Origins of Origins of AgricultureAgricultureRoots of civilizationRoots of civilization

Transition from systematic Transition from systematic harvesting of wild plants to harvesting of wild plants to cultivation. cultivation. Chapter 5 in text. See also pdf Chapter 5 in text. See also pdf readingsreadings

Evidence from multiple sources: Evidence from multiple sources: palynology, zooarchaeology, palynology, zooarchaeology, environmental archaeology, paleobotany, environmental archaeology, paleobotany, farming technology, food storage farming technology, food storage practices, stable isotope analysis…practices, stable isotope analysis…

Hypotheses to Explain Hypotheses to Explain AgricultureAgriculture

Big question: after 2 million years of Big question: after 2 million years of human development, why the change in human development, why the change in dietary habits?dietary habits? When and exactly When and exactly where agriculture took root is still where agriculture took root is still being worked out, but it appears being worked out, but it appears first archaeologically in the first archaeologically in the Anatolian plateau.Anatolian plateau.

The fertile crescent

Key questions for these Key questions for these hypotheseshypotheses

Did population increases occur before Did population increases occur before or after agriculture?or after agriculture?

What brought about population What brought about population increases?increases?

What conditions had to exist?What conditions had to exist? Which plants were domesticated first?Which plants were domesticated first? How can we test these conjectures?How can we test these conjectures? When did this occur?When did this occur?

Oasis hypothesisOasis hypothesis Natural habitat hypothesisNatural habitat hypothesis Population pressuresPopulation pressures Edge hypothesisEdge hypothesis Social HypothesisSocial Hypothesis

Oasis HypothesisOasis Hypothesis

Domestication begins Domestication begins as a symbiotic as a symbiotic relationship between relationship between humans, plants, and humans, plants, and animals at oases.animals at oases.

Linked to fertile river Linked to fertile river valley hypothesisvalley hypothesis

V. Gordon Childe the V. Gordon Childe the major proponent of the major proponent of the hypothesis.hypothesis.

Natural habitat Natural habitat HypothesisHypothesis

Earliest domesticated Earliest domesticated plants found in the plants found in the areas of wild areas of wild ancestors. Humans ancestors. Humans inhabit zones rich in inhabit zones rich in certain easily certain easily harvested plants and harvested plants and learn to cultivate from learn to cultivate from observation.observation.

Robert Braidwood was a Robert Braidwood was a strong advocate for this strong advocate for this concept. Also tied to the fertile concept. Also tied to the fertile river valley hypothesis.river valley hypothesis.

Edge HypothesisEdge Hypothesis

Pressure to turn to Pressure to turn to agriculture were agriculture were greatest at the edges greatest at the edges or margins of a or margins of a resource area.resource area.

Lewis Binford a Lewis Binford a proponent of this variant proponent of this variant of population theory.of population theory.

Population Pressure Population Pressure HypothesisHypothesis

Increased populations Increased populations forced people to turn forced people to turn to agriculture.to agriculture.

Large populations Large populations required greater required greater food surplus and food surplus and also provided also provided labor. Labor labor. Labor needed to be needed to be managed leading managed leading to institutional to institutional control among control among priests or chiefs.. priests or chiefs..

Irrigation Irrigation management management Agricultural Agricultural

development could development could not lead to not lead to civilization without civilization without water management water management strategiesstrategies Robert Mc Adams

Fertile CrescentFertile Crescent

Scene of earliest old Scene of earliest old world farming also the world farming also the region of earliest region of earliest urban centers and urban centers and States.States.

Natufian culture the Natufian culture the first farmers?first farmers?

Ofer bar-Josef

Late neolithic technology from Natufian cultural region

ConceptConcept

Archaeological cultures: Archaeological cultures: societies known only through societies known only through

archaeology and from shared traits, archaeology and from shared traits, such as common burial practices, such as common burial practices, technologies, diets, and lifestyles.technologies, diets, and lifestyles.

Natufian burial

Fetal position Natufian burial

Necklace of animal teeth.

Remnant Natufian quern for processing grain.

Important early sites of Important early sites of agriculture agriculture

Natufian region Natufian region (Bar-Josef)(Bar-Josef)

Jarmo (Robert Jarmo (Robert Braidwood)Braidwood)

Jericho (Kathleen Jericho (Kathleen Kenyon)Kenyon)

MehrgarhMehrgarh

Ban-po-ts’unBan-po-ts’un

Dame Kathleen Kenyon at Jericho

ChronologyChronology

Current estimates are that intermittent Current estimates are that intermittent and seasonal harvesting of wild foods and seasonal harvesting of wild foods begins 11,000 years ago.begins 11,000 years ago.

Actual cultivation by settled communities Actual cultivation by settled communities can be traced to 9000 years ago.can be traced to 9000 years ago.

Jarmo continues to be considered the Jarmo continues to be considered the site of earliest confirmed agriculture, but site of earliest confirmed agriculture, but new sites are being investigated which new sites are being investigated which may change this view.may change this view.

Important Cultigens from Important Cultigens from the the

archaeological recordarchaeological record Einkron wheatEinkron wheat Emmer wheatEmmer wheat BarleyBarley LentilsLentils GrapesGrapes FigsFigs In the far East: riceIn the far East: rice In Americas: potatoes, In Americas: potatoes,

manioc, yamsmanioc, yams Plastered ancestor skull from Jericho.

Einkron wheat (cultivated) Emmer wheat

barley

Technologies of Technologies of agricultureagriculture

Sickles made from antler and obsidian Sickles made from antler and obsidian microlithsmicroliths

Sickle gloss evidence (micro wear Sickle gloss evidence (micro wear analysis)analysis)

Grinding stones (querns, mortars, pestles)Grinding stones (querns, mortars, pestles) Storage jarsStorage jars Storage pitsStorage pits Granaries in architecture.Granaries in architecture.

Obsidian sickle blade studied for wear patters and trace chemical residues.

Positive Side effectsPositive Side effects

Agriculture leads to sedentary Agriculture leads to sedentary populations.populations.

Surplus can provide in lean times.Surplus can provide in lean times. Surpluses can be traded for other Surpluses can be traded for other

commodities.commodities. Surpluses mean some fraction of the Surpluses mean some fraction of the

population does not have to engage in population does not have to engage in food production.food production. This gives rise to different roles within This gives rise to different roles within

society and produces social stratification.society and produces social stratification.

Also beer !Also beer ! http://www.anchorbrewing.com/http://www.anchorbrewing.com/

beers/ninkasi.htmbeers/ninkasi.htm

Negative Side EffectsNegative Side Effects

Dependencies on crop and climate Dependencies on crop and climate stabilitystability

Must be defended.Must be defended. Larger populations require more Larger populations require more

work to feed.work to feed. Large sedentary populations create Large sedentary populations create

lots of waste, sewage, pollution…lots of waste, sewage, pollution…

Control over irrigation of water, water Control over irrigation of water, water distribution, or surplus food production are distribution, or surplus food production are closely linked to rise of States level closely linked to rise of States level societies. But did one precede the other or societies. But did one precede the other or was it a tandem process?was it a tandem process?

Did struggle over water create system of Did struggle over water create system of power? Who was in charge? Chiefs? power? Who was in charge? Chiefs? Priests?Priests?

Rise to CivilizationRise to Civilization Evidence Evidence

suggests that in suggests that in the ancient Near the ancient Near East, control East, control over irrigation over irrigation and water and water resources was resources was fundamental to fundamental to the rise of the rise of powerful city-powerful city-states.states.

Tower structure at Jericho 7000 years ago.

Elsewhere, agriculture supported complex Elsewhere, agriculture supported complex chiefdoms.chiefdoms.

Agricultural surplus allows war, writing, Agricultural surplus allows war, writing, schools, the invention of history, new schools, the invention of history, new technologies…but also links civilizations technologies…but also links civilizations directly to environmental dependency, directly to environmental dependency, degradation, and potential demise.degradation, and potential demise.

State Level OrganizationState Level Organization

States can be defined as States can be defined as independent kingdoms with independent kingdoms with specific specific self-sustaining self-sustaining institutions and centralized institutions and centralized authority. authority.

StatesStates

States have rank divisions, States have rank divisions, institutionalized government and institutionalized government and hierarchical power structures, (institutional hierarchical power structures, (institutional monopoly of military) urban living, division monopoly of military) urban living, division of labor with craft specialization, of labor with craft specialization, standardized laws, control over resources, standardized laws, control over resources, social stratification, monumental social stratification, monumental architecture, and frequently a powerful architecture, and frequently a powerful stratified religious authority.stratified religious authority.

Coming next Monday…Coming next Monday…

Catal Hoyuk in TurkeyCatal Hoyuk in Turkey Civilizations in Mesopotamia.Civilizations in Mesopotamia.

First cities: Ubaid, Uruk, Lagash, Babylon, the First cities: Ubaid, Uruk, Lagash, Babylon, the Sumerian civilization.Sumerian civilization.

Evidence exists for brewing as far back as 3500BC.

Sumerian priest drinking beer.

Tablet with recipe for beer from about 600BC