on the functional equivalence in literary...
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A B S T R A C T OF G R A D U ATI ON T H E S I S
On the Functional Equivalence
in Literary Translation
Abstract:
The thesis carries out some research on the applicability of Nida’s
functional equivalence theory to literary translation. The functional equivalence
theory initiated by Nida is regarded as his greatest achievement in his
translation studies. It provides a brand new criterion for the evaluation of
translation and underlies the basis of practical translation strategies, especially
for literary translation, which has distinct characteristics of its own. Rich in
ambiguities in meaning, cultural information and stylistic features, literary
translation is a hard nut for translators to crack. Functional equivalence theory
sheds light on this field. On the basis of three main aspects of Nida’s functional
equivalence theory and the characteristics of literary translation, the
applicability is discussed and illustrated in this thesis. The three main aspects
of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are reader’s response, cultural
transplantation and stylistic equivalence, which are corresponding to the three
characteristics of literary translation respectively.
Key Words: Eugene A. Nida Functional Equivalence Literary Translation
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Index
Chapter Ⅰ Introduction ............................................................................................ 3
Chapter Ⅱ Literature Review .................................................................................. 3
Chapter Ⅲ Theoretical Framework ........................................................................ 4
Part Ⅰ The Development of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory ........ 5
Part Ⅱ Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory ........................... 7
Section Ⅰ Reader’s Response ................................................................. 7
Section Ⅱ Cultural Transplantation .......................................................... 8
Section Ⅲ Stylistic Equivalence ................................................................ 9
Part Ⅲ Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory .......................... 10
Chapter Ⅳ Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation ............................... 11
PartⅠ Basic Aspects Involved in Literary Translation ............................. 11
PartⅡ Applicability of Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation ..... 12
SectionⅠ Functional Equivalence in Meaning ...................................... 12
Section Ⅱ Functional Equivalence in Culture ....................................... 17
Section Ⅲ Functional Equivalence in Style ........................................... 20
Chapter Ⅴ Strategies of Literary Translation in the Light of Functional
Equivalence ........................................................................................ 24
PartⅠParaphrase .................................................................................... 24
Part Ⅱ Cultural Substitution ................................................................... 27
Part Ⅲ Partial Translation ...................................................................... 30
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 33
Bibliography................................................................................................................ 34
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... 36
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Chapter Ⅰ Introduction
The present study probes into the applicability of Nida’s functional
equivalence theory to literary translation which serves as the basis of several
practical strategies of translation put forward in the last part of this thesis. The
whole thesis centers on three main aspects of Nida’s functional equivalence
theory: reader’s response, cultural transplantation and stylistic equivalence.
The thesis consists of five chapters.
Chapter one gives a brief outline of this paper. In Chapter Two, the
literature review presents the study achievements of functional equivalence
theory at the present stage in China. Chapter Three serves as the theoretical
framework in which three main aspects of functional equivalence theory are
elaborated in details. Chapter Four firstly discusses the characteristics of
literary translation and secondly the applicability of the theory to literary
translation from three aspects, trying to prove that literary translation should
follow Nida’s functional equivalence theory. And in the last chapter several
practical strategies for literary translation are provided in light of Nida’s
functional equivalence theory.
Chapter Ⅱ Literature Review
Before the functional equivalence theory was introduced to China,
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Chinese translation studies were mostly confined to translation techniques.
Nida’s equivalence theory has made a great impact on translation studies in
China since the 1980s when it was firstly introduced to China. Quite a few
scholars and theorists have conducted studies on Nida’s theory.
Lin Shuwu is the first scholar introducing Nida’s translation theory to China
by writing an article in 1981. In the light of Nida’s book Toward a science of
Translation, Lin set forth many aspects of Nida’s theory, but as a whole, Lin’s
introduction was quite general.
Tan Zaixi’s book Nida on Translation is regarded as the Chinese version of
Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating and The Theory and Practice of
Translation. Tan’s book divides the evolution of Nida’s translation theory into
three phases: phase of descriptive linguistics, phase of intercommunication,
and phase of social semiotics. Tan further elaborates on the main aspects of
Nida’s theory.
In 1989, Jin Di’s book In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect made
Nida’s thoughts and theories more familiar to Chinese scholars.
Since 2000, Nida’s translation theory has been often referred to by many
scholars in their books, such as Liao Qiyi, Guo Jianzhong, and Liu Miqing.
Chapter Ⅲ Theoretical Framework
Eugene Albert Nida is a distinguished American translation theorist. In
1943, he got his Doctorate under the supervision of the prominent American
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linguist Leonard Bloomfield. Shortly after his graduation, he was designated by
the American Bible society to undertake the translating task of Bibles. As one
of the most prolific translation theorists in the world, Nida completed more than
200 articles and authored or co-authored over 40 books on linguistics,
anthropology, translation and so forth, of which nearly half related to language
and translation theory.
According to Tan Zaixi, the evolution of Nida’s translation theory
underwent three phases. In the first phase, he was mainly engaged in
descriptive linguistics, while in the second phase, he turned to the study of
translation from the perspective of intercommunication. And in the last phase
he applied social semiotics to the study of language. Among the three phases,
the second one turned out to be quite fruitful with Nida’s most influential
Functional Equivalence put forward in this period.
In this thesis, a brief discussion about the evolution and main aspects of
Nida’s functional equivalence theory will be made in the following part.
Part Ⅰ The Development of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory
In 1959, in the article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible
Translating”, Nida characterized his new concept of translation like this:
“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest
natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and
second in terms of style.” 1It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the
1 Nida: Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating
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idea of dynamic equivalence. The key words in this definition are “the closest
natural equivalent” which indicates the very essence of Nida’s dynamic
equivalence theory. It can be understood from two aspects: one is that when
the message is reproduced, equivalence, rather than identity should be
achieved; the other is that the target version should be as native as that of the
source one. Without equivalence, rendering will be too free to be faithful while
faithfulness is an invariant standard to evaluate a translation. Moreover, Nida
attaches more importance to meaning than form and emphasizes the
significance of style at the same time. He later calls this kind of equivalence
“dynamic equivalence”. Thus Nida’s brand new view of translation marks birth
of dynamic equivalence.
Later in 1964, in his “Towards a Science of Translating”, Nida put forward
the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. He pointed out that
dynamic equivalent is mainly the dynamic relationship between receptor and
message which should be substantially the same as that between the original
receptors and the message.
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice
of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of
Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence:
“Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to
which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in
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substantially the same manner as the receptors in the SL.” 2This statement
shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of
receptor which created an epoch-making brand new perspective of studying
translation.
In 1986, Nida replaced the term “dynamic equivalence” with “functional
equivalence” in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid
misunderstandings of the word “dynamic”. But the essence of the theory is the
same. He divided the functions of language into nine categories: expressive
function, cognitive function, interpersonal function, informative function,
imperative function, performative function, emotive function, aesthetic function
and metalingual function. And translation should realize the equivalence on
these functions with the receptor’s response as the evaluating criterion.
In 1993, Nida pointed out that cultural differences were barriers in
translation in his Language, Culture and Translating. Cultural differences play
a significant role in meaning-interpreting of the receptor. In order to achieve
functional equivalence, the form of SL should be put second in some cases to
reduce the cultural differences to the lowest level.
It was not until then that the functional theory initiated by Nida became
complete, which proved to be a great success in translating field.
Part Ⅱ Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory
Section Ⅰ Reader’s Response
2 Nida & Charles R. Taber: The Theory and Practice of Translation
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The term, reader’s response, is an important concept in Nida’s functional
equivalence theory and a great contribution to translation research field. Nida
states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a
comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understood and
appreciated the text and the target receptors do.
From Nida’s point of view, translation is aimed at the readers, namely
target language receptors. Therefore, reader’s response serves as a desirable
criterion for evaluating the quality of translation. He states that the validity of a
translation does not just consist in lexical meanings or grammatical structure.
the degree to which receptors appreciate the source language should be taken
into consideration and serve as the judging criterion.
Section Ⅱ Cultural Transplantation
Nida clarifies culture as “the totality of beliefs and practice of a society.”
He points out that language is an important part of culture. It reflects culture
and contributes a model of the culture. Cultural difference exerts a great
influence on the transformation between two languages, especially for two
languages which belong to different language families. Cultural gap is a big
challenge for translators. As everyone knows, Chinese and English cultures
are distinct. Owing to the different cultural backgrounds, the same objects may
have totally different meanings. For instance, in most Western cultures, dragon
symbolizes an evil and fiendish creature. But quite the contrary in Chinese
culture, dragon has a profound effect on Chinese history, which is a symbol of
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Chinese national spirits. It is regarded as sacred, noble and propitious. So “亚
洲四小龙” is translated as “four Asian tigers” rather than “four Asian dragons”.
Take the red color as another example. Chinese take red as happiness and
blessings, so we have 开门红(get off to a good start), 满堂红(success in every
field) and it is also the main color in traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Yet
in Western culture, red is a derogatory term. It is more associated with blood or
obscene things, such as “red revenge”, “a red light district”. There are so many
examples of translation relating to cultural difference between Chinese and
English.
Therefore, if cultural factors are not transplanted well in translation, it is
fairly likely to arouse misunderstandings among receptors. Just as Nida states
that verbal inadequacy is not the main cause of the most serious mistakes
made in rendering, but the wrong or inaccurate understanding of cultural
information. Cultural transplantation is an essential necessity to achieve
functional equivalence, in particular in literary translation.
Section Ⅲ Stylistic Equivalence
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is
secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes
exception of rules for some literary translation, poetry, for example. From
Nida’s point of view, style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in
literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic
equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence.
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Part Ⅲ Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory
Nida has proposed an illuminating perspective of how to look upon
different languages and cultures and promoted mutual communication and
understanding of people from different language backgrounds.
The proposal of functional equivalence theory shifted the focus of
translation from meaning to reader’s responses. Before Nida’s theory was
proposed, there were two conflicting poles in translating field: free translation
and literal translation; emphasis on form or on content. No systematical
analysis was made on this two core subjects of translation. This epoch-making
perspective from which translation is studied provides a new approach to
resolve the conflict between literal translation and free translation. Just like
what Newmark states that Nida’s theory bypasses conflicting views on whether
a translation should side with the source language or the target language in the
nineteenth century, and the consequent faithful versus beautiful, literal versus
free, free versus content dispute.
Nida’s theory embodies ideas from the contemporary research findings,
especially from the achievement of linguistics to date, and offered scientific
explanation to many phenomena not well-explained in the traditional
translation theories. The idea of functional equivalence sheds light on literary
translation, the most demanding type of translation.
In the following part, the characteristics of literary translation will be
discussed and the applicability of functional equivalence theory to literary
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translation will be proved from three main aspects.
Chapter Ⅳ Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation
PartⅠ Basic Aspects Involved in Literary Translation
Translation is roughly classified into literary translation and non-literary
translation. Unlike non-literary translation such as science and technology
translation, literary translation is regarded as a unique form of creativity and an
act of research. Literary work is an art of language, so the corresponding
translation is to translate the art of language, rather than the texts only. It is a
most significant trait and principle of literary translation.
Mao Dun gave his definition of literary translation in one of his report that
literary translation is to reproduce the original artistic images in the target
language so that readers of the version can be emotionally touched and
aesthetically entertained in the same manner as the original readers do. In
terms of literary translation, Fu Lei clarified his point of view in a letter to Luo
Xinzhang that he attaches great importance to the equivalence of spirit of the
original work rather than form in literary translation.
Apparently, meaning equivalence serves as the most significant aspect
in literary translation. Furthermore, to fulfill the “aesthetically-entertained”
function, stylistic equivalence is another necessity to be taken into
consideration.
And in respect that cultural images abound in literary works and cultural
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difference play a significant role in meaning-interpretation, translators have to
deal with cultural transplantation well in literary translation.
In the following part, in terms of the characteristics of literary translation,
the three basic aspects involved will be discussed in detail.
PartⅡ Applicability of Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation
On the basis of Nida’s functional equivalence theory, an applying analysis
will be conducted in this part in terms of meaning, culture and style to confirm
the applicability of this theory in literary translation.
SectionⅠ Functional Equivalence in Meaning
Because of linguistic and cultural differences, translation should be an
intermediary to communicate the original meaning to the receptor in another
language environment. The applicability of functional equivalence in literary
translation practice with regard to meaning will be illustrated in the following
part.
Novels: Example 1
The original: “苏小姐理想的自己是艳如桃李,冷若冰霜…屈伏地求爱。”3
Translation: “Miss Su, who pictured herself in the words of the familiar saying,
as delectable as peach and plum and as cold as frost and ice…and then
prostrate himself to beg for her love.” 4
The above example vividly depicts Miss Su’s narcissism and
self-intoxication. She believes that she is endowed with good looks just like
3 钱钟书《围城》2003:32 4 Jeanne Kelly and Nathan Mao 2003:33
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bright-colored and beautiful peach and plum. She regards herself excellent
and charming enough to draw Fang Hongjian’s attention and deserve Fang’s
affections from the bottom of his heart. Being indifferent and icy to Fang, she
just wants his obsequious court. “艳如桃李” is literally translated as “as
delectable peach and plum ”.
It is easy for the target receptors to appreciate how beautiful Miss Su is. At
the same time, they are able to feel her coldness to Fang when reading the
“frost and ice”, because these two images are linked with uncomfortable and
arrogant manners in most cases. Therefore, this translation version brings the
target readers the same understanding and feeling as the original readers.
Literal translation is adopted here which conveys the meaning and
feelings expressed by the author to the receptors. On this occasion, literal
translation is more favorable which, for one thing, expresses the closest
natural equivalence of meaning, for another, retains the original images and
expressions as faithful as possible.
In reference to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, meaning-interpreting
is put in the first place in translation. When the original images are not the
barriers to the meaning-interpreting, they can be kept in the source language
with faithfulness as the invariant criterion of translation.
Example 2
The original: “…I gazed over the sea bluer than the sky: the old world was
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beyond…”5
Translation: “…眺望着比天还蓝的海:旧世界在那边…”6
The historical background is a must for translators to get a correct and
clear understanding of “the old world beyond”. In the general, “the old world”
can express two meanings. One refers to Europe, corresponding to the “the
new world” called by Columbia when he discovered America. And the other
refers to the past and unpleasant experiences.
The first meaning prevailed in the 19th century during which the novel was
written. Rochester stayed in North America which belonged to “the new world”.
And in the light of the context and logical reasoning, “the old world” here refers
to Europe. Therefore, “旧世界在那边” is better than “旧世界已经远去” which is
ambiguous and fuzzy.
This case exemplifies the prerequisite of making the closest natural
equivalence of meaning which is the accuracy in understanding and
authenticity in expression. Lacking of the knowledge of background, some
translators are misled by the literal meaning of the source language which
results in vagueness or inaccuracy. In particular in literary translation,
knowledge of history plays an important role. In some cases, there maybe
exist some unintentional mistakes in the original text, which do not conform to
the historical reality. Yet as a qualified translator, the accuracy of the historical
information should be guaranteed in the translation version.
5 Charlotte Brontë Jane Eyre 6 李霁野文集 简爱:380
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Example 3
The original: 塞翁失马,焉知非福。
Translation: Misfortune may prove a blessing in disguise.
The allusion originates from a famous Chinese story in history with a
strong cultural background. If the original image is retained, annotation is
necessary to add. The translator chooses to leave out the source language’s
image and merely render its implied meaning. Meaning equivalence is
achieved here and the understanding of the version is not impaired.
Essays: Example 4
The original: “…极嫩的黄绿色里透着一派天真的粉红…”7
Translation: “…with their tender yellowish green tinged with an artless pink.” 8
This case is another example of emphasizing the significance of the
accuracy of understanding. In English, “天真的” is corresponding to “naive” or
“innocent” which mean that people who do not have much experience of the
bad things in the world, so that they are easily deceived. Yet, none of them are
appropriate to express the original author’s feelings to the “tiny buds”.
According to the context, “天真的” here means the natural and inartificial
quality. “Artless” used in Zhang’s translation version convey the natural
loveliness of the “tiny buds”, which brings the target readers the same feelings
as the original readers.
Specialty of literary works lies partly in the flexibility of its language which
7 张晓风.《我喜欢》 8 张培基《英译中国现代散文选》
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vividly exhibits the aesthetics reflected in the works. Yet at the same time, it
also leads to difficulty to grasp the true meaning of images or words in
literature. Therefore, sensitivity of languages and feelings expressed in the
source languages is needed in rendering literature works.
Example 5
The original: “Jars of beach china line our mantel; the new album of summer
photos helps to chronicle our combing.”9
Translation: “从海滩收集来的一罐罐瓷片在壁炉上排列成行,新的夏日影集串
起我们寻宝过程的点点滴滴。”10
In the E-C translation, more contextual information is added to the “jars of
beach china” and “help to chronicle our combing”, which makes it much easier
for the Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the original.
The “chronicle” and “combing” are extended as “串起” and ”寻宝过程的点
点滴滴”, which accords with the context and grabs the exact meaning of the
original. By adding extra information, the accurate meaning is well expressed
and the receptors are easier to catch the spirit of the author and appreciate the
rendering version as the original readers do.
It is one of the most commonly used methods of translation which
complies with the principle of meaning coming first. Literary vocabularies are
rich in meaning, which results in some difficulty in transformation between two
languages. We can deal with this situation by means of adding some extra
9 第十一届韩赛原作”The Treasures in Store at the Shore” 10 选自第十一届韩赛参考译作
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information to make the meaning clearer.
Section Ⅱ Functional Equivalence in Culture
Language symbolizes and reflects culture. On the basis of functional
equivalence, in order to make sure the cultural information can be translated
from the source language to target language exactly, the translator has to have
a good understanding of the two cultures. Only by doing so, the translation
version can realize a cultural equivalence.
Novels: Example 1
The original: “闹了出去,人家总说姓方的饭碗打破,恼羞成怒。”11
Translation: “If the story got out, people would say that when Fang lost his job,
his shame turned into resentment.” 12
This instance is a mental depiction of Fang when encountering Kao, which
expresses Fang’s cautiousness vividly. ”饭碗打破” here was not translated as
“break the bowl”, which will definitely makes the target readers feel bewildered.
In China, “fanwan” is regarded the thing which supports their living, in
other word, their jobs. In the West, the situation is quite different. Therefore,
the translation “losing their job” is a good way to fulfill the cultural
transplantation and make the target readers feel much easier to understand.
Therefore, the translation of the image with typical cultural characteristic is well
dealt with by explaining the meaning of that word, rather than transliterating it
directly.
11 钱钟书 2003:544 12 Jeanne Kelly and Nathan Mao 2003:545
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In some cases, both two methods, namely explanation and transliteration,
are adopted at the same time, by which both of the cultural factors and the
original meaning are maintained.
Example 2
The original: “What happy combination of the planets presides over her
birth…”13
Translation: “什么样的福星一同高照她的诞生呢?”14
In Chinese, people would like to use “福星高照” to show someone’s good
luck. Yet, situation is different in Western countries. Westerners have a faith in
Christianity and they believe that the combination of the planets is a sign of
good luck and happiness. The translator transplants a traditional Chinese
expression to the E-C translation, which brings the same feelings to the target
readers just as the original readers.
Essays: Example 3
The original: “大家见面,招呼声‘吃了吗’?”透着和气。”15
Translation: “When people meet, they pass the time of the day with each other,
just to show their good neighborly feelings.”16
“To pass the time of the day with each other” refers to “exchanging
greeting with each other”. It is a proper counterpart of “吃了吗” in Chinese. “吃
了吗” in China is of typical cultural characteristic which has nothing to do with
13 Charlotte Brontë Jane Eyre 14 李霁野文集 简爱:449 15 老舍:《柳家大院》 16 冯庆华主编:《文体翻译论》,上海外语教育出版社,2002 年,p436-441
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its literal meaning, say “Have you had meal?” It is just a typical way to
exchanging greetings.
By cultural transplantation, the effects of cultural barriers can be stepped
across and the bridge can be built to communicate different cultures. Rich in
information of typical cultural characteristics, literary works are harder to be
rendered into another language which evolves in totally different culture.
Cultural transplantation is a good way to deal with the difficulty of rendering the
cultural information from one culture to another one.
Example 4
The original: “Here well-fed foreigners could live in their own little never-never
land of …”17
Translation: “在这里,饱食终日的外国人,可以在自己的小小的世外桃源里过
着…的生活”18
In the translation version, the “never-never land” is rendered properly. In
Barrie’s fiction Peter Pan “never-never land” refers to an imaginary, idyllic or
dream land. The translator use “世外桃源”, a phrase with vivid Chinese
character, as its version. Both of the phrases are allusions to famous literary
works in their own languages respectively. It fully realizes one hundred percent
equivalence in the meaning and culture, thus making the readers have the
same feelings just like reading the original. Cultural transplantation is well
exemplified in this case.
17 Edgar Snow Red Star Over China 18 董乐山译 《西行漫记》
20
Section Ⅲ Functional Equivalence in Style
Nida defines translation as “reproducing in the receptor language the
closest natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of
meaning and secondly in terms of style.”19 Therefore, functional equivalence
involves not only meaning and cultural correspondence but also the stylistic
equivalence.
Only when the meaning and style are conflicting with each other, the style
is put in the second place. Style is an essential part of the art of language and
an expressive form of the author’s thoughts and emotions. In the following part,
the translatability of style will be exemplified.
Novels: Example 1
The original: “In the first place, she persisted in disbelieving the whole of the
matter; secondly… thirdly… and fourthly, that the match might be broken off…”
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Translation: “第一,她坚持不相信整个这回事;第二…第三…第四,这个婚约
也许会解除。”21
Pride and Prejudice is regarded as the typical representation of Jane
Austin’s style. The translation version preserves the irony effect by keeping “第
一”,”第二”,”第三” and ”第四” . If the original numbers are substituted by “起
先”,”跟着” and “最后”, the translation will lose the irony effect and cannot
reflect Jane Austin’s style.
19 Nida: Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating 20 Jane Austen: Pride and Prejudice 21 王科一译《傲慢与偏见》
21
The analysis and assessment of style involves examination of a writer ’s
choice of words, his figures of speech, the devices, the shape of
paragraphs—indeed, of every conceivable aspect of his language and the way
in which he uses it. Therefore, to fulfill the equivalence of style, the tone and
voice of the writer himself must be accurately grasped and the expressing way
of the target language must be the closest natural correspondence to the
original one.
Example 2
The original: “My wife will be happy to see her ladyship. I’ve a very kind letter
here from your father, sir, and beg my respectful compliments to him.”
Translation: “我的太太欢迎爵士夫人到舍间来,承令尊的情,写给我一封信,
请你回去多多致意。”
Here, some typical sayings in Chinese to express respect and politeness
are used in the translation version, such as “舍间”and“承令尊的情”. “I’ve
a very kind letter here from your father” in the original is not literally rendered
into “我有一封来自你父亲的好心的信”, because it will remove the flavor of
ancient gentleness and hence violate the style of the original.
In this case, we can see that wording is an important component of style.
We should appreciate the original flavor firstly and express this flavor in the
translation. In order to realize the function of literary works, the translator is
responsible for keeping the style of the original which can be accepted and
appreciated by the receptors.
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Example 3
The original: Everything about him was old expect his eyes and they were the
same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated.
Translation: 他这人处处显老,唯独两只眼睛跟海水一个颜色,透出挺开朗、打
不垮的神气。
Hemingway’s works are characterized by their uncomplicated style. It is
universally acknowledged that Hemingway never used difficult words. The
translation version not only follow the original language features, but also
conveys the spirit and image of the old man by translate “cheerful and
undefeated” to “透出挺开朗、打不垮的神气”. It is colossally hard for a
translator to render the unyielding character of Hemingway’s, if he does not
have a full understanding of his personality, life experiences and his outlook on
life and the American society.
Essays: Example 4
The original:“杜诗锤炼精纯,李诗潇洒落拓;与其学杜之森严,不如学李之活
泼”22
Translation: “Tu’s poems,” she said, “are known for their workmanship and
artistic refinement, while Li’s poems are know for their freedom and
naturalness of expression. I prefer the vivacity of Li Po to the severity of Tu
Fu.”23
Evidently, the original sentences are concise and pithy. The difference
22 沈复《浮生六记》 23 林语堂译《浮生六记》
23
between Li and Du’s poetry style are precisely described in no more than ten
Chinese characters. The original sentences also use the parallel structures
with a beautiful rhyme. In Lin Yutang’s translation version, he follows the
original style, employing two verbal phrases to make a parallel structure and
making his sentences brief.
Example 5
The original: 荧光千点
Translation: myriads of fireflies
“荧光千点”here is rendered as “myriads of fireflies” rather than
“thousands of fireflies”. The style of prose is noticed and the aesthetic
requirement is met in the translation. The meaning of the translation is faithful
to the original one. Meanwhile, the translation brought the same aesthetic
feelings to the receptors.
Example 6
The original: “Books,” said Hazlitt, “wind in the heart; the poet’s slides in the
current of our blood….We breathe but the air of books.”24
Translation: 哈兹利特曾经说过:“书潜移默化人们的内心,是个熏陶人们的气
质品性…不啻我们呼吸的空气。”25
The original is profound and concise, with several parallel clauses. The
translation version follows the concise style and conforms to the rhythmical
effect, with many four-syllable phrases. Though the rhythmical patterns are
24 Smuel Smiles, Companionship of Books 25 王科一译《论学习》
24
different, it complies with the Chinese convention and gives the Chinese
readers the same aesthetical enjoyment. The translation version fully realizes
the advantage of the source language, which not only guarantees the
readability of the translation version, but also conveys the exact meaning of
the source language.
So far, the applicability of functional equivalence to literary translation is
discussed and exemplified from three aspects: functional equivalence in
meaning, functional equivalence in culture and functional equivalence in style.
In the next part, three practical strategies will be illustrated on the basis of the
applicability discussed above.
Chapter Ⅴ Strategies of Literary Translation in the Light of
Functional Equivalence
In the former part, the thesis has discussed the applicability of Nida’s
functional equivalence into literary translation from three aspects: meaning,
culture and style. From the illustrations used in the above part, it can be easily
noticed that there are some similarities in the dealing methods in literary
translation conforming to functional equivalence. In the following part, the
practical strategies will be discussed in the light of functional equivalence.
PartⅠParaphrase
Paraphrase is a translation strategy which explains the meaning of the
original text to the target readers rather than translating it word for word and
25
sentence for sentence. Paraphrase attaches importance on explaining culture
by means of introducing the traditions, customs and historical allusions. When
the proper cultural substitution can not be found, this method can be adopted.
Paraphrase is a typical method of putting the meaning-rendering at the first
place.
Case study: Example 1
The original: “假若不知道,祥子岂不独自背上黑锅?”26
Translation: “If Liu doesn’t know, how could he, Hsiang Tzu, get out of taking
the blame all by himself?”27
The Chinese phrase “背上黑锅”,whose literal meaning is “to carry a black
pot on one’s back”, will make westerners completely and totally confused.
Therefore, the translator provides the extended meaning of the phrase in terms
of its original cultural meaning.
This method is based on two important factors in translation, namely
meaning and culture. In order to achieve meaning equivalence and clarify
cultural concepts, paraphrase is a desirable method of translation of literary
works.
Example 2
The original: “余殷吃的差不多…我这地要出个状元。”28
Translation: “When Yu Yin had had about enough…This plot of ours will
26 老舍《骆驼祥子》 27 Translated by Jean M. James 28 吴敬梓,1988:282
26
produce a number one graduate!”29
“状元” is translated as “a number one graduate” here. In ancient China,
“状元” was a title granted to one who ranking first in all candidates taking part
in the palace examination. For Westerners who do not have a good
understanding of Chinese cultural knowledge, it will be quite hard for them to
catch the meaning of this cultural reference.
Through paraphrase, the meaning equivalence is realized. Sometimes,
we can also transliterate a specific cultural reference with annotations
following it. With Chinese culture spreading wider worldwide, many typical
Chinese references are increasingly accepted by more foreigners, which has
exerted a great influence on the translation methods.
Example 3
The original: “他写了一封黄伞格的信,托洋鬼子带上城。”30
Translation: “He had written an extremely formal letter, and asked the imitation
Foreign Devil to take it to town.”31
“黄伞格”refers to a type of letter which overmuch stresses on form. This
term is used by Lu Xun to emphasize Ah Quei’s civility. This kind of letter
format is unfamiliar to the receptors, actually even not yet known to native
Chinese. Therefore, “黄伞格”is paraphrased as “an extremely formal letter”.
In this way, the receptors can have a coherent understanding of the original
without any difficulty. In some cases, the cultural information in the original is
29 The Yangs 30 鲁迅:《阿 Q 正传》 31 Translated by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang
27
peculiar to the original culture. Notes or explanations turn out to be redundant.
Hence, paraphrase is a favorable method to deal with this situation.
Example 4
The original: 鸡年是我的本命年。
Translation: The year of the Rooster will bring me good luck or bad luck.
In China, people use 12 animals to represent twelve Earthly Branches and
symbolize the year in which a person is born.
For instance, people who are born in 1993 have the rooster as their life
symbol. The Spring Festival in Chinese lunar calendar marks the first day of
the Year of Rooster. All other years of Rooster are called “本命年” for people
who was born in 1993, which means their good or bad luck years. This
tradition is different from the west culture. Therefore, the translator
paraphrases this meaning of the source message to make the English reader
easily understand the meaning of it.
However, the method of paraphrase may make the translation dull and
lifeless. It also hinders the receptors from perceiving and appreciating the new
things form another culture. Therefore, when the images or other cultural
information are not the focuses in the source message, this method can be
used to cope with this situation.
Part Ⅱ Cultural Substitution
Cultural substitution refers to the equivalent replacement of
culture-specific images or expressions between different cultures, for instance,
28
“never-never land” in Western cultures and “世外桃源” in Chinese culture.
Case study: Example 1
The original: “他说男人底心,她不知道,谁也不愿意当王八”32
Translation: “he said she didn’t understand a man’s psychology. No one
wanted to be a cuckold.”33
“王八” , whose literal meaning is “tortoise” or ”turtle” does not have deep
meaning in Western culture. “王八 ” in Chinese is a bad name-calling
expression and here means an inconstant person. Originating from old French
“cuckoo”(布谷鸟),“cuckold” is an insulting word for a man whose wife has
been having sex with another man. Hence, the replacement of the two cultural
images has the same effects among readers, original and target. Functional
equivalence is realized.
Example 2
The original: 原来天理昭然,佑护善人义士。
Translation: Actually, the gods who see everything and protect the good and
virtuous.
“天理昭然”is a typical phrase concerning traditional Chinese ethics. “天
理” here means Heavenly laws or divine justice. In terms of this situation, the
complicatedness is avoided, which has to take pains to explain the related
cultural background knowledge. Instead, the corresponding expression in the
Western ethics system is adopted in the translation version, which is far more
32 许地山:《春桃》 33 张培基《英译现代散文选》
29
familiar to the English receptors. Through cultural substitution, meaning and
cultural equivalence are achieved.
Example 3
The original: 巧媳妇做不出没米的粥。
Translation: “Even the cleverest housewife can’t make bread without flour.”34
This case reflected the different cooking styles in China and West. In
China, in particular in the southern part, rice serves as people’s main food and
rice cultivation flourishes, while the principle food in the Western world is bread.
Hawkes replaces “米”and “粥”with “flour” and “bread” in his version. The
linguistic equivalence is violated here to make his translation more acceptable
to the target receptors.
Example 4
The original:....贡入太学肄业…
Translation: …recommending him for the Imperial College…
In this case, “太学”refers to the royal school set up and run by the
emperor. It is rendered into “the Imperial College” which shares the same
connotative cultural meaning with “太学”. Through cultural transplantation,
the acceptability is enhanced for the target receptors. Meanwhile, the cultural
information contained in the original text is appropriately preserved. When the
culture-loaded words or expressions have the corresponding terms in the
target language, transplantation will be a desirable and direct strategy.
34 Hongloumeng, Translated by Hawkes
30
Part Ⅲ Partial Translation
Partial translation refers to omit the unimportant information to achieve
conciseness and give prominence to the important information.
Case study: Example 1
The original: “一灯如豆,罗帐低垂,杯弓蛇影,惊魂未定。”35
Translation: “The light of a rapeseed oil lamp was then burning as small as a
pea, and the edges of the bed curtain hung low in the twilight, and we were
shaking all over.”36
The Chinese phrase “杯弓蛇影” is hard to be translated into English. Since
“惊魂未定” has the similar meaning with “杯弓蛇影”,leaving out this cultural
phrase will not cost target readers much effort to understand and appreciate
the sentence. It is one of the characteristics of Chinese that expressing the
same meaning with several phrases to achieve a typical form aesthetics. Yet
as for English, brevity is more favorable which is tending to avoid repeating.
According to this, partial translation is a desirable way to achieve closest
natural equivalence.
Example 2
The original: 你端的智赛隋何,机强陆贾!
Translation: You’re a shrewd woman.
“隋何”and “陆贾”are famous for their wise and eloquence. In the
translated version, the two cultural-specific figures are omitted, instead the
35 沈复《浮生六记》 36 林语堂译《浮生六记》
31
common word “shrewd” is employed. If “隋何”and“陆贾”is showed in the
source text, relevant detailed explanation has to be made in order to make the
receptors have a clear understanding of the original. Moreover, partial
translation also makes the sentence smooth and accurate.
Example 3
The original: …高中广东乡试第七名亚元…
Translation: … has passed the provincial examination in Kwangtung, coming
seventh in the list…
The term “亚元”is omitted in the translation for it conveys excessive
cultural information. In ancient China, “亚元”refers a title awarded to the top
ten graduates passing the provincial examination except for the number one.
There is no corresponding term in Western culture. The text will be wordy and
awkward if the term is paraphrased in the target text. Instead, omission is
adopted here with capturing the whole cultural message. In some situation with
partial omission, the culture-loaded words are well dealt with.
Example 4
The original: 千秋功罪,系于一念之间。
Translation: Merits and demerits to be recorded in history hinge on the
decision made in a moment.
“千”“万”are often used in Chinese text to emphasize the large scale or
number without indicating the specific number. The meaning expressed by
these numbers is quite obscure. When rendered into English, they have to be
32
treated flexibly and omission is often adopted.
So far three translation strategies are illustrated, namely paraphrase,
cultural substitution and partial translation. The three strategies are applicable
to different cases respectively.
33
Conclusion
Up to now, the thesis has analyzed the significance and applicability of
Nida’s functional equivalence in literary translation and put forward practical
strategies of translation correspondingly.
In the second chapter, the three main points of Nida’s functional
equivalence theory are discussed in detail, which serve as the basis of this
thesis, i.e. readers’ response, cultural transplantation and stylistic equivalence.
In the third chapter, the characteristics of literary translation are discussed,
which paves the way for the analysis of the next chapter. On the basis of the
correspondence of the theory and features of literary translation, the
applicability is elaborated from three aspects:meaning, culture and style. And
in the fifth chapter three strategies are listed and exemplified.
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great
importance and profound significance in literary translation which is worthy of
being paid more attention to.
34
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Acknowledgements
I am extremely grateful to my supervisor, Associate Professor, Zhang Li,
for her generosity in spending her time giving me invaluable instruction and
revision during the course of composing my thesis.
My gratitude also goes to all teachers who gave me instruction during my
college life. I have benefited a lot from my teachers’ assistance and
consideration. My outlook on life has been profoundly influenced by their
respectable personality.
Finally, I would like to give my most sincere thanks to my parents and
friends for their selfless support in so many years. With their help and
encouragement, I become who I am today.