Operational Ration Type O2 The Australian Army’s First Ration Pack

Researched and written by

Graham Wilson

Introduction An army, so it is said, marches on its stomach. The 21st century Australian soldier, when in the field on operations, is issued with dehydrated rations that are very much state of the art and which, while possibly not the envy of the rest of the world’s army, are at least comparable to the operational rations of other armies and better than many. Harking back to the days of the Second World War, however, many people would probably believe the old saw that the Australian soldier of the day fought his war on an unrelieved diet of bully beef, army biscuits and black tea. Nothing could be further from the truth. The Australian soldier of the day was fed quite well and, wherever possible, even in the front line, was provided with a properly cooked hot meal, at least once a day, based on the approved ration scale. This was not always possible, of course, and often enough the digger of the day did have to fall back on the old staples of bully beef, biscuits and tea, simply because these were the ‘combat rations’ of the day. This had caused problems for the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) in the Middle East, these staples being both monotonous and lacking in much nutritional value. The problem had been recognised as early as 1941 and steps taken to develop a nutritionally balance ‘operational ration’ that was at one and the same time sustaining and reasonably convenient to supply, carry and consume. The entry of Japan into the war in December 1941 and the ensuing fighting to Australia’s near north added impetus to the program. Background To step back to the beginning of the war, in 1939 there were two ration scales, one for the Permanent Military Forces and one for the militia camps. The latter could be commuted to money value with the permission of the Military Board and expended locally by formations and units to what seemed the best advantage. This, however, was not always a success, and there were numerous pre-war complaints regarding the quality and quantity of food provided at camps. When the Second AIF came into being, the force was originally fed in the same unsatisfactory way as the pre-war militia. Not only was the quality and quantity of rations provided somewhat erratic, the training of cooks was also far from satisfactory.i A number of Army officers fought to improve the situation, notably Sir Stanton Hicks, an eminent pre-war university professor with an interest in nutrition who was appointed a lieutenant and catering supervisor 4th Military District in 1940.ii

Lieutenant Colonel Sir Stanton Hicks (right)

Despite these efforts, when war was declared against Japan, the Australian Army was divided into two forces in most essentials of organisation. As far as catering went, the AIF in the Middle East was doing its best with its unchanged War Establishment to train men as cooks for its own requirements, while the fully mobilised AMF in Australia had only half its establishment of cooks. The situation gradually improved and an Army School of Cookery was established at Osborne House at Geelong in Victoria in 1940. Although this establishment was just one wing of a larger Australian Army Service Corps Training School it laid the groundwork for the professionalisation of the cooking trade in the Australian Army.

Trainee cooks – LHQ School of Cookery

In 1943, as a result of the efforts of Hicks and others, the Australian Army Catering Corps was established to both train and manage catering specialists for the army. Unsurprisingly, the first Director of Catering was the now Lieutenant-Colonel (later Brigadier) Sir Stanton Hicks. This now brings us to the matter of rations themselves. The original ration scales for the AIF were developed for troops serving in the Middle East; these scales were based on feeding the troops properly prepared, kitchen cooked meals in camp or in the field and did not provide an operational ration, men in action again relying on the staples of preserved meat, dry biscuits, jam and tea.

Cook house in Syria, 1942

In August 1942 (at a time when the AIF was withdrawing from the Middle East and returning to Australia to join the fight against the Japanese) a ‘field service ration scale’ was approved for troops in the Middle East. However, this again was not an operational ration; rather it was a modified ration scale with many fresh items replaced by preserved items and again meant to be centrally cooked and served. This was more or less the situation in Australia and in New Guinea at the beginning of 1942. Where possible, troops were ideally fed hot meals cooked in unit kitchens; what was basically an iron ration of preserved meat, biscuits, jam (if available) and tea was issued as an operational ration to men in the front lines who could not be served a cooked meal for various reasons and for men deployed on patrols.

Hot meal being poured into hot boxes for delivery to forward troops

Nevertheless, the combat situation, coupled with factors such as terrain and weather, often predicated that soldiers in the front line often had to fight and survive on bully beef and biscuits.

Dêjeuner a la Bully Beef

Hard lessons were learned by the Australian Army in 1942 in many areas, one of those being rations for the troops. With both AIF and CMF troops involved in the fighting in New Guinea, separate ration scales became a thing of the past. In April 1943 all troops were put on the ‘New Guinea Ration Scale’; this scale is shown at Table 1.iii

NEW GUINEA RATION SCALE FOR COMBINED FORCES AMF SCALE

Commodity Scale Ounces

BEVERAGES Coffee 1/5 Tea 5/16

CEREALS Bread 12 Flour 2 Rice ½ Wheatmeal 1

CONDIMENTS Mustard 1/100 Pepper 1/100 Powder, curry 1/50 Salt ½

FATS Butter (tinned) 1¾ Lard ½

FRUIT Dried 2 Fresh 4

MEAT Bacon 6/7 Cheese 6/7 Ham or fish 15/7 Fresh 135/7

MILK Condensed, sweet 2½

RISINGS Powder, baking 1/25

SUGARS Jam or marmalade or golden syrup 2 Sugar 3¼

VEGETABLES, FRESH Fresh 12 Peas, blue 3¼

VEGETABLES, DEHYDRATED Onions ½ Potatoes 2

SUNDRY ITEMS Cake, fruit 3/7 Essence, flavouring 1/350 Juices, fruit or tomato 2 Powder, custard ⅛ Sauce, tomato ¼ Spice, mixed 1/350 Tomato puree 3/7

Table 1

At the end of 1943 a ‘nutritional survey’ of the 7th and 9th Divisions of the AIF was carried out in New Guinea. This survey had some interesting results. In the 7th Division (7 DIV), the survey revealed that some dehydrated vegetables (e.g. carrots and onions) were considered satisfactory, but canned cabbage was unacceptable. Blue boiler peas were often eaten raw, though water difficulties occasionally gave trouble with germination. Bread was good, and after some experimentation the correct addition of 6 per cent wheat germ to the flour was adopted. Both formal field bakeries and improvised brigade bakeries produced good rolls and bread. Three rolls daily were issued to all men in forward units. Dried milk powder was preferred to condensed milk, which was chiefly useful in forward areas where powdered milk was difficult to prepare. Tea, sugar, fruit juices and salt were well supplied. There was a demand for chocolate fortified with vitamin D. Extra ascorbic acid was in restricted supply and was not a regular issue.iv

Mount Prothero area, New Guinea, 1944 - cooks of the 2/12th infantry battalion preparing a hot meal for the troops prior to the attack on the enemy positions in the area

Cooking was found to present problems. In the Ramu Valley, for example, and at high altitudes, wood fuel for cooking was usually damp, and petrol was precious; all supplies of the latter had to be flown in, and at best could only be used to kindle the wood. Native carriage was scarce, though forward troops were still able to have two hot meals brought up from company kitchens by porters.v

Egg powder and baking powder were much in demand. The ‘tropical spread’ of the ration was not really popular, margarine was more desired. In certain localities green vegetables were obtainable, as in the Mount Hagen area, but only if air transport was available.vi The same difficulties were observed in the 9th Division (9 DIV) with powdered milk as those reported by 7 DIV forward units. Tea and sugar were in free supply but serious wastage of tea took place through the breaking of plywood chests. Drums or tins were a preferable package, and should be within the weight convenient for a porter; sacks as a package were also found unsuitable for transport of rice. The men found that blue boiler peas grew moulds, owing to the moisture. The same dislike of canned cabbage noted in 7 DIV was noted also in 9 DIV. Butter was popular with all troops, but was difficult to obtain except when cold storage facilities were near at hand. Cheese was also liked and full rations were consumed. Bread from the field bakery was good, preferably in the form of rolls.vii

Bread rolls cooked for issue to forward troops

Biscuits were disliked. The staple food was ‘bully beef’, but the 53-pound case was too heavy for a one-man load. Egg powder was more popular than previously, owing to the greater resource of the cooks, but tinned herrings and salmon, which the AIF had grown to loathe in the Middle East, were disliked as much as ever. It was stated that cases were seen branded ‘Australian salmon, 4th Grade, for the use of troops’, although this may well have been apocryphal. Fruit juice was in ample supply and much appreciated.viii

Scrambled (powdered) eggs on toast – powdered egg in bottle

Milk was freely supplied, the most popular being unsweetened condensed milk, although it was noted that many cans of milk were blown on arrival at barge heads or units. Powdered milk was of very good quality, but mixing and subsequent distribution caused trouble. Dehydrated foods were good, and were most popular, except pears. As with some other items in the ration, the size of the can was too large for ready distribution in small units.ix

The meat and vegetable ration (M&V) was generally unpopular and was universally regarded as unpalatable when cold. On the credit side this ration was considered to be very filling, particularly when consumed as part of the breakfast meal. Fresh meat was provided to all units where this was possible; in some instances distance of carriage was an adverse factor and wastage from deterioration occurred.x The Operational Ration This brings us to the ‘Operational Ration’, which was introduced to supply the ration necessary for subsistence when the complete army ration could not be supplied because of military or physical conditions. During development it was stated that the operational ration must fulfil certain requirements, including:

• All dietary elements must be present to satisfy hunger and the calls of nutrition, so as to present a balanced ration.

• It must withstand heat, and not deteriorate during storage. • No cooking must be needed. • Flavour must be maintained, e.g. there must be no rancid change in fat. • Sterilisation must kill all eggs of moths or weevils. • It must be in a container easy to open but strong enough to withstand air-dropping. • Packs must be water-proof. • Design must meet the current size and shape, and certain items can only be made by

machinery.

Various surveys had shown that there was a general demand for sweet components in the operational ration. In December 1942, prior to the operational ration being approved for issue, a small quantity was released to 2 Australian Corps in Queensland to allow a trial to be carried out under field conditions.xi A corporal and six privates of an unidentified 2 Corps unit carried out a three day forced march through rugged country in the Blackall Range area from 8 to 10 December 1942, with the men utilising the new ‘emergency ration’. The trial group departed at 1645 on 8 December and marched, with a 10 minute rest halt every hour but without a meal, until 2200, when a night halt was made. The men dined on a mug of tea and a portion of the fruit block, which the report states satisfied every man’s hunger until the following morning. Before going to sleep, each man put a portion of the meat and vegetable (M&V) ration into a mess tin with some water to soak overnight. Day two (9 December) commenced at 0630 and breakfast, which consisted of the M&V that had been left to soak overnight heated up as a stew, accompanied by a mug of tea. The report states that:

All agreed that (the stew) was very tasty and filling. It affected us in such a way that we felt that we had had a big meal.xii

The day’s march commenced at 0830 and the party reached the base of the Blackall Range at 1130. At this point the report states that the men felt tired but not hungry. The top of the Blackall Range was reached at 1205 and the party stopped here for lunch. The midday meal consisted of rissoles, made by mixing M&V ration in a paste with water, forming the paste into balls and frying in a mess tin. The rissoles, which were reported to be both tasty and filling, were accompanied by a hot drink made with chunks of fruit block boiled in water. This was reported to be both tasty and satisfying.xiii The march recommenced at 1300 and the report states that the going was exceptionally tough, with more frequent rests required. It was reported, however, that the food being consumed was very sustaining. Beerwah was reached at 1930 where the night halt was made. Half of the group cooked rissoles for the evening meal and the other half heated M&V as a stew. Discussion arrived at the consensus that the stew was the better meal. The report states that at this stage the fruit block ‘seemed to be getting very sickly’.xiv Unfortunately, the report does not specify any food consumption on Day 3 of the trial, which commenced at 0930 and ended at the men’s unit camp at 1430. The report does state, however, that: We all considered the rations to be superior to bully beef and biscuits.xv The trial group had been weighed at the start of the march and were re-weighed at the end of the day, with comparative weights shown below (Table 3).

Operation Ration O2

Trial Member Weight 8 December Weight 10 December

CPL Tomlinson 12 stone 9½ pounds 12 stone 5 pounds PTE Hooker 12 stone 6½ pounds 12 stone PTE Kirk 11 stone 10 stone 9 pounds PTE McGuinness 12 stone 10 pounds 12 stone 6 pounds PTE O’Rourke 12 stone ½ pound 11 stone 7 pounds PTE Ryan 9 stone 8 pounds 9 stone 6 pounds PTE Wilson 10 stone 4½ pounds 10 stone 2 pounds

Table 3

Tomlinson lost 4½ pounds; Hooker lost 6½ pounds; Kirk lost 5 pounds; McGuinness lost 4 pounds; O’Rourke lost 7½ pounds; Ryan lost 2 pounds; Wilson lost 2½ pounds. The discrepancies in weight loss are interesting but, unfortunately, unexplained in the report. Several reasons for the discrepancies can be posited, including:

• Differences in individual metabolism. • Differences in water intake – trial members who consumed more water would have lost less

weight. • Differences in amount of food intake.

The last point is most relevant but, frustratingly, not discussed in the trial report. Only four meals are described for the three days of the trial but given the contents of the ration the men must have been consuming portions throughout day, either on the march or during rest halts.

This is in fact hinted at in a couple of places in the report. Exercise, heat (the trial was conducted during the middle of a South-East Queensland summer), water loss and various other factors effect individual appetites in different ways. Some of the trial members almost certainly consumed more food than others during the three days, with a subsequent effect on weight loss. While the trial outlined above is the only one for which a report exists, the 2 Australian Corps letter of 10 January 1943 to HQ First Australian Army on the subject of operational rations (2 Aust Corps Q565 ‘Rations – Fd Ops’) indicates that it was not the only trial carried out.xvi The letter refers to a five day trial and lists the following observations:

• Weight – slight decrease over the five days varying from fourteen ounces to one lb. • Effect on health – no discomfort was experienced; the bowels of the troops were regular with

a tendency to freeness. • Preparation – thirty minutes was ample with mess tin and crown ring burner with solidified

alcohol or a small fire. • Palatability – this depends largely on the individual; as issued troops would quickly tire of the

ration but if thought is exercised in preparing the ration sufficient variety can be obtained. • Individual items:

M&V – palatable and sustaining. Cooked either as a stew or rissoles. The difficulty in cooking rissoles is the lack of fat. Stew is improved by adding crushed biscuits.

Apricots – palatable and can be eaten as supplied or as stewed fruit by adding boiling water.

Fruit and Nut Ration – all reports commenced on the richness and glutinous quality of this item. It is suggested that more nut and less fruit would make it easier to eat and not so rich.

Canned Meat – tasty and popular. Margarine and Marmite – helped to make biscuits more palatable. Marmite can be

made into a drink similar to beef tea. Tea, Sugar and Salt Tablets – quite satisfactory. Some reports suggested an extra

sugar tablet is required for all meals. Chewing Gum – very popular. Milk Block – provides excellent and ample milk. Biscuits – very sustaining and easier to eat with margarine or marmite.

The observation on weight loss is interesting (and unexplained), given the weight losses experienced by the seven men involved in the 8-10 December trial. Following trials, the final composition of the ‘Operational Ration O2’ was as shown in below (Table 4). The contents were divided into three separate meals each wrapped in a water-proof carton in one tin which could be opened with an attached opener. The calorific value was determined by analysis, and the vitamin content by standard physical and chemical methods.  

OPERATIONAL RATION TYPE 02

Total net weight not less than MEAL 1 Ounces Biscuits, carrot 3 Fruit and cereal block (type 1 or 2) 3⅜ Meat component 4 Peanut butter 1½ Barley sugar rolls 1 Caramel bar ½ Sugar tablets (2) 2/5 Tea leaf 1/12 Skim milk powder ¼ Salt tablets (2) 1/16 Wooden spoon (1)

MEAL 2 Biscuits, wholemeal 2¼ Wheat lunch 3 Meat component 4 Cheese 1¼ Barley sugar rolls 1 Lime tablets ½ Sugar tablets (2) 2/5 Tea leaf 1/12 Skim milk powder ¼ Salt tablets (2) 1/16 Wooden spoon (1)

MEAL 3 Biscuits, wholemeal 2¼ Chocolate block 3 Meat and vegetable component 4 Blackcurrant spread (or other approved spread) 1⅞ Barley sugar rolls 1 Caramel bar ½ Sugar tablets (2) 2/5 Tea leaf 1/12 Skim milk powder ¼ Salt tablets (2) 1/16 Wooden spoon (1) One pocket tin opener

Table 4

Despite previous pleas from troops for ‘more sweets’ in their field rations, after a few days the O2 ration was found to be too sweet. Fortified chocolate, however, was hugely popular.

O2 Ration contents

During the survey of rations in 7 and 9 DIV at the end of 1943 discussed earlier, 7 DIV stated that the O2 ration was extensively used by most brigades; other units coming up from reserve were advised of the advantages this ration possessed, particularly in prevention of waste. For its part, 9 DIV reported that the ‘forward operational ration was most successful, and in emergency three men could subsist on three rations for two days.’

Guy's Post, Faria River area, New Guinea, 1943 - troops of the 2/33rd Battalion examining the contents of the

O2 ration Evaluation of O2 ration, conducted in New Guinea in mid-1945 by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) reported (p 102):

Battalion and company commanders whose units had recently used this ration described it as invaluable for forward troops and stated that, while at present its use is restricted to 4-day or longer patrols, it would be very useful for other types of work if larger supplies were made available. It is recommended that undue economy in the use of the O2 ration should be avoided. A more rapid turnover of present stocks is desirable to avoid deterioration in some components. Those who had used the ration agreed that it provided more than the minimum needs for one man-day, but opinions differed as to whether the margin was excessive. The majority view is against any reduction in the ration. A few complaints were heard that the ration was too sweet, but this opinion was not generally supported by observers with recent experience of the ration. Alternating the O2 ration with the normal field ration was suggested by those who thought it too sweet.

Comparison with Other Army’s Operational Rations How did the Australian Operational Ration O2 compare with other Second World War ration packs? In answer to that question, at the time of its introduction, the AMF Operational Ration O2 was the only ‘ration pack’ on issue to any military force in the world. The only other armies that issued individual packaged rations during the Second World War were the British Army

and the US Army. The ‘operational rations’, i.e. ‘24-hour ration pack’ of allied and enemy armies are outlined and discussed in the following paragraphs. Allies

United Kingdom. The British Army did not develop a proper one man, 24-hour ration until 1944. At the outbreak of the war the British Army still based combat feeding on meals prepared in company or battery kitchens and carried forward to the troops.xvii In the event that unit feeding could not be achieved, the fall back was the tried and true ‘haversack ration’, consisting of a tin of preserved meat (bully beef), a packet of biscuits, a small tin of jam or cheese, and an issue of loose tea and sugar.xviii This procedure remained in place well into 1941, when experiments in group feeding of units of the UK based Anti-Aircraft Command utilising packaged ration allotments based on commercially available tinned and packaged foods, along with sundry supplemental items (toilet paper, matches, cigarettes, sweets, chocolate, etc), led to the development of the ‘Ration 14-Man Composite’, universally referred to as the ‘Compo Ration’ or more usually, simply ‘Compo’, which commenced issue in 1942.xix The ration was designed to feed an infantry section for 24 hours or a five man tank crew for 48 hours. The compo ration was a quantum leap forward in combat feeding for the British Army; the ration came in seven different menus and consisted of tins of preserved meat, luncheon meat, tinned bacon, tinned sausages, tinned fish, tinned vegetables, tinned soup, tinned cheese, tinned pudding, tinned fruit, baked beans, biscuits both sweet and hard tack, margarine, jam, tea, sugar, powdered milk, plus matches, soap and toilet paper and, as ‘additional issues’, tinned bread and cigarettes.xx The various commodities were mixed to provide seven different menus and allow some variety in the daily diet. Nevertheless, despite representing a significant advance in field rations, the compo ration had the combined disadvantages of weight and bulk (insignificant to armoured crews but extremely significant to infantrymen), plus the fact that they had to be cooked in bulk.xxi The next effort in providing a 24-hour ration pack was the ‘Mess Tin Ration’, developed (for want of a better word) for the invasion of Sicily in July 1943. The Mess Tin Ration was little more than a refinement of the pre-war haversack ration; it consisted of a tin of preserved meat, two tins of cheese, a tin of dripping, a tea ration packed into a flat tin, and a box of matches, all packed into the larger of a soldier’s two mess tins.xxii Additional items such as biscuits and toilet paper were tucked into whatever space the soldier had in his uniform or web equipment. The British finally developed a 24-hour, one man ration pack in 1944, specifically for the invasion of Europe.xxiii The new ration appears from available evidence to have come in just a single variety; each ration consisted of a tin of bully beef, a tin of ham galantine, a packet of plain biscuits, a packet of sweet biscuits, a tin of mixed vegetables, a tin of fruit pudding, a tin of jam, a tin of cheese, two bars of chocolate (one fruit and nut and the other vitamin enriched), a packet of boiled sweets, tea, sugar and powdered milk sufficient for two drinks, salt, matches, toilet paper and a tin opener. All of these items were packed in a waxed cardboard box 6.2 inches x 4.5 inches x 2.5 inches, which fit snuggly into the large mess tin. For the D-Day landings, assault troops were issued with two ration packs, one carried in the mess tin and one in the haversack. Solid fuel cookers and fuel tablets were issued separately and a separate cigarette issue was authorised to accompany the ration. Interestingly, evidence suggests that when the British Army needed to develop a ‘Pacific Ration’, it turned to Australia for both advice and production.

United States The US Army had been experimenting with an individual combat ration in a very on again, off again manner since the 1920s. Serious research and development began in 1938, which led to the C-ration. This was a ration based on bulky tinned items, supplemented with biscuits, confectionary, spreads, beverages and sundries.

In 1941 Dr Ancel Keys, a University of Minnesota physiologist, was tasked by the War Department to design a non-perishable, ready-to-eat meal that could fit in a soldier's pocket as a short-duration, individual ration. Keys went to a local supermarket to select foods that would be inexpensive, but still be enough to provide energy; he purchased hard biscuits, dry sausages, hard candy and bars of chocolate. He then tested his 28-ounce, 3,200 calorie (871 gram, 13,400 kJ) meals on six soldiers in a nearby army base. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the meals only gained ‘palatable’ and ‘better than nothing’ ratings from the soldiers, but were successful in relieving hunger and providing sufficient energy. The new ration was initially intended as an individual ration suitable for short durations only, to be used for a maximum of fifteen meals before supplementation or replacement with cooked rations.

The actual prototype of the K-ration was a pocket ration for paratroopers developed by the US Army’s Subsistence Research Laboratory at the request of the US Army Air Forces early in the war. Two original samples (one version used pemmican biscuits, a peanut bar, raisins, and bouillon paste; the other used pemmican biscuits, a small D ration (chocolate) bar, canned processed meat, and lemon beverage powder) evolved into the one-package breakfast-dinner-supper combination later adopted as standard. The US Army Quartermaster Command’s Subsistence Branch altered some components and renamed the ration the Field Ration, Type K, or ‘K-ration’; the final version yielded 2,830 calories a day. The first procurement of K-rations was made in May 1942. Although rumour has it that it that the ‘K’ in K-ration came from Dr Keys or was short for ‘Kommando’ (as elite troops were the first to receive it), the letter ‘K’ was selected because it was phonetically distinct from other letter-name rations.

One major criticism of the K-ration was its caloric and vitamin content, judged as inadequate based on evaluations made during and after World War II of the ration's actual use by Army forces. There was also a danger of over-reliance, which could cause the three meals to become monotonous if issued for long periods of time. Fundamental to the K-ration's inadequacy was its ration allowance, rigorously standardized at one ration per man per day. Because of the short duration and hasty nature of experimental testing of the K-ration before adoption, ration planners did not realize that soldiers fighting, digging, and marching in extreme conditions would require many more calories per day than a soldier marching over cleared roads in temperate climates. Nevertheless, one K-ration per man per day would remain the basis of issue, even for mountain troops fighting at high altitudes and infantrymen fighting in the thick jungles of Burma.

The US K-Ration (and older C-ration) cannot be considered as a ‘ration pack’. Both were bulky, relying on large tins for all main meal items (including biscuits) and both were issued with individual meals packaged in separate cardboard containers, as opposed to the Australian O2 ration, which came in a single (admittedly bulky) container.

France The French Army had entered the Second World War utilising the combined group and individual feeding system used during the First World War. All cooking was done by unit mobile kitchens, with a portion of either the morning or evening meal supposedly retained by the soldier in his covered mess tin as the midday meal. Following the

fall of France in 1940, Free French forces utilised either British compo or American K rations, with additional issues of bread, wine and oil. The French Army did not begin development of individual ration packs until 1946 (French troops fighting in Indochina after the Second World War were issued, amongst other things, captured ex-German Luftwaffe survival rations!).xxiv

USSR From all accounts, rations in the Soviet Army ranged from mediocre to appalling. Although Red Army regulations laid down a comprehensive and more than adequate ration scale (published in 1941 in НОРМЫ ПРОДОВОЛЬСТВЕННОГО СНАБЖЕНИЯ от 15.05.1941, Standards of Food from 15.05.1941), the combination of the shortcomings of the Soviet production and supply system and the pressures of war meant that authorised ‘norms’ and the actual provisions rarely, if ever, coincided. From 1941 through mid-1942, Soviet troops fought on minimal rations, and local procurement was the norm. From mid-1942 to late 1943, with the stronger involvement of Britain (desperate to persuade Stalin that the time for a second front had not yet come), food stuffs of British or Commonwealth origin started filtering through. These initially consisted of shipments of tinned meats, such as luncheon loaves or Brazilian sourced bully beef, biscuits and compressed soups/broth cubes. Britain also delivered older US made supplies to Russia, such as American chocolate bars during the winter of 1942. Even when food supplies eventually became at least adequate, from about mid-1944, the Soviets never developed anything resembling a ration pack. At the very most basic level, the Soviet front line infantryman of 1942 would have considered himself lucky if he had on him some rye bread, a small piece of smoked sausage, some cereal (oats, rye, etc), a small cache of coarse tea and, if he was very lucky, some (British supplied) sugar. Later, as the supply system improved, troops were issued with tinned meat of various types, tinned fish, seasonal fruits, vegetables and grains. Everything was, however, issued loose and the soldier was expected to pack and carry his rations however he could. Enemies

Germany The German Army (Heer) followed more or less the same feeding program for its troops for the entire war. Each unit was allotted a company or battalion field kitchen, usually horse-drawn, which, in theory, provided a minimum of one hot, cooked meal per day (either midday or evening, depending on locale and tactical situation), supplemented by dry and preserved rations for the other two meals, issued out with the main meal. This, of course, was the ideal, and, according to numerous accounts, both German and Allied, was often not achieved. In addition to the normal daily ration, at the outset of the war the Heer field soldier was issued with two ‘special rations’, the Marschverplegung or Marching Ration, and the Eiserne Portion, or Iron Ration.

The marching ration was a cold food ration theoretically issued for not more than three or four consecutive days to units in transit either on transport or by foot. It consisted of a daily issue of approximately 700 grams of bread, 200 grams of cold meat or cheese, 60 grams of bread spreads, 9 grams of coffee (or 4 grams of tea), 10 grams of sugar, and six cigarettes, for a total weight of about 980 grams.xxv

The iron ration consisted of 250 grams of biscuits, 200 grams of cold meat, 150 of preserved vegetables, 25 of coffee, and 25 of salt. Total weight was 650 grams without packing and 825 grams with packing.xxvi Neither of these can be considered a ‘ration pack’; the Marschverplegung was the equivalent of the British Army’s ‘haversack rations’ or the Australian Army’s ‘cut lunch’, while the Eiserne Portion was exactly what its name said, an iron ration, only to be consumed in an emergency situation and only on receipt of orders to do so. The Heer first encountered the US Army’s K-Ration in North Africa and they became highly prized items of battlefield booty. Unlike their own Eiserne Portion, the Germans noted that the American ration supplied a more varied menu and provided more stimulants like sugar and nicotine. Late in the war, the Wehrmacht began to issue a rudimentary packaged ration. This came in two types, the Nahkampfpäckchen or close combat pack and the Großkampfpäckchen or large combat pack, both of which were packed in a small cardboard box approximately 5⅛ inches x 4½ inches x 1½ inches. Despite some detailed research into the two packs by the US Army Quartermaster Corps post war, the actual difference between the packs remains unclear. According to the US Manual on German Military Forces (TM-E 30-451):

They (the Nahkampfpäckchen and Großkampfpäckchen) include chocolate bars, fruit bars, candies, cigarettes, and possibly biscuits.xxvii

TM-E 30-451 states that the two rations consisted of:

• 2 x fruit bars or 1 x fruit bar and 1 x chocolate bar • 1 box of biscuits • 3 or 4 boxes of cigarettes • 2 or 3 x rolls of sweet candy

It is evident that the Nahkampfpäckchen and Großkampfpäckchen were not actually ‘ration packs’; rather they appear to have been a combat or assault ration supplement.

Italy The Italian Army did not have an individual ration pack, the nearest thing being the razione giornaliera (RG, or daily ration).xxviii This was a group feeding ration, designed to feed ten men for one day and was similar to the British Army’s compo ration. The daily individual ration for the Italian soldier was the razione personale (RP, or personal ration), which consisted of a tin of meat or fish and a 400 gram packet of biscuits, which were issued loose.xxix

Japan Provision of rations to the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) was very much a hit and miss affair. Although comprehensive ration scales were laid down by higher authority, what the soldier actually received rarely accorded with the regulations, even in pre-war, peacetime Japan. The closest that the IJA seems to have come to a ‘ration pack’ was the Field Ration Special Type, issued in Burma and the South West Pacific. Theoretically this ration, which was supposed to sustain one man for one day, consisted of:

• 20.46 ounces of rice (normally polished) • 8.113 ounces of biscuit

• 5.3 ounces of canned meat or fish (or 2.1 ounces of dried meat) • 4.23 ounces of dried or tinned vegetables • 1.09 ounces of dried plums • salt • sugar • teaxxx

All items were issued loose, the rice usually being carried by the soldier in his individual cooking pot, thus the Field Ration Special Type cannot be viewed as a ‘ration pack’. Conclusion Although almost unbelievably basic, even crude, when compared with 21st century Australian military individual field rations, the O2 ration was at the time a huge advance in combat feeding. As shown by the comparison between the O2 ration and the ‘ration packs’ of both allies and enemies, it is clear that the Australian O2 ration was the world’s first ‘one man combat ration pack’.

Sources

Anonymous, no date ‘Italian Army Rations of the Regio Esercito and RSI’, Charlotte’s Axis Attic, http://17thdivision.tripod.com/charlottesaxisattic/id26.html ________________ ‘Japanese Rations’, Charlotte’s Axis Attic, http://17thdivision.tripod.com/charlottesaxisattic/id20.html Ministère de la Défense français, 2014 ‘Equipements’, Matériel individuel et alimentation, http://www.defense.gouv.fr/terre/equipements/materiel-individuel-et-alimentation Regio Esercito (Royal Army), 1943 Le squadra della fanteria: organici – formazioni – movimenti – servizio – delle armi – dati vari (The infantry Squad: Organic – Training – Service – Movements of Arms – Various Data), Scuola di applicazione di fanteria (Infantry School), Parma, Italy Robertshaw, Andrew, 2012 Frontline Cookbook: Battlefield Recipes From the Second World War, The History Press, Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK US Government, War Department, 1942 ‘Food (Japan)’, Intelligence Bulletin Vol.1 No.1, September US Government, 1945 TM-E 30-451: Handbook on German Military Forces, War Department, Washington, DC Walker, Allan S., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.A.C.P., 1957 Australia in the War of 1939-1945 Series Five Medical Volume III: The Island Campaigns, Australian War Memorial, Canberra                                                             i Walker, Allan S., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.A.C.P., 1957 Australia in the War of 1939-1945 Series Five Medical Volume III: The Island Campaigns, Australian War Memorial, Canberra p.266. ii Ibid. iii Ibid, p.277. iv Ibid, pp.270-271. v Ibid. p.273. vi Ibid, p.271. vii Ibid. viii Ibid. ix Ibid. x Ibid. xi NAA File SP1048/7 S20/1/1475 Field Operational Ration. xii Ibid. xiii Ibid. xiv Ibid. xv Ibid. xvi Ibid. xvii Robertshaw, Andrew, 2012 Frontline Cookbook: Battlefield Recipes From the Second World War, The History Press, Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK, pp.71-72.  xviii Ibid, p.72. xix Ibid. xx Ibid, pp.74-75. xxi Anecdotal evidence indicates that the Americans were very impressed by British compo rations when they first encountered them and compo rations are credited with the development of the US Army’s 5-in-1 and 10-in-1 Rations. xxii Ibid, p.73. xxiii Ibid, p.76. 

                                                                                                                                                                                         xxiv Ministère de la Défense français, 2014 ‘Equipements’, Matériel individuel et alimentation, http://www.defense.gouv.fr/terre/equipements/materiel-individuel-et-alimentation, accessed 24 February 2014. xxv US Government, 1945 TM-E 30-451: Handbook on German Military Forces, War Department, Washington, p.290. xxvi Ibid. xxvii Ibid. xxviii Regio Esercito, 1943 Le squadra della fanteria: organici – formazioni – movimenti – servizio – delle armi – dati vari, Scuola di applicazione di fanteria, Parma, p.15.  xxix Ibid, p.14. xxx US Government, War Department, 1942 ‘Food (Japan)’, Intelligence Bulletin Vol.1 No.1, September, p.79.