overfishing: reforms and policies

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES 1

Commercial Fishing Issues:

Maintaining a Sustainable Seafood Industry in the Atlantic Ocean

Robert Slipkovich

The University of South Florida


Executive Summary

Commercial fishing is a multi-billion dollar industry that provides seafood to companies and

consumers. Specifically in the Atlantic Ocean, scientists are seeing rapid declines in the populations

of commercially harvested fish. Policies have been the focal point of government intervention in an

attempt to create a sustainable seafood market for the future. However, enforcement of these

regulatory policies is a challenge due to the size of oceanic waters.

Scientists have estimated that if overfishing continues near the current level, commercially

harvested fish will be nearly eradicated by 2048 (Murray, 2009). Technological advancements on

fishing boats have exponentially sped up the ability for fishermen to literally sweep ocean floors.

Along with the rapid decline of fish stocks, come solutions for the renewal of fish habitats. Policies

involving government regulation, fishing quotas, and net sizes have all been viable solutions when

attempting to solve the overfishing epidemic.

The history of overfishing in the United States comes with the aspirations of profit from boat

captains. Since the 1970's, Atlantic waters have become the target of overfishing regulations and

policies. The New England coast once was an area riddled by cod, however, in recent times, much of

the cod has been caught and never had a chance to replenish (Murray, 2009). The expansive coastal

regions of the United State have even warranted international policies which limit other countries

from fishing in American waters. Although laws and federal regulations are usually followed by

fishermen, poor enforcement has become a problem in the quest to keep fish stocks healthy. In an

effort to become combative, stricter regulations are necessary in an effort to eradicate overfishing

from American waters. Rebuilding populations of commercial fish can only be facilitated through

strict policy and regulation.


Introduction

Commercial fishing in the United States has been a problem that has plagued our world for

quite some time. Methods of catching fish have typically involved the use of basic fishing equipment

(rod, hook, bait etc.). However, technological advances have given fisherman the tools necessary to

yield high profits in the smallest amount of time. One may question the technological advances

which often lead to the exponential harvest of commercial fish. Trawling, which is a method where a

net is literally dragged across the ocean floor, has become an area of concern for sustainable

fisheries (Murray, 2009). The literal sweep of the ocean floor and its sea-dwelling inhabitants has

been scrutinized as a focal point in understanding modern day overfishing. Policies have been

introduced which allow for certain size nets, monthly closure of commonly caught fish, and even the

closure of some oceanic waters (Murray, 2009). In any case, science has pointed to empirical

evidence to support the notion that commercial fishing has been a detriment to fish stocks. The

policies previously mentioned are just a few of the federal government’s solutions to the overfishing

pandemic. In the United States, a region where fish has been a mainstay of a healthy diet,

commercial fishing has become a lucrative profession for many people who make their salary on the

water. Policy enforcement and reform, regarding overfishing, is necessary to maintain fisheries for

not only food but survival as well.

Background

The history of overfishing in the Atlantic Ocean has come about as no surprise. Fish have

become a profitable profession for many captains and mates. Throughout the history of the United

States, coastal waters have been home to plentiful bounties of fish. The New England coast once had

cod populations that literally infested the waters (Brander, 2006). Once fisherman exposed and


extensively fished these areas, cod populations had declined drastically. Researchers have noted that

a 1,000 hook line dropped off the new England coast would almost always catch cod on every hook

before the exposure of these fish, however, modern studies using the same technique have yielded

only a handful of cod; much less than in decades past (Murray, 2009). Besides the decimation of

New England cod, many other types of commercially harvested Atlantic fish are also under the

pressures from a high demand seafood market (Big-fish Stocks, 2003). A high demand for sushi

(which has spread from Asian countries) has become a detriment to the current seafood market

(Murray, 2009). Not only is seafood popular in the media, it has also been scientifically found to be

very healthy for consumers. As seafood distributors seek to make a profit off fish, fisherman are

often imposed higher quotas to meet, thus leading to overfishing (Murray, 2009)

Policies have been enacted since the 1970's throughout the Atlantic to save fish from rapidly

declining due to overfishing (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). These policies have targeted commercially

caught fish and to some extent, shellfish. Oysters in the North Atlantic have been a popular catch for

many fisherman, however recent declines in oysters harvested have warranted more governmental

intervention to revive the once thriving oyster population (Ault, Golletquer, Heral, & Rothschild,

1994). The Atlantic coast hosts a variety of fish that have all been affected by commercial fishing

practices. In order to find a feasible solution, the history of Atlantic overfishing polices must be

analyzed to find what went wrong.

Timeline of Major Atlantic Ocean Fishing Policies

According to Rosenberg and Wang (1997), the following policies and initiatives have been

implemented, chronologically, in regard to Atlantic Ocean overfishing (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997):

1977-1982 Magnuson-Stevens fishing act


1982-1986 Interim Groundfish Management Plan

1986-Present Comprehensive Groundfish Management Plan

1989 Implementation of Overfishing Guidelines (Amendment 4)

1994-1995 Amendment to the Interim Groundfish Management Plan (Amendment 5)

1994-Present Economic Assistance Program

Policy Legitimation and Adoption

When looking at the history of overfishing in the United States, finding the original policies

surrounding this topic have formed precedent for modern fishing regulations. The Magnuson-

Stevens (MS) Fishing act was created to limit fishing activity in federal waters (Rosenberg & Wang,

1997). Although originally instituted decades ago, amendments have given to this act to allow it to

transcend into modern day fishing policy and regulation. Historically, this act was the precedent for

much of the United State’s policy on fishing conservation and renewal, especially regarding

minimum size of fish caught as well as net sizes (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997).

Management problems with the original structure of the Magnuson-Stevens fishing act led to

an interim fishery management plan (FMP) in the mid 1980’s (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997) . This

plan led to minimum fish and net sizes that commercial fisherman were able to use (Rosenberg &

Wang, 1997). In an effort to save juvenile fish, the interim FMP was used as a means of restoring

fish populations and allowing juveniles to mature. Smaller fish are noticed to experience less shock

and mortality due to the larger gaps within net mesh, thus they would not be easily trapped within

larger nets. (Chopin & Arimoto, 1995).

After the initial policy, as well as the interim policy, neglected to facilitate a better fishing


environment a more directed policy for Atlantic coast fishing was created. In 1986, a comprehensive

FMP was devised in order to set proper guidelines for fisherman (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Unlike

the previous policies, this comprehensive regulatory policy was under frequent oversight from

marine officials. Specifically, this new policy looked at the ability of fish to reproduce over a given

period of time (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). By analyzing the reproductive capabilities of fish,

researchers and scientists were able to address areas that were frequently fished. Another important

aspect of this policy involved putting Atlantic coast biologists on a monitoring board (Rosenberg &

Wang, 1997). These officials were found to be more qualified than the original overseers due to their

vested, non-monetary interest in the future of Atlantic Ocean fishing (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997).

In order to define overfishing, a set of guidelines was implemented for Atlantic coast fishing

to augment the comprehensive fishing plan. In its entirety, 602 guidelines relating to cod, haddock,

and flounder were implemented to monitor each fish population (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Rather

than focusing on rebuilding fish populations, these guidelines sought to define overfishing in a

specific set of commercially harvested fish. A stock rebuilding program was also to be implemented

through this program, however, National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) did not go through with

the policy implementation (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997).

Amendment 5 to the Interim Groundfish Management Plan instituted a decrease in “fishing

mortality over the next 5-7 years” (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). In order to correct the overfishing

problem in Atlantic waters, researchers had to address more types of fish that are often commercially

caught. Amendment 5 replaced the weak regulations found in Amendment 4 by creating regulations

for nearly every commercially caught Atlantic fish (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Marine biologists

and scientists had also addressed the concerns for fishing fishing vessels at sea and bycatch.

Commercial fishing boats would experience a 10% reduction in days allowed at sea over the next


five years, also, bycatch regulations included continued, stricter regulation of net size (Rosenberg &

Wang, 1997). Bycatch occurs when fish or other marine life becomes entangled in trawling nets.

Agardy, Dayton, and Hofman (1995) maintain that porpoise and whale populations, in regard to

bycatch, have substantially decreased in number due to net size (Agardy, Dayton & Hofman, 1995).

The United States Department of Commerce, a supervising body over the National Marine

Fisheries Service, implemented a plan involving both fishermen and fish. A grant totaling $30

million dollars was part of this economic program to develop alternative fisheries and to aid

fishermen (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Alternative fisheries typically involve fish farming, a method

of raising fish specifically for human consumption. Duda and Sherman (1999) argue that funding

alternative fisheries, such as fish farming, can mitigate ecosystem damage and help oceanic fish

recover from the effects of overfishing (Duda & Sherman, 1999).

Along with funding the future of fishing areas, the United States Department of Commerce

had also decided to create a fund for Atlantic fishermen. In an effort to limit the amount of

commercial vessels, a $25 million dollar fund was created for Atlantic fisherman to sell their boats

to the United States Government (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). This economic plan was initiated to

pay fishermen and their crew to retire fishing boats which commercially harvest common Atlantic

fish. Unlike other plans that strictly focused on the future of fishing habitats and populations, this

stimulus plan was one of the first policies enacted that revolved around the fishermen (Rosenberg &

Wang, 1997). Fishing in the Atlantic has been profitable and has warranted an increase in fishing

boats from companies and captains. Davies, Roberts, and Hall-Spencer assert that overfishing has

led to the need to find alternative areas for fishing (Davies, Roberts & Hall-Spencer, 2007).

By reducing the massive Atlantic fishing fleet, fish would be able to replenish more quickly due to


less fishing boats on the water.

Policy Identification

To truly define the issue of overfishing, one must look at the methodology used to capture

fish. Before fishing policies and regulations came into being, commercial fishing had minimal

discretion when it came to catching fish. Originally, policies were very weak and did not sufficiently

assess the severity of overfishing (Agnew, Beddington, & Clark, 2007). In recent policies, quotas

and net restrictions have been imposed by the officials associated with marine conservation boards

in the United States (Jones & Schmitz, 2009). Overfishing has been recognized as a serious problem

for the future of the seafood industry and for wildlife. The issue of overfishing is commonly viewed

by many as a serious problem that is detrimental toward fish as well as the oceans. Sustainable

seafood activists form coalitions and groups to support activism and awareness of seafood practices

(Cho, 2010) Most notably, packaged fish is often sold with a label denoting if it has come from a

sustainable fishery (Murray, 2009).

Murray recognizes fishermen and regulatory agencies as two of the major players in the

seafood industry (Murray, 2009). Fisherman harvest fish in Atlantic waters as a source of revenue

and profit. Myers and Worm argue that fisherman have taken advantage of their freedom in the

Atlantic and have taken illegal quotas of fish in order to make more money (Myers & Worm, 2003).

With seafood becoming an ever-popular food to eat, prices have risen substantially in recent times

(Cho, 2010). Regulatory agencies, such as the National Marine Fisheries Service, have instituted

policies in the Atlantic coastal region in response to scientific findings that fish populations were in

decline (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Seafood conservation has also been initiated with stricter

government oversight due to failed overfishing policies of the past. MacKenzie finds that original


policies and oversight involving commercial fishing have not substantially affected fish populations

throughout coastal waters (MacKenzie, 2008).

Current government involvement, specifically within the Department of Commerce, in the

issue has placed overfishing as a popular topic in regard the the agenda for environmental policy. As

fish populations decrease, and market price for fish rises, governmental action has been focused on

renewing fisheries to not only lower market prices, but to also maintain revenue for commercial

fishing fleets (Murray, 2009). Fisherman use oceanic fish as a means of a profit and creation of a

stimulus plan for them has dramatically shifted the policies of the past which, at the most, focused

on reviving fish populations. Past policies focused on allocating money to renewing fishing grounds

that were commonly fished in an effort to maintain them and make them sustainable (Duda &

Sherman, 1999). Focusing governmental money and resources on fisherman has been a combative

strategy in an effort to mitigate overfishing. Agnew, Beddington, Pearce, Peatman, Pritchard, and

Pramod maintain that commercial fishermen often misinform regulatory bodies about their actual

catches in an attempt to sell surplus fish for a profit (Agnew, Beddington, Pearce, Peatman,

Pritchard, & Pramod, 2009). Economic reform in fishing has been used a tool to ultimately aid

fisherman in their primary goal; making a sustainable living.

Policy Implementation

Successful implementation of Atlantic fishing policies, specifically from 1977-present, have

created guidance in regard to overfishing. The policies enacted were augmented by amendments to

further encompass the many management problems in controlling/limiting the problem of Atlantic

overfishing. Rosenberg and Wang maintain that the marine regulatory agencies as well as the United

States Department of Commerce have been important figures when attributing Atlantic fishing


policies/guidelines to a specific group (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). The policies, which tend to

supersede one another, have been implemented in regard to poor performance from previous

policies. Scientific and research officials have also played a part in assessing the strength and quality

of overfishing data (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997).

Policy Evaluation

Throughout the process of evaluating the overfishing policies set forth by the U.S.

Department of Commerce as well as various governmental marine agencies, problems occurred

which led to amendments of original policies. Once overfishing in Atlantic waters was distinguished

as a problem, amendments to the original polices were instigated to revise the initial regulations set

forth(Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). As noticed in the following data set, Atlantic overfishing has

experienced positive and negative change since Atlantic fishing regulations were implemented.

Source: (Agnew et al., 2009)


Enforcement of policies regarding illegal harvesting in the Northern Atlantic have

substantially decreased, however, areas in the Southern Atlantic Ocean have experienced an increase

in illegally harvested fish (Agnew et al., 2009). The regulations imposed by the federal government

have not substantially changed the illegal capture of commercially harvested fish. However,

Balmford., Gravestock, Hockley, McClean, Roberts make claim that policies which target large

areas are not enforced to the extent that they should be regulated at (Balmford., Gravestock,

Hockley, McClean & Roberts, 2004). Minor changes in the empirical data and evidence from the

above model displays a harbinger that instituted overfishing policies have not affected fisherman in a

substantial way. Weak policies with minimal sanctions have slowed down the overfishing epidemic,

but the profitability of illegally harvested fish far outweigh any government imposed consequences

(Agnew, Beddington, & Clark, 2007).

Policy Options and Alternatives

When analyzing a policy, finding alternative options are often a viable solution to solving a

problem within a polices structure. In order to continue the renewal of heavily harvested fishing

grounds, suggestions to the current agenda should be made to accompany the current policies and

laws.

Overfishing needs to be looked at from two points of view: the fishermen and the fish.

Robinson and Wang have brought forth Atlantic Ocean fishing policies which have decided to target

strictly fishermen or the fish that are harvested (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Fish were often the

target of initial policies and fishermen were negated in many policies until the Economic Assistance

program was implemented. The initial perspectives of policy makers involved the analysis of


preliminary data in the 1970's to solve the problem as to why fish populations were dwindling. Areas

such as the Chesapeake Bay on the Atlantic coast have been frequently damaged ecologically due to

the machines and nets used by fishermen (Ault, Golletquer, Heral, & Rothschild, 1994). Initial

reform looked at the fish as being the source of the problem due to habitat destruction due to the

methods that fishermen used. The rapid habitat destruction of many Atlantic species of fish has been

a primary reason for the decimation of fish populations during the phases of initial Atlantic

overfishing policies (Agardy, Dayton, Hofman, & Thrush, 1995).

Once ecological aspects of overfishing were looked at, scientists were able to focus on

policies in regard to fishermen. The Economic Assistance program that was initiated was one of the

first steps in a reducing large fishing fleets in the Atlantic Ocean (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). By

instituting a voluntary buy-back program for fishing boats, both government and fisherman were

able to benefit from this policy. Offering economic programs to fisherman served as a basic

guideline when attempting to eliminate one of major reasons for overfishing; increased profit

(Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Once fisherman and fish were looked at as two dependent variables in

the overfishing problem, policies could be administered to benefit both cohorts. More laws and

regulations involving both groups are necessary in order to maintain a sustainable seafood industry

while not destroying fish habitats.

Another important alternative to the current state of affairs in overfishing is the lack of

oversight and enforcement of fishing rules. Due to the vast amount of area that oceans span, Myers

and Worm believe that an enforcement plan would not be an efficient solution when monitoring

overfishing activity (Myers & Worm, 2005). Government agencies do not need to have vessels

watching every move of fishermen, but proper oversight once the commercial fishing vessels return

to dock and sort fish is a more efficient solution. Pauly, Chirstensen, Guenette, Pitcher, Sumaila, &


Walters et al. (2002) have assessed the need for oversight on coastal waters and do not find it to be a

feasible policy within commercial fishing vessels (Pauly, Chirstensen, Guenette, Pitcher, Sumaila, &

Walters et al., 2002). Finding money and appropriating funds to an oversight committee in the

Atlantic Ocean is a costly venture. By keeping track of ships that have broken overfishing rules in

the past, Murray finds that a cost efficient policy could be initiated to target certain commercial

fishing vessels that are at risk for overfishing or illegally reporting quotas (Murray, 2009).

Another important policy regarding overfishing relates to the habitat destruction which

fishermen indirectly impose on reefs and fish habitats. Fishing populations have substantially

decreased over time and current overfishing trends may reduce commercial fish populations by as

much as 90% in the next two decades (Weise, 2006). Fish habitats have been viewed as one of the

major areas within overfishing that needs addressed. Fishing guidelines have limited the size of nets

used and what type of equipment can capture fish, but damage to reefs and other fish habitats is

detrimental to population revival (Jones & Schmitz, 2009). Endangering an area where fish spawn

directly affects the ability of fish to grow and develop. The use of trawling nets to harvest

exponential amounts of fish have severely damaged the fragile marine life and reef habitats in the

Atlantic Ocean (Murray, 2009). Strict regulations which correlate with the harvesting tools that

fishermen use are necessary to maintain the structure and habitats that reefs provide.

A final policy alternative may include finding alternative methods of trawling nets and

massive commercial fishing fleets. As noted by Agnew, Beddington, and Clark, fisherman have

taken many fish from Atlantic waters and under reported their catch (Agnew, Beddington, & Clark,

2007). By investing in alternative methods such as aquaculture, less fisherman would be liable to

overfishing and regulations could be implemented on aquaculture farms. Aquaculture involves

businesses raising fish strictly for food, rather than actually having to catch it (Rosenberg & Wang,


1997). This form of fishing is highly profitable, but requires high volume sales and distribution for

companies to make a profit. Alternatives methods to traditional fishing have recently come into

being due to the high amount of capital needed to fund these elaborate fish breeding centers

(Murray, 2009). With less ships on the water and more aquaculture, natural fisheries would be able

to sustain long without the constant threat of fisherman dropping lines over profitable areas.

Aquaculture is a newly discovered method of making oceanic fish sustainable and it is still not the

most popular medium for raising fish. Fisherman could also be diverted to work with aquiculture

and not continue fishing the Atlantic in order to let Atlantic fish naturally replenish. Investments in

aquaculture would be necessary to facilitate the program and stimulate interest from seafood buyers

and consumers. A strong public interest in a more sustainable and affordable seafood alternative

would most likely help aquaculture get onto the marine/environmental agenda. Alternatives to

traditional fishing are not always favorable due to the many jobs that could be affected. However,

aquaculture policies are a viable solution in ending the overfishing problem.

The United States Department of commerce needs to maintain a strict approach in the

combative effort against overfishing. To keep fish healthy and sustainable for the future, policy

implementation regarding the methods that fishermen use must become more strict. Murray finds

that the current regulations have not deterred fishermen from taking excess fish or overfishing area

in the Atlantic Ocean where fish are unable to reproduce to meet the needs of fishing fleets (Murray,

2009). Scientists and researchers also need to focus on empirical evidence as a tool for pushing

policies through the federal government and fishing regulation committees. Estimates of current

commercial fish populations vary and do not bring up substantial evidence to force immediate action

on the low incidence of commercial fish (Murray, 2009). Maintenance of fisheries for the future

in/directly benefits a wide spectrum of individuals and fish. By using the original Atlantic fishing


regulations as a precedent, policymakers, specifically dealing with marine biology, can create

modern day policies that will aid both fishermen and fish.


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overfishing: reforms and policies

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