origin 10 the backbone of the omniverse

8/7/2019 Origin 10 The Backbone of the Omniverse

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ZPE and exotic matter form the backbone of the omniverse, defining its structure, keeping itstable and running smoothly. Exotic matter also keeps black hole worm hole structures stableand functioning, as it keeps universes from smashing together because of its negative mass. Italso balances out all the positive energy and positive mass with an equal amount of negativeenergy and negative mass. Because of the universe's curved structure all points within it touchthe exotic matter supersurface/subsurface (it exists on both ends of this loop geometry-- whichare fractally the same thing and which is why looping through higher and lower universes leadsyou back to where you started, just like journeying through the universe itself does, infinite butself-limited) and so worm holes can not only lead to other universes but also different pointswithin our own universe. On the subsurface this is in the form of quantum foam and with itsmicroblack hole worm hole conduits controls quantum properties of nonlocality like entanglement,teleportation and superposition (this has recently been explained with the AdS/CFTCorrespondence of string theory, which also explains superconductors and black holes, as wellas the liquid phase of quark soup recently discovered) and is also important in the higher dimensional functioning of human consciousness, such as precognition and other forms of ESP--because these higher dimensions are only accessible through wormholes. This nonlocalityenables us to journey both within space and time (and entanglement of time has recently beendiscovered, which also explains post selection of the present from the future.) Gravity is alsoexplained, as dark matter existing outside of the universe not only attracts matter but also resultsin expansion and contraction cycles (expansion as it pulls the edges of the universe outside andcontraction when the universe encounters the outer periphery of an adjacent universe andeventually bounces back.) Gravity in its extreme form creates new black holes and worm holeswhich create a bridge through exotic matter to other parts of universe, other universes or throughtime itself (which also loops much like our space and universe does cyclically.) These serve tomaintain the structure of the omniverse and all its parts because they form the circulatory"plumbing"-- they redistribute matter and energy, but also protect all conservation laws. Thisexouniversal dark matter also accounts for the fractal structure of the omniverse as it sculpts it inmuch the same way that our own galaxies, clusters and superclusters are sculpted.

If this dark energy is the great cosmic ocean in which multiple universes are floating then its quitepossible that the whole thing doesnt rip apart and instead a cosmic wave originating from a bigbounce in another universe creates ripples that start our universe's collapse and big bounce.

I agree but the two ideas are interlinked. The ZPE would occupy the space between theuniverses and they would be islands floating in it connected by black hole worm hole conduits--sort of like galaxies and voids-- oh joy, yet another fractal representation.

To make it clear, I envision something along the lines of the "sea" being much further apart if youcould be on the "outside" (that is, within the sea of zpe outside universes) but if youre on theinside, because of the way the extra dimensions shrink, it enables the black hole worm holebridges to connect them very closely.

In this broth of zpe new bubble universes would be bubbling up all the time.

We have had this discussion before and we came up with a fourway arrangement, where youhave a universe, an antiverse, a mirrorverse and a mirror antiverse-- time is reversed in theantiverse and the mirror antivirus as compared to the other two, and big bounces occur inopposition to the time reversed universes made with antimatter also. This fourway quadversepreserves CPT symmetry as well as telling us what happened to the antimatter.

So basically, on the "outside" in the broth of ZPE, the universes existing within it would seem likevanishingly small particles popping into and out of existence (at each big bounce with greatlyaccelerated time-- on their temporal scale), while within a particular universe it would be the


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reverse-- the universe would seem immense with the sea of ZPE merely forming the terminalboundary layer between universes that black hole worm holes bridge to connect universestogether.

Exotic matter is the sea in which the bubble universes of ZPE float and what we need to operatewormholes also. So making a "hole" through space-time would create a tunnel through exoticmatter to get to the universe on the other side. The next question is, what comprises exoticmatter and can we have a universe made entirely of it?

For example, if you were on the "outside" (hypothetically speaking) and you could "see" bothuniverses, what would be the medium you would be in? Exotic matter? And what is exotic matter comprised of? Negative energy? At below absolute zero temperatures?

Hmmmm, then exotic matter could also be dark matter.... which would possibly account for theorigin of gravitation in that case. Which means dark matter could organize the shape of universesjust like they do galaxies, clusters and superclusters. Another fractal representation.

Here's the connection between exotic matter and negative temperatures.....

So, in that article where they talked about attaining negative absolute zero temps, they mighthave been on the precipice of finding exotic matter with negative mass.

The intriguing part of that article is the fact that adding energy reduces entropy in a negativetemperature condition-- this illustrates how a low entropy universe can come into existence in asea of ZPE and exotic matter. It also mentions pair production as a method of generatingnegative temperatures-- it all ties in.

It also shows why negative temperature is important. Collision with other universes (or somesort of interaction) might be necessary to cause big flow and eventual contraction.

There also needs to be something to keep it all balanced so the universes dont fly apart-- darkmatter might come into play there.

To get the ball rolling you would also need exotic matter because it makes the low entropycondition possible that lets the ball "roll uphill" so to speak. I can see how it would all beconnected to make the omniverse work "like clockwork."

It should also keep the wormhole tunnel intact by "holding" the universes in place.

You can actually envision a way this balances out the omniverse. Im taking a page from thisparagraph of the wiki article:

Negative massMain article: Negative mass

Negative mass would possess some strange properties, such as accelerating in the directionopposite of applied force. For example, an object with negative inertial mass and positive electriccharge would accelerate away from objects with negative charge, and towards objects with


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positive charge, the opposite of the normal rule that like charges repel and opposite chargesattract. This behaviour can produce bizarre results: for instance, a gas containing a mixture of positive and negative matter particles will have the positive matter portion increase in temperaturewithout bound. However, the negative matter portion gains negative temperature at the samerate, again balancing out.

Despite being completely inconsistent with a common-sense approach and the expectedbehavior of "normal" matter, negative mass is completely mathematically consistent andintroduces no violation of conservation of momentum or energy. It is used in certain speculativetheories, such as on the construction of wormholes. The closest known real representative of such exotic matter is the region of pseudo-negative pressure density produced by the Casimir effect.

Let's say negative mass is equivalent to negative energy. The way it creates an energy balanceacross the omniverse is as follows-- the total amount of negative mass/energy of all the exoticmatter in the omniverse should be enough to cancel out all the positive matter and positiveenergy of the omniverse-- what this does is keep the whole omniverse stable. As a matter of fact,the omniverse itself might have originated in a pair production of a parent positive mass and aparent negative mass and the positive mass became positive energy-- that is ZPE that providedthe seedlings of the individual universes and the negative mass was of course exotic mass. Thefunction of the ZPE was to create new universes and the function of exotic mass was to maintaintheir stability and connections via worm holes. The question is where does gravity come in andwhere did all the forces and dimensions originate from. Perhaps they originated from interactionsbetween the parent positive mass/energy and the parent negative mass/energy. This is what wemust work out.

This connection between the Casimir effect (ZPE) and negative mass is something I findparticularly intriguing since right here we see that ZPE and exotic matter are connected.

Almost sounds male/female...... exotic matter (male) ZPE (female).

The whole yin/yang thing comes to mind. Its just a huge balancing act on a cosmic scale.

I dont consider "space" and "time" fundamental either, they are just constructs of the universeone is in. I'm open to the idea of other spatial and temporal dimensions in which our space-timeis nested within, that is (for example) the big bang, although it occurred at time zero in our universe, in the overall scheme of things was not the point of origin of a multilayered "verse" inwhich it is just one of a multitude of universes that go "bang." As a point of fact, there might nothave even been an original big bang, but a continuous cycle of bounces that dont ever get to timezero, but "hop" over from negative to positive and back again.

Some interesting stuff pertaining to exotic matter.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_cloning_theorem

The no-cloning theorem is a result of quantum mechanics that forbids the creation of identicalcopies of an arbitrary unknown quantum state. It was stated by Wootters, Zurek, and Dieks in1982, and has profound implications in quantum computing and related fields.

The state of one system can be entangled with the state of another system. For instance, one canuse the Controlled NOT gate and the Walsh-Hadamard gate to entangle two qubits. This is not


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cloning. No well-defined state can be attributed to a subsystem of an entangled state. Cloning is aprocess whose end result is a separable state with identical factors.

No-cloning in a classical context

There is a classical analogue to the quantum no-cloning theorem, which we might state asfollows: given only the result of one flip of a (possibly biased) coin, we cannot simulate a second,independent toss of the same coin. The proof of this statement uses the linearity of classicalprobability, and has exactly the same structure as the proof of the quantum no-cloning theorem.Thus if we wish to claim that no-cloning is a uniquely quantum result, some care is necessary instating the theorem. One way of restricting the result to quantum mechanics is to restrict thestates to pure states, where a pure state is defined to be one that is not a convex combination of other states. The classical pure states are pairwise orthogonal, but quantum pure states are not.[edit]ConsequencesThe no-cloning theorem prevents us from using classical error correction techniques on quantumstates. For example, we cannot create backup copies of a state in the middle of a quantumcomputation, and use them to correct subsequent errors. Error correction is vital for practicalquantum computing, and for some time this was thought to be a fatal limitation. In 1995, Shor andSteane revived the prospects of quantum computing by independently devising the first quantumerror correcting codes, which circumvent the no-cloning theorem.Similarly, cloning would violate the no teleportation theorem, which says classical teleportation(not to be confused with entanglement-assisted teleportation) is impossible. In other words,quantum states cannot be measured reliably.The no-cloning theorem does not prevent superluminal communication via quantumentanglement, as cloning is a sufficient condition for such communication, but not a necessaryone. Nevertheless, consider the EPR thought experiment, and suppose quantum states could becloned. Assume parts of a maximally entangled Bell state are distributed to Alice and Bob. Alicecould send bits to Bob in the following way: If Alice wishes to transmit a "0", she measures thespin of her electron in the z direction, collapsing Bob's state to either or . To transmit "1", Alicedoes nothing to her qubit. Bob creates many copies of his electron's state, and measures the spin

of each copy in the z direction. Bob will know that Alice has transmitted a "0" if all hismeasurements will produce the same result; otherwise, his measurements will have outcomes+1/2 and 1/2 with equal probability. This would allow Alice and Bob to communicate acrossspace-like separations.The no cloning theorem prevents us from viewing the holographic principle for black holes asmeaning we have two copies of information lying at the event horizon and the black hole interior simultaneously. This leads us to more radical interpretations like black hole complementarity.[edit]Imperfect cloning

Even though it is impossible to make perfect copies of an unknown quantum state, it is possibleto produce imperfect copies. This can be done by coupling a larger auxiliary system to the systemthat is to be cloned, and applying a unitary transformation to the combined system. If the unitary

transformation is chosen correctly, several components of the combined system will evolve intoapproximate copies of the original system. Imperfect cloning can be used as an eavesdroppingattack on quantum cryptography protocols, among other uses in quantum information science.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansible#In_reality


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In realityMain article: Superluminal communication

There is no currently-known way to build an ansible. The theory of special relativity predicts thatany such device would allow communication from the future to the past, which raises problems of causality, unless said device used general relativistic curved spacetimes as an integral part.

The quantum non-local connection is often proposed as a mechanism for superluminalcommunication[10] (a 2008 quantum physics experiment performed in Geneva, Switzerland hasdetermined that the "speed" of the quantum non-local connection has a minimum lower bound of 10,000 times the speed of light[11]). Practical applications are made impossible due to the nocloning theorem, and the fact that quantum field theories preserve causality, so quantumcorrelations cannot be used to transfer information.

Nevertheless, consider the EPR thought experiment, and suppose quantum states could becloned. Assume parts of a maximally entangled Bell state are distributed to Alice and Bob. Alicecould send bits to Bob in the following way: If Alice wishes to transmit a "0", she measures thespin of her electron in the z direction, collapsing Bob's state to either |z+> or |z->. To transmit "1",Alice does nothing to her qubit. Bob creates many copies of his electron's state, and measuresthe spin of each copy in the z direction. Bob will know that Alice has transmitted a "0" if all hismeasurements will produce the same result; otherwise, his measurements will have outcomes+1/2 and 1/2 with equal probability. This would allow Alice and Bob to communicate acrossspace-like separations.

See time travel and faster-than-light for more discussion of these issues.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyonic_antitelephone

Tachyonic antitelephone

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A tachyonic antitelephone is a hypothetical device in theoretical physics that could be used tosend signals into one's own past. Such a device was first contemplated by R. C. Tolman in1917[1] in a demonstration of how faster-than-light signals can lead to a paradox of causality(also known as Tolman's paradox).

The example of the antitelephone is a thought experiment intended to demonstrate how anyfaster-than-light communications capability could lead to causality violations. According to thecurrent understanding of physics, no such faster-than-light transfer of information is actuallypossible. For instance, the hypothetical tachyon particles which give the device its name do notexist even theoretically in the standard model of particle physics, due to tachyon condensation,and there is no experimental evidence that suggests that they might exist. Nevertheless, science

fiction writer Gregory Benford and others have treated the problem of detecting tachyons viacausal contradictions scientifically.[2]Sending signals into one's own past

Suppose Alice is on a spacecraft moving away from the Earth in the positive x-direction with aspeed v, and she wants to communicate with Bob back home. Assume both of them have adevice that is capable of transmitting and receiving faster-than-light signals at a speed of ac witha > 1. Alice uses this device to send a message to Bob, who sends a reply back. Let us choosethe origin of the coordinates of Bob's reference frame, S, to coincide with the reception of Alice'smessage to him. If Bob immediately sends a message back to Alice, then in his rest frame the


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coordinates of the reply signal (in natural units) are given by:(t,x) = (t,at)

To find out when the reply is received by Alice, we perform a Lorentz transformation to Alice'sframe S' moving in the positive x-direction with velocity v with respect to the Earth. In this frameAlice is at rest at position x' = L, where L is the distance that the signal Alice sent to Earthtraversed in her rest frame. The coordinates of the reply signal are given by:

The reply is received by Alice when x' = L. This means that and thus:

Since the message Alice sent to Bob took a time of to reach him, the message she receives backfrom him will reach her at time:

later than she sent her message. However, if then T < 0 and Alice will receive the message backfrom Bob before she sends her message to him in the first place.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cloning

Quantum cloningFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Quantum cloning is the process that takes an arbitrary, unknown quantum state and makes anexact copy without altering the original state in any way. In Dirac notation, the process of quantum cloning is described by:,

where U is the actual cloning operation, is the state to be cloned, and is the initial state of thecopy.

Quantum cloning is forbidden by the laws of quantum mechanics as shown by the no cloningtheorem, which proves that there is no U that can perform the cloning operation for any arbitrarystate . Though perfect quantum cloning is not possible, it is possible to perform imperfect cloning,where the copies have a non-unit fidelity with the state being cloned.

The quantum cloning operation is the best way to make copies of quantum information thereforecloning is an important task in quantum information processing, especially in the context of quantum cryptography. Researchers are seeking ways to build quantum cloning machines, whichwork at the so called quantum limit. The first cloning machine relied on stimulated emission to

copy quantum information encoded into single photons. Teleportation, nuclear magneticresonance, quantum amplification and superior phase conjugation have been some other methods utilized to realize a quantum cloning machine.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superluminal_communication


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Superluminal communication is the term used to describe the hypothetical process by which onemight send information at faster-than-light (FTL) speeds.

Some theories and experiments include:Group velocity > c experimentsEvanescent wave couplingTachyonsQuantum non-locality

According to the currently accepted theory, three of those four phenomena do not producesuperluminal communication, even though they may give that appearance under someconditions. As for tachyons, their existence remains hypothetical; even if their existence were tobe proven, attempts to quantize them appear to indicate that they may not be used for superluminal communication, because experiments to produce or absorb tachyons cannot befully controlled [1].

If wormholes are possible, then ordinary subluminal methods of communication could be sentthrough them to achieve superluminal transmission speeds. Considering the immense energythat current theories suggest would be required to open a wormhole large enough to passspacecraft through it may be that only atomic-scale wormholes would be practical to build, limitingtheir use solely to information transmission. Some theories of wormhole formation would preventthem from ever becoming "timeholes", allowing superluminal communication without theadditional complication of allowing communication with the past.[citation needed]

The no cloning theorem prevents superluminal communication via quantum cloning. However,this does not in itself prevent faster-than-light or superluminal communication, since it is not theonly proposed method of such communication[1]. But, consider the EPR thought experiment, andsuppose quantum states could be cloned. Alice could send bits to Bob in the following way:

If Alice wishes to transmit a '0', she measures the spin of her electron in the z direction, collapsingBob's state to either |z+>B or |z->B. If Alice wishes to transmit a '1', she measures the spin of her electron in the x direction, collapsing Bob's state to either |x+>B or |x->B. Bob creates manycopies of his electron's state, and measures the spin of each copy in the z direction. If Alice

transmitted a '0', all his measurements will produce the same result; otherwise, hismeasurements will be split evenly between +1/2 and -1/2. This would allow Alice and Bob tocommunicate across space-like separations, potentially violating causality. But violation of causality is not sufficient as proof of no superluminal communication. So superluminalcommunication remains an open issue [2].

Exotic matter

Exotic matter

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaIn physics, exotic matter is a term which refers to matter which would somehow deviate from thenorm and have "exotic" properties. There are several uses of the term.Hypothetical particles which have "exotic" physical properties that would violate known laws of physics, such as a particle having a negative mass.Hypothetical particles which have not yet been encountered, such as exotic baryons, but whoseproperties would be within the realm of mainstream physics if found to exist.States of matter which are not commonly encountered, such as BoseEinstein condensates andquarkgluon plasma, but whose properties are perfectly within the realm of mainstream physics.


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States of matter which are poorly understood, such as dark matter.Contents [hide]1 Negative mass2 Imaginary mass3 See also4 References

[edit]Negative massMain article: Negative mass

Negative mass would possess some strange properties, such as accelerating in the directionopposite of applied force. For example, an object with negative inertial mass and positive electriccharge would accelerate away from objects with negative charge, and towards objects withpositive charge, the opposite of the normal rule that like charges repel and opposite chargesattract. This behaviour can produce bizarre results: for instance, a gas containing a mixture of positive and negative matter particles will have the positive matter portion increase in temperaturewithout bound. However, the negative matter portion gains negative temperature at the samerate, again balancing out.

Despite being completely inconsistent with a common-sense approach and the expectedbehavior of "normal" matter, negative mass is completely mathematically consistent andintroduces no violation of conservation of momentum or energy. It is used in certain speculativetheories, such as on the construction of wormholes. The closest known real representative of such exotic matter is the region of pseudo-negative pressure density produced by the Casimir effect.[edit]Imaginary massMain article: Tachyon#Mass

A hypothetical particle with imaginary rest mass would always travel faster than the speed of light.Such particles are called tachyons. There is no confirmed existence of tachyons.

If the rest mass is imaginary, then the denominator must be imaginary since the total energy mustbe real; therefore the quantity under the square root must be negative, which can only happen if vis greater than c. As noted by Gregory Benford et al., among others, special relativity implies thattachyons, if they existed, could be used to communicate backwards in time[1] (see Tachyonicantitelephone article). Since time travel is considered to be non-physical, tachyons are believedby physicists either to not exist, or else to be incapable of interacting with normal matter.[citationneeded]

In quantum field theory, imaginary mass would induce tachyon condensation.

Negative Mass

Negative massFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In theoretical physics, negative mass is a hypothetical concept of matter whose mass is of opposite sign to the mass of the normal matter. Such matter would violate one or more energyconditions and show some strange properties such as being repelled rather than attracted bygravity. It is used in certain speculative theories, such as on the construction of wormholes. The


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closest known real representative of such exotic matter is a region of pseudo-negative pressuredensity produced by the Casimir effect.Contents [hide]1 Inertial versus gravitational2 Forward's analysis3 In general relativity4 Gravitational interaction of antimatter 5 References

[edit]Inertial versus gravitational

Ever since Newton first formulated his theory of gravity, there have been at least threeconceptually distinct quantities called mass: inertial mass, "active" gravitational mass (that is, thesource of the gravitational field), and "passive" gravitational mass (that is, the mass that is evidentfrom the force produced in a gravitational field). The Einstein equivalence principle postulates thatinertial mass must equal passive gravitational mass; while the law of conservation of momentumrequires that active and passive gravitational mass must be identical. All experimental evidenceto date has found these are indeed always the same. In considering hypothetical particles withnegative mass, it is important to consider which of these concepts of mass are negative;however, in most analyses of negative mass, it is assumed that the equivalence principle andconservation of momentum continue to apply.

In 1957, Hermann Bondi suggested in a paper in Reviews of Modern Physics that mass might benegative as well as positive [1]. He pointed out that this does not entail a logical contradiction, aslong as all three forms of mass are negative, but that the assumption of negative mass involvessome counter-intuitive form of motion.

From Newton's second law:

Thus it can be seen that an object with negative inertial mass would be expected to accelerate inthe opposite direction to that in which it was pushed, which is arguably a strange concept. If the"push" is based on the electromagnetic force, this would simply mean the mass accelerates in the

opposite direction than what one would expect based on its charge; for example, an object withnegative inertial mass and positive charge would accelerate away from objects with positive massand negative charge, and accelerate towards objects with positive mass and positive charge, theopposite of the normal rule that like charges repel and opposite charges attract.

If one were to treat inertial mass mi, passive gravitational mass mp, and active gravitational massma distinctly, then Newton's law of universal gravitation would take the form

(where a is the acceleration of an object with inertial mass mi and passive gravitational mass mpin the gravitational field generated by a different object with active gravitational mass Ma, with r as the distance between the two objects and G as the gravitational constant)

Thus objects with negative passive gravitational mass, but with positive inertial mass, would beexpected to be repelled by positive active masses, and attracted to negative active masses.However, any difference between inertial and gravitational mass would violate the equivalenceprinciple of general relativity. For an object where both the inertial and gravitational masses werenegative and equal, we could cancel out mi and mp from the equation, and conclude that itsacceleration a in the gravitational field from a body with positive active gravitational mass (say,the planet Earth) would be no different from the acceleration of an object with positive passivegravitational and inertial mass (so a small negative mass object would fall towards the Earth atthe same rate as any other object). On the other hand, if we have a small object with equalinertial and passive gravitational masses falling in the gravitational field of an object with negative


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active gravitational mass (a small mass dropped above a negative-mass planet, say), thencanceling out mi and mp would indicate that the acceleration a of the small object is proportionalto the negative active gravitational mass Ma of the object creating the gravitational field, so thesmall object would actually accelerate away from the negative-mass object rather than towards it(and this is true regardless of whether the small object's inertial and passive gravitational masseswere both positive or both negative). So, as long as inertial mass and gravitational mass arealways equal as required by the equivalence principle, positive active gravitational mass would beuniversally attractive (both negative-mass and positive-mass objects would be pulled towards anobject with positive active gravitational mass), while negative active gravitational mass would beuniversally repulsive (both negative-mass and positive-mass objects would be pushed away).[edit]Forward's analysis

Although no particles are known to have negative mass, physicists (primarily Hermann Bondi andRobert L. Forward) have been able to describe some of the anticipated properties such particlesmay have. Assuming that all three concepts of mass are equivalent it would produce a systemwhere negative masses are attracted to positive masses, yet positive masses are repelled awayfrom negative masses. Negative masses would produce an attractive force on one another, butwould move apart because of their negative inertial masses.

For a negative value of mp with positive value of ma, F is negative (repulsive); thus it wouldappear that a negative mass would accelerate away from a positive mass. But because such anobject would also possess negative inertial mass it would accelerate in the opposite direction toF. As Bondi pointed out, it can be shown that if both masses are of equal but opposite mass, thecombined system of positive and negative particles will accelerate indefinitely without anyadditional input into the system.

This behavior is completely inconsistent with a common-sense approach and the expectedbehaviour of 'normal' matter; but is completely mathematically consistent and introduces noviolation of conservation of momentum or energy. If the masses are equal in magnitude butopposite in sign, then the momentum of the system remains zero if they both travel together andaccelerate together, no matter what their speed:

And equivalently for the kinetic energy Ke:

Forward extended Bondi's analysis to additional cases, and showed that even if the two massesm(-) and m(+) are not the same, the conservation laws remain unbroken.

This behaviour can produce bizarre results: for instance, a gas containing a mixture of positiveand negative matter particles will have the positive matter portion increase in temperature withoutbound. However, the negative matter portion gains negative temperature at the same rate, againbalancing out. Geoffrey A. Landis pointed out other implications of Forward's analysis,[2]including noting that although negative mass particles would repel each other gravitationally, theelectrostatic force would be attractive for like-charges and repulsive for opposite charges.

Forward used the properties of negative-mass matter to create the diametric drive, a design for spacecraft propulsion using negative mass that requires no energy input and no reaction mass toachieve arbitrarily high acceleration.

Forward also coined a term, "nullification" to describe what happens when ordinary matter andnegative matter meet: they are expected to be able to "cancel-out" or "nullify" each other'sexistence. An interaction between equal quantities of positive and negative mass matter wouldrelease no energy, but since the only configuration of such particles which has zero momentum(both particles moving with the same velocity in the same direction) does not produce a collision,


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all such interactions would leave a surplus of momentum, which is classically forbidden.[edit]In general relativity

In general relativity, negative mass is generalized to refer to any region of space in which for some observers the mass density is measured to be negative. This can occur due to negativemass, or could be a region of space in which the stress component of the Einstein stress-energytensor is larger in magnitude than the mass density. All of these are violations of one or another variant of the positive energy condition of Einstein's general theory of relativity; however, thepositive energy condition is not a required condition for the mathematical consistency of thetheory. (Various versions of the positive energy condition, weak energy condition, dominantenergy condition, etc., are discussed in mathematical detail by Visser[3].)

Morris, Thorne and Yurtsever[4] pointed out that the quantum mechanics of the Casimir effectcan be used to produce a locally mass-negative region of space-time. In this article, andsubsequent work by others, they showed that negative matter could be used to stabilize awormhole. Cramer et al. argue that such wormholes might have been created in the earlyuniverse, stabilized by negative-mass loops of cosmic string[5]. Stephen Hawking has proved thatnegative energy is a necessary condition for the creation of a closed timelike curve bymanipulation of gravitational fields within a finite region of space;[6] this proves, for example, thata finite Tipler cylinder cannot be used as a time machine.[edit]Gravitational interaction of antimatter Main article: Gravitational interaction of antimatter

Virtually every modern physicist suspects that antimatter has positive mass and should beaffected by gravity just like normal matter, although it is thought that this view has not yet beenconclusively empirically observed.[7][8] It is difficult to directly observe gravitational forces at theparticle level: at such small scales, electric forces tend to overwhelm gravitational interactions,especially since the methods of antimatter production currently in use typically generate veryenergetic particles. Furthermore, antiparticles must be kept separate from their normalcounterparts or they will quickly annihilate. It is hoped that the ATRAP antimatter experiments willbe able to make direct measurements.

Bubble chamber experiments are often cited as evidence that antiparticles have the same inertialmass as their normal counterparts, but a reversed electric charge. In these experiments, thechamber is subjected to a constant magnetic field which causes charged particles to travel inhelical paths; the radius and direction of which correspond to the ratio of electric charge to inertialmass. Particle/antiparticle pairs are seen to travel in helices with opposite directions but identicalradii, implying that the ratios differ only in sign; but this does not indicate whether it is the chargeor the inertial mass which is inverted. However, particle/antiparticle pairs are observed toelectrically attract one another, often as the prelude to annihilation. This behavior implies thatboth have positive inertial mass and opposite charges; if the reverse were true, then the particlewith positive inertial mass would be repelled from its antiparticle partner.

Here's the connection between exotic matter and negative temperatures.....

So, in that article where they talked about attaining negative absolute zero temps, they mighthave been on the precipice of finding exotic matter with negative mass.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_temperature


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In physics, certain systems can achieve negative temperatures; that is, their thermodynamictemperature can be a negative quantity. Negative temperatures can be expressed as negativenumbers on the kelvin scale.

Temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar Celsius or Fahrenheitscales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. By contrast, a system with a trulynegative temperature is not colder than absolute zero; in fact, temperatures colder than absolutezero are impossible by definition. Rather, a system with a truly negative Kelvin temperature ishotter than any system with a positive temperature (in the sense that if a negative-temperaturesystem and a positive-temperature system come in contact, heat will flow from the negative- tothe positive-temperature system).

Most familiar systems cannot achieve negative temperatures, because adding energy alwaysincreases their entropy. Some systems, however (see the examples below), have a maximumamount of energy that they can hold, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropyactually begins to decrease. Because temperature may be formally defined by the relationshipbetween energy and entropy, such a system's temperature becomes negative, even thoughenergy is being added -- implying that the system's heat capacity is negative.Contents [hide]1 Heat and molecular energy distribution2 Temperature and disorder 3 Examples3.1 Nuclear spins3.2 Lasers4 See also5 References6 Further reading7 External links

Heat and molecular energy distribution

Negative temperatures can only exist in a system where there are a limited number of energy

states (see below). As the temperature is increased on such a system, particles move into higher and higher energy states, and as the temperature increases, the number of particles in the lower energy states and in the higher energy states approaches equality. (This is a consequence of thedefinition of temperature in statistical mechanics for systems with limited states.) By injectingenergy into these systems in the right fashion, it is possible to create a system in which there aremore particles in the higher energy states than in the lower ones. The system can then becharacterised as having a negative temperature. A substance with a negative temperature is notcolder than absolute zero, but rather it is hotter than infinite temperature. As Kittel and Kroemer (p. 462) put it, "The temperature scale from cold to hot runs:+0 K, . . . , +300 K, . . . , + K, K, . . . , 300 K, . . . , 0 K."

Generally, temperature as it is felt is defined by the kinetic energy of atoms (heat). Since there isno upper bound on momentum of an atom there is no upper bound to the number of energy

states available if enough energy is added, and no way to get to a negative temperature.However, temperature is more generally defined by statistical mechanics than just kinetic energy(see below). The inverse temperature = 1/kT (where k is Boltzmann's constant) scaleruns continuously from low energy to high as +, . . . , .Temperature and disorder

The distribution of energy among the various translational, vibrational, rotational,electronic, and nuclear modes of a system determines the macroscopic temperature.In a "normal" system, thermal energy is constantly being exchanged between thevarious modes.


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However, for some cases it is possible to isolate one or more of the modes. Inpractice the isolated modes still exchange energy with the other modes, but the timescale of this exchange is much slower than for the exchanges within the isolatedmode. One example is the case of nuclear spins in a strong external magnetic field.In this case, energy flows fairly rapidly among the spin states of interacting atoms,

but energy transfer between the nuclear spins and other modes is relatively slow.Since the energy flow is predominantly within the spin system, it makes sense tothink of a spin temperature that is distinct from the temperature due to other modes.

A definition of temperature can be based on the relationship:

(See here for discussion)

The relationship suggests that a positive temperature corresponds to the conditionwhere entropy, S, increases as thermal energy, qrev, is added to the system. This isthe "normal" condition in the macroscopic world, and is always the case for thetranslational, vibrational, rotational, and non-spin related electronic and nuclearmodes. The reason for this is that there are an infinite number of these types of modes, and adding more heat to the system increases the number of modes that areenergetically accessible, and thus increases the entropy.ExamplesNuclear spins

In the case of electronic and nuclear spin systems there are only a finite number of modes available, often just two, corresponding to spin up and spin down. In theabsence of a magnetic field, these spin states are degenerate, meaning that theycorrespond to the same energy. When an external magnetic field is applied, theenergy levels are split, since those spin states that are aligned with the magneticfield will have a different energy from those that are anti-parallel to it.

In the absence of a magnetic field, such a two-spin system would have maximumentropy when half the atoms are in the spin-up state and half are in the spin-downstate, and so one would expect to find the system with close to an equal distributionof spins. Upon application of a magnetic field, some of the atoms will tend to align soas to minimize the energy of the system, thus slightly more atoms should be in thelower-energy state (for the purposes of this example we'll assume the spin-downstate is the lower-energy state). It is possible to add energy to the spin system usingradio frequency (RF) techniques[citation needed]. This causes atoms to flip from spin-down to spin-up.

Since we started with over half the atoms in the spin-down state, initially this drivesthe system towards a 50/50 mixture, so the entropy is increasing, corresponding to apositive temperature. However, at some point more than half of the spins are in thespin-up position. In this case, adding additional energy reduces the entropy, since itmoves the system further from a 50/50 mixture. This reduction in entropy with theaddition of energy corresponds to a negative temperature.Lasers

This phenomenon can also be observed in many lasing systems, wherein a largefraction of the system's atoms (for chemical and gas lasers) or electrons (insemiconductor lasers) are in excited states. This is referred to as a populationinversion.


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The Hamiltonian for a single mode of a luminescent radiation field at frequency is

The density operator in the grand canonical ensemble is

For the system to have a ground state, the trace to converge, and the densityoperator to be generally meaningful, H must be positive semidefinite. So if h < and H is negative semidefinite, then must itself be negative, implying a negativetemperature.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_hot

Absolute hotFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highestattainable temperature of matter. The idea has been popularized by the televisionseries Nova.[1] In this presentation, absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of atemperature scale starting at absolute zero, which is the temperature at whichentropy is minimized and classical thermal energy is zero.

Current cosmological models posit that the highest possible temperature is thePlanck temperature, which has the value 1.416785(71) 1032 kelvin.[2] The Plancktemperature is assumed to be the highest temperature inconventional physics because conventional physics breaks down at that temperature. Above~1032K, particle energies become so large that the gravitational forces between them become asstrong as any other force and are identical in the Grand Unified Theory.[citation needed]

Some forms of string theory allow a temperature of 1030K, known as Hagedorn temperature.[citation needed]

Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state byexcitation with electromagnetic radiation. The temperature function in these systems exhibits asingularity, meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity, before discontinuously switching tonegative infinity.[3] However, this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system, whileothers would have normal temperature dependency. If equipartitioning were possible, suchformalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample.

The Hagedorn temperature in theoretical physics is the temperature above which the partitionsum diverges in a system with exponential growth in the density of states. It is named after German physicist Rolf Hagedorn. Phase transitions (e.g. from a solid state of matter to that of aliquid one) are in general possible only when the system has a higher number of particles than isthought possible. Such behavior surprised many in the world of elementary particle systems.However, as signaled by abundant particle production present in strong interactions, the quarkstructure of strongly interacting particles allows an infinite number of "degrees of freedom" to bepresent in finite volume. In other words, a highly relativistic system can produce pairs and thus


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effectively be of infinite size.

Because of the divergence, it seemed at first impossible to have temperatures above theHagedorn temperature, which would make it the absolute hot temperature, because it wouldrequire an infinite amount of energy. In equations:

This line of reasoning has been improved in work of Hagedorn and Johann Rafelski[1], where itwas shown that instead a phase transition to quark matter occurs.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagedorn_temperature

The Ads/CFT correspondence lives! This is highly interesting because it also connectssuperconductors and black holes under the umbrella of gauge gravity duality. It's also been usedto explain quantum entanglement. So this is yet another verification. No surprises here, but avery interesting result.

iii. Real Gains

Regardless of whether they mysteries of the elusive dark matter or the Higgs boson are solved,CERN researchers are already offering up profound and intriguing discoveries.

At the American Association for the Advancement of Science's annual meeting in Washington,the CERN physicist supervising the LHC's ALICE detector, Yves Schutz, announced the creationof the hottest, densest form of matter on Earth yet. States Mr. Schultz, "We have produced in thelaboratory the hottest matter ever, the densest matter ever."

Nicknamed Quark Soup (officially know as Quark-Gluon Plasma or QGP), the exotic form of matter created by bombarding lead ions with proton beams. Quark Soup had only beensuccessfully created once before on Earth ever, at the Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider in NewYork.

Many physicists had challenged the RHIC's data as the Quark Soup behaved like a super-denseliquid -- an unexpected result for some. Some physicists had theorized that Quark Soup would actas a gas at hotter temperatures. But it did not. Instead the Quark Soup remained a "perfect liquid,which flows without resistance and is completely opaque."

The properties of the Quark Soup precisely match those predicted by a particular superstringtheory variant, dubbed AdS/CFT correspondence. AdS/CFT addresses such arcane mysteries as

quantum gravity and higher dimensions.String theories predict 11 dimensions, including the familiar three dimensions of space and thefourth dimension, time. Under most string theory models, the titular strings are what composematter. These vibrating vector trails snake through space weave complex nets and giving rise tomatter, fundamental forces, and everything else in the universe.

Traditional physicists have attacked string theory as being overly hypothetical and unverifiable inits vague predictions. But certain refined string theories, such as AdS/CFT could lend credibility tothe field, by offering discrete, testable conclusions.


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The fact that the LHC verified one of those conclusions is noteworthy. Mr. Schultz remarks, "I'msurprised that [string theorists] can make a prediction and that it matches what we measured."

Gas rich galaxies confirm prediction of modified gravity theoryFebruary 23rd, 2011 in Physics / General Physics

The star dominated spiral galaxy UGC 2885. Image by Zagursky & McGaugh

(PhysOrg.com) -- Recent data for gas rich galaxies precisely match predictions of a modifiedtheory of gravity know as MOND according to a new analysis by University of MarylandAstronomy Professor Stacy McGaugh. This -- the latest of several successful MOND predictions-- raises new questions about accuracy of the reigning cosmological model of the universe, writesMcGaugh in a paper to be published in March in Physical Review Letters.

Modern cosmology says that for the universe to behave as it does, the mass-energy of theuniverse must be dominated by dark matter and dark energy. However, direct evidence for theexistence of these invisible components remains lacking. An alternate, though unpopular,possibility is that the current theory of gravity does not suffice to describe the dynamics of cosmicsystems.

A few theories that would modify our understanding of gravity have been proposed. One of theseis Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), which was hypothesized in 1983 by Moti Milgrom aphysicist at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. One of MOND's predictionsspecifies the relative relationship between the mass of any galaxy and its flat rotation velocity.However, uncertainties in the estimates of masses of stars in star-dominated spiral galaxies (suchas our own Milky Way) previously had precluded a definitive test.

To avoid this problem, McGaugh examined gas rich galaxies, which have relatively fewer starsand a preponderance of mass in the form of interstellar gas. "We understand the physics of the

absorption and release of energy by atoms in the interstellar gas, such that counting photons isLIKE counting atoms. This gives us an accurate estimate of the mass of such galaxies,"McGaugh said.

Using recently published work that he and other scientists had done to determine both the massand flat rotation velocity of many gas rich galaxies, McGaugh compiled a sample of 47 of theseand compared each galaxy's mass AND rotation velocity with the relationship expected byMOND. All 47 galaxies fell on or very close to the MOND prediction. No dark matter modelperformed as well.

"I find it remarkable that the prediction made by Milgrom over a quarter century ago performs sowell in matching these findings for gas rich galaxies," McGaugh said. "

MOND vs. Dark Matter - Dark EnergyAlmost everyone agrees that on scales of large galaxy clusters and up, the Universe is welldescribed by dark matter - dark energy theory. However, according to McGaugh this cosmologydoes not account well for what happens at the scales of galaxies and smaller.

"MOND is just the opposite," he said. "It accounts well for the 'small' scale of individual galaxies,but MOND doesn't tell you much about the larger universe.

Of course, McGaugh said, one can start from the assumption of dark matter and adjust its models


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for smaller scales until it fits the current finding. "This is not as impressive as making a predictionahead of [new findings], especially since we can't see dark matter. We can make any adjustmentwe need." This is rather like fitting planetary orbits with epicycles," he said. Epicycles wereerroneously used by the ancient Greek scientist Ptolemy to explain observed planetary motionswithin the context of a theory for the universe that placed the earth in its center.

"If we're right about dark matter, why does MOND work at all?" asks McGaugh. "Ultimately, thecorrect theory - be it dark matter or a modification of gravity - needs to explain this."

More information: Preprint of original paper on arXiv.org

Read more about dark energy and dark matter on this NASA Web page

Provided by University of Maryland

"Gas rich galaxies confirm prediction of modified gravity theory." February 23rd, 2011.http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-02-gas-rich-galaxies-gravity-theory.html

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=particles-that-flock

Particles That Flock: Strange Synchronization Behavior at the Large Hadron Collider

Scientists at the Large Hadron Collider are trying to solve a puzzle of their own making: whyparticles sometimes fly in sync

By Amir D. Aczel | February 11, 2011 | 22

Image: Copyright CERn, for the benefit of the CMS Collaboration

In its first six months of operation, the Large Hadron Collider near Geneva has yet to find theHiggs boson, solve the mystery of dark matter or discover hidden dimensions of spacetime. Ithas, however, uncovered a tantalizing puzzle, one that scientists will take up again when thecollider restarts in February following a holiday break. Last summer physicists noticed that some

of the particles created by their proton collisions appeared to be synchronizing their flight paths,like flocks of birds. The findings were so bizarre that weve spent all the time since [then]convincing ourselves that what we were see ing was real, says Guido Tonelli, a spokespersonfor CMS, one of two general-purpose experiments at the LHC.

The effect is subtle. When proton collisions result in the release of more than 110 new particles,the scientists found, the emerging particles seem to fly in the same direction. The high-energycollisions of protons in the LHC may be uncovering a new deep internal structure of the initialprotons, says Frank Wilczek of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, winner of a NobelPrize for his explanation of the action of gluons. Or the particles may have more interconnectionsthan scientists had realized. At these higher energies [of the LHC], one is taking a snapshot of the proton with higher spatial and time resolution than ever before, Wilczek says.

When seen with such high resolution, protons, according to a theory developed by Wilczek andhis colleagues, consist of a dense medium of gluons massless particles that act inside theprotons and neutrons, controlling the behavior of quarks, the constituents of all protons andneutrons. It is not implausible, Wilczek says, that the gluons in that medium interact and arecorrelated with one another, and these interactions are passed on to the new particles.

If confirmed by other LHC physicists, the phenomenon would be a fascinating new finding aboutone of the most common particles in our universe and one scientists thought they understood well

http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/science/02-15BuildBigger.asp


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Physicists Build Bigger 'Bottles' of Antimatter to Unlock Nature's Secrets

February 18, 2011

By Kim McDonaldUCSD physicists James Danielson, Clifford Surko and Craig Schallhorn (left to right) inspect theapparatus they are using to develop the world's largest trap for low-energy positrons, which isexpected to hold a trillion or more antiparticles.Photo Credit: Kim McDonald, UCSD

Once regarded as the stuff of science fiction, antimatter the mirror image of the ordinary matter in our observable universe is now the focus of laboratory studies around the world.

While physicists routinely produce antimatter with radioisotopes and particle colliders, coolingthese antiparticles and containing them for any length of time is another story. Once antimatter comes into contact with ordinary matter it annihilates or disappears in a flash of gammaradiation.

Clifford Surko, a professor of physics at UC San Diego who is constructing what he hopes will bethe worlds largest antimatter container, said physicists have recently developed new methods tomake special states of antimatter in which they can create large clouds of antiparticles, compressthem and make specially tailored beams for a variety of uses.

He described the progress made in this area, including his own efforts, at the annual meeting inWashington, DC, of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. His talk, TamingDiracs Particle, led off the session entitled Through the Looking Glass: Recent Adventures inAntimatter, at 1:30 pm on February 18.

Surko said that since positrons the anti-electrons predicted by English physicist Paul Diracsome 80 years ago disappear in a burst of gamma rays whenever they come in contact with

ordinary matter, accumulating and storing these antimatter particles is no small feat. But over thepast few years, he added, researchers have developed new techniques to store billions of positrons for hours or more and cool them to low temperatures in order to slow their movementsso they can be studied.

Surko said physicists are now able to slow positrons from radioactive sources to low energy andaccumulate and store them for days in specially designed bottles that have magnetic andelectric fields as walls rather than matter. They have also developed methods to cool them totemperatures as low as that of liquid helium and to compressthem to high densities.

One can then carefully push them out of the bottle in a thin stream, a beam, much like squeezinga tube of toothpaste, said Surko, adding that there are a variety of uses for such positrons.

A familiar positron technique that does not use this new technology is the PET scan, also knownas Positron Emission Tomography, which is now used routinely to study human metabolicprocesses and help design new drugs.

In the new methods being developed by physicists, beams of positrons will be used in other ways. These beams provide new ways to study how antiparticles interact or react with ordinarymatter, said Surko. They are very useful, for example, in understanding the properties of material surfaces.


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Surko and his collaborators at UC San Diego are studying how positrons bind to ordinary matter,such as atoms and molecules. While these complexes only last a billionth of a second or so, hesaid, the stickiness of the positron is an important facet of the chemistry of matter andantimatter.

Surko and his colleagues are building the worlds largest trap for low-energy positrons in hislaboratory at UC San Diego, capable of storing more than a trillion antimatter particles at onetime.

We are now working to accumulate trillions of positrons or more in a novel multi-cell trap anarray of magnetic bottles akin to a hotel with many rooms, with each room containing tens of billions of antiparticles, he said.

These developments are enabling many new studies of nature. Examples include the formationand study of antihydrogen, the antimatter counterpart of hydrogen; the investigation of electron-positron plasmas, similar to those believed to be present at the magnetic poles of neutron stars,using a device now being developed at Columbia University; and the creation of much larger bursts of positrons which could eventually enable the creation of an annihilation gamma raylaser.

An exciting long-term goal of the work is the creation of portable traps for antimatter, addedSurko. This would increase greatly the ability to use and exploit antiparticles in our matter worldin situations where radioisotope- or accelerator-based positron sources are inconvenient toarrange.

Professor Surkos work is funded by the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency.

Galaxies like snowflakes are another example of fractal construction.

Giant galaxies akin to snowflakes in spaceFebruary 21st, 2011 in Space & Earth / Astronomy

Enlarge

(PhysOrg.com) -- Giant galaxies that contain billions of stars are born in much the same way asdelicate snowflakes, new research from Swinburne University of Technology has shown.

In a paper accepted for publication in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,Professor Duncan Forbes has provided the first direct evidence to support a theory of galaxyformation that he has likened to the birth of a snowflake.

Forbes, with the help of international collaborators, analysed data from three different telescopesin order to help confirm this galaxy formation theory proposed last year by German astronomer Ludwig Oser and his colleagues.

What weve found is that galaxies form in two phases. Firstly, an inner region of stars is formedfrom collapsing gas. This region then acts as a core, or `seed, around which the galaxy grows asthe result of stars which are acquired from other smaller galaxies, he said.

According to Professor Jean Brodie from the University of California, our work provides some of the best evidence for this inside-out build up of giant galaxies.

What intrigued the astronomers was the similarity between this inside-out process for giant galaxyformation and the way that snowflakes are formed.


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Snowflake formation requires a `seed to get it started. In the case of snowflakes, that `seed is amicroscopic dust grain. Having a core from which to build upon is comparable to the formation of a giant galaxy, Forbes said.

Then, in much the same way as water vapour accumulates to grow the snowflake, small galaxiesand their stars are accreted onto the galaxy core.

The astronomers based their conclusions on observations of the massive elliptical galaxyNGC1407, one of the largest galaxies in the southern skies with over 10 billion stars.

They made their observations using two giant telescopes in Hawaii the 8.2 metre Subaru andthe 10 metre Keck, the largest optical telescope in the world. They also included data collectedfrom the Hubble Space Telescope.

Our data came from three of the worlds premier telescopes, and in each case it supported thesnowflake theory of galaxy formation, Forbes said. This means we can be very confident in our findings.

Provided by Swinburne University of Technology

"Giant galaxies akin to snowflakes in space." February 21st, 2011.http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-02-giant-galaxies-akin-snowflakes-space.html

http://www.dailytech.com/US+Lab+Recreates+Violent+Big+Bang+Temperatures+Makes+Quark+Soup/article17699.htm

U.S. Lab Recreates Violent Big Bang Temperatures, Makes Quark SoupJason Mick (Blog) - February 16, 2010 12:00 PMPrint

62 comment(s) - last by popopo.. on Feb 23 at 10:26 AM

(Source: Sprouting Sprouts)

A visualization shows the quark gluon plasma "soup" created at the Brookhaven NationalLaboratory. The soup reaches temperatures that are as hot as the big bang, melting protons andneturons. (Source: BNL via YouTube)

Vortices were also observed, a part of a phenomena known as "symmetry-breaking" that runscounter to the traditional laws of physics. (Apparently you CAN change the laws of physics!)(Source: BNL via YouTube)

Conditions have likely not been seen in the last 13.7 billion years

While the Large Hadron Collider's record setting performance in particle collisions is certainlyimpressive, it's important not to forget about the important contributions that particle physicscenters here in the United States are still making. Fermilab (Batavia, Illinois) was the previousrecord holder of the highest energy collision and still has a shot at beating the LHC at finding theHiggs boson.

Another key lab is the Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), home tothe Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), a slightly different type of collider that impacts larger particles. Despite being grossly underfunded, both the Brookhaven NL and Fermilab had bothoffered stunning research contributions in recent years.


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Now BNL can add one more to the list -- achieving temperatures likely not seen since the BigBang. The lab produced temperatures of 4 trillion degrees Celsius, 250,000 times hotter than theSun's interior, during collisions of gold atoms hurtling at almost the speed of light. To giveanother benchmark, the collision produced internal heat approximately 40 times that at the center of an imploding supernova star.

The collisions produced a stunning "soup" of quarks and gluons. The analyzed data indicatesthat record high temperature caused the protons and neutrons of the gold atoms to "melt" into thequarks and gluons that compose them, which then formed a plasma, known as quark gluonplasma (QGP). This appears to be the first time man has been able to make such a quark soup.

Dr. William F. Brinkman, Director of the DOE Office of Science, states that the results areamazing. He comments, "This research offers significant insight into the fundamental structure of matter and the early universe, highlighting the merits of long-term investment in large-scale, basicresearch programs at our national laboratories. I commend the careful approach RHIC scientistshave used to gather detailed evidence for their claim of creating a truly remarkable new form of matter."

The researchers measured the temperature of the QGP using color and light-based heat analysistechniques, the advanced derivatives of similar techniques used in industrial applications. Andthere were surprises.

States Steven Vigdor, Brookhavens Associate Laboratory Director for Nuclear and ParticlePhysics, "The temperature inferred from these new measurements at RHIC is considerably higher than the long-established maximum possible temperature attainable without the liberation of quarks and gluons from their normal confinement inside individual protons and neutrons.However, the quarks and gluons in the matter we see at RHIC behave much more cooperativelythan the independent particles initially predicted for QGP."

The biggest challenge in the research, perhaps, was convincing skeptics in the research field thatthe quark soup was real. Previously, physicists had predicted that it would have a gas-like form,but results from the BNL, starting in 2005, suggested it was actually a remarkable liquid with no

frictional resistance or viscosity.

The verifications was very challenging; whereas the QGP existed for microseconds after the BigBang, in the lab it existed for a mere billionth of a trillionth of a second (10^-21 s). In order todetect what happened in that sliver of time, researchers had to capture the handful of high-energyphotons that were thrown off and told exactly how hot the mix got. The results seem toconclusively indicate that the QGP is indeed a liquid, at least at some temperatures.

Another interesting result was the "symmetry-breaking" behavior observed in the collisionbubbles. In fundamental terms, the phenomena involves the charged particles immersed in thepowerful magnetic field within the bubbles moving in directions opposite to what is seen in today'suniverse.

The results are published in two papers appearing in the journal Physical Review Letters [1] [2].Following the success, the researchers plan to within a year or two upgrade the RHIC to improveits collision rate and detector capabilities. Better collisions could reveal other exotic particles likeHiggs bosons or their theoretical alternative preons (point particles that some have theorizedmake up quarks and gluons.

"Bound neutrons pave way to free ones." February 7th, 2011.http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-02-bound-neutrons-pave-free.html


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> Some experiments seem to show that the building blocks of protons and neutrons inside anucleus are somehow different from that of free ones (the EMC Effect). Other experiments showthey behave differently when they pair up (Short-Range Correlations): they move faster andfrequently overlap. Combining the data from experiments addressing these two effects, nuclear physicists showed that the two were connected. This connection has allowed scientists, for thefirst time, to extract information through experimentation about the internal structure of freeneutrons, without the assistance of a theoretical model. Credit: DOE's Jefferson Lab

>

> A study of bound protons and neutrons conducted at the Department of Energy's ThomasJefferson National Accelerator Facility has allowed scientists, for the first time, to extractinformation through experimentation about the internal structure of free neutrons, without theassistance of a theoretical model. The result was published in the Feb. 4 issue of PhysicalReview Letters.

> The major hurdle for scientists who study the internal structure of the neutron is that mostneutrons are bound up inside the nucleus of atoms to protons. In nature, a free neutron lasts for only a few minutes, while in the nucleus, neutrons are always encumbered by the ubiquitousproton.

> To tease out a description of a free neutron, a group of scientists compared data collected atJefferson Lab and the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory that detail how bound protons andneutrons in the nucleus of the atom display two very different effects. Both protons and neutronsare referred to as nucleons.

> "Both effects are due to the nucleons behaving like they are not free," says Doug Higinbotham,a Jefferson Lab staff scientist.

> Nucleons appear to differ when they are tightly bound in heavier nuclei versus when they areloosely bound in light nuclei. In the first effect, experiments have shown that nucleons tightly

bound in a heavy nucleus pair up more often than those loosely bound in a light nucleus.

origin 10 the backbone of the omniverse

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