoria has experienced heavy loss of biodiversity partly due to the risingdemand for fish. Dr Ikiara says the lake has lost over 200 species of fish since the early 1970s, thanks toover-fishing and application of poor technology. As the population around the lake continues to rise,experts say those depending directly on fish for their livelihood - currently standing at over 60,000 - willdefinitely rise sharply.

XIV

The lake produces approximately 500,000 tonnes of fish a year with the Nile perch (Lates ni/oticusconstituting the largest portion of the catch followed by omena (dagaa or Rastrincobola argentea and tilapia(Oreochromis ni/oticus).

Kenya, with only six per cent of Lake Victoria water mass, nets 190,000 tonnes of fish, earning the countrybetween Sh4 billion and Sh6 billion annually from exports. However, experts warn that all this might be lostif laxity is allowed to continue in the industry. The European Union is demanding that the three EastAfrican countries submit a list of pesticides sold in the region, their toxicity to humans and their persistencein fish and water.

The 15-nation union also wants the countries to draft new legislation to control fishing before anynegotiations on lifting the ban begin. At a recent seminar on the sustainability of the fish industry held inNairobi, the PC for Nyanza, Mr. Peter Raburu, accused the fisheries department of failing to act tough onthose who employed unorthodox means to catch fish in the lake. Mr. Raburu said trawling has been goingon openly in the lake for more than 15 years, yet the fisheries department did nothing about it.

Complaints by residents and area MPs - even in Parliament - about the problem have gone unheeded."This is why a section of the fishermen relegated to the periphery by the trawling technology decided torevert to the use of poison," said Dr Ikiara and Dr Mohammed Jama, an environmental economist and alecturer at the University of Nairobi. The trawling problem, coupled with exorbitant prices charged onquality fishing nets, has left poor fishermen with no alternative but to look for other cheaper and easiermeans of catching fish - one of them being the use of toxic chemicals.

The fragmented environmental laws and lack of their enforcement have given industries in western Kenyaand Kisumu town a field day in deciding where to discharge their effluent and Lake Victoria seems to be theperfect choice. "Even the water hyacinth problem has been made worse by pollution from the westernKenya-based industries,'t says Dr Jama. The price of fish, the lecturers say, does not reflect the cost oneincurs in catching them.

Dr Ikiara blames this problem on lack of property rights as fishing in the lake is free-for-all. To bring orderand control, the two dons call for community control in the management of the lake. Environmentalistsargue that the management of the lake should be left to the local community. "The local clans andfishermen should be the ones to make decisions because the government has failed terribly," says Dr Ikiara.

Empowering fishermen will enable them to control and determine the price of fish, which is now done bymiddlemen. The sector which has benefited most from fishing activities in the lake is the processingindustry.According to the fisheries department, there are 12 Nile perch processing factories in Kenya. All of themsupply fishing gear or credit facilities to fishermen. This makes the fishermen dependent on the factories ortheir agents and thus reduce their market choices. The government and other environmental organisationshave been urged to conduct research on alternative job creation for the people living around the lake region.Inhabitants of the lake region also need to be educated on conservation and sustainable use of naturalresources. Although the lifting of the ban on night fishing was welcome, Kenyans should still prepare for theunexpected if the problems facing the lake region remain unresolved.

10. TANZANIA RESUMES FISH EXPORTS TO EUThe East African (Nairobi) February 9, 2000By James Mwakisyala

Dar-Es-Salaam - Tanzania last week resumed fish exports to Europe after a 10-month ban imposed by theEuropean Union was lifted last December. Kenya and Uganda are still awaiting the lifting of similar bansagainst them. The first two cargo flights took off last Wednesday from Mwanza airport bound for European

xv

destinations. A third plane cash landed in Lake Victoria, about four km from the runway. All five crewmembers on the Trans-Arabian Air Transport of Khartoum, Sudan, a Boeing 707, escaped unhurt.

The chairman of the Lake Victoria Fish Processors Association of Tanzania, Mr. Harko Bhagat, told TheEast African in Mwanza: "We are getting everything organised to embark on full-steam exportation to theEuropean Union member countries. We expect to reach about 10 flights per week soon," he said. It is stillunclear when similar bans on Kenya and Uganda, who share the lake with Tanzania, will be lifted. Underthe ban, the Tanzanian fishing industry around the lake was losing an annual income of $85 million. Fishexports from the whole of Lake Victoria are estimated at $120 million annually. The EU market consumed70 per cent of the fish and fish products from Lake Victoria until March 30, 1999, when the ban wasimposed because of widespread fish poisoning.

Fish products from Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya were banned from entering the EU for fear that productsfrom the 34 fish processing plants that dot the shores of the lake were contaminated by poisoning. Mr.Bhagat said although processed fish fillet of Nile perch from the lake would be flown directly to Europe,there was "no fixed rule for now" to prohibit road transport by the fish processing plants to Nairobi, wherethe cargo could be airlifted to EU destinations. The fish processing companies employ about 4,000 workers.

In a press statement, the head of the EU Delegation in Tanzania, Mr. Peter Beck Christiansen, said: "TheEuropean Commission wishes to congratulate the government of Tanzania, the fish exporters, fishprocessors and fishermen around Lake Victoria for resuming fish exports to the EU." He said afterexchanging information and a subsequent inspection mission by the Food and Veterinary Committee of theEuropean Commission, recommendations were made to enable Tanzanian authorities to provide guaranteeson the quality of the fish being exported. "Tanzania's responsible actions have enabled the EuropeanCommission to tell the EU member states that necessary guarantees now exist in full agreement with safetyand hygiene regulations on the EU market," said Mr. Christiansen.

Kenya sent the EU a report on tests carried out on the ecosystem around the Lake Victoria region inNovember 1999, and was awaiting a team from the trading bloc to come and evaluate progress made sincethe ban last year. "We carried out tests to establish whether there were harmful pesticides in the lake andthe environment and not a single sample contained harmful chemicals was found," the Chief Public HealthOfficer at the Ministry of Health, Mr. Alfred Langat, told The EastAfricari. "The EU acknowledged receiptof the report, but they are yet to respond".

In Uganda, President Yoweri Museveni told the Uganda Manufacturers Association the government hadallocated $160,000 for the purchase of poison detectors. The equipment would be used to detect a widerange of poisons and pesticides in the lake. Mr. Philip Borrel, the chairman of the Uganda Fish Processorsand Exporters Association said that the fish and water samples were sent last month to the EU for analysis.When the ban was imposed, fish processing factories reduced their production capacity by as much as 56 percent, and sought new markets in neighbouring countries.

*Additional reporting by Vitalis Omondi in Nairobi, Joseph Mwaniunyange in Dar-Es-Salaam andA.Mutumba-Lule and David Kaiza in Kampala. Copyright © 2000 The East African. Distributed via AfricaNews Online (www.afiicanews.org). For information about the content or for permission to redistribute,publish or use for broadcast, contact the publisher. readersafricanews.org

11. FISH STOCKS FOR EXPORT WILL BE INSPECTED BY THE MINISTRY OF FISHERIESAS UGANDA SEEKS TO RECAPTURE THE EUROPEAN UNION MARKET.

NewVision (Kampala)May 31, 2000

Bureaucracy Slows Growth-Unnecessary bureaucracies should be reduced

XVI

Inspection has shifted froni the National ureau of Standards to the ministry in a bid to meet the EU'sDecember deadline for harmonization of procedures to gain reentry.

At the peak, Uganda exported 1OOm worth of fish annually, with the EU forming the main market. Europesuspended imports from Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania last year following extensive use of toxic chemicalson Lake Victoria by unscrupulous fishermen.

The EU was the main consumer of all three countries' fish and, in Uganda's case, export earnings fell to alow of 530m per annum. The pinch has subsequently been felt with the shilling continually depreciatingagainst thç major currencies as foreign currency inflows fell.

It is therefore critical that these exports resume with a minimum of fuss. The Bureau of Standdrds, whichhad the mandate for quality control was, hamstrung by a stretched personnel who handled more items thanfish and by limited facilities.

It is now hoped that fully trained personnel will be dedicated to the fish industry and will be seconded by theBureau to man laboratories set up by the ministry and to monitor activities right from trawling throughprocessing to packaging.

Fish is a highly perishable commodity, which needs expeditious handling. If the new measures are cuttingthe bureaucratic red tape for the benefit of the industry and the economy at large, so be it. It is, in the finalanalysis, a leaf worth borrowing by other sectors where progress has been bogged down by red tape.

12. Africa-- fish and the EU

From: Anne MeEnanyDte: 3/30/98

CHOLERA, I ACT, COMMERCIAL FISHING - E.AFRICA: FAO

Recently, two European Commission Decisions of December 3 Ist,, 1997 (97/871YEC) and January, 16th1998 (98/84/EC) banned import of fresh fish and restricted import of fish products to the European marketfrom four countries from East Africa due to an on-going cholera epidemic. Today (March 25th), FAO issueda press release based on a technical note on cholera and fish trade. FAO's position is in line with thatreleased recently by the World Health Organization (WHO) on the saine topic. The EC Decisions willremain in force until the end of June 1998.

Peter Karim Ben Embarek Fishery Industry Officer Fish Utilization and Marketing Service (FHU)Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) HQ, Rome, Italy.http://www.fao.org

Press release PR98-21E FAO: IMPORT BAN ON FISH PRODUCTS FROM AFRICA NOTTHE MOST APPROPRIATE ANSWER

Brussels, 25 March - The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) considers a ban on fish exports from EastAfrican countries affected by cholera -not the most appropriate response, the organization said in a statement releasedtoday, asking instead for improvements in good hygiene, safe water supply, fish processing and storage.

Epidemiological data suggest that the risk of transmission of cholera from contaminated imported fish isnegligible. Only rare and sporadic cases of cholera have occurred in developed countries as a result of eatingfish transported across international borders by individuals,- FAO said. The World Health Organization hasnot documented a significant outbreak of cholera resulting from commercially imported food, according toFAO.The UN Agency noted that the Cholera bacteria does tint survive proper cooking or drying, and cooked,dried or canned products are considered safe with regard to cholera transmission. Introducing importrestrictions on fish

products from affected countries will not prcvent the transmission of cholera but will disturb internationaltrade and may encourage illegal trade, posing a potentially higher threat to consumers,- FAO added.

The European Union (EV) imposed a ban on fresh fish imports from several African states in late Decemberand will review it by the end of June. lt currently affects Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Mozambique Theban, which followed a cholera epidemic sweeping much of East Africa in recent months, did not affectfrozen fish. Frozen fish can be sold if' shipments are fre of Cholera and Salmonella bacteria, both of whichcan cause illness. At present the EU requires frozen fish products from East Africa to be checked at ports ofentry to control possible microbial contamination. FAO pointed out that microbiological testing of endproducts has serious limitations as a control option.

The best way to ensure food safety and quality and freedom from pathogenic micro- organisms is byapplying internationally recommended preventive measures and good hygiene and manufacturing practices,FAO said, recommending better control of the safety of water supply to fish processing factories ofaporting countries and better monitoring of health conditions and the hygiene practices of personnelhandling and processing fish products. FAO called on fish-exporting countries to upgrade their landing,processing and storage facilities and said donor countries and international organisations should increasetheir assistance in achieving this goal. FAO for many years has assisted developing countries in adoptingeffective food quality and safety programmes. A Technical Co-operation Project is being prepared by FAOio assist these four countries to deal with food safety problems associated with the Cholera outbreaks. The[fish] exports of Kenya, Mozambique, Uganda and Tanzania to the EU amounted to around 55,000 tonnes iii1996 worth $230 million. The EU is their most important market for these products.

European Union lifts ban on Uganda's fish.

Xinhua reported on July 9 that that Uganda will export fish to EU countries with which it has anindependent arrangement. EU commission recommends lifting ban on fish from Uganda. New Visionreported on July 12 that the European Union (EU) commission has recommended that the EU StandingVeterivaty Committee (SVC) lift the ban on Uganda's fish exports. Uganda is to feature on the agenda of thenext SVC meeting due this month. European Union will review ban on fish from Uganda. Xinhua reportedon July 10 that Ugandans used poison to harvest fish in early 1999, which resulted in the ban on Uganda'sfish export to the EU. The EU threatened that if Uganda could not adequately monitor fish quality byDecember 23, 2000, it would be permanently ruled out of the list of countries allowed to expert fish to theEU. The EU's ban on Uganda's fish export reduced the countrys earnings by more than $30 million over thepast year.

Friday, September 1, 2000 Southern African Centre for American Studies; FO Box 11272; Centurion 0046;South Africa; Tel: (012)664 0833; Fax: (012) 664 0907; sacas@iafrica.com

EU fish import ban attacked:

The UN food and agricultural organization (FAO) has criticized au EU ban on fish imports from EastAfrican countries affected by cholera. FAO said a better response would be to support improvements inhygiene, safe water supply, fish processing and storage. The statement stressed the risk of transmission fromcontaminated fish was negligible. Import restrictions will disturb international trade and may encourageillegal trade. The countries affected by the ban are Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Mozambique. (UN IRIN,March26).

Iody to enforce European union fish laws in KenyaWethvesday, August 30, 2000

The government of Kenya has established a new organisation to regulate the fishing industry. The move isthe latest initiative in continuing attempts to fulfil European Union requirements set in 1998, when the tradebloc

XVIII

banaed Kenyan fish from its mkets. The orgsaisation, to be known as the Competent Authority, will begoverned by the newly-hitroduced Fish Quality Assurance Regulations 2000, under the Fisheries Act.

Officials from the ministry in charge of fisheries will sit on the Authority's board, said Rural DevelopmentMinister Mualirn Mohammed. The minister added tEint the Authority would have powers to oversee theimplementation of regulations governing fish-processing, handling and transportation to both local andexport markets.

"The functions of the Authority include monitoring fishing grounds, controlling fish landing, approvingestablishment of fish-processing plants as well as issuing health compliance certificates," said Mr.Mohammed. The regulations establishing the Competent Authority are in addition to the provisions of otherwritten laws currently in force. Mr. Maalim said the ban by the EU had been a severe setback to Kenya'sfishing industry, which nets more than KSh 6.5 million and employs over 40,000 fishermen in a normalyear. Kenya had been exporting about 70 per cent of its total exports to the EU prior to the ban. AgriculturePermanent SecreUry Sham Migot-Adholla said the government was also looking for other export outlets inthe Middle East, North America and Asia. The organisation lifted the ban slapped on Uganda and Tanzaniaafter the two countries met the hygienic standards set by European states. Agriculture officials said thecountry had lost over Shibiflion since the baa came into effect. East African fish was banned after it wassuspected to be contaminated with pesticides. (Daily Nation)

XIX

APPENDIX E

THE GENERAL STATEMENT OF THE TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS

OPEN-ACCESS FISHERIES: THE CONCEPT OFTHE 'TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS

"The fact that such [sci!-] regulatory systems exist goes against the basic assumption. that fishermen arefiercely competitive and unable to work together ¡br their mutual benefit. It a/so weakens theassumption that a fishery which is not regulated by centml authorities is not regulatedat all. "--Svelalentoft and TrondKrisfoffìrsen.

Specifically, Hardins thought experiment with an imaginary commons demonstrates the futility -- theabsurdity -- of much traditional ethical thinking. The sad fate of the imaginary commons on which peoplepasture their herds proves that moral principles can be refuted by facts -- the consequences caused whenpeople live by those principles. lt shows that if any ethics makes it advantageous for individuals or groups toincrease their demands on the biological commons while it forces everyone to share equally the damagewhich that behaviour causes, then the demise of the whole -- the ecosystem which supports that behaviour--is inevitable. Surely, such an ethics ¡s absurd. It refutes itself in the sense that it requires or allows ethicalbehaviour, which denies the possibility of further ethical behaviour.

Now, for the first time in the world's history, a single species -- man -- has developed the technological andeconomic means to exploit the resources of all the Earth's ecosystems at once. Human beings can watch thegradual destruction by simplification of the Earth's biosystem. Some telltale signs of this global processappear as deforestation, desertification, pollution, climate change, and the rapid extinction of species. Othersappear as shortages of land, water, and biological resources. AH over the world, scarcity is driving peopleaway from the countryside and out of the regions and nations, that can no longer support them. Some makeup the flood of political or economic refugees. Others migrate to cities where they cause urban sprawl andan intractable scarcity of jobs, sanitation, housing, and the necessary infrastructure. Even now in themegacities of the world, various forms of natural control are working to reduce the size of the humanpopulation and its excessive environmental demands. They include parental neglect, disease,unemployment, hopelessness, drug abuse, gratuitous violence, starvation, ethnic conflict, terrorism, andwarfare. This kind of empirical evidence supports the generalization that human beings are now stressing theworld's ecosystems.

Bolstered by the a prion human-centred ethical doctrines of the monotheistic religions, everything thatdirects human behaviour -- cultural and legal traditions, genetic determinants, the free-market economicsystem, and the material deiiiands of industrial production -- all reinforce each other in producing a steadygrowth in population and consumption. Indeed as people all around the world go about the business of dailylife, they demand more land, fuel, water, timber, and food. lt is possible, however, that significant changescan be made in the complex of causes presently directing human activity which can put an end to the steadygrowth in population and to the constant increase in the production and consumption of goods and services.Nevertheless, if appropriate causal forces cannot be found to maintain human environmental demands in asustainable equilibrium, then the step-by-step destruction of the Earth's ecosystems will remain thepersisting -- and eventually tragic -- characteristic of human activity.

Ecosystems have their own dynamic structure. Feedback mechanisms have evolved to maintain theirstability. For example, one species may become dominant and take over much of the land and most of thebiological resources in some ecosystem. Iii addition, continued growth may have no destabilizing effects forquite some time. However, as more and more of the system's biological wealth is concentrated in the bodiesand artifacts of an exuberant species, other species evolve the means to Lise the abundant food source. Thenas the newly

xx

adapted predators increase in number, they reduce the population of the prolific species. If, however, suchcontrols should fail, the continued growth of any organism at some point will begin to stress the ecosystem,which sustains that organism. Finally, the additional stress of continued growth would make the systemcollapse. suddenly and apparently without warning. Nature does control any exuberant species either bydrastically reducing its population or by its extinction.

This sequence of biological events is of decisive importance for ethics. It proves that the two opposingtheories of ethics, which presently vie for acceptance both lead to tragedy. Both an ethics grounded in a self-centered individualism and an ethics, which builds on the need for a self-sacrificing altruism have the sameinherent defects. Both have in-built, positive feedback mechanisms which cause a steady increase in thehuman exploitation of the Earth's biological resources. All such material demands, however, are constrainedby the limited resource use, which the bio-system can sustain. Exceeding this carrying capacity will causethat system to collapse into a simpler state which is incapable of supporting civilization in its present formand perhaps most of the complex forms of mammalian life as well. This tragedy awaits humankind, ifpeople do not begin to live as responsible members of the Earth's system of mutually sustaining life forms.

A "commons" is any resource uscdas though it belongs to all. In other words, when anyone can ue a sharedresource simply because one wants or needs to use it, then one is using a commons. For example, all land ispart of our commons because it is a component of our life support and social systems.

Neither a commons is destroyed by uncontrolled useintent of the user, nor ownership important. Anexample of uncontrolled use is when one can use land (part of our commons) any way one wants.

XXI

APPENDIX G

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Aquaculture: Collective terms for the farming of produce derived from the sea, including fish-farming, thecultivation of shellfish, and plants such as sea-weeds

Artisanal: Small-scale, manual operation, such as fishing, using little or no machinery, usually confined toinshore vaters.

Beach: Lake or sea shore where waves break and there is an accumulalion of loose material- mud, sand,shingle or pebbles.

Biodiversity: The quantity of animal or plant species in a given area

Biomass: The total mass of organic matter- plants and animals- in a given area. lt is usually measured inkilograms per square metre. Plant biomass is proportionally greater than that of animals except inurban areas.

Degradation: A general lowering of the earth's surface by erosion or transportation by vater.

Deregulation: Removal regti lations governing trade.

Ecosystem: A system of living organisms- plants and animals- interacting with their environment.

EL Nino: A climatic phenomenon, the El Nino effect occurs about 14 times each century and leads to majorshifts in global air circulation. lt is also associated with wiusually warni currents off the coasts ofPeru, Ecuador and Chile. The anomaly can last for up to two years.

Environment: The conditions created by the surroundings (both natural and artificial) within which anorganism lives. In human geography, the word includes the surroundings, economic, cultural andsocial conditions.

EU: The European Union

Fishmeal: Fishmeal is a thick powder obtained from cooking, drying, and grinding raw fish. Fishmeal is aiich protein source, and is used as an ingredient in foodstuffs in the aquaculture, dairy, and poultryindustries.

means free on board. This term is used in conjunction with a physical point to determine--The responsibility and basis for payment of freight charges; andUnless otherwise agreed, the point at which title for goods passes to (lie buyer or consignee.

'P.o.b. origin': means free oti board at origin; Jo., the seller or consignor places the goods on theconveyance by vh ich they are to be transported. Unless the contract provides otherwise, cost ofshipping and risk of loss are borne by tiic buyer or consignee.

XXII

'F.o.b. destination": means free on board at destination; i.e., the seller or consignor delivers the goods onseller's or consignor's conveyance at destination. Unless the contract provides otherwise, cost ofshipping and risk of loss are borne by the seller or consignor.

GD?: Gross Domestic Product. The total value of goods and services produced by a country excludingincome from foreign countries. A measure of a country's national income, accruing from allproduction from within its boarders, irrespective of whether it is by nationals or foreigners.

ONP: Gross National Products. The total value of goods and services produced by a country.

Grotian notion: The Grotian notion refers to Hugo Grotius, a 16th - 17th century Dutch political philosophercommonly referred to the father of modern International Law. He put forward the notion that theoceans were common property in his treatise Mare Liberuw (1609) as a way to defend specificallythe Dutch taking of a Portuguese ship in the West Indies, and generally the Dutch claim of a right touse any of the world's seas to further its trade aspirations. Grotian studies have enjoyed a sort ofrenaissance lately as political philosophers have traced much of the roots of modem liberalism, i.e.,the notion of rights and property to his work. See especially the works of Richard Tuck, a politicalphilosopher at Cambridge University.

khythiofauna: Relating to all fish life available in particular water.

Indigenous: People, plants or animals native to a particular region.

Infrastructure: The communications and services- roads, railways and telecommunications necessary for thefunctioning of a country or region.

Juveniles: Young fish, which have not yet matured.

MT: Metric Tonnes [1 MT = 1.102 Short Tonnes (2,204 lbs.)]

Per Capita: Latin terni meaning 'for each person'

Post-harvest losses: Losses in quality of fish after removal from a water body.

Quota: Maximum allocation of a resource that may be utilised by a given firm.

Season: A period of time linked to regular changes in the weather, especially the intensity of solar radiation.

Subsistence fishing: A Fishing practice, whereby enough fish is harvested to support the fisher and hisdependants, but not providing any surplus to generate an income.

Trawling: Fishing using a wide-mouthed net (with a bag at the end) dragged by boat (along the lakebottom).