ontology and the austrian tradition
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Ontology and the Austrian Tradition
Barry Smith
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Brentano and his students
Brentanob. Marienberg am Rhein
1838
Meinongb. Lemberg
1853
Ehrenfelsb. Rodaun
1859
Husserl b. Proβnitz
1859
Twardowskib. Vienna
1866
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Brentano revolutionizes psychology
Brentanopublished Psychology
from an Empirical Standpoint, 1874
Meinong Ehrenfelsfounder of Gestalt psychology, 1890
Husserl Twardowski
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Brentanists revolutionize ontology
Brentano
MeinongOn the Theory
of Objects, 1904
EhrenfelsHusserl
first formal mereology, 1902
______
first use of ‘formal ontology’
~1905;
Twardowski
Leśniewskilogical
formalization of mereology,
1916
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Brentanists revolutionize our understanding of the relations between psychology and
ontology
In 1874 Brentano (re-)introduces into philosophy the idea of intentional
directedness (aboutness)
Meinong Ehrenfels Husserl Twardowski
how can we think about what does not exist?
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the arrow of intentionality
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Brentanists introduce the problem of understanding the relation between intentionality and language
Brentano
Meinong Ehrenfels Husserlcategorial
grammar, 1901
Twardowski
Leśniewskifounder of
formal mereology
Tarski invents formal
semantics
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The Logicians: Leśniewski, Tarski, Łukasiewicz, Twardowski Main Library of the University of Warsaw
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“From Intentionality to Formal Semantics”Brentano
Husserl Twardowski
Leśniewskiformal
mereology
Tarski formal
semanticsJoseph Woodger
Axiomatic Method in Biology
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the arrow of intentionality
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The varieties of aboutness
Brentano
Meinong Ehrenfels
Husserlsimple
perceptually filledveridicalrelational
mediated by language
Twardowski
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± simple
mental process content (putative) target
presenting actcontent of presentation
“apple”object of presentation
judging act
judgment-content
“the apple over there is ripe”
state of affairs(Objektive)
evaluating actemotional act
appraisal…
“it is good that the apple over there is ripe”
?
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mental process content target
you see an apple “apple” an apple
• you are in physical contact with target ― cf. Russell’s knowledge by acquaintance; J. J. Gibson’s ecological theory of perception
± relational intentionality
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting actsensory content object of presentation
object exists
object does not exist
objectpresent
objectabsent
± perceptually filled
ordinary perception
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting actsensory content object of presentation
object exists
object does not exist
objectpresent
objectabsent
perceptually filled does not imply veridical
hallucination
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple” + sensation originating causally at
target
object of presentation
object exists
object does not exist
objectpresent
objectabsent
the evolutionarily most basic case
ordinary perception
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple” + sensation originating causally at
target
object of presentation
object exists
object does not exist
objectpresent
objectabsent
relational implies veridical
ordinary perception
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple”object of presentation
object exists
object does not exist
objectpresent
objectabsent
veridical does not imply relational
veridical thinking about
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple”
object of presentation
object existsobject present
objectabsent
± content match
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content match
“apple”
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content match
“food”
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple”
object of presentation
object existsobject present
objectabsent
veridical does not imply content match
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content mismatch
“poison”
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content mismatch
“apple”
content here not just a matte of language
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mental process content target
you see an apple “apple” an apple
± linguistically mediated
A cat can see a king
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the primacy of language (Sellars …)mental experiences are about objects because words have
meaning
word / meaning
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the primacy of the intentional (Brentano, Husserl, …):
linguistic expressions have meanings because there are (‘animating’) mental experiences which have aboutness
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dimension of content / belief prior to dimension of language
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language comes later than mental aboutness
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to create a general theory of aboutness not marked by the prejudice in favor of veridical intentionality
non-veridical intentionality
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Investigations on the Theory of Objects and Psychology
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“From Intentionality to Formal Ontology”Brentano
Husserl Twardowski
Leśniewskiformal
mereology
Tarski formal
semanticsJoseph Woodger
The Axiomatic Method in Biology (1937)
with Appendix by Tarski
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“From Intentionality to Formal Ontology”Brentano
Husserl Twardowski
Leśniewskiformal
mereology
Tarski formal
semantics
Joseph Woodger Axiomatic Method in Biology
Patrick Hayes“Ontology of Liquids” (1985)
…
formal ontologies in information systems
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Google hits Jan. 2004
ontology + Heidegger 58K
ontology + Aristotle 77K
ontology + philosophy327K
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Google hits Jan. 2004
ontology + Heidegger 58K
ontology + Aristotle 77K
ontology + philosophy327K
ontology + software 468K
ontology + database 594K
ontology + information systems 702K
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Comparison 2004/2012
ontology + Heidegger 58K 0.99M
ontology + Aristotle 77K 1.35M
ontology + philosophy 327K 4.84M
ontology + software 468K 7.68M
ontology + database 594K 8.15M
ontology +information systems 702K 5.99M
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Investigations on the Theory of Objects and Psychology
with support from the Imperial-Royal Minister of Culture and Education in
Vienna, 1904
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Examples of Ontology Projects funded by National Institutes of Health
NIH / NHGRI* GO: Gene Ontology
NIH / NIGMS PRO: Protein Ontology
NIH / NIAID IDO: Infectious Disease Ontology
NIH / NIAID Major Histocompatilibity Complex (MHC) Ontology
NIH / NHGRI SO: Sequence Ontology
NIH / NLM FMA: Foundational Model of Anatomy
NIH / NHGRI CL: Cell Ontology
*National Human Genome Research Institute42
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http://bioontology.org
NIH National Center for Biomedical Computing
US Consortium Partners:
Stanford University School of Medicine
The Mayo Clinic
University at Buffalo Department of Philosophy
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Distributed Common Ground System–Army (DCGS-A)
Semantic Enhancement of the
Dataspace on the Cloud
Intelligence and Information Warfare Directorate
Research, Development and Engineering Command
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Old biology data
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New biology data
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next generation genomics
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How to do biology across the genome?
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how to link the kinds of phenomena represented here
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or here
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to this?
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or this?
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MouseEcotope GlyProt
DiabetInGene
GluChem
sphingolipid transporter
activity
annotation using common ontologies allows navigation between databases
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this allows integration of databases
MouseEcotope GlyProt
DiabetInGene
GluChem
Holliday junction helicase complex
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How annotate this
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or this?
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or this?
57
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Mental Functioning Ontology (Draft)
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Mental Functioning Ontology (Draft)
with thanks to Janna Hastings and Kevin Mulligan Swiss Center for Affective Sciences)
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Basic Formal Ontology
60
BFO:Entity
BFO:Continuant BFO:Occurrent
BFO:ProcessBFO:Independent Continuant
BFO
BFO:Dependent Continuant
BFO:Disposition
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Basic Formal Ontology and Mental Functioning Ontology (MFO)
61
BFO:Entity
BFO:Continuant BFO:Occurrent
BFO:Process
Organism
BFO:Independent Continuant
BFOMFO
BFO:Dependent Continuant
Behaviour inducing state
Mental Functioning Related Anatomical
Structure
Cognitive Representation
BFO:Quality
Affective Representation
Mental Process
Bodily ProcessBFO:Disposition
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Functions vs. FunctioningsContinuants vs. Occurrents
6262
BFO:Entity
BFO:Continuant BFO:Occurrent
BFO:Process
Organism
BFO:Independent Continuant
BFOMFO
BFO:Dependent Continuant
Mental Function
Cognitive Representation
BFO:QualityMental Process
Bodily ProcessBFO:Disposition
Mental Functioning
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Aboutness (‘Intentionality’)
63
BFO:Entity
BFO:Continuant BFO:Occurrent
BFO:Process
Organism
BFO:Independent Continuant
BFOMFO
BFO:Dependent Continuant
Mental Function
Cognitive Representation
BFO:QualityMental Process
Bodily ProcessBFO:Disposition
Mental Functioning
does all mental functioning involve cognitive representation (aboutness)?
what is aboutness?
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Extending the MFO• to linguistic competence and performance
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Linguistic Functioning Ontology (1. Speech and hearing)
65
65
BFO:Entity
BFO:Continuant BFO:Occurrent
BFO:ProcessBFO:Independent Continuant
BFOMFO
BFO:Dependent Continuant
Behaviour inducing state
Cognitive Representation
BFO:Quality
Speech-mediated cognitive
representation
Speech process
Bodily ProcessBFO:Disposition
Linguistic competence
Speech competence of a population
= a [spoken] languageSpeech competence of
an individual
Hearing (registering)
process
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Linguistic Functioning Ontology (2. Reading and writing)
66
66
BFO:Entity
BFO:Continuant BFO:Occurrent
BFO:ProcessBFO:Independent Continuant
BFOMFO
BFO:Dependent Continuant
Behaviour inducing state
Cognitive Representation
BFO:Quality
Written-language-mediated cognitive
representation
Writing process
Bodily ProcessBFO:Disposition
Linguistic competence
Written linguistic competence of a
population = a [written] language
Written linguistic competence of an
individual
Reading (registering)
process
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Linguistic Functioning Ontology (the whole thing)
67
67
BFO:Entity
BFO:Continuant BFO:Occurrent
BFO:ProcessBFO:Independent Continuant
BFOMFO
BFO:Dependent Continuant
Behaviour inducing state
Cognitive Representation
BFO:Quality
Language-mediated cognitive
representation
Writing
Bodily ProcessBFO:Disposition
Linguistic competence
Linguistic competence of a population
= a language Linguistic competence of an individual
Reading
Speaking
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Extending the MFO to mental disease
68
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Mental Functioning Ontology (MF)
71
brain endocrine gland
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72
http://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/49078/
Extending MFO to Emotions
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need link to a physiology ontology73
‘physiological response to emotion’
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74
‘emotion process’
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Using the Emotion Ontology for self-report of emotional experiences
Objectives:• Capture emotional experiences in a
standardised fashion using the underlying vocabulary of the Emotion Ontology
1. prediction of suicide via aggregation of text messages
2. evaluation of scientific conferences
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View all presentations for conference
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Select a presentation
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Tag options available in tool
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Monday, April 10, 2023 82
Studies of the biochemical basis of emotion
Emotions are effected in part by neurotransmitters such as dopamine, tryptophan
dopamine(CHEBI:25375)
molecular entity (CHEBI:25375)
biological role (CHEBI:24432)
neurotransmitter(CHEBI:25512)
has role
neurotransmitter receptor activity
(GO:0030594)
Molecular function (GO:0003674)
realized in
happiness(MFOEM:42)
part of
emotion(MFOEM:1)
subtype
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Ontological traffic rule:
to build an ontology of the types of entities in a complex domain, focus first on the canonical instances
83
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Canonical pain & variantsPCT: pain with concordant tissue damage: pain of the evolutionarily most basic sort = pain in response to concordant tissue damage
Variant painPNT: pain with peripheral trauma but discordant (elevated) relative to tissue damage: there is peripheral trauma, but the patient is experiencing pain of much too high an intensity NN: neuropathic nociception: no peripheral trauma, but the patient is experiencing pain in result of a neuropathic disorder in the nociceptive system.
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Pain-related phenomena without pain
PBWP: pain behavior without pain: there is a cry or report of pain, but no pain is being experienced (a fact which may or may not be detectable by an external observer)TWP: Tissue-damage without pain: tissue damage normally of the sort to cause pain does not activate the pain system.
86
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Pain Ontology (PN) branch of MF-EM
Lying about pain
87
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Canonical pain
89
canonical pain
pain
EMOTION COMPONENT CHARACTERISTIC FOR PAINAction tendency Withdrawal
Subjective emotional feeling Negative, tense, powerless
Behavioural response Characteristic painful facial expression
Characteristic appraisal Something is dangerous to me
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Canonical fear
91
canonical fear
fear
EMOTION COMPONENT CHARACTERISTIC FOR FEARAction tendency Fight-or-flightSubjective emotional feeling Negative, tense, powerlessBehavioural response Characteristic fearful facial
expressionCharacteristic appraisal Something (some real thing) in
my environment is dangerous to me
subtype
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Canonical and non-canonical fearCanonical fear gives rise to action tendencies that are conformant to a perceived danger
Phobias = dispositions giving rise to non-canonical fear, e.g. laridaphobia
Another case involving non-canonical fear: people taking pleasure in watching horror films
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple”object of presentation
object exists
object does not exist
objectpresent
object absent
Meinong’s treatment of non-veridical intentionality goes wrong because it treats it as canonical
the presenting act is targeted on an object of a special kind (namely: the non-existent kind)
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mental process content there is no target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple”underlying false belief
non-veridical intentionality is a untidy collection of non-canonical cases
the presenting act is dependent on an underlying belief or attitude of one or other deviant types
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple”object
presentobjectabsent
non-veridical intentionality type 1. ontological error
hallucination, deception, …the presenting act is dependent on a false underlying belief
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mental process content (putative) target
presenting act content of presentation
“apple”object
presentobjectabsent
non-veridical intentionality type 2. fiction
thinking-about-Macbeth = the presenting act is not dependent on an underlying false belief
“The Substitution Theory of Art”, Grazer Philosophische Studien, 25/26 (1986)
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in the Macbeth case we are dealing with the sort of thing that happens when, to quote Witters, “language goes on holiday”
97
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Brentano revolutionizes psychology
Brentanopublished Psychology
from an Empirical Standpoint, 1874
Meinongfounded first laboratory
of experimental psychology in Austria-
Hungary in 1897
Ehrenfels Husserl Twardowski founded first
laboratory of experimental psychology in Poland in 1907
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Brentano revolutionizes psychology
Brentanopublished Psychology
from an Empirical Standpoint, 1874
Meinongfounded first laboratory
of experimental psychology in Austria-
Hungary in 1897
Ehrenfels Husserl Twardowski founded first
laboratory of experimental psychology in Poland in 1907
Wundt first laboratory of
experimental psychology, 1879
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Mental Functioning is Neural Functioning: Towards a Unified Ontology of
Mind, Brain, and Behavior
Gwen A. Frishkoff
Department of Psychology NeuroInformatics CenterGeorgia State University University of Oregon
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Outline of Talk• What is a mental process?
– A view from cognitive psychology– The Mind–Brain problem and three proposed
solutions (ontology views)
• A neurophsysiological framework for understanding mental processes– Levels of brain, levels of mind– What are mental representations “about”?
(Proposed solution to problems of subjectivity, aboutness)
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What is a Mental Process? A view from cognitive psychology
Short-term memory Cognitive control
Motor control,Action
Sensation, Perception
Long-term MemoryHabits & Skills
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How do we know any of this?
That is, where did the components of the standard model come from?
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mental
processes
• Mental processes cannot be observed.* • They must be inferred based on what we can observe.
What can we observe?...
*We can revise this assumption later (if Mind = Brain)
The mind as a black box
X
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• Physical processes in body Behavior (response type, accuracy, reaction time)
• Physiological processes in brain Neural activity and correlates of neural activity (blood flow to brain regions)
What we can observe… and How
A schematic of Helmholtz’s apparatus for measuring the time course of muscle contraction and the propagation velocity of the nerve impulse. Source: Bennett, 1999.
A 256-channel electrode “net” that is used to measure brain electrical activity (EEG)
CogPO!
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“A mental process is a neural process.”
• Avoids Mind-Body dualism
• More precise than other two solutions
• Gives ready framework for comparative neurophysiology & comparative cognition
• Knowledge of brain structure & function informs understanding of mental function (and dysfunction)
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR
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Mental Functioning Ontology (MF)
110
braininendocrine
gland
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Aboutness
111
brain retina
ENVI
RON
MEN
T
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Levels of brain, levels of mind
Mesulam, 1990
113
Representation, monitoring and control of internal environment
(“self”)
Representation, monitoring and control of bodily interface to
external environment(“real world”)
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Levels of brain, levels of mind
Mesulam, 1990
114
Representation, monitoring and control of internal environment
(“self”)
Representation, monitoring and control of bodily interface to
external environment(“real world”)
Note use of “sneer” quotes around “real world” and
“self”
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Mental representations: What are they “about”?
Peripheral (sensory-motor) parts of the body are “mapped” to (represented by) an orderly set of discrete regions within sensory and motor cortex.
Sensory-motor maps in the brain
The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis monitors and controls internal bodily functions, such as blood circulation, breathing, digestion, stress, and arousal.
Maps of the internal milieux
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Perception of internal (bodily)
environment(“self”)
Perception of external
environment/sensory input(“real world”)
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117
Shimon Edelman’s Riddle of Representation
two humans, a monkey, and a robot
are looking at a piece of cheese;
what is common to the representational processes in their visual systems?
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118
Answer:
The cheese, of course
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119
The real cheese
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or objects or processes inside the body
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or objects or processes inside the body
objects and processes inside and outside the body play a role here too
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external targets
internal and external features causally relevant to perception, nociception, etc.
all o
f the
se to
geth
er
form
the
envi
ronm
ent
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external targets
internal and external features causally relevant to perception, nociception, etc.
the arrow of aboutness
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What is a Mental Process? A view from cognitive psychology
Short-term memory Cognitive control
Motor control,Action
Sensation, Perception
Long-term MemoryHabits & Skills
All of this is present before there is language
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What does a temperature chart represent?
147
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148
Time 1 Time 2 Time 360
65
70
75
80
85
What does a chart representing your pulse rate represent?
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150
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3606570758085
What does a chart of changes in your pulse rate represent?
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15110.58
10.59 1111.01
11.0211.03
11.0411.05
11.0611.07
11.0811.09
11.111.11
11.1211.13
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
What does a chart of changes in the Dow Jones industrial average represent?
time
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152
activity during this time interval
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153
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154
1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 111.1 1 1
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
time
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155
1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 111.1 1 1
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
time
What this represents is real, and not just “real”
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coronary heart disease
John’s coronary heart disease
disease during phase of
asymptomatic (‘silent’)
infarction
disease during phase of early
lesions and small fibrous
plaques
stable angina
disease during phase of surface
disruption of plaque
unstable angina
instantiates at t1
instantiates at t2
instantiates at t3
instantiates at t4
instantiates at t5
time 156What this represents is real, and not just “real”
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What did your temperature do over the last month, Jim?
Jim’s temperature process profile, the target of a certain sort of cognitive
selection, or cognitive profiling 157
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The graph picks out just one dimension of qualitative change within a much larger conglomerate of processes within Jim
Hence ‘process profile’158
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Compare perception of polyphonic music
• Cognitive selection of the cello part when you listen to a string quartet
• Picking out a certain sonic partial process within a larger body of vibrations
• Ignoring sneezes, coughs, …• (or sometimes focusing on sneezes and
coughs for diagnostic purposes)
159
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Compare perception of polyphonic music
• Cognitive selection of the cello part when you listen to a string quartet
• Picking out a certain sonic partial process within a larger body of vibrations
• Ignoring sneezes, coughs, …• (or sometimes focusing on sneezes and
coughs for diagnostic purposes)
160
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161
time-series graph of acoustic signal, spectrogram, formants, jaw displacement and
other speech parameters
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162
adding phonetic, phonemic and syllable levels
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163
g u t e n
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164
add brain
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165
speech is a process profile
the speech process is to the totality of acoustic signal, spectrogram, formants, jaw displacement, mental and neurological processesasthe pulse rate process is to the totality of aortic, ventricular and atrial pressure, ventricular volume, electrical activity, arterial flow, and other processes in the heart
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166
Breakthrough: First sound recordings based on reading human auditory cortex (PLoS Biology, January 2012)
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167
Top: spectrogram of words presented to subject. Middle and bottom: reconstructions of speech based on
readings from electrodes attached to patient's brain.
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Pathway diagram
Pathway
Reaction
Molecular collective
Individual molecule
BFO:ProcessBFO:Independent
Continuant
BFO:Disposition
Information Content Entity
inheres in
explicitlyrepresents
implicitly represents
has participant
BULK
MOLECULARhas grain
BFO: GDC
biological pathways are process profiles
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mental processes, too, are process profiles
169
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177
177
BFO:Entity
BFO:Continuant BFO:Occurrent
BFO:ProcessBFO:Independent Continuant
BFOMFO
BFO:Dependent Continuant
Behaviour inducing state
Cognitive Representation
BFO:Quality
Language-mediated cognitive
representation
Writing
Bodily ProcessBFO:Disposition
Linguistic competence
Linguistic competence of a population
= a language Linguistic competence of an individual
Reading
Speaking
what is a language? something analogous to a biological
species (a population of competences)
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178
• Examples of dispositions that are constantly being realized:– stock exchange– heart beat– brain activity– social order– language (social)
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Investigations on the Theory of Objects and Psychology
with support from the Imperial-Royal Minister of Culture and Education in
Vienna, 1904
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Horizontal Integration of Warfighter Intelligence Data
180
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Horizontal Integration• “Horizontally integrating warfighter
intelligence data … requires access (including discovery, search, retrieval, and display) to intelligence data among the warfighters and other producers and consumers via standardized services and architectures.”
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction J2 CJCSI 3340.02A
1 August 2011
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Horizontal integration
=def. multiple heterogeneous data resources become aligned in such a way that search and analysis procedures can be applied to their combined content as if they formed a single resource
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Unclassified
Unclassified
Command and Control Ontology
Army Fires Plan
Army Maneuver Plan
Naval Fires Plan
Definition: An information content entity that is a specification of events that are to occur in order to obtain some objective.
183
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Unclassified
Unclassified
Command and Control Ontology
Situational Awareness
Situational Understanding
Commander’s Intent
…
184
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Horizontal integration
=def. multiple heterogeneous data resources become aligned through association with common ontology terms in such a way that search and analysis procedures can be applied to their combined content as if they formed a single resource
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=def. multiple heterogeneous data resources become aligned through association with common ontology terms in such a way that search and analysis procedures can be applied to their combined content as if they formed a single resource
Semantic Technology in Intelligence, Defense and Security, 2012