Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Ore Geology Reviews

j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r .com/ locate /oregeorev

Geology, C–H–O–S–Pb isotope systematics and geochronology of the Yindongpo golddeposit, Tongbai Mountains, central China: Implication for ore genesis

Jing Zhang a, Yan-Jing Chen b,c,⁎, Franco Pirajno d, Jun Deng a, Hua-Yong Chen c,e, Chang-Ming Wang a

a State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, Chinab Key Laboratory of Orogen and Crust Evolution, Peking University, Beijing 100871, Chinac Key Laboratory for Mineralogy and Metallogeny, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, Chinad Centre for Exploration Targeting, School of Earth and Environment, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6008, Australiae CODES ARC Center of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, 7001, Australia

⁎ Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of OrogeUniversity, Beijing 100871, China.

E-mail address: yjchen@pku.edu.cn (Y.-J. Chen).

0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. Allhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.01.017

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 19 September 2012Received in revised form 10 January 2013Accepted 13 January 2013Available online 11 February 2013

Keywords:GeologyIsotope geochemistryOre genesisYindongpo gold depositTongbai Mountains

The Yindongpo gold deposit is located in the Weishancheng Au–Ag-dominated polymetallic ore belt inTongbai Mountains, central China. The ore bodies are stratabound within carbonaceous quartz–sericiteschists of the Neoproterozoic Waitoushan Group. The ore-forming process can be divided into three stages,represented by early barren quartz veins, middle polymetallic sulfide veinlets and late quartz–carbonatestockworks, with most ore minerals, such as pyrite, galena, native gold and electrum being formed in themiddle stage. The average δ18Owater values changed from 9.7‰ in the early stage, through 4.9‰ in the middlestage, to −5.9‰ in the late stage, with the δD values ranging between −65‰ and −84‰. The δ13CCO2

valuesof ore fluids are between −3.7‰ and +6.7‰, with an average of 1.1‰. The H–O–C isotope systematics indi-cate that the ore fluids forming the Yindongpo gold deposit were probably initially sourced from a process ofmetamorphic devolatilization, and with time gradually mixed with meteoric water. The δ34S values rangefrom −0.3‰ to +5.2‰, with peaks ranging from +1‰ to +4‰. Fourteen sulfide samples yield 206Pb/204Pb values of 16.990–17.216, 207Pb/204Pb of 15.419–15.612 and208Pb/204Pb of 38.251–38.861. Both S andPb isotope ratios are similar to those of the main lithologies of the Waitoushan Group, but differ fromother lithologic units and granitic batholiths in the Tongbai area, which suggest that the ore metals and fluidsoriginated from the Waitoushan Group. The available K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages indicate that the ore-formingprocess mainly took place in the period of 176–140 Ma, during the transition from collisional compression toextension and after the closure of the oceanic seaway in the Qinling Orogen. The Yindongpo gold deposit isinterpreted as a stratabound orogenic-style gold system formed during the transition phase from collisionalcompression to extension.The ore metals in the Waitoushan Group were extracted, transported and then accumulated in the carbona-ceous sericite schist layer. The carbonaceous sericite schist layer, especially at the junction of collapsed anti-cline axis and fault structures, became the most favorable locus for the ore bodies.

© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The concept of orogenic-type gold deposit was first introducedby Bohlke (1982) and then thoroughly addressed by Groves et al.(1998), Kerrich et al. (2000) and Goldfarb et al. (2001) to define a classof structurally controlled gold deposits formed by fluids, assumedto have originated mainly from syn- to post-orogenic metamorphicdevolatilization. Several structurally-controlled lode gold deposits inChina and elsewhere have been assigned to the class of orogenic gold de-posits (Chen et al., 2000a, 2000b, 2001, 2012a, 2012b; Chen et al., 2005a,2008; Crispini et al., 2011; Fan et al., 2003; Hart et al., 2002; Jiang et al.,

n and Crust Evolution, Peking

rights reserved.

2009a, 2009b; Kerrich et al., 2000; Mao et al., 2002; Rui et al., 2002;Zhao et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2002) and interpreted to have mainlyformed during continental collision tectonics. Consequently, a tectonicmodel for collisional orogeny, metallogeny and fluid flow (CMF model)was established to interpret the metallogenic mechanism and space–time patterns of various genetic types including orogenic gold lodes(Chen and Fu, 1992; Chen et al., 2004; Pirajno, 2009, 2012). Manystructurally-controlled Ag±Pb–Zn, Pb–Zn±Ag, Cu and Mo lodes havealso been interpreted as orogenic type (Chen, 2006), including theTieluping and Yindonggou Ag deposits in Henan province (Chen et al.,2004, 2005b; Sui et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2009); the Gaojiabaozi Ag de-posit in Liaoning province (Wang et al., 2008; Yu et al., 2009); theTiemurt Pb–Zn–Cu (Zhang et al., 2012), the Wulasigou Cu (Zheng et al.,2012) and Mengku Fe (Wan et al., 2012) deposits in Xinjiang; theLengshuibeigou, Xigou and Wangpingxigou Pb–Zn±Ag deposits in

344 J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

Henan province (Qi et al., 2007, 2009; Yao et al., 2008); the BainaimiaoCu±Au deposit in Inner Mongolia (Li et al., 2008); and the Zhifang Mo(Deng et al., 2008), the Dahu Mo–Au (Li et al., 2011a; Ni et al., 2008,2012) and the Longmendian Mo (Li et al., 2011b) deposits in Henanprovince. Recent advances have not only improved the understandingof ore genesis and exploration targeting in orogenic belts, but also intro-duced several new uncertainties. One of them is whether the orogenictype deposit can occur as stratabound style; if not, how to clarify the ge-netic type of deposits formed by metamorphic ore-forming fluids thatfocused in specific lithologies (e.g., carbonaceous beds, stratigraphic un-conformities); and if so, what are the geochemical signatures and metalsources of these stratabound orogenic-type deposits. Several gold de-posits, such as Muruntau in Uzbekistan, Kumtor in Kyrgyzstan, SukhoiLog in Russia, Homestake in USA (Bierlein and Maher, 2001; Goldfarbet al., 2001) and Sawayardun in Xinjiang (Chen et al., 2012a,b; Liuet al., 2007), Yangshan in Gansu (Yang et al., 2006, 2009) and Yindongpoin Henan (Chen, 1995; Zhou et al., 2002), show stratabound characteris-tics but also fit an orogenic-style of mineral system.

In this contribution we report the results of studies on theYindongpo gold deposit, which occurs in the Weishancheng ore beltin Tongbai Mountains, Henan province, central China (Zhang et al.,2011). The Yindongpo deposit contains 32,337 kg Au at an averagegrade of 7.61 g/t, 130.5 t Ag at an average grade of 38.41 g/t,and 26,792 t Pb at an average grade of 0.95% (Zhang Guan, pers.comm.). The deposit is characterized by a stratabound to stratiform ge-ometry, and has attracted the interest of geologists for its metallogenicstyle, ore genesis, spatial distribution and economic potential (Chen andFu, 1992; HBGMR, 1985; Hu et al., 1988; Luo, 1992; Xu et al., 1995;Zhang et al., 2009). However, an integrated study on the deposithas not been reported as yet. This paper summarizes the geology andH–O–C–S stable and radiogenic isotopic systematics of the Yindongpo

Fig. 1. Schematic map showing the geology of the Tongbai Mountains (Zhang et al., 2011). A)Tongbai–Dabie Mountains. C) Geology of the Tongbai Mountains and the location of the Yindofault; F1, Machaoying fault; F2, Luanchuan fault; F3, Waxuezi fault; F4, Zhu-Xia fault; F5, Tong

gold deposit, and discusses the sources of ore metals and fluids, aswell as the ore-forming mechanism(s).

2. Geological setting

2.1. Regional geology

The Tongbai Mountains are part of the Central China Orogen(Fig. 1A) that was formed during the Mesozoic collision between theYangtze and North China continents (Wu and Zheng, 2012), with theShang-Dan fault zone being interpreted as main suture (Fig. 1B). TheShang-Dan suture zone comprises ophiolite slices and Paleozoic–Triassic sediments, the latter containing radiolarian fossils (Du et al.,1997; Feng et al., 1994). North of the Shang-Dan suture is the northernQinling accretionary belt (Chen et al., 2009) that includes the QinlingMetamorphic Complex, the Erlangping and Kuanping terranes. Theseterranes are south of the Luanchuan fault, which is accepted as theboundary between the Qinling Orogen and the reactivated southernmargin of the North China Craton (Fig. 1B). The Qinling MetamorphicComplex comprises the Qinling Group (pre-Rodinian metamorphicbasement) and Neoproterozoic to Paleozoic granitoids which weremostly formed in magmatic-arc settings. The Erlangping terrane,which hosts the Weishancheng ore belt, is bound by the Zhu-Xia faultto south and the Waxuezi fault to north (Fig. 1B, C), and mainly com-prises Neoproterozoic–Early Paleozoic volcano-sedimentary succes-sions and associated intrusions that formed in a back-arc basin (Chenet al., 2004; Hu et al., 1988; Sun et al., 2002). In the Kuanping terrane,the Kuanping Group mainly consists of Mesoproterozoic muscovite–biotite (quartz) schists, metagabbros, basaltic rocks and ophiolite slices,and is interpreted as a Mesoproterozoic ophiolite complex accreted tothe southern margin of North China Craton (Gao et al., 1991; He et al.,

Location of the Qinling–Tongbai–Dabie Mountains. B) Tectonic framework of the Qinling–ngpo gold deposit. SDF, Shang-Dan suture zone; MLF, Mian-Lue suture zone. SBF, San-Bao-Shang fault; F6, Tan-Lu fault; F7, Duanzhuang (Duanzhuang–Duimenchong) fault.

345J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

2009; Hu et al., 1988; Luo, 1992; Zhao et al., 2004, 2009). The KuanpingGroup is locally covered by or interleaved with Neoproterozoic to EarlyPaleozoic metamorphic sediments, and thereby is interpreted to havedeveloped in Neoproterozoic or Early Paleozoic (Chen et al., 2009; andreference therein).

The Weishancheng Au–Ag-dominated polymetallic ore belt in thenorthern Tongbai Mountains, strikes WNW for about 20 km with awidth of ca. 1 km, and is located in the Erlangping terrane, north ofthe Zhu-Xia fault (F4 in Fig. 1C). Its eastern and western extensionsare covered by Wucheng and Nanyang Cenozoic basins, respectively.The ore belt contains the Yindongpo Au deposit, the Poshan Ag depositand the Yindongling Ag-dominated polymetallic deposit, as well as nu-merous small ore deposits or occurrences (Figs. 1 and 2).

2.2. Local geology

All the deposits and occurrences in the Weishancheng ore belt arehosted in low-grademetamorphic carbonaceous rocks of theWaitoushanGroup (Figs. 1 and 2), which has a total thickness of about 2500 m andconsists of mica schist, quartz–mica schist, plagioclase–amphibole schist,marble and minor quartzite.

The Waitoushan Group is divided into the Upper Waitoushan, Mid-dle Waitoushan and Lower Waitoushan Formations (abbreviated asUWF, MWF and LWF respectively in the following text and figures),each containing severalmembers (Fig. 3). The UWF ismainly composedof quartz–mica schist. The MWF comprises plagioclase–amphiboleschist and carbonaceous quartz–sericite schist. The LWF containsmore plagioclase–amphibole schist and marble. In the Tongbai

Fig. 2. Schematic map showing regional and ore geology of the Yindongpo Au deposit. A) GeologYindongpo orebodies, modified after HBGMR (1994). Abbreviations: XLZ, Xialaozhuang; GLZ,Nanxiaogou; ZhZ, Zhuzhuang.

Mountains, the Waitoushan Group is unique for its high abundance oforganic carbon, Au, Ag and other metallic elements (Chen and Fu,1992; HBGMR, 1994). The Yindongpo gold deposit is hosted in the sec-ond member of MWF (Fig. 3).

The axis of the Heqianzhuang anticline strikes 90°–120°, and issubparallel with the regional faults (Fig. 2). This anticline comprisesthe Waitoushan Group and Dalishu Formation of the ErlangpingGroup. The anticlinal axis dies to the east and the hinge plungestowards the west. The Waitoushan Group occurs along the axis ofthe anticline, whereas the Dalishu Formation forms its southernlimb. The orebodies are mainly sited in the hinge and/or along thetwo limbs of the anticline (Figs. 2B, 4, 5A, C).

The NW-trending faults are the dominant regional structures, andare crosscut by the ENE-trending, post-ore faults (Fig. 2A). The largestfault is labeled F1 and controls the Yindongpo deposit (Fig. 2B).

The anticline was intruded by granitic plutons, such as the TaoyuanPaleozoic granodiorite pluton and Liangwan monzogranite pluton. TheTaoyuan granodiorite yields biotite K–Ar ages of 390–357 Ma, withthemagma being sourced from the basement of northern Qinling accre-tionary belt (Zhang et al., 1999, 2000). It intruded the Erlangping Groupand Early Paleozoic quartz diorite then was intruded by granites, suchas the Liangwan pluton, of Mesozoic age (Yanshanian; see below)(Figs. 1 and 2). The Liangwanmonzogranite pluton intruded theDalishuFormation of the Erlangping Group (Figs. 1 and 2) at 128–111 Ma (bio-tite K–Ar, whole rock Rb–Sr isochrones) and originated from partialmelting of the Tongbai complex in southern Qinling terrane, implyingthat the lower crust of northern Tongbai Mountains (corresponding tonorthern Qinling accretionary belt) contains the components from the

y of the Weishancheng ore belt after Zhang et al. (2011). B) Geology and distribution of theGuolaozhuang; ZZ, Zhangzhuang; LJC, Luanjiachong; JZ, Jiangzhuang; WG, Weigou; NXG,

Fig. 3. Lithostratigraphy and ore metal concentrations of the Waitoushan Group.From HBGMR (1994).

346 J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

southern Qinling terrane, via a northward-directed continentalsubducting slab (Zhang et al., 1999, 2000, 2011).

3. Deposit geology

3.1. Characteristics of the orebodies

The Yindongpo gold deposit covers an area 2 km long and 0.6–0.9 kmwide (Fig. 2B). The distribution of the orebodies is strictly con-trolled by carbonaceous beds (graphite-rich quartz–sericite schists)and the Heqianzhuang anticline and fault systems (Figs. 2 and 4A).The orebodies are typically stratabound and lenticular in shape, oroccur as saddles and veins, and generally dip with the hosting strata(Fig. 2B). The orebodies in the northern limb of the anticline aresteeper than those in the southern limb (Fig. 2B). The contactsbetween orebodies and wallrocks are gradational and are determinedby a cut-off grade. The depth of orebodies increases from southeast tonorthwest. Most of orebodies are hosted in the second member ofMWF (Figs. 2B, 3 and 4), especially in the silicified quartz–sericiteschist and/or carbonaceous quartz–sericite schist.

The No. 0 exploration line divides the Yingdongpo deposit into east-ern andwestern sectors. The eastern sector contains 19 ore bodies, withNos.1, 2, 3 and 3–1 being thick, long and continuously mineralized(Figs. 2B and 4). In the western ore sector, Nos. 51, 52, 54 and 55 arethe most important orebodies, but are thinner, smaller and less contin-uously mineralized than those in the eastern sector (Figs. 2B and 4).

The No. 1 orebody is the largest, with Au reserves accounting for78% of the ore in eastern sector (HBGMR, 1994). It is 1600 m long,600 m deep and 8 m wide, with average grades of 6.23 g/t Au and50 g/t Ag, respectively. The ores were mined by open pitting andunderground operation.

3.2. Ore types and ore mineral assemblages

Altered tectonite breccia,fine vein-disseminated silicified schist, andsilicified (carbonaceous) quartz–sericite schist (Fig. 5), are all Au, Ag, Fe,Cu, Sb, As, Bi, Pb, Zn, Co and Sn enriched, but only Au attained sufficientore grades to be economically extracted. Ore minerals include sulfides,native elements, sulfates and oxides (Fig. 5), such as pyrite, chalcopy-rite, sphalerite, galena, native gold, electrum and argentite, and ac-counting for up to 10% of the ore by volume. Gangue minerals aremainly quartz, sericite and carbonate. Fine-grained graphite is com-monly present in the ores (Fig. 5D). Cataclastic textures and fissure-fillings are commonly observed. Stockworks, veinlets, disseminations,and banded ores are the main ore styles (Fig. 5).

3.3. Mineralization stages and wallrock alteration

On the basis of the paragenetic sequences of minerals (Fig. 6), orepetrography and crosscutting relationships, the ore-forming processcan be divided into three stages, namely, an early-stage barren quartzveins or replacement with or without pyrite (Fig. 5F), a middle stage

Fig. 4. Simplified exploration sections showing orebodies of the Yindongpo Au deposit.Modified after HBGMR (1994).

347J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

with polymetallic sulfides (Fig. 5G, H), and a late stage of quartz–carbonate veinlets (Fig. 5I). Abundant pyrite, galena, native gold,electrum and other ore minerals formed in the middle stage.

Three stage fluid–rock interactions resulted in wallrock alteration,mainly including silicification, sericitization, carbonation andchloritization. Silicification is the most prominent and in the earlystage it was pervasive. Locally, the wallrocks were completely re-placed by fine-grained quartz with minor sericite, forming sericite-bearing siliceous replacement and/or quartz veins. In this case, theprimary fabrics of wallrocks, such as schistosity and cleavage, cannotbe observed because they were obliterated by pervasive silicification.In general, ore grades increase with increasing intensity of hydrother-mal alteration.

4. Samples and analytical methods

Most samples in this study were collected from No.1 orebody atLevels of 155, 145, 115 and 75 (the digits represent the meters abovethe sea level). Sampling was carried out taking into account the fieldrecognition of lateral zonation and the three-stage evolution of themineralization. Rock samples collected from different strata werepulverized in an agate mill under 200 meshes.

Mineral aggregates were taken from the specimens using tweezersand then were crushed into grains with sizes of 0.1–0.5 mm. Afterpanning and filtration, clean mineral grains (quartz, calcite, and sul-fides) were handpicked under the binocular microscope. In order toeliminate other interlocking minerals (e.g. sulfides), quartz separateswere soaked in HNO3-solution at a temperature between 60 and 80 °Cfor 12 h and rinsed with deionized water. Then the separates weretreated 6 times using supersonic centrifugal clarifier and rinsed withdeionized water for a week. The last rinsed water was monitored byan atomic absorption spectrophotometer to confirm that no ions wereleft. The samples were dried in an oven before analysis. For sulfides,approximately 10 to 50 mg were first leached in acetone to removesurface contamination and then washed by distilled water and driedat 60 °C in the oven. The carbonate separates were only washed bydistilled water and dried at 60 °C in the oven.

The analytical methods were explained in detail by Ding (1988). Thecarbon isotopic composition of fluid inclusion was measured on CO2.Separated from fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite during thermaldecrepitation, the CO2 gas was collected and condensed using a liquidnitrogen-alcohol cooling trap (−70 °C) for analysis on a MAT-252 massspectrometry. Hydrogen isotope analysis of water contained in fluid in-clusions was collected in a similar manner. After collection the waterwas purified and then reduced using zinc to produce hydrogen whichwas analyzed on a MAT-253 mass spectrograph. To measure oxygen iso-tope ratios, quartz separates were reacted with BrF5 at 500–550 °C for atleast 5 h to generate O2 which was condensed using liquid nitrogen. Thecollected O2 was converted to CO2 at about 700 °C with platinum as cat-alyzer, and then the CO2 was analyzed on MAT-252 mass spectrometry.Sulfur isotope ratios in sulfides were analyzed on SO2 using Delta-Smass spectrometer.

For lead isotope ratios, approximately 10 to 50 mg of sulfide sampleswas first leached in acetone to remove surface contamination and thenwashed by distilledwater and dried at 60 °C in the oven.Washed sulfideswere dissolved in dilute mix solution of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid.Following ion exchange chemistry, the lead in the solution was loadedonto rhenium filaments using a phosphoric acid–silica gel emitter. Thelead isotopic compositions were measured on MAT-261 thermal ioniza-tion mass spectrometer with the standard sample NBS 981.

The H–O–C isotopes were measured in the State Key Laboratory ofLithosphere Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, ChineseAcademy of Science. Isotopic data were reported in per mil relativeto the Vienna SMOW standard for oxygen and hydrogen, and thePeedee Belemnite limestone (PDB) standard for carbon. Both sulfurand lead isotope analyses were finished at the Open Laboratory of Iso-topic Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. The Sul-fur isotopic compositions were reported relative to the Canyon DiabloTriolite (CDT) standard. Total uncertainties were estimated to be bet-ter than ±0.2‰ for δ18O, ±2.0‰ for δD, ±0.2‰ for δ13C, and ±0.2‰for δ34S at the σ level respectively. Estimated precision for the 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb ratios is about 0.1%, 0.09% and0.30% at the 2σ level respectively.

The K–Ar isochron age was analyzed by RGA-10 dating system inKey Laboratory of Orogen and Crust Evolution, Peking University

Fig. 5. Geology, ore type andmineral assemblages of the Yindongpo gold deposit. A)Heqianzhuang anticline axis shown at an openpit; B) ore-hosting fault developed along the boundarybetween carbonaceous schist and two-mica schist; C) north limb of theNo. 55 orebody (30°∠60°) and its foot- and hanging-walls; D) a small-size anticline in altered carbonaceous quartzschist; E) pyrite-bearing quartz veinlets in carbonaceous quartz schist; F) early-stage barren, milky quartz vein; G) pyrite-rich, high-grade ore; H) middle-stage ore rich in pyrite andgalena; I) late-stage quartz-carbonate vein; J) chalcopyrite armored with covellite; K) euhedral pyrite in quartz; L. pyrite with cataclastic texture; M) sphalerite with thin film of tinygalena; N) sphalerite containing chalcopyrite droplets, forming exsolution texture; O) early-stage pyrite replaced by galena.

348 J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

and the systematic error of K–Ar dating is estimated to be b4%. The40Ar/39Ar plateau age was analyzed at the Geochronology ResearchLaboratory of Queen's University, Ontario, Canada. 40Ar/39Ar analyseswere performed by standard laser step-heating techniques described

in detail by Clark et al. (1998). All data have been corrected for blanks,mass discrimination, and neutron-induced interferences. A plateauage is obtained when the apparent ages of at least three consecutivesteps, comprising a minimum of 55% of the 39Ark released, agree

Fig. 6. Paragenetic sequence for major minerals of the Yindongpo Au deposit.

349J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

within 2σ error with the integrated age of the plateau segment. Errorsand isotope-correlation diagrams represent the analytical precision at±2σ.

5. Isotope systematics

5.1. Hydrogen–oxygen isotopes

The δD and δ18O values for the Yindongpo ore deposit are listed inTable 1. The δ18Owater was calculated according to the δ18Omineral andtrapping temperature of fluid inclusion which was estimated accordingto homogenization temperature and its pressure correlation.

The fluids of early-stage quartz (sample 99H09) have an δ18Owater

value of about +10.6‰, higher than the maximum for magmaticwater, suggesting that the fluids were sourced from metamor-phic devolatilization rather than magmatism (Chen et al., 2005b,2008). It is common knowledge that magmatic fluids are generatedfrom the magma above the temperature of 573 °C (lowest eutecticpoint). The δ18Owater ratio of the initial magmatic fluids is not higherthan the δ18Oquartz of the equilibrated magmatic rocks, due to1000lnαquartz–water>0 when Tb724 °C. Hence the maximum δ18Owater

value of magmatic water was estimated to be 9‰ (Fig. 7). Duringcontinuous cooling and water–rock reaction processes, the δ18Owater

of magmatic water was reduced again along with the formation of hy-drothermalminerals such as quartz. If the fluids forming the Yindongpodeposit were initially magmatic and still kept δ18Owater=+10.6‰

when the temperature decreased to 414 °C, their initial δ18Owater

must be far higher than 10.6‰. Such δ18Owater value is obviouslyhigher than the estimatedmaximum formagmatic water, also higherthan the δ18O values of granitoids in Qinling–Tongbai Mountains,which range 6.1‰–10.4‰ (Chen et al., 2000b). Thus, the early stagefluid must be metamorphic in origin, instead of magmatic or meteoric,which is further supported by sulfur and lead isotope signatures,discussed ahead.

The δ18O values of the middle-stage fluids range from +3.1‰ to+5.5‰, averaging +4.9‰; whereas the δD values range from −68‰to−84‰, and average−75‰. Compared to the early-stage fluids, sam-ples of the middle-stage fluids clearly shift towards the meteoric waterline (Fig. 7), suggesting a significant input of meteoric water into thefluid system.

The δ18Owater values of late-stage quartz and calcite are between−8.1‰ and−3.7‰, averaging−5.9‰. Such low δ18Owater values strong-ly indicate that the fluidsweremainly sourced frommeteoric water. Con-sidering the δD ratios in fluids vary in a narrow range (−65 to−85‰) inearly and middle stages, we estimate that the late stage δDwater valuesare similar to the middle stage. These measured and estimated δDwater

values are close to that of Mesozoic meteoric water in Qinling Moun-tains (Fig. 7). Assuming that the average δDwater value of the late stageis same to that of the middle stage, the late stage samples are close toor shift towards the meteoric water line, especially to the domain ofMesozoic meteoric water in Qinling mountain range (Fig. 7), whichwas drawn by Zhang (1989) from a H–O isotope geochemical study ofnumerous meteoric hydrothermal deposits formed in Mesozoic. Thissuggests that the late stage fluids are of meteoric origin.

In conclusion, the average δ18OWater values changed from 9.7‰ inthe early stage, through 4.9‰ in the middle stage and −5.9‰ in thelate stage, with the δD values ranging between −60‰ and −90‰,strongly support that the ore fluids of the Yindongpo gold depositwere initially sourced from metamorphic devolatilization, and laterchanged to mainly meteoric water, from the early to the late stages ofthe mineralization process.

5.2. Carbon isotopes

The δ13CCO2values of the early- and middle-stage fluids forming the

Yindongpo Au deposit widely vary between −3.7‰ and +6.7‰, withan average of 1.1‰ (Table 1). These values are higher than those oforganic matter (ca. −27‰), atmospheric CO2 (−7 to −11‰; Hoefs,2004), freshwater carbonate (−9 to −20‰: Hoefs, 2004), igneousrocks (−3 to −30‰: Hoefs, 2004; Zheng, 1999), continental crust(−7‰: Faure, 1986) and the mantle (−5 to −7‰: Hoefs, 2004);and therefore, the CO2 in the fluids forming the Yindongpo mineralsystem cannot independently have been supplied by any one or amixture of the above-mentioned reservoirs. The marine carbonate,which is the carbon reservoir with highest δ13C value (ca. 0.5‰;Schidlowski, 1998), must be considered as the source of CO2 in theore fluids, at least as a necessary end-member, considering thatreleased CO2 via decarbonation could have higher δ13C than theresidue carbonates (Jiang et al., 2004; Tang et al., 2011, in press).The δ13C values of the carbonates in Waitoushan Group range from+1.9‰ to +2.9‰ (Table 1), suggesting that they most likely providedCO2 (with the highest δ13C value of 6.7‰) for the Yindongpo orefluid-system via metamorphic de-carbonation.

The δ13C values of calcite in late-stage veins at Yindongpo depositrange from −2.4‰ to −0.6‰ (Table 1), and correspond to theδ13CCO2

values of−2.8‰ to−1.0‰ calculated using the carbon isotopefractionation equation of for calcite–CO2 system (Chacko et al., 1991).The calculated δ13CCO2

values are lower than the δ13CCO2values of

ore-forming fluids in early and middle stages, suggesting that the fluidsystemwasmixedwith or replaced bymeteoricwater,which efficientlyreduced the δ13C value.

Table 1δD, δ18O and δ13C values of the Yindongpo deposit (‰).

Samplea Mineral Stage δ18Omineral δ18Owaterb δDwater δ13Ccalcite δ13CCO2

T (°C)c

99H09 Quartz E 14.4 10.6 −65 −2.1 41499H41 Quartz E 12.5 8.7 414

Average E 13.5 9.7 −65 −2.199H11 Quartz M 12.4 5.4 −68 6.7 29799H18 Quartz M 11.7 4.7 −74 −3.7 29799H34 Quartz M 12.4 5.4 −73 6.7 29799H35 Quartz M 12.3 5.3 −71 0.2 29799H40 Quartz M 12.5 5.5 −79 0.1 29799H36 Quartz M 10.1 3.1 −84 −1.9 29799H37 Quartz M 12.5 5.5 −80 2.8 29799H31 Quartz M 11.1 4.1 −73 2.7 29799H27 Quartz M 11.8 4.8 −71 −0.8 297

Average M 11.9 4.9 −75 1.4* Quartz L 7.4 −3.1 220* Calcite L 1.6 −8.5 −0.9 −1.3# 190* Calcite L 6.0 −4.1 −2.4 −2.8# 190* Calcite L 2.3 −7.8 −0.6 −1.0# 190

Average L −5.9 −1.3 −1.7#

* marble 18.4 1.9* Marble 19.1 2.0* Marble 19.2 1.9YDL-22 Marble 19.1 2.1YDL-23 Marble 19.5 2.9YDL-25 Marble 20.6 2.8

Average 19.5 2.3

The δ13CCO2ratios marked with # were calculated using 1000lnαcalcite–CO2

=−0.388×109/T3+5.538×106/T2−11.346×103/T+2.962 (Chacko et al., 1991).a The samples marked with * are cited from Chen and Fu (1992), and the others are collected by the authors.b The δ18Owater values were calculated according to 1000lnαquartz–water=3.38×106 T−2−3.40 (Clayton et al., 1972) and 1000lnαcalcite–water=2.78×106 T−2−2.89 (Zhang, 1989).c The temperatures used in δ18Owater calculation were modified according to homogenization pressure and temperature of fluid inclusions (Zhang, 2004).

350 J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

Again, this leads us to conclude that the fluids forming theYindongpo gold deposit were initially derived from metamorphicdevolatilization of the Waitoushan Group, then mixed with, and finallydominated by the meteoric water.

5.3. Sulfur isotopes

Chen and Fu (1992) first reported the sulfur isotope data obtainedfor the Yindongpodeposit. They found that sixteen δ34S analyses for sul-fides from the Waitoushan Group show wide variations from−25.4‰to 6.8‰, but cluster between 2 and 4‰ (Fig. 8B); while 35 δ34S valuesof sulfides from the ores concentrate in a range of −0.3 to 5.2‰(Fig. 8A), overlapping the cluster of the ore-hosting rocks. Theysuggested that the ore-forming sulfur was possibly sourced from the

Fig. 7. δD-δ18O diagram for ore-fluid of the Yindongpo Au deposits. The base diagram iscited from Taylor (1974), and the domain of Mesozoic meteoric water in East Qinlingarea is from Zhang (1989).

ore-hosting lithologies within theWaitoushan Group, and was homog-enized during hydrothermal processes.

In this study we provide further fifteen δ34S values of sulfide sam-ples from the ores, which fall in a narrow range of 1.3–3.1‰ (Table 2).Integrating the δ34S data obtained from previous studies with ourdata, it is clear that the δ34S ratios of sulfides from the ores peakbetween 2‰ and 4‰, comparing well with the peak in δ34S histogramfor the Waitoushan Group (Fig. 8). Although the δ34S variation of 2‰and 4‰ falls within the range of magmatic sulfur, considering the

Fig. 8. Histogram of δ34S for the Yindongpo Au deposit and the Waitoushan Group.Panel B and the data in panel A are from Chen and Fu (1992), but not shown in Table 2.

Fig. 9. Lead isotope pattern for the Yindongpo Au deposit. Note that the different linesenclose present Pb isotope ranges for the different strata and granitoids in the Tongbairegion. The lead isotopic data of strata and plutons are from Zhang et al. (2011).

351J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

context of other isotope systematic herein presented, we suggest thatthe afore-mentioned values are best explained as due to isotope ho-mogenization during the ore-forming hydrothermal processes.

5.4. Lead isotopes

Lead isotope analyses of sulfides from the Yindongpo gold depositare presented in Table 2. Fourteen samples yield 206Pb/204Pb values of16.990–17.216, 207Pb/204Pb of 15.419–15.612 and208Pb/204Pb of38.251–38.861, respectively. Holistically, the lead isotope compositionsof sulfides are less variable, and poor in U–radiogenic Pb, but rich in Th–radiogenic Pb.

All the sulfides of the Yindongpo deposit have narrow ranges of206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb ratios and coincident μ values (9.31–9.69)when compared to different rock types and granitoids in the Tongbairegion. In the 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb plot (Fig. 9A), ore samplesshow an approximate linear distribution.

The 208Pb/204Pb ratios of sulfides are relatively variable (Fig. 9B),implying that the content of Th–radiogenic Pb (208Pb) is changeable,caused by a somewhat uneven and high content of Th (compared toU). The Th/U ratios of sulfides change from 4.60 to 4.87 (Table 2), rela-tively rich in Th-radiogenic Pb, and analogous to those of low-grademetamorphic rocks (Zhu, 1998), but different from those of chemicalsediments, granites or high-grade metamorphic rocks. This featurecoincides, in both lithology and geochemistry, with rocks of theWaitoushan Group, which mainly consists of sericite schists andquartz–sericite schists, with Th/U values of 2.19–11.72, clustering in3–8 (Zhang et al., 2011).

On the 207Pb/204Pb–206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb–207Pb/204Pbplots (Fig. 9), the sulfides from the ores are distributed in a domainquite different from the lithologic or tectonostratigraphic units suchas Erlangping Group, Qinling Group, Xinyang Group, Tongbai Com-plex and Taoyuan granite, but close to or overlapped by theWaitoushan Group. The Pb-isotope compositions of the Tongbaicomplex and the Taoyuan granite are observably different fromthose of these sulfides, indicating that they could not be the mainsource of ore-forming materials. Hence, the ore-forming lead mightbe mainly sourced from the Waitoushan Group.

5.5. Isotope dating

The mineralization time of the Yindongpo deposit has been debatedbetween mid-Paleozoic (Jiang et al., 2009a; Luo, 1992) and Mesozoic(Chen and Fu, 1992; Mao et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2011), due to theshortage of robust isotope ages. To constrain the age of the deposit,

Table 2Sulfur and lead isotope composition of sulfides from the Yindongpo Au deposit.

Orebody Sample Mineral δ34S(‰)

206Pb/204Pb

207Pb/204Pb

208Pb/204Pb

μ ω Th/U

1# 99H05 Galena 1.3 16.991 15.436 38.419 9.36 46.01 4.761# 99H01 Pyrite 2.6 17.150 15.578 38.809 9.64 48.48 4.871# 99H06 Pyrite 2.3 17.097 15.446 38.318 9.36 44.73 4.621# 99H10 Pyrite 2.0 17.095 15.439 38.287 9.35 44.50 4.611# 99H11 Pyrite 1.6 17.101 15.435 38.280 9.34 44.37 4.603# 99H20 Pyrite 2.6 17.106 15.474 38.422 9.42 45.53 4.683# 99H29 Pyrite 1.8 17.159 15.466 38.362 9.39 44.69 4.603# 99H41 Pyrite 3.1 17.054 15.423 38.282 9.32 44.61 4.633# 99H27 Pyrite 3.151# 99H15 Pyrite 2.2 17.216 15.612 38.861 9.69 48.62 4.8554# 99H35 Pyrite 2.6 17.138 15.509 38.551 9.49 46.36 4.7354# 99H36 Pyrite 2.3 17.067 15.442 38.350 9.36 45.08 4.6654# 99H37 Pyrite 2.5 17.045 15.421 38.294 9.32 44.72 4.6456# 99H31 Pyrite 2.7 17.061 15.417 38.251 9.31 44.34 4.6156# 99H34 Pyrite 2.5 17.072 15.445 38.355 9.37 45.11 4.66

Notes: μ=238U/204Pb. ω=232Th/204Pb.

we conductedK–Ar and step heating 40Ar/39Ar dating onmica separatesfrom both the host rocks and the ores (Tables 3 & 4; Fig. 10).

Muscovite separates from host-rock samples TB02 and TB06 yieldK–Ar ages of 370.9±11.0 Ma and 331.3±6.1 Ma, respectively; andsample TB06 also yields a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 361.3±7.1 Ma(with 80.3% Ar release; Fig. 10A). These ages are slightly younger thanthe reported sericite 40Ar/39Ar ages of 373.8±3.2 Ma and 373±13Ma dated for the “quartz veins” intruding the host-rocks at theYindongpo gold deposit (Jiang et al., 2009a), but coincide with the bio-tite K–Ar ages of 390–357 Ma dated for the granodiorite intrusions suchas Taoyuan. This supports the interpretation that theWaitoushanGroupwas deformed and metamorphosed, and later intruded by the Taiyuangranodiorite in the Devonian.

Ore samples 99H23 and 99H32 yield sericite K–Ar ages of 119.5±3.6 Ma and 171.8±4.9 Ma, respectively. Step heating 40Ar/39Ar analysisof sericite from sample 99H32 shows a stair-shaped spectrum(Table 4; Fig. 10B), yielding individual step 40Ar/39Ar ages rangingfrom 101.17±13.98 Ma to 286.40±2.00 Ma. Considering that thesericite crystallization occurred during a multistage, cooling, low-temperature and long-duration hydrothermal processes, we proposethat the stair-shaped spectrum recorded the formation of the sericite,and infer that: (1) the 39Ar loss was caused by later hydrothermalprocess; (2) the age of last heating step (286.40±2.00 Ma) reflectedmaximum age of the onset crystallization; (3) multistage mineraliza-tion probably occurred at the Yindongpo deposit, but eventuallyended no later than 101.17±13.98 Ma; and (4) three central consecutivesteps, comprising >40% of the 39Ark released (Table 4), give 40Ar/39Arages of 139.13±1.57 Ma, 151.03±2.45 Ma and 176.49±2.25 Ma,respectively, indicating that the sericite mainly crystallized during

Table 3K–Ar ages for ore and host rock in the Yindongpo Au deposit.

Sample Geology Mineral K% 40Ar*% 40Ar/38Ar 38Ar/36Ar Age (Ma)

99H23 Ore Sericite 2.98 86.62 0.6236±0.0168 3024.0±16.6 119.5±3.699H32 Ore Sericite 5.73 95.91 1.6341±0.0473 3646.7±41.3 171.8±4.9TB02 Host rock Muscovite 9.45 97.18 5.9288±0.1895 1624.6±47.8 370.9±11.0TB06 Host rock Muscovite 8.9 97.44 5.1597±0.1006 2013.2±35.3 331.3±6.1

352 J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

176–140 Ma. Integrating the K–Ar age of 171.8±4.9 Ma and the mostconcentrated 40Ar/39Ar ages of 176–140 Ma, as well as the geologicalcontext of the deposit, we conclude that the Yindongpo gold depositwas mainly formed in an age bracket of 176–140 Ma, and thermallydisturbed by the emplacement of the Liangwan monzogranite aged of128–111 Ma.

6. Discussion

6.1. Metallogenic processes and tectonic setting

The lead isotope compositions suggest that the ore-formingmaterials of the Yindongpo gold deposit were mainly sourced fromtheWaitoushan Group. Furthermore, studies of C–H–O isotope system-atics confirmed that ore-forming fluids generated by metamorphicdevolatilization of the Waitoushan Group, and that the fluids mixedwith circulating meteoric water in the middle and late metallogenicstages. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that both ore-formingmetals and fluids were sourced from theWaitoushan Group. To under-stand the metallogenic mechanism, we must clarify the ore-formingtectonic setting.

In the past twenty years, the Yanshanian tectono-thermal event(190–90 Ma) in the Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt has been debated asresulting from: (1) compression-to-extension transition stage of anintercontinental collision regime (e.g. Chen and Fu, 1992; Chen et al.,2004; Li et al., 2013); (2) post-collisional or intracontinental extensionand rifting (e.g. Lu et al., 1999; Zhang et al., 2001); and (3) far-fieldtectonic processes, linked to subduction of the Izanagi plate (Mao et al.2002); or a possible combination of 2 and 3, or 1 and 3 (Chen et al.,2007a; Pirajno, 2012).

In this paper we support the first viewpoint based on followingevidence: (1) Triassic ophiolite belt and island arc volcanic rockshave been recognized along and north to the Mianxian–Lueyang

Table 4Mica 40Ar/39Ar analyses of the host rocks at the Yindongpo Au deposit.

Step Power 36Ar/40Ar 39Ar/40Ar

Muscovite, TB061 0.75> 0.002425±0.005387 0.099924±0.0107282 1.25 0.000368±0.000419 0.078728±0.0020863 2.00> 0.000135±0.000100 0.050370±0.0007294 2.50> 0.000487±0.000273 0.042885±0.0011925 3.00 0.000136±0.000059 0.037281±0.0005076 b4.00 0.000053±0.000034 0.031391±0.0039727 b5.00 0.000035±0.000031 0.033331±0.0003768 b6.00 0.000024±0.000041 0.032707±0.0004009 b7.00 0.000058±0.000047 0.032513±0.00043710 b7.00 0.000015±0.000011 0.032425±0.000184

Sericite, 99H321 0.75 0.000926±0.000345 0.091513±0.0018822 1.50 0.000435±0.000185 0.090681±0.0015003 3.00 0.000086±0.000031 0.088332±0.0006024 4.00> 0.000017±0.000050 0.082799±0.0006725 5.00 0.000066±0.000037 0.069316±0.0005196 6.00> 0.000001±0.000023 0.058502±0.0004897 7.00> 0.000026±0.000015 0.049404±0.0002798 7.00> 0.000020±0.000015 0.041988±0.000251

Errors were estimated at 2σ.

fault, respectively (Lin et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2001), indicatingthat the final closure of the oceanic basin could not have been earlierthan Late Triassic (Li, 2012; Mao et al., 2013); (2) Inboard orogenicA-type subduction (continental), deformation (Hu et al., 1988; Xu etal., 1986) and foreland fold-and-thrust occurred since the end Triassicor later (Li et al., 1999), in which the Late Triassic flysch units wereinvolved (Yang et al., 2006); (3) Two Indosinian (220–200 Ma) gran-ite belts occur in the Qinling Orogen, i.e. a southern belt consisting ofhigh-Mg calc-alkaline granitoids south of the Shang-Dan fault and anorthern belt comprising alkaline granitoids (Chen, 2010; Dong etal., 2012; Hu et al., 2012; Jiang et al., 2010; Li, 2012; Ni et al., 2012;Xu et al., 2009), respectively; (4) Collision-type granite magmatismoccurred during 160–126 Ma, with peak age of 140 Ma (Chen andFu, 1992; Li, 2012; Zhao et al., 2012); (5) Mesozoic–Cenozoic sedi-mentary rocks show that the Qinling Mountains were uplifted totheir highest level in the Jurassic, followed by the formation of Creta-ceous basins with red beds and alkali basaltic rocks (Chen and Fu,1992; Du et al., 1997); (6) Paleo-magnetic studies suggest that Yang-tze and North China plates were not joined before the end of Triassic(Lin et al., 1985), and that their relative positions have not changedsince mid-Cretaceous, suggesting that crustal shortening, detachmentand landmass rotation occurred in the period of Jurassic–Early Creta-ceous (Zhu et al., 1998); (7) Collisional P–T–t paths show that thecollisional regime, metallogenesis and fluid flow (CMF) should occurin the decompression–geotherm increasing stage (Chen et al., 2004;Pirajno, 2009), which in the Qinling orogeny correspond to the periodof from Late Jurassic to Cretaceous (Chen et al., 2004); and (8) Rapiduplift of the orogenic belt ended at about 130 Ma (Chen et al., 2009).

The K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar isotope ages constrain the formation time ofthe Yindongpo gold deposit in the bracket of 176–140 Ma (Tables 3 and4). This shows that metallogenesis occurred in the transition from com-pression to extension within an intercontinental collision tectonic set-ting. Integrating the various lines of evidence from geological setting,

40Atm% 39Ar% 40Ar*/39K Age

71.44 0.35 2.837±15.950 36.81±204.8610.86 2.53 11.319±1.604 142.59±19.434.00 6.79 19.058±0.648 233.98±7.46

14.38 2.04 19.960±1.970 244.33±22.564.01 8.01 25.748±0.585 309.40±6.461.56 12.93 31.360±.997 370.33±42.671.02 14.42 29.696±0.438 352.48±4.720.72 12.20 30.355±0.526 359.57±5.651.70 9.58 30.233±0.592 358.26±6.360.43 31.14 30.706±0.205 363.34±2.20

27.28 1.70 7.938±1.128 101.17±13.9812.82 3.54 9.610±0.624 121.77±7.652.53 19.30 11.034±0.129 139.13±1.570.49 11.67 12.018±0.203 151.03±2.451.96 11.89 14.144±0.190 176.49±2.250.02 15.07 17.090±0.185 211.17±2.160.77 20.64 20.084±0.148 245.75±1.690.58 16.18 23.678±0.179 286.40±2.00

Fig. 10. 40Ar/39Ar age spectrum of muscovite and sericite from the Yindongpo deposit.

353J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

lithology, magmatism, metamorphism, ore-forming fluids, the ore-forming mechanisms and processes of the Yindongpo gold deposit canbe reasonably deduced (Fig. 11). During the continent–continent colli-sion of Yangtze and North China Blocks in the Mesozoic, the southernQinling terrane subducted northward beneath the northern Qinling ter-ranes along the Shang-Dan geo-suture belt, marked by a mélange zonecomposed of the Xinyang Group and Qinling Group (Fig. 1). In terms ofthe CMF model (for details see Chen et al., 2004; Pirajno, 2009), the un-derthrust slabs (e.g. Qinling Group) were metamorphosed, devolatilized

Fig. 11. Tectonic–metallogenic model for

and even partially melted, thus providing ore-fluids for ore-forming sys-tems of the Weishancheng ore belt including the Yindongpo deposit.During migration, circulation and interaction with country rocks, fluidscontinuously extracted ore-forming elements from the WaitoushanGroup, and then transported them into loci favorable for ore deposition(e.g., the Heqianzhuang anticline or intra-layer fault zone along carbona-ceous strata). In this process, the sulfides inherited the isotopic charac-teristics of the Waitoushan Group, especially the lead isotopic signatureof low 206Pb/204Pb ratio and high 208Pb/204Pb ratio. Therefore, early-stage ore-fluids originated from metamorphic dehydration. When thetectonic setting changed from compression to extension, ductile struc-tures expanded and became brittle and open thereby becomingmore fa-vorable for the circulation of fluids and for ore metal precipitation. Theopening of these structures also facilitated phase separation or fluid boil-ing andmixingwith circulatingmeteoricwater, resulting in rapid precip-itation of ore metals. In this way, the ore-forming fluid system changedfrom metamorphic to meteoric. In support of the above interpretation,the Liangwan granite pluton north of the Weishancheng ore belt(Figs. 1 and 2) was shown to have originated from the partial meltingof the northward A-type subducted slab, i.e. of the basement of southernQinling orogenic belt (Zhang et al., 1999, 2000).

6.2. Ore genetic type

The above discussion makes it clear that the Yindongpo gold depositwas formed in aMesozoic intercontinental collision setting. Further com-parisons of the geological and geochemical characteristics show that theYindongpo gold deposit has features similar to those of typicalorogenic-type deposit (Chen, 2006; Groves et al., 1998; Kerrich et al.,2000 and references therein): (1) The metallogenesis occurred in thetransition period from collisional compression to extension after thepeak period of continental collision orogenesis of the Qinling–TongbaiMountains, i.e., the metallogenic system formed a little later than oro-genesis. (2) Study of geological characteristics of the ore belt indicatesthat widespread and intensive silicification has a close relationshipwith mineralization, mostly by the way of metasomatism. Furthermore,silicification increased the SiO2 content in wallrocks, changed their com-position, structure and texture, and finally formed the fine-grainedquartz vein-like replacement rocks. In this case, the boundary betweenorebody and wallrocks is not well defined. (3) The ore-forming fluid ofthe Yindongpo Au deposit is of low salinity (b10 wt.% NaCl eqv.) andCO2-rich (4–15 mol%) (Zhang et al., 2009), which is characteristic oforogenic-type deposits (Chen et al., 2007b).

TheWeishancheng ore belt (consisting of the Yindongpo, Poshan,Yindongling deposit and small occurrences) is recognized as a

the Weishancheng Au–Ag ore belt.

354 J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

stratabound Au–Ag belt (Chen and Fu, 1992; Chu et al., 2000; Wuet al., 1994). Although the C–S–Pb isotopic data may also relate to astratabound/syngenetic ore system formed in an extensional setting,the following evidence does argue for an orogenic type deposit:(1) The ore bodies are controlled by the Waitoushan Group in theHeqianzhuang anticline and bedded, tabular, saddle and lens-likeshapes, and the ores are dominated by altered tectonites; (2) TheWaitoushan Group has higher contents of Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu and othermetallic elements than the Clark values of other lithologies in the studiedarea (Chen and Fu, 1992; Fig. 3), providing the necessary ore-formingmaterials to themetallogenic systems; (3) The C–S–Pb isotopic data indi-cate that the ore-forming materials were mainly sourced from theWaitoushan Group, and the H–O–C isotopic studies show that ore-forming fluids were mostly originated from metamorphic water in theearly ore forming stage, but weremixedwithmeteoric water in themid-dle stage and becamemeteoricwater in the late stage, due to the openingof structures that allowed further incursion of hydrothermal fluids; and(4) Ore bodies and their foot- and hanging-walls are rich in organic car-bon, suggesting that carbonaceous layers acted as sealing units to preventthe upward rise of fluids, allowing deeper downward circulating ofmete-oric water, and thus to gather fluid and ore-metals. At the same time, thecarbonaceous rocks can also act as reducing agent and cause golddeposition.

We conclude that the Yindongpo gold deposit in the Weishanchengore belt is part of an orogenic-typemineral system, but with strataboundcharacteristics.

7. Conclusions

The Yindongpo gold deposit in Tongbai Mountains is hosted in theNeoproterozoic Waitoushan Group and located along the axis ofHeqianzhuang anticline. The orebodies are concordant with the hoststrata and are stratiform, saddle or lens in shape, and as such arestratabound.

H–O–C isotopic systematics indicate that the ore-forming fluid ofthe early and middle stages mainly originated from the metamorphicdehydration of carbonate-schist lithological association, and at a latestage was mixed with abundant meteoric water, because the fluid sys-tem became more open. The C–S–Pb isotope geochemistry indicatesthat the ore-forming materials were sourced from the WaitoushanGroup. The K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology suggests that the ore-forming process mainly took place around 176–140 Ma, during thetransition period from collisional compression to extension after an in-tensive activity of continent–continent collision orogenesis.

We propose that the Yindongpo deposit is an orogenic-type goldmetallogenic system with stratabound characteristics. It developed dur-ing the continental collision between Yangtze and North China plates inMesozoic, and the metamorphism and dehydration of underthrust slabsstarted the ore-forming fluid system. The intensive rock–water interac-tion resulted in the ore-forming materials in Waitoushan Group, whichwere extracted, transferred and accumulated in the carbonaceoussericite schist layer. Thus, the carbonaceous sericite schist layer, especial-ly at the composite place of anticline axis and fault structures, becamethe most favorable locus for ore bodies.

Acknowledgments

The study is jointly granted by the 973-program (No.2006CB403500), the National Natural Science Foundation ofChina (Nos. 40730421 and 41030423) and the Fundamental Re-search Funds for the Central Universities (2010ZD11). Dr. NiZhiyong, Senior Engineers Zhang Guan helped field investigationand sampling. Prof. Shaoyong Jiang and an anonymous reviewerare thanked for their careful reviewing and constructive sugges-tions which greatly improved the manuscript.

References

Bierlein, F.P., Maher, S., 2001. Orogenic disseminated gold in Phanerozoic foldbelts — examples from Victoria, Australia and elsewhere. Ore Geol. Rev. 18,113–148.

Bohlke, J.K., 1982. Orogenic (metamorphic-hosted) gold–quartz veins. U.S. GeologicalSurvey, Open-file Rep., 795, pp. 70–76.

Chacko, T., Mayeda, T.K., Clayton, R.N., Goldsmith, J.R., 1991. Oxygen and carbon isotopefractionations between CO2 and calcite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 2867–2882.

Chen, Y.J., 1995. Metallogenesis as well as geological and geochemical characteristics ofYindongpo gold deposit as an example of carbonaceous stratabound type. J. ChangchunUniv. Earth Sci. 25, 61–67 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Chen, Y.J., 2006. Orogenic-type deposits and their metallogenic model and explorationpotential. Geol. China 33, 1181–1196 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Chen, Y.J., 2010. Indosinian tectonic setting, magmatism and metallogenesis in QinlingOrogen, central China. Geol. China 37, 854–865 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Chen, Y.J., Fu, S.G., 1992. Gold Mineralization in West Henan, China. SeismologicalPress, Beijing, pp. 1–234 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Chen, H.Y., Bao, J.X., Zhang, Z.J., Liu, Y.L., Ni, P., Ling, H.F., 2000a. Isotope indication tosource of ore materials and fluids of the Wangfeng gold deposit in Tianshan: acase study of metallogenesis during collisional orogenesis. Sci. China Ser. D EarthSci. 43, 156–166 (sup.).

Chen, Y.J., Li, C., Zhang, J., Li, Z., Wang, H.H., 2000b. Sr and O isotopic characteristics ofporphyries in the Qinling molybdenum deposit belt and their implication to genet-ic mechanism and type. Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci. 43, 82–94 (Supp.).

Chen, H.Y., Chen, Y.J., Liu, Y.L., 2001. Metallogenesis of the Ertix gold belt, Xinjiang andits relationship to Central Asia-type orogenesis. Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci. 44,245–255.

Chen, Y.J., Pirajno, F., Sui, Y.H., 2004. Isotope geochemistry of the Tieluping silver de-posit, Henan, China: a case study of orogenic silver deposits and related tectonicsetting. Miner. Deposita 39, 560–575.

Chen, Y.J., Pirajno, F., Qi, J.P., 2005a. Origin of gold metallogeny and sources of ore-forming fluids, in the Jiaodong province, eastern China. Int. Geol. Rev. 47, 530–549.

Chen, Y.J., Pirajno, F., Sui, Y.H., 2005b. Geology and D–O–C isotope systematics of theTieluping silver deposit, Henan, China: implications for ore genesis. Acta Geol.Sin. 79, 106–119.

Chen, Y.J., Chen, H.Y., Zaw, K., Pirajno, F., Zhang, Z.J., 2007a. Geodynamic settings and tec-tonic model of skarn gold deposits in China: an overview. Ore Geol. Rev. 31, 139–169.

Chen, Y.J., Ni, P., Fan, H.R., Pirajno, F., Lai, Y., Su, W.C., Zhang, H., 2007b. Diagnostic fluidinclusions of different types of hydrothermal gold deposits. Acta Petrol. Sin. 23,2085–2108 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Chen, Y.J., Pirajno, F., Qi, J.P., 2008. The Shanggong gold deposit, eastern Qinling Orogen,China: isotope geochemistry and implications for ore genesis. J. Asian Earth Sci. 33,252–266.

Chen, Y.J., Zhai, M.G., Jiang, S.Y., 2009. Significant achievements and open issues instudy of orogenesis and metallogenesis surrounding the North China continent.Acta Petrol. Sin. 25, 2695–2726 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Chen, H.Y., Chen, Y.J., Baker, M.J., 2012a. Evolution of ore-forming fluids in theSawayaerdun gold deposit in the Southwestern Chinese Tianshan metallogenicbelt, Northwest China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 49, 131–144.

Chen, H.Y., Chen, Y.J., Baker, M.J., 2012b. Isotopic geochemistry of the Sawayaerdunorogenic-type gold deposit, Tianshan, northwest China: Implications for ore gene-sis and mineral exploration. Chem. Geol. 310–311, 1–11.

Chu, B.L., Shan, Z.H., Wang, G., 2000. Discussion on the characteristics and genesis ofYindongpo gold deposit, Henan. GoldDepos. 6, 32–37 (in Chinesewith English abstract).

Clark, A.H., Archibald, D.A., Lee, A.W., Farrar, E., Hodgson, C.J., 1998. Laser probe40Ar/39Ar ages of early- and late-stage alteration assemblages, Rosario porphyrycopper–molybdenum deposit, Collahuasi District, I Region, Chile. Econ. Geol. 93,326–337.

Clayton, R.N., O'Neil, J.L., Mayeda, T.K., 1972. Oxygen isotope exchange between quartzand water. J. Geophys. Res. B77, 3057–3067.

Crispini, L., Federico, L., Capponi, G., Talarico, F., 2011. The Dorn gold deposits in north-ern Victoria Land, Antarctica: structure, hydrothermal alteration, and implicationsfor Gondwana Pacific margin. Gondwana Res. 19, 128–140.

Deng, X.H., Li, W.B., Li, N., Mei, M., Zhang, Y., 2008. Fluid inclusion constraints on theorigin of the Zhifang Mo deposit, Songxian County, Henan province. Acta Geol.Sin. 24, 2133–2148 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Ding, T.P., 1988. Stable Isotope Studies on Several Typical Deposits in China. Beijing Sci-ence and Technology Publishing House, Beijing, pp. 1–71 (in Chinese).

Dong, Y.P., Liu, X.M., Zhang, G.W., Chen, Q., Zhang, X.N., Li, W., Yang, C., 2012. Triassicdiorites and granitoids in the Foping area: constraints on the conversion from sub-duction to collision in the Qinling orogen, China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 47, 123–142.

Du, Y.S., Feng, Q.L., Yin, H.F., Zhang, Z.H., Zeng, X.Y., 1997. The Late Hercynian–EarlyIndosinian Eastern Qinling–Dabie Sea. Sci. Geol. Sin. 32, 129–135 (in Chinesewith English abstract).

Fan, H.R., Xie, Y.H., Zhai, M.G., Jin, C.W., 2003. A three stage fluid flow model forXiaoqinling lode gold metallogenesis in the Henan and Shaanxi provinces, centralChina. Acta Petrol. Sin. 19, 260–266 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Faure, G., 1986. Principles of Isotope Geology, Second edition. John Wiley and Sons,New York, pp. 1–589.

Feng, Q.L., Du, Y.S., Zhang, Z.H., Zeng, X.Y., 1994. Early Triassic radiolarian fauna ofTongbai region in Henan and its geologic significance. Earth Sci. 19, 787–794 (inChinese with English abstract).

Gao, S., Zhang, B.R., Xie, Q.L., Guo, X.M., 1991. Proterozoic intracontinental rifting of theQinling Orogenic Belt: evidence from the geochemistry of sedimentary rocks. Chin.Sci. Bull. 36, 920–923.

355J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

Goldfarb, R.J., Groves, D.I., Cardoll, S., 2001. Orogenic gold and geologic time: a globalsynthesis. Ore Geol. Rev. 18, 1–75.

Groves, D.I., Goldfarb, R.J., Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann, S.G., Robert, F., 1998. Orogenicgold deposits: a proposed classification in the context of their crustal distributionand relationship to other gold deposit types. Ore Geol. Rev. 13, 7–27.

Hart, C.J.R., Goldfarb, R.J., Qiu, Y.M., Snee, L., Miller, L.D., Miller, M.L., 2002. Gold deposits ofthe northern margin of the North China Craton: multiple late Paleozoic–Mesozoicmineralizing events. Miner. Deposita 37, 326–351.

He, Y.H., Zhao, G.C., Sun, M., Xia, X.P., 2009. SHRIMP and LA-ICP-MS zircon geochronologyof the Xiong'er volcanic rocks: implications for the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic evolutionof the southern margin of the North China Craton. Precambrian Res. 168, 213–222.

Henan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (HBGMR), 1985. Detailed GeologicalInvestigation Report on Eastern Part of the Yindongpo Gold Deposit in TongbaiCounty, Henan Province, Xinyang. , pp. 1–206 (in Chinese).

Henan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (HBGMR), 1994. Detailed GeologicalInvestigation Report on Western Part of the Yindongpo Gold Deposit in TongbaiCounty, Henan Province, Xinyang. , pp. 1–198 (In Chinese).

Hoefs, J., 2004. Stable Isotope Geochemistry, 5th edition. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 1–201.Hu, S.X., Lin, Q.L., Chen, Z.M., 1988. Geology and Metallogeny of the Collision Belt Be-

tween the North and the South China Plates. Nanjing University Press, Nanjing,pp. 1–558 (in Chinese).

Hu, J., Jiang, S.Y., Zhao, H.X., Shao, Y., Zhang, Z.Z., Xiao, E., Wang, Y.Fen, Dai, B.Z., Li, H.Y.,2012. Geochemistry and petrogenesis of the Huashan granites and their implica-tions for the Mesozoic tectonic settings in the Xiaoqinling gold mineralizationbelt, NW China. J. Asian Eart Sci. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes. 2012.05.016.

Jiang, S.Y., Chen, C.X., Chen, Y.Q., Jiang, Y.H., Dai, B.Z., Ni, P., 2004. Geochemistry and geneticmodel for the giant magnesite deposits in the eastern Liaoning province, China. ActaPetrol. Sin. 20, 765–772 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Jiang, S.H., Nie, F.J., Fang, D.H., Liu, Y.F., Zhang, W.Y., Xu, D.Q., Zhang, Z.J., 2009a. Geo-chronology of major gold and silver deposits in Weishancheng area, Tongbai Coun-ty, Henan Province. Miner. Depos. 28, 63–72 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Jiang, S.Y., Dai, B.Z., Jiang, Y.H., Zhao, H.X., Hou, M.N., 2009b. Jiaodong and Xiaoqinling:two orogenic gold provinces formed in different tectonic settings. Acta Petrol. Sin.25 (11), 2727–2738 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Jiang, Y.H., Jin, G.D., Liao, S.Y., Zhou, Q., Zhao, P., 2010. Geochemical and Sr–Nd–Hfisotopic constraints on the origin of Late Triassic granitoids from the Qinlingorogen, central China: implications for a continental arc to continent–continentcollision. Lithos 117, 183–197.

Kerrich, R., Goldfarb, R.J., Groves, D.I., Garwin, S., Jia, Y., 2000. The characteristics, ori-gins and geodynamic settings of supergiant gold metallogenic provinces. Sci.China Ser. D Earth Sci., 43, pp. 1–68 (sup.).

Li, N., 2012. Process and mechanism of Yanshanian large-scale Mo accumulation in EastQinling. Ph.D. Thesis, Peking University, Beijing, 262 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Li, J.L., Sun, S., Hao, J., Chen, H.H., Hou, Q.L., Xiao, W.J., Wu, J.M., 1999. Time limit of col-lision event of collision orogens. Acta Petrol. Sin. 15, 315–320 (in Chinese with En-glish abstract).

Li, W.B., Chen, Y.J., Lai, Y., Ji, J.Q., 2008. Metallogenic time and tectonic setting of theBainaimiao Cu–Au deposit, Inner Mongolia. Acta Petrol. Sin. 24, 890–898 (in Chinesewith English abstract).

Li, N., Chen, Y.J., Fletcher, I.R., Zeng, Q.T., 2011a. Triassic mineralization with Cretaceousoverprint in the Dahu Au–Mo deposit, Xiaoqinling gold province: constraints fromSHRIMP monazite U–Th–Pb geochronology. Gondwana Res. 20, 543–552.

Li, N., Chen, Y.J., Santosh, M., Yao, J.M., Sun, Y.L., Li, J., 2011b. The 1.85 Ga Mo mineral-ization in the Xiong'er Terrane, China: implications for metallogeny associatedwith assembly of the Columbia supercontinent. Precambrian Res. 186, 220–232.

Li, Y., Li, N., Yang, Y.F., Wang, P., Mei, M., Zhang, J., Chen, H.J., Chen, Y.J., 2013. Geologicalfeatures and geodynamic settings of the Mo deposits in the north segment ofthe Dabie Mountains. Acta Petrol. Sin. 29 (1), 95–106 (in Chinese with Englishabstract).

Lin, J.L., Fuller, M., Zhang, W.Y., 1985. Preliminary Phanerozoic polar wander paths forthe North and South China Blocks. Nature 313, 444–449.

Lin, Z.W., Qin, Y., Zhou, Z.J., Yue, S.W., Zeng, Q.T., Wang, L.X., 2013. Zircon U–Pb datingand geochemistry of the volcanic rocks at Huachanggou area, MianLue suture,South Qinling. Acta Petrol. Sin. 29, 83–94 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Liu, J.J., Zheng, M.H., Nigel, C., Long, X.R., Deng, J., Zhai, Y.S., 2007. Geological and geo-chemical characteristics of the Sawaya'erdun gold deposit, southwestern ChineseTianshan Mountains. Ore Geol. Rev. 32, 125–156.

Lu, X.X., Yu, Z.X., Dong, Y., Xuan, S.M., 1999. The metallogenetic epoch of gold deposits inXiaoqinling–Xiong'ershan region. GoldGeol. 5, 11–15 (in Chinesewith English abstract).

Luo, M.J., 1992. Gold Deposits in Henan Province. Seismological Press, Beijing, pp.1–422 (in Chinese).

Mao, J.W., Goldfarb, R.J., Zhang, Z., Xu, W., Qiu, Y., Deng, J., 2002. Gold deposits in theXiaoqinling–Xiong'ershan region, Qinling mountains, central China. Miner. Deposita37, 306–325.

Mao, S.D., Chen, Y.J., Zhou, Z.J., Lu, Y.H., 2013. U–Pb ages of detrital zircon grains fromthe Donghe Group in the Southern Qinling Microcontinent: implications for tec-tonic evolution. Acta Petrol. Sin. 29, 67–82 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Ni, Z.Y., Li, N., Guan, S.J., Zhang, H., Xue, L.W., 2008. Characteristics of fluid inclusionsand ore genesis of the Dahu Au–Mo deposit in the Xiaoqinling gold field, Henanprovince. Acta Petrol. Sin. 24, 2058–2068 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Ni, Z.Y., Chen, Y.J., Li, N., Zhang, H., 2012. Pb–Sr–Nd isotope constraints on the fluidsource of the Dahu Au–Mo deposit in Qinling Orogen, central China, and implica-tion for Triassic tectonic setting. Ore Geol. Rev. 46, 60–67.

Pirajno, F., 2009. Hydrothermal Processed and Mineral Systems. Springer, Berlin, p. 1250.Pirajno, F., 2012. The Geology and Tectonic Settings of China's Mineral Deposits.

Springer, Berlin, p. 679.

Qi, J.P., Chen, Y.J., Ni, P., Lai, Y., Ding, J.H., Song, Y.W., Tang, G.J., 2007. Fluid inclusionconstraints on the origin of the Lengshuibeigou Pb–Zn–Ag deposit, Henan prov-ince. Acta Petrol. Sin. 23, 2119–2130 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Qi, J.P., Song, Y.W., Li, S.Q., Chen, F.K., 2009. Rb–Sr isotope study of the Xigou Pb–Zn–Agdeposit, Luanchuan county, Henan province. Acta Petrol. Sin. 25, 2843–2854 (inChinese with English abstract).

Rui, Z.Y., Goldfarb, R.J., Qiu, Y.M., Zhou, T.H., Chen, R.Y., Pirajno, F., Yun, G., 2002. Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic gold deposits of the Xinjiang Autonomous region, northwesternChina. Miner. Deposita 37, 393–418.

Schidlowski, M., 1998. Beginning of terrestrial life: problems of the early record andimplications for extraterrestrial scenarios. Instruments, methods, and missionsfor astrobiology. SPIE 3441, 149–157.

Sui, Y.H., Wang, H.H., Gao, X.L., Chen, H.Y., Li, Z., 2000. Ore fluid of the Tieluping silverdeposit of Henan Province and its illustration of the tectonic model for collisionalpetrogenesis, metallogenesis and fluidization. Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci. 43,108–121 (sup.).

Sun,W.D., Li, S.G., Sun, Y., 2002. Mid-Paleozoic collision in the north Qinling: Sm–Nd, Rb–Srand 40Ar–39Ar ages and their tectonic implications. J. Asian Earth Sci. 21, 69–76.

Tang, H.S., Chen, Y.J., Wu, G., Lai, Y., 2011. Paleoproterozoic positive δ13Ccarb excursionin the northeastern Sinokorean craton: evidence of the Lomagundi Event. GondwanaRes. 19, 471–481.

Tang, H.S., Chen, Y.J., Santosh,M., Zhong, H.,Wu, G., Lai, Y., in press. C-O isotope geochemistryof the Dashiqiao magnesite belt, North China Craton: Implications for the Great Oxida-tion Event and ore genesis. Geol. J. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gj.2486.

Taylor, H.P., 1974. The application of oxygen and hydrogen isotope studies to problemsof hydrothermal alteration and ore deposition. Econ. Geol. 69, 843–883.

Wan, B., Xiao, W.J., Zhang, L.C., Han, C.M., 2012. Iron mineralization associated with amajor strike–slip shear zone: radiometric and oxygen isotope evidence from theMengku deposit, NW China. Ore Geol. Rev. 44, 136–147.

Wang, K.Y., Wang, L., Liu, Z.H., Wang, J.Y., 2008. The characteristics of fluid inclusionsand origin of Gaojiapuzi silver deposit, Liaoning province. Acta Petrol. Sin. 24,2085–2093 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Wu, Y., Zheng, Y.F., 2012. Tectonic evolution of a composite collision orogen: an over-view on the Qinling–Tongbai–Hong'an–Dabie–Sulu orogenic belt in central China.Gondwana Res. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2012.09.007.

Wu, C.L., Han, Z.J., Wang, G.F., Guo, Y.Q., 1994. Recognition on structure and its ore-controlling in stratified Yindongpo Au deposit. Earth Sci. 19, 471–482 (in Chinesewith English abstract).

Xu, Z.Q., Lu, Y.L., Tang, Y.Q., Mattauer, M., Matte, Ph., Malavieille, J., Tapponnier, P.,Maluski, H., 1986. Deformation characteristics and tectonic evolution of the easternQinling orogenic belt. Acta Geol. Sin. 60, 237–247 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Xu, Q.D., Zhong, Z.Q., Suo, S.T., Qi, X.M., 1995. Ore-forming fluid in mesothermal golddeposits of Tongbai–Dabie area: their properties and precipitation mechanism.Miner. Depos. 14, 59–72 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Xu, C., Song, W.L., Qi, L., Wang, L.J., 2009. Geochemical characteristics and tectonic set-ting of ore-bearing carbonatite in Huanglongpu Mo ore field. Acta Petrol. Sin. 25,422–430 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Yang, R.S., Chen, Y.J., Zhang, F.X., Li, Z.H., Mao, S.D., Liu, H.J., Zhao, C.H., 2006. The chem-ical Th–U–Pb ages of monazite from the Yangshan gold deposit, Gansu provinceand their geologic and metallogenic implications. Acta Petrol. Sin. 22, 2603–2610(in Chinese with English abstract).

Yang, R.S., Chen, Y.J., Xie, J.L., 2009. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic studies ofarsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite of Yangshan gold deposit. Acta Petrol. Sin. 25,2791–2800 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Yao, J.M., Zhao, T.P., Wei, Q.G., Yuan, Z.L., 2008. Fluid inclusion features and genetic typeof the Wangpingxigou Pb–Zn deposit, Henan Province. Acta Petrol. Sin. 24,2113–2123 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Yu, G., Chen, J.F., Xue, C.J., Chen, Y.C., Chen, F.K., Du, X.Y., 2009. Geochronological frame-work and Pb, Sr isotope geochemistry of the Qingchengzi Pb–Zn–Ag–Au orefield,Northeastern China. Ore Geol. Rev. 35, 367–382.

Zhang, L.G., 1989. Petrogenic and Minerogenic Theories and Prospecting. BeijingUniversity of Technology Press, Beijing, pp. 1–200 (in Chinese with detailed Englishabstract).

Zhang, J., 2004. Comparative study of the Ag and Au deposits in the East Qinling andTongbai areas. Ph.D. Thesis, Peking University, 124 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Zhang, H.F., Zhang, L., Gao, S., Zhang, B.R., Wang, L.S., 1999. Pb isotopic compositions ofmetamorphic rocks and intrusive rocks in Tongbai region and their geological im-plication. Earth Sci. 24, 269–273 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Zhang, H.F., Gao, S., Zhang, L., Zhong, Z.Q., Zhang, B.R., 2000. Granitoids in Erlangpingophiolite fragment from northern Tongbai area, China: geochemistry, petrogenesisand deep crustal nature. Sci. Geol. Sin. 35, 27–39 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Zhang, G.W., Zhang, B.R., Yuan, X.C., Xiao, Q.H., 2001. Qinling Orogenic Belt and Conti-nental Dynamics. Science Press, Beijing, pp. 1–855 (in Chinese).

Zhang, J., Chen, Y.J., Qi, J.P., Ge, J., 2009. Comparison of the typical metallogenic systemsin the north slope of the Tongbai-East Qinling mountains and its geologic implica-tions. Acta Geol. Sin. 83, 396–410 (English edition).

Zhang, J., Chen, Y.J., Yang, Y., Deng, J., 2011. Lead isotope systematics of theWeishancheng Au–Ag belt, Tongbai Mountains, central China: implication for oregenesis. Int. Geol. Rev. 53, 656–676.

Zhang, L., Zheng, Y., Chen, Y.J., 2012. Ore geology and fluid inclusion geochemistry ofthe Tiemurt Pb–Zn–Cu deposit, Altay, Xinjiang, China: a case study of orogenic-type Pb–Zn systems. J. Asian Earth Sci. 49, 69–79.

Zhao, G.C., Sun, M., Wilde, S.A., Li, S.Z., 2004. A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent:Assembly, growth and breakup. Earth Sci. Rev. 67, 91–123.

Zhao, G.C., He, Y.H., Sun, M., 2009. The Xiong'er volcanic belt at the southern margin ofthe North China Craton: petrographic and geochemical evidence for its outboard

356 J. Zhang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 53 (2013) 343–356

position in the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Columbia supercontinent. Gondwana Res.16, 170–181.

Zhao, H.X., Hartwig, E.F., Jiang, S.Y., Dai, B.Z., 2011. LA-ICP-MS trace element analysis ofpyrite from the Xiaoqinling gold district, China: implications for ore genesis. OreGeol. Rev. 43, 142–153.

Zhao, H.X., Jiang, S.Y., Hartwig, E.F., Dai, B.Z., Ma, L., 2012. Geochemistry, geochronologyand Sr–Nd–Hf isotopes of two Mesozoic granitoids in the Xiaoqinling gold district:implication for large-scale lithospheric thinning in the North China Craton. Chem.Geol. 294–295, 173–189.

Zheng, Y.F., 1999. Stable isotope geochemistry. In: Zheng, Y.F. (Ed.), Chemical Geodynamics.Science Press, Beijing, pp. 62–118 (in Chinese).

Zheng, Y., Zhang, L., Chen, Y.J., Qin, Y.J., Liu, C.F., 2012. Geology, fluid inclusiongeochemistry and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of the Wulasigou Cu deposit inAltay, Xinjiang, China and their implications for ore genesis. Ore Geol. Rev. 49,128–140.

Zhou, T.H., Goldfarb, R.J., Phillips, G.N., 2002. Tectonics and distribution of gold depositsin China — an overview. Miner. Deposita 37, 249–282.

Zhu, B.Q., 1998. Theory and Application of Isotope Systematics in Earth Sciences. SciencePress, Beijing, pp. 1–330 (in Chinese).

Zhu, R.X., Yang, Z.Y., Wu, H.N., Ma, X.H., Huang, B.C., Meng, Z.F., Fang, D.J., 1998.Palaeomagnetic constrains on the tectonic history of themajor blocks of China duringthe Phanerozoic. Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci. 41, 1–19 (sup.).