ROMEPompey’s extraordinary

commands and the eastern settlement

Fall of the Republic

The Story of

Pompey

The story of Pompey’s extraordinary commands

Pompey’s military and political career had been both exceptional and unusual. Pompey started his career in a most unusual and unique fashion – by raising a private army and them demanding an appointment and a triumph that he wasn’t actually entitled too. It set the tone for most of his career because he came to expect that he could have extraordinary commands without meeting the requirements. It also set the tone because he learnt from very early on the ways in which he could get what he wanted. Sulla

In 85BC he raised his own client army. He was 23 years old. He wanted to establish himself as a force in Rome so he offered to assist Sulla in his war against Marius. Between 83-78 Sulla gave Pompey the task of ending Marian resistance in Sicily and Africa with propraetorian powers. He was too young for such powers and had not held the appropriate positions in the cursus honoroum. Sulla was desperate to defeat Marius and was prepared to break the rules to be the victor.He was successful. By 82 BC Pompey had secured Sicily. He may have even earned himself a nickname – Appian reports that he was called adulescens carnifex (adolescent butcher) – because he executed Carbo and his supporters. Pompey was highly successful. Marius

Success wasn’t enough for Pompey – he also wanted everyone to know HOW successful he was. Sulla sent him a message to disband his army and come back home. Pompey didn’t think that was enough – He entered Rome with his army! Sulla tried to keep the peace and greeted him as Pompeius Magnus (maybe with a touch of sarcasm). Pompey still wasn’t happy and used his army as a threat. Wanting to improve his prestige and reputation in Rome he expected Sulla to award him a triumph for his efforts. Pompey’s popularity (the people loved him because his actions in Rome saved the grain supply) and the threat of force changed Sulla’s mind. Pompey was given his triumph.The Senate and Sulla had no choice but to give in to his demands. Pompey learned early on that force was a way to get what he wanted.

Roman statue of Pompey, at the Villa Arconati a Castellazzo di Bollate (Milan, Italy). It was brought there from Rome in 1627 by Galeazzo Arconati.

Between 77-71 he was granted propraetorian command by the senate to assist Catullus against Lepidus Pompey wasn’t going to let political loyalty stand in his way of getting to the top. Although he had been close to Sulla (he was even married to Sulla’s stepdaughter) he decided, in 78BC to help Lepidus, who was Sulla’s opponent, win the consulship. Lepidus however, decided to threaten Rome – in 77 he threatened to march on Rome with his troops. Pompey changed sides – the senate gave him propraetorian imperium (again unconstitutional) to help Catullus put down Lepidus’ revolt. A pattern was emerging – Pompey was seen as a hero of the republic but he once again refused to disband the army and wanted another command Even though the Senate was now starting to fear Pompey, they gave in.

Bust of Pompey in the Residenz, Munich

They reluctantly granted him the title of proconsul, and sent him to Hispania in 76BC to fight Sertorius, a rebel general. Plutarch states that the campaign was not an easy one due to Sertorius’ guerrilla tactics. Some historians think he won because Sertorius was assassinated in 72BC, by one of his men – Perpena – who was executed by Pompey in 71BC.Meanwhile, Spartacus had started a revolt of slaves and gladiators. The consul Crassus had been sent to defeat them. Crassus had initially had some difficulty and requested the support of Pompey and Lucullus. He changed his mind however, as he had been able to kill around 6000 of Spartacus’ supporters. When Pompey finally arrived in 71 Crassus had already one three minor battles and in the final battle killed 13000 slaves.

Pompey

Pompey encounter 5000 slaves escaping from the battle that they had lost – he captured them and used it as evidence that he had finished off the revolt. You can imagine that Crassus was not HAPPY!To make matters worse, Crassus was only given an ovation whilst Pompey was awarded another triumph – again this was illegal but recognised Pompey’s popular support with the people of Rome and the looming threat of his forces.Pompey and Crassus were not friends – Crassus was angry with Pompey’s triumph and actions, but because they both wanted the consulship of 70BC, they agreed to work together to campaign.

Pompey in the Temple of Jerusalem, by Jean Fouquet.

So Pompey was allowed to bypass another ancient Roman tradition; at only 35 years of age and while not even a senator, he was elected Consul by an overwhelming majority vote, and served in 70 BC with Crassus as partner. Pompey's meteoric rise to the consulship was unprecedented; his tactics offended the traditionalist nobility whose values he claimed to share and defend. He had left them no option but to allow his consulship.

The Flight of Pompey after Pharsalus, by Jean Fouquet

Pompey was certainly on the rise. A tribune proposed an even for extraordinary command (imperium infinitum) for Pompey. The pirates of the Mediterranean had been most troublesome for Rome. Although pirates had always been a problem, strong naval powers like Rhodes, used to be able to keep them in check. Unfortunately (and bad planning for Rome) they had all been weakened or destroyed by Tome during the Second Macedonian War. Plutarch says that the pirates were so strong that they had 1000 ships with expert crews and pilots.

RRC 426/3Obverse: Bust of Venus right, draped, laureate and wearing diadem; behind, sceptre; behind S·C downwards. Border of dots.

Reverse: Three trophies; on left, jug; on right, lituus; in exergue,. Border of dots.

These pirates were troublesome. They captured cities demanding ransoms, stole from religious sanctuaries and even destroyed them Plutarch says that they ‘even march inland up the Roman roads from the sea, plundering the country houses on their way.’ They also operated a lucrative slave trade, kidnapping and then selling the captives at the slave market on Delos. The Roman government at first turned a blind eye to their activities, since wealthy Roman landowners employing slave labour on their large estates made a profit out of the pirates’ trade.

RRC 426/4aObverse: Head of Hercules right, wearing lion-skin; on left, S·C downwards. Border of dots.Reverse: Globe surrounded by three small wreaths and one large wreath; below on left, aplustre; below on right, corn-ear. Border of dots.

The problem had become so bad that the government couldn’t ignore it any longer. Other people had tried to do something about it but the pirates had either simply moved to another area or killed the people sent to oppose them. The problem was out of handIt was so bad that the people in Rome were starving. The pirates had caused issues for the corn trade, either by stealing the corn directly or by interfering in the shipping routes. It was so bad that Rome was facing a serious famine. The tribune of 67 proposed that a special command be created to drive the pirates off the sea. It was a clear opportunity for Pompey and just the kind of opportunity he had been looking for to boost his career and popularity.

RRC 431/1Obverse: Head of Cybele right; before, A·PLAVTIVS downwards; behind, AED·CVR·S·C downwards. Border of dots.Reverse: Camel right; before, kneeling figure holding reins in left hand and olive-branch in right hand; in exergue, BACCHIVS; before, IVDAEVS upwards. Border of dots.

The tribune proposed that the man to take up the command should be given three year imperium that would allow him to operate anywhere in the Mediterranean and in all Roman provinces up to fifty miles inland. He could nominate his own legates, take whatever money he needed from the treasury and recruit whatever size army and fleet that he thought he would need.Although the people in Rome supported the idea of the command, the Senate generally opposed it. In fact only Caesar spoke in favour of the bill in the senate. The people of the assembly however voted for the lex Gabinia, granting Pompey even greater powers; 500 ships, 120 000 troops and 500 cavalry as well as twenty four men to act as his lieutenants.

“… to make war and peace as he liked and to proclaim nations as friends or enemies according to his own judgement. They gave him command of all the forces beyond the borders of Italy. All these powers together had never been given to any one general before; and this is perhaps the reason why they call him Pompey the Great “

Appian, Civil Wars, 12.15.97.

Pompey lived up to the people’s expectations. He used smart and achievable tactics. He divided the Mediterranean and adjacent coasts into thirteen areas and designated commanders and fleets to patrol each area “the dispersal of his forces throughout the sea enabled him to surround entire fleets of pirate ships which he hunted down and brought into harbour”

Gilded Bronze Statue of Hercules found near the Theatre of Pompey, now in the Vatican Museum

He was so successful that within 40 days the western half of the Mediterranean was free from pirates. When he moved into the eastern half, some pirates were so fearful of Pompey’s fleet that they gave themselves up hoping for mercy. Pompey did in fact treat them humanely. Others fled to their fortress where they left families and fortunes before returning to fight Pompey. They were defeated. Their surrender marked the end of the war, which had been completed in less than three months. This was an incredible feat. Pompey had outdone himself.

At the same time as Pompey’s commands against the Pirates, other trouble was brewing for Rome. Mithridates had used Rome’s preoccupation with Sertorius, Spartacus and the pirates to begin building up his power and resources once again. After building up support and forming alliances, he felt confident enough to attack Rome’s province of Bithynia.

Sometimes, more sternly moved, I would relateHow vanquished Mithridates northward passed,And, hidden in the cloud of years, becameOdin, the Father of a race by whomPerished the Roman Empire. – William Wordsworth, The Prelude Bk i vv 186 ff

Lucullus had been, in 74, in command of fighting the war against Mithridates. Lucullus was a master tactician, and by the end of 70 had deprived Mithridates of all his conquests and a large part of his army. Mithridates had fled and taken refuge with his son in law Tigranes. Even though the senate hadn’t given him permission, Lucullus invaded Armenia where Mithridates was hiding. He beat their troops numerous times but every time he did Mithridates and Tigranes would flee. At this point his troops, alienated by his harsh discipline and refusal to allow them to plunder, mutinied and refused to go any further. Lucullus was forced to remain inactive with Mithridates recovered and reclaimed much of his kingdom.

Spartacus, marble sculpture by Denis Foyatier (1830), Louvre Museum

Lucullus knew that Asia would never be safe while Mithridates remained free, yet he was being criticised not only by his men but by powerful interests in Rome for prolonging the war for his own benefit. He had incurred the hatred of the equites by reorganising the finances of Asia – he had changed the way the provincials were forced by pay high taxes to Roman tax collectors and bankers. This was fair but it annoyed those in Rome who were powerful. Business owners, who now collected less money, demanded that he be replaced. The people and the populares agreed because they believed he should have ended the war quickly. Even the optimates were not happy because Lucullus hadn’t consulted the senate when he should have.

The statue of Spartacus in Sandanski, Bulgaria.

Pompey, with over two and a half years of his imperium left, was still in the east after settling the pirates. If Lucullus was to be replaced, Pompey was the obvious choice. There was not likely to be much oppositionGaius Manilus proposed legislation to give Pompey command against Mithridates only two people spoke against him. When the bill was passed, Pompey was reported to have said “How sad it makes me, this constant succession of labours! Really I would rather be one of those people whom no one has heard about…” Everyone knew that he was play acting and it made many people angry. They all knew how much Pompey craved power.

The fall of Spartacus

Pompey’s campaign was intelligent and competent. Firstly he persuaded Phrates, King of Parthia to distract Tigranes so that he could attack Mithridates. In 66 Pompey and 50, 000 men surrounded Mithridates at Dasteira, totally destroying his army. Mithridates escaped to the Crimea where he proceeded to raise another army intending to march via the Danube and attack Italy from the north. At this stage Pompey renamed Dasteira, Nicopolis, to celebrate his victory over Mithridates. Pompey then turned towards Armenia and Tigranes submitted to him.

The glory of men’s ancestors is… like a shining on their descendants which allows neither their virtues nor their vices to be hidden…

Sallust

In 65 Pompey turned north to the Caucassus Mountains where he campaigned against the Albanians and marched through the territory of the Iberians to the Black Sea to catch up with Mithridates. As his way was blocked by physical barriers, he retraced his steps to Pontus. He hoped that Mithridates could be kept in check by Roman naval power for the time being.

When the Romans could no longer endure the damage and disgrace they made Gnaeus Pompey, who was then their man of greatest reputation, commander by law for three years, with absolute power over the whole sea within the Pillars of Hercules, and of the land for a distance of 400 stades from the coast… They gave him power to raise troops and to collect money from the provinces, and they furnished a large army from their own muster-roll… Never did any man before Pompey set forth with so great authority conferred upon him by the Romans –

Appian, Civil Wars, 12.14.94.

In 64 he moved into Syria, which was in a state of anarchy due to the feuds of the Seleucid princes. Pompey restored order. In 63 he entered Palestine which was in a state of civil way – two Jewish brothers were quarrelling over the succession and both claimants referred the problem to Pompey. He decided in favour of the elder brother. Hyrcanus, but was forced to lay siege to Jerusalem for three months. While in Jerusalem in 63, Pompey received word that Mithridates, who was at Panticapaeum, was dead: faced with a rebellion led by his own son, Pharnaces, he had requested that one of his slaves put an end to his life.

News of Pompey's victories in the east – and probably of his divine honours there – reached Rome before he did. He had cult at Delos and was "saviour" in Samos and Mytelene. Plutarch quotes a wall-graffito in Athens, referring it to Pompey: "The more you know you're a man, the more you become a god". In Greece, these honours were standard fare for benefactors. In Rome, they would have seemed dangerously monarchic. His eastern victories earned him his third triumph. On his 45th birthday, in 61 BC, he rode the triumphal chariot - he was accompanied by a gigantic portrait head of himself, studded with pearls.

“The wealth that accrued to the conqueror himself was sufficient to make him the richest man in Rome… But more than wealth Pompeius had acquired clientele on a scale hitherto unwitnessed. Not merely individuals and cities but whole provinces and kingdoms acknowledged him as their patron “

Seager, Pompey: A Policital Biography, 55.

His third triumph exceeded all others; an unprecedented two days were scheduled for its procession and games (ludi). Spoils, prisoners, army and banners depicting battle scenes decorated the triumphal path between the Campus Martius and the Capitoline temple of Jupiter. To close the triumph, he gave an immense triumphal banquet and money to the people of Rome, and promised them a new theatre. Plutarch claimed this triumph represented Pompey's – and therefore Rome's – domination over the entire world, an achievement to outshine even Alexander's.

While this triumph was happening, Pompey promised his retiring veterans public lands to farm, then dismissed his armies. Even so, the Senate didn’t trust him. They debated and stalled – they did not want to approve of his eastern settlements (the arrangements that he had made regarding the east) and his gifts of land.

The senate had made a mistake to think that they could stall Pompey so easily. It was their refusal to approve of his eastern settlement that caused him to agree to join Caesar and Crassus as part of the first triumvirate. Caesar’s consulship of 59BC secured his eastern settlement and brought land to his veterans.In 57, by a consular bill, Pompey was appointed controller of the grain supply for five years. Although this was not a military appointment it made him even more popular and powerful. Controlling the corn gave him the support of the people and gave him Imperium. He was authorised to administer the Mediterranean with fifteen legates.

“He was powerful without destroying freedom “Lucan.

In 55 BC, Pompey and Crassus were elected as consuls, against a background of bribery, civil unrest and electioneering violence. In 54 he was granted proconsular command of Spain for five years. He was given permission to govern the province with legates while he stayed in Rome.In 54 Publius Clodius was murdered. When his supporters burned down the Senate House in retaliation, the Senate appealed to Pompey. He reacted with ruthless efficiency. Cicero, defending the accused murderer Titus Annius Milo, was so shaken by a Forum seething with armed soldiers, he was unable to complete his defence.

Pompey

Once order was restored, the Senate and Cato avoided granting Pompey dictatorship – it recalled Sulla and his bloody proscriptions. Instead they made him sole Consul; this gave him sweeping, but limited, powers. A Dictator could not be lawfully punished for measures taken during his office. As sole Consul, Pompey would be answerable for his actions once out of office.Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome. As part of this he introduced laws that may have affected Caesar and allowed him to be punished for his consulship. Caesar was keen to avoid prosecution so wanted to gain the consulship for the next year. Pompey changed the law so that Caesar was no longer allowed to stand in absentia.

Finally, in 51 BC, Pompey was more forthright; Caesar would not be permitted to stand for Consul unless he relinquished his armies. This would, of course, leave Caesar defenceless before his enemiesIn 49 the senate appointed him to command against Caesar. He was given Proconsular imperium with control over all military forces in Italy

Pompey was ambitious, but he did not wish to rule Rome as a dictator. His aim at all times was to be the man to whom the senate and the Roman people turned every time there was a military or administrative crisis. He wanted to be the man of the hour, the republic’s hero, and in between these crises he expected to be given the highest possible respect (particular from the optimates), to which he believed his achievements entitled him.

“In fact Pompey, from the time when he first took part in public life, could not brook an equal at all. In undertakings in which he should have been merely the first he wished to be the only one. No one was ever more indifferent to other things or possessed a greater craving for glory; he knew no restraint in his quest for office, though he was moderate to a degree in the exercise of his powers. Entering upon each new office with the utmost eagerness, he would lay them aside with unconcern, and, although he consulted his own wishes in attaining what he desired, he yielded to the wishes of others in resigning it… “

Velleius Paterculus, Roman History, 2.33.

The Legacy of Sulla

Formation, activities and breakdown

of the Second

Triumvirate