Our Minds as Icebergs:

Understanding the Effects of Implicit Bias in Everyday Decisions

Efrén O. Pérez, PhDAssociate Professor

Department of Political ScienceCo-Director, RIPS Lab

Wanting to be Right, But Getting it Wrong

• The case of Amadou Diallo.

• Vividly highlights the interplay between automatic and controlled thinking.

What Went Wrong?

• Short time horizons.

• Insufficient and hazy information.

• But most importantly: implicit cognition.

• An implicit association between Blacks-weapons (Payne 2001, 2006; Correll et al. 2002, 2007).

• All this transpired despite rigorous training.

Implicit Cognition: A Mental “Iceberg”

• A form of thinking that directs attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, stereotypes that are:

• Automatically triggered

• Hard to control

• Non-verbalized

• Can influence us without our awareness

The Brain’s Architecture

Implicit Cognition (track 1)

• Rapid and involuntary

• Rudimentary and highly affective

• Effortless and unconscious

• In terms of content, source, and impact

• Primary

Explicit Cognition (track 2)

• Controlled and deliberative

• More refined

• Effortful and secondary

• Within introspective reach

• “I know I am doing it.”

Manifestations of Implicit Cognition

• Attitudes toward groups (e.g., ethnic, racial, gender, body weight, disability, etc.)

• Preferences (e.g., political candidates, consumer products)

• Stereotypes and knowledge (e.g., African Americans and weapons)

• Let’s all take one together. Follow me by tapping your hands on your lap:

• https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/

Latino Whiteor orBad Good

Pérez…Agony…Smith…Happy White Latino

or orBad Good

Hernández…Terrible…Jones

…Glorious

The Logic of the Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Degrees of Object-Evaluation

• Link between a category and how we judge it.

• For example, Latino-Bad.

• That association varies person to person.

• Those individual differences predict individual differences in what people say and do (e.g., Pérez 2016; Ashburn-Nardo et al. 2003; Arcuri et al. 2008).

Other Measures Available

• Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP)

• Affective Priming (AP)

• All tap into different components of automaticity.

We All Possess Implicit Attitudes

• Yes, white people hold them, but they aren’t just a “white” thing.

• Not just a phenomenon that grips individuals who are “uncouth.”

• What is more, a person’s implicit attitude is just as real as their explicit one.

Whites and non-Whites Have Them

• Learned early (5 year olds already manifest them).

• Quite stable (little change from child to adult).

• Reflects internalization of status differences between groups.

• Dunham, Yarrow, Andrew Scott Baron, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 2007. Children and Social Groups: A Developmental Analysis of Implicit Consistency in Hispanic Americans. Self and Identity 6: 238-255.

• Dunham, Yarrow, Andrew S. Baron, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 2008. The Development of Implicit Intergroup Cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12(7): 248-253.

Even the “Well-to-Do” Have Them

• Physicians at two medical centers exposed to a vignette of a patient in their emergency room with acute coronary syndrome.

• Race of patient (Black or White) is randomly assigned.

• Physicians complete self-reports and IAT measuring racial attitudes.

• Physicians report no explicit bias toward White patients. IAT reveals implicit bias toward White patients. Implicit (but not explicit) bias predicts physician differences in thrombolysis recommendations to White (+) and Black (-) patients.

• Green, Alexander R., Dana R. Carney, Daniel J. Pallin, Long H. Ngo, Kristal L. Raymond, Lisa I. Lezzoni, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 2007. Journal of General Internal Medicine 22(9): 1231-1248.

People’s Implicit and Explicit Attitudes are Both Real

• Generally, modest explicit/implicit attitude correlations.

• Explicit/implicit attitudes predict variance in outcomes beyond the other one.

• Implicit attitudes are better predictors in socially sensitive domains.

• Greenwald, Anthony G., Andrew T. Poehlman, Eric Luis Uhlmann, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 2009. Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-Analysis of Predictive Validity. 2009. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97(1): 17-41.

• Nosek, Brian A. 2005. Moderators of the Relationship Between Implicit and Explicit Evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 134: 565-584.

• Greenwald, Anthony G., and Brian A. Nosek. 2009. Attitudinal Dissociation: What Does It Mean? In R.E. Petty, R.H. Fazio, and P. Briñol, eds., Attitudes: Insights from the New Implicit Measures. New York: Psychology Press.

How Do Implicit Attitudes Matter in Decision-Making?

Track 1 and Track 2 Thinking

• Are the tracks ever jumped?

• Primacy of implicit cognition.

Two models of implicit-explicit attitudes

• John Q. Public (JQP) model

• Roots in political psychology.

• Lodge, Milton, and Charles S. Taber. 2013. The Rationalizing Voter. New York: Cambridge University Press.

• Associative-Propositional Evaluation (APE) model

• Roots in social psychology.

• Gawronski, Bertram, and Galen V. Bodenhausen. 2005. Associative and Propositional Process in Evaluation: An Integrative Review of Implicit and Explicit Attitude Change. Psychological Bulletin 132(4): 692-731.

When Do Implicit Attitudes Matter (Less)?

• MODE model (Motivation and Opportunity as Determinants of Evaluation).

• Roots in social psychology.

• Fazio, Russell H., Joni R. Jackson, Bridget C. Dunton, and Carol J. Williams. 1995. Variability in Automatic activation as an Unobtrusive Measure of Racial Attitudes: A Bona Fide Pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 669(6: 1013-1027.

• See also Devine, Patricia G. 1989. Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56(1): 5-18.

• Correspondence between track 1 and track 2 depends on motivation and opportunity.

Motivation and Opportunity as Levers

Low Opportunity High Opportunity

Low Motivation Implicit overwhelms explicit

Weaker, but still present implicit

High Motivation Weaker, but still present implicit

Explicit overwhelmsimplicit

Implications of Implicit Attitudes for Faculty Searches

Steinpreis, Rhea E., Katie A. Anders, and Dawn Ritzke. 1999. The Impact of Gender on the Review of the Curricula Vitae of Job Applicants and Tenure Candidates: A National Empirical Study. Sex Roles 41: 509-528.

• CV of a real applicant judged by psychologists (N=238):

• One CV for tenure-track position• One CV for tenured position• Male or female name randomly assigned to CV

Implications of Implicit Attitudes for Faculty Searches

Steinpreis, Rhea E., Katie A. Anders, and Dawn Ritzke. 1999. The Impact of Gender on the Review of the Curricula Vitae of Job Applicants and Tenure Candidates: A National Empirical Study. Sex Roles 41: 509-528.

• For tenure-track CV: psychologists more likely to hire male applicants and rate higher their teaching, research, and service.

• For tenured CV: Equally likely to tenure male/female candidates, but more likely to include cautionary notes on female CVs.

Implications of Implicit Attitudes for Faculty Searches

Bertrand, Marianne, and Sendhil Mullainathan. 2004. Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination. The American Economic Review 94: 991-1013.

• Resumes sent to employers advertising open positions in Chicago and Boston.

• Randomly assign “White” and “Black” names to resumes.

• “White “ applicants more likely to be called back for an interview.

Implications of Implicit Attitudes for Faculty Searches

Milkman, Katherine L., Modupe Akinola, and Dolly Chugh. 2015. What Happens Before? A Field Experiment Exploring How Pay and Representation Differentially Shape Bias on the Pathway into Organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology 100: 1678-1712.

• Audit study of 6,500 professors at top American universities from 89 disciplines and 259 institutions.

• Professors contacted by fictional prospective students wanting to discuss research opportunities before applying to a PhD program.

• Identical message with student names signaling gender and race randomly assigned.

• Faculty were more responsive to White males than other students, especially in higher-paying disciplines and private institutions.

Minimizing Implicit Attitudes in Faculty Searches

• Who are “we”?

• Identity and the committee as ingroup (motivation)

• What is the objective(s)?

• Partisan versus accuracy goals (motivation)

• “Slowing down” the search

• Quality of information that is available (opportunity)

• Blinding information

• Depth of information processing (opportunity)

Sources ConsultedGeneral Overviews

Bargh, John A., ed. Social Psychology and the Unconscious: The Automaticity of Higher Mental Processes. New York: Psychology Press, 2007

Wittenbrink, Bernd, and Norbert Schwarz, eds. Implicit Measures of Attitudes. New York: Guilford Press, 2007.

Petty, Richard E., Russell H. Fazio, and Pablo Briñol, eds. Attitudes: Insights from the New Implicit Measures. New York: Psychology Press, 2009.

Gawronski, Bertram, and B. Keith Payne, eds. Handbook of Implicit Social Cognition: Measurement, Theory, and Applications. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Banaji, Mahzarin R., and Anthony G. Greenwald. Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People. New York: Penguin Books Ltd., 2013.

Ksiazkiewicz, Aleksander, and James Hedrick. “An Introduction to Implicit Attitudes in Political Science Research.” PS: Political Science and Politics 46 (2013): 525-531.

Pérez, Efrén O. Implicit Attitudes: Meaning, Measurement, and Synergy with Political Science. Politics, Groups, and Identities 1 (2013): 275-297.

Gawronski, Bertram, Silvia Galdi, and Luciano Arcuri. “What Can Political Psychology Learn from Implicit Measures? Empirical Evidence and New Directions.” Political Psychology 36 (2015): 1-17.

Sources ConsultedWhat Are They?

Greenwald, Anthony G., and Mahzarin R. Banaji. “Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Stereotypes.” Psychological Review 102 (1995): 4-27.

Gawronski, Bertram, and Galen V. Bodenhausen. “Associative and Processes in Evaluation: An Integrative Review of Implicit and Explicit Attitude Change.” Psychological Bulletin 132 (2006): 692-731.

Fazio, Russell H. “Attitudes as Object-Evaluation Associations of Varying Strength.” Social Cognition 25 (2007): 603-637.

What Makes Them Implicit?

Bargh, John A. “The Four Horsemen of Automaticity: Awareness, Efficiency, Intention, and Control in Social Cognition.” In R.S. Wyer and T.K. Srull, eds., Handbook of Social Cognition. Tuxedo Park: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1994.

Bargh, John A., Mark Chen, and Nalini Ambady. “Automaticity of Social Behavior: Direct Effects of Trait Construct and Stereotype Activation on Action.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 (1996): 230-244.

Correll, Joshua, Bernadette Park, Charles M. Judd, and Bernd Wittenbrink. “The Police Officer’s Dilemma: Using Ethnicity to Disambiguate Potentially Threatening Individuals.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 1314-1329.

Payne, B. Keith, Alan J. Lambert, and Larry L. Jacoby. “Best Laid Plans: Effects of Goals on Accessibility Bias and Cognitive Control in Race-Based Misperceptions of Weapons.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38 (2002): 384-396.

Kim, Do-Yeong. “Voluntary Controllability of the Implicit Association Test.” Social Psychology Quarterly 66 (2003): 83-96.

Conrey, Frederica R., Jeffrey W. Sherman, Bertram Gawronski, Kurt Hugenberg, and Carla J. Groom. “Separating Multiple Processes in Implicit Social Cognition: The Quad Model of Implicit Task Performance.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005): 469-487.

Sources ConsultedWhere Do Implicit Attitudes Come From?

Olson, Michael A., and Russell H. Fazio. “Implicit Attitude Formation Through Classical Conditioning.” Psychological Science 12 (2001): 413-417.

Olson, Michael A., and Russell H. Fazio. “Implicit Acquisition and Manifestation of Classically Conditioned Attitudes.” Social Cognition 20 (2002): 89-193.

Rydell, Robert J., and Allen R. McConnell. “Understanding Implicit and Explicit Attitude Change: A Systems of Reasoning Analysis.” Journal of Personal and Social Psychology 91 (2006): 995-1008.

Dunham, Yarrow, Eva E. Chen, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. “Two Signatures of Implicit Intergroup Attitudes: Developmental Invariance and Early Enculturation.” Psychological Science 24 (2013): 860-868.

Gawronski, Bertram, Robert Balas, and Laura A. Creighton. “Can the Formation of Conditioned Attitudes be Intentionally Controlled?” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 40 (2014): 419-432.

Sources ConsultedClassic Articles on Measuring Implicit Attitudes and Related Cognitions

Fazio, Russel H., Joni R. Jackson, Bridget C. Dunton, and Carol J. Williams. “Variability in Automatic Activation as an Unobtrusive Measure of Racial Attitudes: A Bona Fide Pipeline?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995): 1013-1027.

Greenwald, Anthony G., Debbie E. McGhee, and Jordan L.K. Schwartz. “Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 1464-1480.

Payne, B. Keith. “Prejudice and Perception: The Role of Automatic and Controlled Processes in Misperceiving a Weapon.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 181-192.

Greenwald, Anthony G., Brian A. Nosek, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. “Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: I. An Improved Scoring Algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003): 197-216.

Devos, Thierry, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. “American = White?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005): 447-466.

Payne, B. Keith, Clara Michelle Cheng, Olesya Govorun, and Brandon D. Stewart. “An Inkblot for Attitudes: Affect Misattribution as Implicit Measurement.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005): 277-293.

Sriram, N., and Anthony G. Greenwald. “The Brief Implicit Association Test.” Experimental Psychology 56 (2009): 283-294.

Project Implicit®, https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/index.jsp

Sources ConsultedRelationships Between Implicit and Explicit Attitudes

Nosek, Brian A., Mahzarin R. Banaji, and Anthony G. Greenwald. “Harvesting Implicit Group Attitudes and Beliefs From a Demonstration Web Site.” Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice 6(2002): 101-115.

Gawronski, Bertram, and Fritz Strack. “On the Propositional Nature of Cognitive Consistency: Dissonance Changes Explicit, But Not Implicit Attitudes.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40 (2004): 535-542.

Nosek, Brian A. “Moderators of the Relationship Between Implicit and Explicit Evaluation.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 134 (2005): 565-584.

Nosek, Brian A. “Implicit-Explicit Relations.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007): 65-69.

Nosek, Brian A., and Frederick L. Smyth. “A Multitrait-Multimethod Validation of the Implicit Association Test.” Experimental Psychology 54 (2007): 14-29.

Payne, B. Keith, Melissa A. Burkley, and Mark B. Stokes. “Why Do Implicit and Explicit Attitude Tests Diverge? The Role of Structural Fit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008): 16-31.

Ranganath, Kate A., Colin T. Tucker, and Brian A. Nosek. “Distinguishing Automatic and Controlled Components of Attitudes from Direct and Indirect Measurement Methods.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 (2008): 386-396.

Greenwald, Anthony G., and Brian A. Nosek. “Attitudinal Dissociation: What Does it Mean?” In R.E. Petty, R.H. Fazio, and P. Briñol, eds., Attitudes: Insights from the New Implicit Measures. Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 2009.

Sources ConsultedNeurological Insights into Implicit Attitudes

Phelps, Elizabeth, Kevin J. O’Connor, William A. Cunningham, E. Sumie Funayama, J. Christopher Gatenby, John C. Gore, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. “Performance on Indirect Measures of Race Evaluation Predicts Amygdala Activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (2000): 729-738.

Cunningham, William A., Marcia K. Johnson, J. Chris Gatenby, John C. Gore, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. “Neural Components of Social Evaluation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003): 639-649.

Lieberman, Matthew D., Darren Schreiber, and Kevin N. Ochsner. “Is Political Cognition Like Riding a Bicycle? How Cognitive Neuroscience Can Inform Research on Political Thinking.” Political Psychology 24 (2003): 681-704.

Cunningham, William A., Marcia K. Johnson, Carol L. Raye, J. Chris Gatenby, John C. Gore, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. “Separable Neural Components in the Processing of Black and White Faces.” Psychological Science 15 (2004): 806-813.

Cunningham, William A., Carol L. Raye, and Marcia K. Johnson. “Implicit and Explicit Evaluation: fMRI Correlates of Valence, Emotional Intensity, and Control in the Processing of Attitudes.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16 (2004): 1-13.

Amodio, David M., Jennifer T. Kubota, Eddie Harmon-Jones, and Patricia G. Devine. “Alternative Mechanisms for Regulating Racial Responses to Internal and External Cues.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 1 (2006): 26-36.

Stanley, Damian, Elizabeth Phelps, and Mahzarin Banaji. “The Neural Basis of Implicit Attitudes.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 17 (2008): 164-170.

Kubota, Jennifer T., Mahzarin R. Banaji, and Elizabeth Phelps. “The Neuroscience of Race.” Nature Neuroscience 15 (2012): 940-948.

Schreiber, Darren, and Marco Iacoboni. “Huxtables on the Brain: An fMRI Study of Race and Norm Violation.” Political Psychology 33 (2012): 313-330.

Sources ConsultedAre Implicit Attitudes Subconscious?

Gawronski, Bertram, Wilhelm Hofmann, and Christopher J. Wilber. “Are ‘Implicit’ Attitudes Unconscious?” Consciousness and Cognition 15 (2006): 485-499.

Gawronski, Bertram, Etienne P. LePel, and Kurt R. Peters. “What Do Implicit Measures Tell Us?” Perspectives on Psychological Science 2 (2007): 181-193.

Hahn, Adam, and Bertram Gawronski. “Do Implicit Evaluations Reflect Unconscious Attitudes?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 37 (2014): 28-29.

Sources ConsultedDual-Process Models of Implicit-Explicit Cognition

Lodge, Milton, and Charles S. Taber. The Rationalizing Voter. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Fazio, Russell H., and Michael A. Olson. “The MODE Model: Attitude-Behavior Processes as a Function of Motivation and Opportunity.” In J.W. Sherman, B. Gawronski, and Y. Trope, eds.., Dual-Process Theories of the Social Mind. New York: Guilford Press, 2014.

Gawronski, Bertram, and Galen V. Bodenhausen. “The Associative-Propositional Evaluation Model.” In J.W. Sherman, B. Gawronski, and Y. Trope, eds.., Dual-Process Theories of the Social Mind. New York: Guilford Press, 2014.

McConnell, Allen R., and Robert J. Rydell. “The Systems of Evaluation Model: A Dual-Systems Approach to Attitudes.” In J.W. Sherman, B. Gawronski, and Y. Trope, eds.., Dual-Process Theories of the Social Mind. New York: Guilford Press, 2014.

Strack, Fritz, and Roland Deutsch. “The Reflective-Impulsive Model.” In J.W. Sherman, B. Gawronski, and Y. Trope, eds., Dual-Process Theories of the Social Mind. New York: Guilford Press, 2014.

Sources ConsultedImplicit Political AttitudesHaidt, Jonathan. “The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment.” Psychological Review 108 (2001): 814-834.Lodge, Milton, and Charles S. Taber. “The Automaticity of Affect for Political Leaders, Groups, and Issues: An Experimental Test of the Hot Cognition Hypothesis.” Political Psychology 26 (2005): 455-482.Burdein, Inna, Milton Lodge, and Charles Taber. “Experiments on the Automaticity of Political Beliefs and Attitudes.” Political Psychology 27 (2006): 359-371.Taber, Charles S., and Milton Lodge. “Motivated Skepticism in the Evaluation of Political Beliefs.” Political Psychology 50 (2006): 755-769.Haidt, Jonathan, and Jesse Graham. “When Morality Opposes Justice: Conservatives Have Moral Intuitions that Liberals May Not Recognize.” Social Justice Research 20 (2007): 98-116.Kam, Cindy D., “Implicit Attitudes, Explicit Choices: When Subliminal Priming Predicts Candidate Preference.” Political Behavior 29 (2007): 343-367.Arcuri, Luciano, Luigi Castelli, Silvia Galdi, Cristina Zogmaister, and Alessandro Amadori. “Predicting the Vote: Implicit Attitudes as Predictors of the Future Behavior of Decided and Undecided Voters.” Political Psychology 29 (2008): 369-387.Galdi, Silvia, Luciano Arcuri, and Bertram Gawronski. “Automatic Mental Associations Predict Future Choices of Undecided Decision-Makers.” Science 321 (2008): 1100-1102.Graham, Jesse, Jonathan Haidt, and Brian A. Nosek. “Liberals and Conservatives Rely on Different Sets of Moral Foundations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (2009): 1029-1046. Pasek, Josh, Alexander Tahk, Yphtach Lelkes, Jon A. Krosnick, and B. Keith Payne. “Determinants of Turnout and Candidate Choice in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election: Illuminating the Impact of Racial Prejudice and Other Considerations.” Public Opinion Quarterly 73 (2009): 943-994.Payne, B. Keith, Jon A. Krosnick, Josh Pasek, Yphtach Lelkes, Omair Akhtar, and Trevor Tompson. “Implicit and Explicit Prejudice in the 2008 American Presidential Election.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (2010): 367-374.

Sources ConsultedImplicit Political Attitudes (cont’d)

Pérez, Efrén O. “Explicit Evidence on the Import of Implicit Attitudes: The IAT and Immigration Policy Judgments.” Political Behavior 32 (2010): 517-545.

Winter, Nicholas J. G., “Masculine Republicans and Feminine Democrats: Gender and Americans’ Explicit and Implicit Images of the Political Parties.” Political Behavior 32 (2010): 587-618.

Albertson, Bethany L. “Religious Appeals and Implicit Attitudes.” Political Psychology 32 (2011): 109-130.

Hawkins, Carlee Beth, and Brian A. Nosek. “Motivated Independence? Implicit Party Identity Predicts Political Judgments Among Self-Proclaimed Independents.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38 (2012): 1437-1452.

Ditonto, Tessa M., Richard R. Lau, and David O. Sears. “AMPing Racial Attitudes: Comparing the Power of Explicit and Implicit Racism Measures in 2008.” Political Psychology 34(2013): 487-510.

Kalmoe, Nathan P., and Spencer Piston. “Is Implicit Prejudice Against Blacks Politically Consequential? Evidence from the AMP.” Public Opinion Quarterly 77(2013): 305-322.

Kam, Cindy D., and Elizabeth J. Zechmeister. “Name Recognition and Candidate Support.” American Journal of Political Science 57(2013): 971-986.

Knoll, Benjamin R. “Implicit Nativist Attitudes, Social Desirability, and Immigration Policy Preferences.” International Migration Review 47(2013): 132-165.

Ksiazkiewicz, Aleksander. “Implicit Political Knowledge.” PS: Political Science and Politics 46(2013): 553-555.

Malhotra, Neil, Yotam Margalit, and Cecilia Hyunjung Mo. “Economic Explanations for Opposition to Immigration: Distinguishing Between Prevalence and Conditional Impact.” American Journal of Political Science 57(2013): 391-410.

Orey, Byron D’Andra, Thomas Craemer, and Melanye Price. “Implicit Racial Attitude Measures in Black Samples: IAT, Subliminal Priming, and Implicit Black Identification.” PS: Political Science and Politics 46(2013): 550-552

Theodoridis, Alexander George. “Implicit Political Identity.” PS: Political Science and Politics 46 (2013): 545-549.

Erisen, Cengiz, Milton Lodge, Charles S. Taber. “Affective Contagion in Effortful Political Thinking.” Political Psychology 35(2014): 187-206.

Sources ConsultedImplicit Political Attitudes (cont’d)

Lyle, Monique L. “How Racial Cues Affect Support for American Racial Hierarchy Among African Americans and Whites.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 2(2014): 350-367.

Banks, Antoine J., and Heather M. Hicks. “Fear and Implicit Racism: Whites’ Support for Voter ID Laws.” Political Psychology, 2015 (DOI: 10.1111/pops.12292)

Iyengar, Shanto, and Sean J. Westwood. “Fear and Loathing Across Party Lines: New Evidence on Group Polarization.” American Journal of Political Science 59(2015): 690-707.

Mo, Cecilia Hyunjung. “The Consequences of Explicit and Implicit Gender Attitudes and Candidate Quality in the Calculations of Voters.” Political Behavior 37(2015): 357-395.

Kinder, Donald R., and Timothy J. Ryan. “Prejudice and Politics Re-Examined: The Political Significance of Implicit Racial Bias.” Political Science Research and Methods, 2015 (DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/prsm.2015.49)

Kraft, Patrick, Milton Lodge, and Charles S. Taber. “The Illusion of Choice in Democratic Politics.” Advances in Political Psychology 37(2016): 61-85.

Pérez, Efrén O. Unspoken Politics: Implicit Attitudes and Political Thinking. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.