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Overview of current trends in captive-bred and ranched specimens in trade

Part I. Analysis of global trade by source, with a focus on captive-bred and ranched specimens

Part II. Literature review of current discourse on captive-bred and

ranched specimens in trade

(Version edited for public release)

A REPORT TO THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Prepared for the

European Commission Directorate General Environment

ENV E.2 – Environmental Agreements and Trade

Under contract number 070307/2009/541815/SER/E2

by the

United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre

May 2011

UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road Cambridge CB3 0DL United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0) 1223 277314 Fax: +44 (0) 1223 277136 Email: [email protected] Website: www.unep-wcmc.org ABOUT UNEP-WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE

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CITATION

UNEP-WCMC (2011). Overview of current trends in captive-bred and ranched specimens in trade. A Report to the European Commission. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge.

PREPARED FOR

The European Commission, Brussels, Belgium

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Overview of current trends in captive-bred and ranched specimens in trade

This report was prepared in two parts by UNEP-WCMC for the European Commission under contract 070307/2009/541815/SER/E. Parts I and II are presented together to provide a comprehensive overview of current trends in captive-bred and ranched specimens in trade.

Part I examines trends in reported legal, global trade in captive-bred and ranched specimens based on exporter-reported export data extracted from the CITES Trade Database. The briefing focuses on taxonomic groups that are traded at notable levels as captive-bred and ranched, with a particular focus on reptiles and birds. Part I also presents a brief overview of the families, and in some cases species, most highly traded within these groups as captive-bred and ranched worldwide.

Part II provides an overview of the current scientific discourse on captive-bred and ranched specimens. A systematic literature review was undertaken for all relevant scientific articles relating to captive-bred and ranched specimens since 2000. The references are arranged according to taxa and countries/regions concerned and include a brief summary of the content, as well as a content key to indicate the main topics. A list of additional relevant references which may be of interest are also included.

Part I. Analysis of global trade by source, with a focus on captive-bred and ranched specimens

This section provides an overview of general patterns of global trade in taxonomic groups that are traded at notable levels as captive-bred and ranched, with a particular focus on reptiles and birds, over the ten-year period 2000-2009. Other taxa that were captive-

bred and ranched at noticeable levels or for which there was a change in source over this period in favour of captive-bred specimens are discussed as well.

I. Trade in Reptiles

A. Live Over the ten year period 2000-2009, approximately 1.6 million live CITES-listed reptiles were exported annually worldwide. The quantity of live reptiles remained relatively stable at roughly 1.67 million individuals per year between 2000 and 2004, increased to 2.1 million in 2005 and subsequently decreased to a low of 906 817 in 2008, followed by a 35% increase in 2009 to 1.2 million (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Exporter-reported quantities of live reptiles in trade, 2000-2009, all sources.

Global trade in live reptiles was dominated by the combined trade in captive-bred and ranched individuals, with exports of captive-bred specimens (source ‘C’) exceeding the quantity of wild-sourced specimens exported in all years except 2008 (Figure 2). Generally, exports of captive-bred specimens mirrored the overall trend in reptile exports with increasing levels between 2001 and 2005 and a subsequent decrease, reaching the lowest levels in 2008 (190 809 live specimens). Between 2008 and 2009, exports of captive-bred specimens increased threefold to 579 240 specimens, once again exceeding the trade in wild-sourced specimens.

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Analysis of global trade by source

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Figure 2. Exporter-reported trade in live reptiles from the three main sources (wild, captive-bred and ranched), 2000-2009.

When the proportion of trade by source is analysed, the dominance of captive-bred and ranched specimens is again noteworthy—the majority (68.8%) of reptiles were exported as either source ‘C’ or ‘R’ over this period (Figure 3). When sources ‘D’ and ‘F’ are included, this proportion rises to 73.6%. Wild-sourced trade represented 26% of the exports over the same period. However, it should be noted that wild-sourced individuals accounted for an increasing proportion of the trade from 2005 onwards, reaching a peak of 42% of global trade in 2008. In 2009, 32% of exports were wild-sourced, 47% were captive-bred (source ‘C’), 15.5% were ranched and the remaining 5% were other sources, principally ‘D’ (2.5%) and ‘F’ (2.4%).

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Figure 3. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in live reptiles by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘D’,’F’,’I’,’O’,’U’ and no source reported.

Overall, the proportion of trade in sources ‘D’ and ‘F’ was low over the period (2.9% and 1.9%, respectively) but reached highs of 7.8% and 5.6%, respectively, in 2008. While the

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quantity of captive-born specimens (‘F’) was at its highest level in 2008 and the quantity of captive-bred (‘D’) specimens was relatively high as well (Figure 4), the increase in the proportion of trade from these sources is due more to decreases in the quantity of captive-bred (‘C’) specimens exported in that year rather than a notable increase in exports of sources ‘D’ and ‘F’ in 2008.

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Figure 4. Exporter-reported trade in captive-born (‘F’) and captive-bred (‘D’) live reptiles, 2000-2009.

Trade by family

Of all the reptile families traded at levels of over 100 000 live specimens in total over the ten-year period 2000-2009, two families showed a particularly notable shift in source, both of the order Testudines: Testudinidae and Geoemydidae. Trade in these families will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.

Testudinidae spp.

As seen in the class Reptilia as a whole, global exports of live Testudinidae spp. were in general dominated by captive-bred (source ‘C’) and ranched specimens, with captive-born specimens also traded at notable levels (Error! Reference source not found.). Exports from these sources combined (‘C’, ‘D’, ‘F’ and ‘R’) exceeded wild-sourced exports in all years except 2000 and 2001.

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Figure 5. Exporter-reported trade in live Testudinidae specimens from the four main sources (wild, captive-bred, captive-born and ranched), 2000-2009.

Numbers of wild-sourced specimens decreased from 96 261 individuals in 2000 to a low of 30 645 individuals in 2004, before subsequently increasing to 64 796 individuals in 2006; mirroring the trend in trade in all reptiles as a whole. Between 2006 and 2009, the quantity of wild-sourced specimens exported decreased every year to 36 193 individuals in 2009. Conversely, the quantity of captive-bred (source ‘C’) individuals exported increased from 16 392 individuals in 2000 to a peak of 87 483 individuals in 2007; captive-bred exports then decreased in both 2008 and 2009. The number of ranched specimens exported increased gradually from a low of 3960 specimens in 2000 to a peak of 19 983 specimens in 2006, then decreased every year to 13 715 specimens in 2009.

The decrease in the quantity of exports reported in 2009 may be related to the fact that at the time of writing (April 2011), 101 of the 175 Parties had submitted their 2009 annual report to CITES; reports have not been received from the second and third largest exporters of live Testudinidae (all sources), Ukraine (26% of exports) and Jordan (16% of exports).

When the source of specimens is analysed as a proportion of total trade, the dominance of captive-bred, captive-born and ranched specimens between 2002 and 2009 is evident; these sources combined account for 58% of exports over the period 2000-2009 (Figure 6). Wild-sourced specimens comprise 41% of exports between 2000 and 2009; there is a marked decrease in the proportion of wild-sourced exports from 76% in 2000 to 31% in 2004, but following this the proportion of specimens from wild sources remains relatively constant. In 2009, 43% of exports were captive-bred (41% source ‘C’ and 2% source ‘D’), 35% were wild-sourced, 13% were ranched, 9% were captive-born and <1% came from other sources (‘I’, ‘O’ and ‘U’).

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Figure 6. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in live Testudinidae specimens by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘D’, ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘U’ and no source reported.

Over the ten-year period, half of the wild-sourced specimens originated in Uzbekistan, with a further 22% originating in Tajikistan and 10% in Kazakhstan. Uzbekistan was also the primary exporter of ranched specimens (56%), with a further 18% originating in Togo and 14% in Benin. The principal exporters of captive-bred specimens (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’) included Jordan (18%), El Salvador (14%), Zambia (13%), Brazil (11%) and Slovenia (10%), while captive-born specimens originated primarily in Ukraine (51%) and Tanzania (19%).

Geoemydidae spp.

The shift in source of live specimens of the family Geoemydidae was more pronounced than that observed for Testudinidae; wild-sourced specimens dominated trade every year up to 2005, whereas in the succeeding years captive-bred and ranched specimens collectively exceeded wild-sourced exports (Figure 7). There was a substantial decrease in the number of wild-sourced specimens exported between 2000 and 2001, from 282 754 individuals to 57 187 individuals, but following this there was an overall increase in wild-sourced exports up to 2005. Between 2005 and 2006, wild-sourced exports decreased from 81 488 specimens to 20 070 specimens, while captive-bred (source ‘C’) and ranched exports combined increased from 223 specimens in 2005 to 26 335 specimens in 2006. In 2009, the quanity of ranched specimens alone was more than double the quantity of wild-sourced specimens (45 500 versus 21 807 specimens respectively), with an additional 19 529 captive-bred specimens exported.

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Figure 7. Exporter-reported trade in live Geoemydidae specimens from the three main sources (wild, captive-bred and ranched), 2000-2009.

The shift in source of live Geoemydidae specimens in 2006 is particularly evident when analysing the proportion of trade by source. The proportion of wild-sourced specimens exported decreased from 99% in 2005 to 43% in 2006, reaching a low of 25% in 2009. Concurrently, the proportion of captive-bred specimens increased from <1% in 2005 to 30% in 2006, reaching a peak of 50% in 2007, and the proportion of ranched specimens increased from zero in 2005 to 27% in 2006, reaching a peak of 53% in 2009 (Figure 8). The proportion of specimens from other sources in 2009 was negligible (<1%), comprising sources ‘F’, ‘I’, ‘O’ and ‘U’.

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Figure 8. Exporter-reported trade in live Geoemydidae specimens by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes sources ‘F’, ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘U’ and no source reported.

Wild-sourced, live Geoemydidae specimens exported over the ten year period principally originated in Malaysia (62%), with a further 30% originating in Indonesia and 8% in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (hereafter referred to as Lao PDR). Lao PDR was the principal exporter of ranched specimens (84%), with 16% originating in Myanmar and <1%

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originating in Malaysia. The majority of captive-bred specimens (source ‘C’) originated in China (82%), while 11% originated in Malaysia and 6% originated in Lao PDR.

B. Skins and Meat Skins

Global exports of reptile skins decreased over the period 2000-2009 overall, with the highest quantity of exports being reported in 2000 (6.1 million skins) and the lowest in 2009 (2.9 million skins), although there were increases in both 2004 and 2005 (Figure 9). Trade was dominated by wild-sourced and captive-bred (source ‘C’) specimens, with the quantity of wild-sourced exports exceeding the quantity of captive-bred exports every year. Although exports of skins from both sources fluctuated over this period, quantites of both wild-sourced and captive-bred skins decreased every year from 2006 to 2009. In contrast, the quantity of ranched skins remained relatively constant between 2005 and 2009, averaging roughly 94 000 skins per year. The decrease in the quantity of skins exported in 2009 may partially be explained by missing annual reports, although reports from all of the top ten exporters of reptile skins have all been received.

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Figure 9. Exporter-reported trade in reptile skins from the three main sources (wild, captive-bred and ranched), 2000-2009.

Analysis of the proportion of trade by source shows that there has not been a considerable shift in the relative level of skin exports by source over the ten-year period 2000 to 2009, despite the fluctuations in trade volumes (Figure 10). There was a slight overall decrease in the proportion of wild-sourced skins from 69% in 2000 to 62% in 2009, although there was a small increase between 2008 and 2009. Concurrently, the proportion of captive-bred skins has shown an overall increase from 28% in 2000 to 32% in 2009, although there was a peak of 37% in 2003 and a slight decrease in 2009 corresponding to the increase in wild-sourced skins in that year. The proportion of ranched skins remained relatively constant between 2000 and 2003 at around 3%, but decreased by over half in 2004 and subsequently remained at between 1% and 2% until it returned to 3% in 2009.

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Figure 10. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in reptile skins by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘D’, ’F’,’I’, ‘O’, ’U’ and no source reported.

The proportion of trade in sources ‘D’ and ‘F’ was low over the period 2000-2009, with source ‘D’ skins remaining below 2% of exports and source ‘F’ skins remaining below 1% of exports. However, there was a notable increase in the quantity of source ‘D’ skins exported over this period, with a corresponding decrease in source ‘F’ exports (Figure 11). This is reflected in the change in the proportions of these two sources in trade, with source ‘D’ increasing from <0.1% of exports in 2000 to 2% in 2008, and source ‘F’ decreasing from 1% of exports in 2001 to zero in 2008 and 2009.

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Figure 11. Exporter-reported trade in reptile skins from captive-born (‘F’) and captive-bred (‘D’) specimens, 2000-2009.

Trade by family

Of the seven reptile families traded at levels of over 1 000 000 skins in total over the ten-year period 2000-2009, two families showed a particularly noticable shift in source: Pythonidae and Crocodylidae. Trade in these families is discussed in more detail in the following sections.

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Pythonidae spp.

As in the class Reptilia as a whole, trade in Pythonidae skins over the ten-year period 2000-2009 was dominated by wild-sourced and captive-bred (source ‘C’) specimens (Figure 12). The trend in the quantity of wild-sourced exports over this period roughly mirrored that seen in the group of reptiles as a whole, decreasing from a high of 1 227 915 skins in 2000 to a low of 465 568 skins in 2009. However, in contrast to the trend observed across all reptiles, exports of captive-bred skins increased considerably, from a low of 59 742 skins in 2001 to a peak of 436 392 skins in 2007. Nevertheless, wild-sourced exports still exceeded captive-bred exports in every year over this period. Although captive-bred exports decreased to 300 534 skins in 2009, the decrease in the total quantity of exports in this year may be at least partly due to missing annual reports; reports for 2009 have been received from eight out of the top ten exporters of Pythonidae skins (all sources).

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Figure 12. Exporter-reported trade in Pythonidae skins from the two main sources (wild and captive-bred), 2000-2009.

Figure 13. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in Pythonidae skins by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘R’, ‘F’, ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘U’ and no source reported.

When the proportion of trade by source is analysed, a shift in source is evident. The percentage of wild-sourced exports decreased from 91% in 2000 to 59% in 2009, whilst the share of captive-bred exports increased from 9% of exports in 2000 to 38% in 2009 (Error! Reference source not found.). No other source accounted for more than 2% of the total trade over the period 2000 to 2009.

The principal exporters of wild-sourced Pythonidae skins between 2000 and 2009 were Malaysia (53%) and Indonesia (45%), while 98% of captive-bred skins originated in Viet Nam.

Crocodylidae spp.

In contrast to the family Pythonidae, trade in Crocodylidae skins between 2000 and 2009 was dominated by captive-bred (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’) and ranched specimens rather than wild-sourced specimens (Figure 14). Exports of both sources ‘C’ and ‘D’ showed an overall increase between 2000 and 2008; collectively, exports of both sources amounted to 73 272 skins in 2000 and 262 746 skins in 2008. Although there was a decrease in the quantity of exports of both sources in 2009, this may be partly due to missing annual reports; reports have been received from seven of the top ten exporters of captive-bred skins, with no report yet received from Australia, Japan and Papua New Guinea. Ranched exports decreased from 133 603 skins in 2000 to a low of 43 936 skins in 2004, but increased in 2005 and remained


relatively constant at around 80 000 skins through to 2009. Wild-sourced exports increased from 25 080 skins in 2000 to a high of 52 123 skins in 2005, and subsequently decreased to a low of 14 874 skins in 2009.

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Figure 14. Exporter-reported trade in Crocodylidae skins from the four main sources (wild, captive-bred and ranched), 2000-2009.

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Figure 15. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in Crocodylidae skins by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘F’, ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘U’ and no source reported.

An analysis of the proportion of trade by source further indicates the dominance of captive-bred specimens (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’), increasing from 32% of skins in 2000 to 71% of skins in 2008 (Figure 15). Conversely, the proportion of ranched specimens decreased from a high of 58% in 2000 to 21% in 2008; although the proportion increases to 37% in 2009, this is the result of the decrease in the quantities of specimens from sources ‘C’, ‘D’ and ‘W’ in that year rather than an increase in the quantity of ranched specimens exported. Of the other sources, no single source accounted for more than 1% of trade between 2000 and 2009, although specimens reported without a source specified represented 9% of exports in 2001 and 8% in both 2002 and 2004.

The principal exporters of captive-bred skins (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’) were Zimbabwe (41%), South Africa (24%) and Thailand (13%); ranched skins principally originated in Zambia (39%) and Zimbabwe (31%), while the majority of wild-sourced skins originated in Papua New Guinea (71%), with the remainder originating in Indonesia (20%).

Meat

Trade in reptile meat increased steadily over the period 2000-2007, reaching a peak of nearly one million kilograms of meat exported in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, however, the quantity exported decreased considerably to 515,000 kg in 2008 and 493,800 kg in 2009 (Error! Reference source not found.). However, it is important to note that export data from two of the main exporting countries for captive-bred specimens—Australia (exported an average of 11 000 kg of meat over the five year period 2004-2008) and Papua New Guinea (exported an average of 45 000 kg over the period 2003-2007)—were unavailable for 2009 and, in the case of Papua New Guinea, also for 2008.

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Figure 16. Exporter-reported trade in reptile meat (kg) from the four main sources (wild, captive-bred and ranched), 2000-2009.

Meat exports between 2000 and 2009 were dominated by captive-bred (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’) and ranched specimens; exports of these sources combined exceeded wild-sourced specimens in every year. The total quantity of exports from sources ‘C’ and ‘D’ increased from 228 237 kg in 2000 to a peak of 726 487 kg in 2007, followed by decreases in both 2008 and 2009. There was also an increase in the quantity of wild-sourced specimens, from 50 556 specimens in 2000 to a peak of 207 882.5 kg in 2009. Concurrently, there was an overall decrease in the quantity of ranched exports between 2001 and 2005, from a peak of 288 909 kg to a low of 6690 kg, followed by increases in 2006 and 2007, but once again decreasing in the following two years to 14 717.5 kg in 2009.

The increase in captive-bred specimens up to 2006 is also reflected in the percentages of trade by source; sources ‘C’ and ‘D’ collectively account for 37% in 2001, reaching a peak of 74% in 2006 (Figure 17). The proportion of ranched exports decreased from 45% in 2000 to 3% in 2009, while the share of wild-sourced exports increased from 10% in 2000 to a high of 42% in 2009. No other source accounted for over 1% of trade between 2000 and 2009.

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Figure 17. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in reptile meat (in kg) by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ’F’,’I’,’U’ and no source reported.

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Trade by species

Captive-produced

Captive-bred meat of six species and one genus were traded at levels exceeding 10 000 kg over the period 2000-2009 (Figure 18).

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Alligator mississippiensis Caiman crocodilus fuscusCrocodylus niloticus Crocodylus porosusCrocodylus spp. Python molurus bivittatusCrocodylus siamensis

Figure 18. Exporter-reported trade in captive-bred meat (in kg) by taxa, 2000-2009.

The variability in captive-bred meat exports over this period can be linked to two species in particular: Crocodylus siamensis and Crocodylus niloticus.

Appendix-I listed Crocodylus siamensis was the only species exported as source ‘D’ at levels exceeding 10 000 kg of meat between 2000 and 2009, and represented >99% of the overall trade in source ‘D’ meat exported globally over the ten year period. All C. siamensis meat exported between 2000 and 2009 was captive-produced, with the vast majority (97.5%) produced in Thailand and the remaining 2.5% produced in Viet Nam. Meat exports of this species increased from 13 171 kg in 2000 to a peak of 422 765.02 kg in 2006, but subsequently decreased in both 2007 and 2008, increasing again slightly to 217 616.14 kg in 2009.

Exports of Crocodylus niloticus meat between 2000 and 2002 were principally ranched, but from 2003 onwards captive-bred (source ‘C’) meat exports exceeded ranched meat exports every year, reaching a peak of 304 335 kg in 2007 (Figure 19). However, exports of captive-bred meat decreased considerably following this peak, reaching a low of 47 252 kg in 2009. The majority of captive-bred C. niloticus meat exported over this period originated in South Africa (64%), with 33% originating in Zimbabwe and 2% in Zambia.

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Figure 19. Exporter-reported trade in Crocodylus niloticus meat (in kg) from the two main sources (captive-bred and ranched), 2000-2009.

Trade from Zimbabwe showed a particularly clear change in source from ranched to captive-bred specimens, with the shift occurring in 2003 (Figure 20). Zimbabwe’s 2009 annual report was received, but no trade in C. niloticus meat was reported exported by Zimbabwe in 2009 from any source.

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Figure 20. Exporter-reported trade in Crocodylus niloticus meat (in kg) from Zimbabwe by source, 2000-2009.

Wild-sourced

Whilst the quantity of captive-bred meat exported between 2007 and 2009 decreased, the quantity of wild-sourced meat exported increased in 2009, reaching its highest level over the ten year period. This increase is primarily due to increased trade in Naja sputatrix, Ptyas mucosus, and Alligator mississippiensis meat (Figure 21).

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Alligator mississippiensis Caiman yacareCerberus rynchops Naja sputatrixPtyas mucosus Python reticulatusVaranus salvator

Figure 21. Exports of wild-sourced meat (kg) by taxa, 2000-2009 (for those taxa traded at levels >10 000 over the entire period).

No exports of Naja sputatrix or Ptyas mucosus meat were reported prior to 2007; those that were reported from 2007 onwards were all wild-sourced and originated in Indonesia.

Exports of wild-sourced A. mississipiensis meat increased over the period 2000 to 2009 overall, with a particularly considerable increase of 68% from 36 494 kg in 2008 to a peak of 61 247.5 kg in 2009 (Figure 22). No captive-bred meat exports of this species were reported after 2004, although small quantities of captive-born meat were exported in 2007 and 2009. All A. mississipiensis meat exports between 2000 and 2009 originated in the United States.

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Figure 22. Exporter-reported trade in Alligator mississipiensis meat (in kg) from the two main sources (wild and captive-bred), 2000-2009.

II. Trade in Birds

Over the period 2000-2009, global exports of live birds were predominantly from wild or captive-bred sources (Figure 23). Wild-sourced specimens accounted for 66% of all exports between 2000 and 2009, with captive-bred specimens representing 33% (Figure 24); no other source accounted for over 0.05% of trade. Wild-sourced exports decreased from 2003

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onwards, most notably following the animal health restrictions on commercial trade in wild birds introduced by the European Union in 2005. Exports of captive-bred birds outpaced wild-sourced exports for the first time in 2006 and increased in both 2007 and 2008, while wild-sourced exports remained relatively constant at around 70 000 individuals between 2006 and 2009. There was a slight decrease in captive-bred exports in 2009, but this may be related to missing 2009 annual reports; no report for 2009 has yet been received from Cuba, the fourth largest exporter of captive-bred birds (266 233 source ‘C’ birds exported between 2000 and 2009), although reports have been received from eight of the other top ten exporters.

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Figure 23. Exporter-reported trade in live birds globally from the two main sources (wild and captive-bred), 2000-2009.

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Figure 24. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in live birds globally by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘D’,’F’,’I’,’O’,’U’ and no source reported.

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Trade by family

As a result of the animal health restrictions introduced by the European Union in 2005, a decrease in the volume of wild-sourced exports between 2005 and 2006 can be observed in the majority of bird families. This decrease was more considerable in those families in which the majority of exports were wild-sourced prior to 2005, for example the Estrildidae, Fringillidae, Ploceidae and Columbidae. Of the families traded at volumes of over 10 000 live birds between 2000 and 2009, two were dominated by captive-bred rather than wild-sourced trade throughout the ten-year period: Psittacidae, the most highly traded bird family, and Falconidae. Trade in these families is discussed in more detail below.

Psittacidae spp.

The trend in the quantity of live Psittacidae exports between 2000 and 2009 closely mirrors that shown by all bird families as a whole (Figure 25), which is to be expected since trade in this family alone accounted for 43% of all live bird exports over this period. However, contrary to the trend shown in all birds, captive-bred specimens dominated trade in this family throughout the period 2000-2009, exceeding wild-sourced exports even before the restrictions were introduced in 2005. As a result, there was a less considerable decline in the quantity of wild-sourced exports between 2005 and 2006 than occurred in the group of birds as a whole, from 123 361 individuals in 2005 to 45 141 individuals in 2006. As noted above, the decline in captive-bred exports between 2008 and 2009 could be due to missing annual reports for 2009; reports have been received from eight of the top ten exporters of live Psittacidae.

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Figure 25. Exporter-reported trade in live Psittacidae specimens from the two main sources (wild and captive-bred), 2000-2009.

Analysis of the proportion of trade by source further emphasises the contrast between Psittacidae and birds as a whole; wild-sourced specimens comprise 34% of exports of live Psittacidae between 2000 and 2009, with captive-bred specimens accounting for 64% of exports (Figure 26). Following the introduction of the trade restrictions in 2005, the proportion of wild-sourced trade decreased from 46% to 40%, compared to a decrease from

16


77% to 40% across all bird taxa. No other source accounted for more than 1% of trade between 2000 and 2009.

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Figure 26. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in live Psittacidae specimens by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘D’, ‘F’, ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘R’, ‘U’ and no source reported.

Captive-bred Psittacidae specimens exported over the ten-year period primarily originated in South Africa (37%), China (19%) and the Netherlands (15%), while the principal exporters of wild-sourced specimens were Uruguay (15%), Senegal (10%), Pakistan (10%) and Argentina (10%).

Falconidae spp.

In contrast to the trend observed across all bird taxa, the quantity of live Falconidae exports has shown a considerable overall increase between 2000 and 2009, from 2840 individuals in 2000 to a peak of 5752 individuals in 2009 (Figure 27). As observed in the Psittacidae, captive-bred exports (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’) exceeded wild-sourced exports in all years. Between 2000 and 2004, increases occurred in both captive-bred (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’) and wild-sourced exports, but despite the decrease in wild-sourced exports in 2005, and again in 2008 and 2009, total trade in 2009 exceeded that in 2004. Interestingly, the decrease in total live trade in 2006 and 2007 was due to decreases in exports of source ‘D’ rather than source ‘W’ specimens; the quantity of wild-sourced trade actually increased slightly in these years. The decrease in wild-sourced exports in both 2008 and 2009 could be partly due to the fact that no annual report has been received from Saudi Arabia, the second largest exporter of wild-sourced live Falconidae (18% of exports 2000-2009), in either of these years.

17


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Figure 27. Exporter-reported trade in live Falconidae specimens from the three main sources (wild and captive-bred), 2000-2009.

Analysing the proportion of trade by source for this family again shows the dominance of captive-bred specimens (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’) over wild-sourced specimens between 2000 and 2009; wild-sourced exports comprised 19% of trade over this period, compared to 74% captive-bred exports (sources ‘C’ and ‘D’ combined; Figure 28). As with Psittacidae, the decrease in the proportion of wild-sourced exports following the introduction of the European Union restrictions in 2005 was relatively minor, from 29% in 2004 to 15% in 2005; but in contrast to trade in Psittacidae, and other bird taxa, the proportion of wild-sourced exports increased in 2006 and 2007. No other source accounted for more than 1% of trade between 2000 and 2009, with the exception of source ‘F’ which fluctuated between 6% and 10% from 2000 to 2005, but decreased to an average of 3% between 2006 and 2009.

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Figure 28. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in live Falconidae specimens by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘F’, ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘R’, ‘U’ and no source reported.

Wild-sourced specimens principally originated in Mongolia (36%), Uzbekistan (10%) and Saudi Arabia (10%); the majority of captive-bred specimens originated in Germany (37%)

18


19

and the United Kingdom (21%), with captive-born specimens principally originating in the United States (48%) and the Russian Federation (31%).

III. Trade in other taxa showing notable changes in source

A. Amphibians Global exports of live, wild-sourced amphibians have shown an overall decrease over the ten year period 2000-2009, whereas exports of captive-bred individuals were variable, but with a slight increasing trend over the same period (Figure 29).

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Figure 29. Exporter-reported trade in live amphibians globally for the three main sources (wild, captive-bred and ranched), 2000-2009.

When trade is analysed by family, it can be determined that this trend is due to two families in particular: Dendrobatidae and Mantellidae. Specifically, captive-bred specimens of Dendrobatidae increased over the ten year period 2000-2009 (Figure 30), principally originating in Panama (74%), while concurrently exports of wild-sourced Mantellidae specimens decreased (Figure 31), all originating in Madagascar.

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Figure 30. Exporter-reported trade in live Dendrobatidae specimens for the three main sources, 2000-2009.

Figure 31. Exporter-reported trade in live Mantellidae specimens for the three main sources, 2000-2009.

Contrary to this trend, the trade in Ambystoma mexicanum showed a decreasing trend in captive-bred specimens over time, although no exports of wild-sourced specimens were


reported over the same period (Figure 32). This added to the variability in the exports of captive-bred specimens seen in amphibians as a whole.

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Figure 32. Exporter-reported trade in live Ambystoma mexicanum specimens by source, 2000-2009.

B. Hippocampus species Following the listing of the genus Hippocampus on the CITES Appendices in 2004, the quantity of wild-sourced, live exports decreased every year from 74 491 specimens in 2005 to 1308 specimens in 2009 (Figure 33). Captive-bred exports increased between 2004 and 2006 to a peak of 85 363 individuals, but then decreased in both 2007 and 2008, followed by an increase in 2009 to 34 075 individuals. Concurrently, captive-born exports increased from zero in 2004 and 2005 to a peak of 76 165 individuals in 2008, followed by a drop to 54 115 individuals in 2009.

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Figure 33. Exporter-reported trade in live Hippocampus specimens from the three main sources (wild, captive-bred and captive-born), 2004-2009.

20


Analysis of the proportion of trade by source emphasises the shift in dominance among wild-sourced, captive-bred and captive-born exports between 2004 and 2009; the proportion of wild-sourced exports decreased from 63% in 2005 to 1% in 2009, comprising 24% of all exports between 2004 and 2009, while over the same period the proportion of captive-bred exports was 39% and the proportion of captive-born exports was 37% (Figure 34). No other source accounted for more the 1% of trade between 2004 and 2009.

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Figure 34. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in live Hippocampus specimens by source, 2004-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘R’ and ‘U’.

Wild-sourced, live Hippocampus specimens principally originated in Indonesia (48%) and Viet Nam (45%), while all captive-born specimens originated in Viet Nam and the majority of captive-bred specimens originated in Sri Lanka (76%).

C. Papilionidae species Between 2000 and 2009, there was an apparent shift in source of live specimens and bodies of the family Papilionidae from captive-bred to ranched. The quantity of ranched exports of live Papilionidae spp. increased from 427 specimens in 2000 to 5400 specimens in 2009 (Figure

35), while over the same period the proportion of ranched exports increased from 22% in 2000 to 91% in 2009 (Figure 36). Whereas in 2001 all exports were captive-bred, by 2009 captive-bred exports reached a low of 9%.

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Figure 35. Exporter-reported trade in live Papilionidae specimens from the two main sources (captive-bred and ranched), 2000-2009.

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Figure 36. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in live Papilionidae specimens by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘W’, ‘F’, ‘I’ and ‘U’.

21


Exports of ranched Papilionidae bodies have exceeded the captive-bred exports every year between 2000 and 2009 (Figure 37). The volume of ranched exports increased overall between 2000 and 2005, but declined between 2006 and 2009; however, the proportion of ranched exports increased in both 2008 and 2009, from 59% in 2007 to 99% in 2009 (Figure 38) due to the decrease in the quantity of captive-bred exports in both these years, from 3767 bodies in 2007 to five bodies in 2009. There was also an anomalous large quantity of wild-sourced exports in 2007 (14 639 bodies), the vast majority originating in Papua New Guinea.

It is possible that the decrease in volume of exports between 2008 and 2009 could be due to the fact that the annual report for Papua New Guinea, the second largest exporter of ranched bodies (42% of exports between 2000 and 2007) and the largest exporter of wild-sourced bodies, has not yet been receieved for 2009; although the 2008 report is also missing.

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Figure 37. Exporter-reported trade in Papilionidae bodies from the three main sources (captive-bred, ranched and wild), 2000-2009.

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Figure 38. Percentage of exporter-reported trade in Papilionidae bodies by source, 2000-2009. “Other sources” includes ‘F’, ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘U’ and no source reported.

The majority of ranched exports between 2000 and 2009 originated in Indonesia (>99% of live specimens, 52% of bodies), while Malaysia was the principal exporter of captive-bred exports (62% of live specimens, 35% of bodies). The majority of wild-sourced bodies originated in Papua New Guinea (61%).

Of those species traded at high volumes (over 10 000 specimens exported between 2000 and 2009), there were several that showed a particularly evident change in source from captive-bred exports to ranched exports. For example, the volume of live, captive-bred Troides helena specimens exported decreased from a peak of 2135 specimens in 2001 to a low of 535 specimens in 2009, whereas exports of ranched specimens increased from zero in 2000 and 2001 to a peak of 4300 in 2004, decreasing to 2700 in 2009. The proportion of ranched exports of Troides helena gradually increased over the ten-year period as a whole, from zero in 2000 and 2001 to a peak of 83% in 2009.

22


IV. Conclusions

Although there was no overall pattern observed in the source of global exports across all taxonomic groups, a number of trends in source were identified within the groups analysed:

Live reptiles: trade was dominated by captive-bred and ranched exports, but a decrease in the volume of captive-bred exports resulted in an increased proportion of wild-sourced trade from 2005 onwards.

Reptile skins: wild-sourced exports exceeded captive-bred and ranched exports in every year from 2000 to 2009, but there was a slight increase in the proportion of captive-bred trade particularly from 2005 onwards.

Reptile meat: trade was dominated by ranched and captive-bred exports, with the proportion of captive-bred trade increasing up to 2007 and the proportion of ranched trade decreasing over the ten-year period. The proportion of wild-sourced exports increased in 2009.

Live birds: in the majority of families, the primary source of trade shifted from captive-bred to wild following the introduction of European Union animal health restrictions in 2005, with exports of both sources decreasing considerably in this year. In the years that followed, there was an overall increase in the proportion of captive-bred trade.

Live amphibians: wild-sourced exports generally dominated trade until 2005, when a decrease in the quantity of wild-sourced exports was accompanied by an overall increase in the volume of captive-bred exports.

Live Hippocampus specimens: wild-sourced exports initially exceeded trade from other sources, but declined concurrently with an increase in captive-bred exports; trade was subsequently dominated by captive-born exports.

Live Papilionidae specimens: captive-bred exports dominated trade until 2008, when quantities decreased considerably accompanied by an increase in the volume of ranched exports.

Papilionidae bodies: ranched exports exceeded trade from other sources in all years from 2000 to 2009; although the quantity of ranched exports decreased from 2006 onwards. An overall decline in captive-bred exports resulted in an increase in the proportion of ranched trade.

More detailed reviews of European Union trade in non-coral invertebrates were conducted for Chapter 5 of the Wildlife Trade 2008: an analysis of the European Union and candidate countries’ annual reports to CITES, while changing patterns in EU trade in fish (excluding sturgeons) and amphibians are outlined in Chapter 5 of the Wildlife Trade 2007 analysis. EU trade in caviar, including an overview of trade by source, has been discussed in a 2008 report: Review of species selected from the Analysis of 2006 EC Annual Report to CITES.

23

1

Part II. Literature review of current discourse on captive-bred and ranched specimens in trade

The table below provides an overview of the most relevant scientific literature on ranching and captive-breeding since 2000. Literature covering particular taxonomic classes (e.g. Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, etc.) is grouped together, with more general literature included at the end. Within each Class, taxa are displayed alphabetically. Each entry specifies the species discussed, the country or region the paper pertains to, and a brief summary of the contents of the article. In addition, a “Content key” is included in order to provide a quick guide to the content of each article. Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content

MAMMALIA Acinonyx jubatus

South Africa (Marnewick et al., 2007) The main threats to Acinonyx jubatus in South Africa were reported to be the illegal trade, unregulated captive breeding and persecution. The management of metapopulations, regulation and formalisation of the captive breeding industry, curbing the illegal trade, addressing persecution, conflict management and further research on cheetahs were considered to be the most important management steps to conserve the species in South Africa.

Crit., Cons., Enf., Tra.

Babyrousa babyrussa

Indonesia (Clayton et al., 2000) This study assessed the effect of a planned, internationally recognised captive breeding programme for the endangered Babyrousa babyrussa, which, although the programme had not yet begun, had already led to “international interest in the captive breeding of babirusas and gave hunters and dealers the false impression that there was a potentially lucrative and officially sanctioned national and international demand for any live babirusas they might catch”.


Callimico goeldii global (Dettling, 2002) Callimico goeldii was reported to be bred in coordinated breeding populations that depended on in-depth knowledge of the genetic diversity of the captive population and of species-specific reproductive behaviour, social system, nutrition and general species-specific behaviour.

Bio., Cons.

Canis lupus baileyi

United States of America

(Boutelle et al., 2011) The authors reported on genetic management, including cryopreservation of genetic material, as a conservation management tool for the endangered Mexican gray wolf. Vitrification of oocytes with the Cryotop technique was considered an option for preserving female gametes from Mexican wolves for future use in captive breeding programmes.

Bio., Cons.

Elephantidae spp. China (O'Connell-Rodwell and Parry-Jones, 2002)

The authors raised concerns over the “proliferation of safari parks in China since the mid-1990s”, which appeared to be reflected in the increasing trend in live elephants imported by China. They reported that from 1989 to 2000 a total of 91 live elephants were imported by China and that reports of smuggling of live elephants existed, with between five to seven elephants illegally imported from Myanmar in 1995. Furthermore, the authors reported that several other imports may not have been conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Convention.


Literature review

2

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Macaca spp. China (Jiang et al., 2008)

This international workshop on CITES non-detriment findings presented an overview of captive breeding of Macaca species in China, predominantly for medical purposes.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Macaca fascicularis

Southeast Asia (Eudey, 2008) Concerns were raised over trapping and trade of Macaca fascicularis for captive breeding for pharmaceutical purposes, as this may contribute to the laundering of wild-caught animals in trade and could possibly result in their disappearance even from legally protected areas. The author considered it imperative that the conservation status of the species be reassessed and that the impact of trade on the species be assessed by the CITES Secretariat.

Crit., Enf., Tra.

Manis javanica Southeast Asia (Vijayan et al., 2008)

The authors reported on the development of a captive breeding management programme for Manis javanica, to support the declining wild population. The species was reported to have been hunted across Southeast Asia and “every year tonnes of pangolins are seized and confiscated en-route to their demise in restaurants and medical shops around the world”.

Bio., Cons.

Panthera tigris

China (Abbot and van Kooten, 2010)

The author reported that despite the international ban of trade in Panthera tigris products since 1987 and the domestic trade within China since 1993, tigers continue to be poached. Furthermore, Chinese entrepreneurs were reported to have established tiger farms “in anticipation of their demise”. The author reported that their model indicated that wild tigers could be protected by permitting sale of products from tiger farms, although this was likely requiring the granting of an exclusive license to sellers.

Cons., Crit., Enf., Tra.

Panthera tigris

China (Gratwicke, et al. 2008)

The potential consequences of lifting the tiger trade ban were discussed. This study found that out of 43% of 1880 people surveyed in six Chinese cities tiger parts. Within this user-group, 71% were reported to prefer wild products over farmed ones. While the authors found that urban Chinese people were generally supportive of tiger conservation, “there is a huge residual demand for tiger products that could resurge if the ban on trade in tiger parts is lifted in China”. They believed that due to low input costs associated with poaching, wild-sourced parts would consistently undercut the prices of farmed tigers.


Panthera tigris

China (Guo, 2007) The author reported on the captive breeding of Panthera tigris at Hengdaohezi Feline Breeding Centre in China; an operation that was primarily considered to be of commercial nature, rather than a research facility focussing on reintroductions.


Panthera tigris

China (Jiang et al., 2007) The authors noted their expectation that poaching and smuggling would be suppressed through the reopening of the tiger part market from the products of captive-bred tigers. The authors believed that such trade to generate funds for in situ conservation of tigers, whilst defraying the cost of captive breeding operations and contribute to overall conservation.

Tra., Cons.

Literature review

3

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Panthera tigris

China (Nowell and Ling, 2007)

This study analysed the Chinese policy of banning trade in tiger products and raised concerns over discussions of legalisation of trade in products derived from captive-bred specimens. Furthermore, the authors provided recommendations on the trade policy.


Panthera tigris

China (‘t Sas-Rolfes and Conrad, 2010)

The authors provided an overview on tiger conservation, captive breeding and the debate on commercial farming.


Panthera tigris

global (Cameron et al., 2009) This discussion document raised concerns over commercial tiger farming as a conservation tool to satisfy demand for tiger products and reduce poaching of wild tigers.


Panthera tigris United States of America

(Anon., 2010)

This report highlighted the lack of a comprehensive management solution for captive tigers in the U.S. and considered its implications on trade in parts and derivatives of captive origin.


Panthera tigris


(Williamson and Henry, 2008)

This report focussed on the management system for captive Panthera tigris within the U.S. and identified key gaps within the regulatory system regarding tiger trade.


Vicugna vicugna Argentina (Lichtenstein, 2006) The author reported that a vicuna captive breeding scheme was developed in Argentina, aiming at improving the economic situation of local people while contributing towards vicuna conservation. Individual producers were reported to keep variable numbers of animals in fenced enclosures and were expected to return the same number of specimens in offspring as they were initially given. The author analysed the value of captive breeding for vicuna conservation and local development.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Vicugna vicugna Peru (Roque, 2008) This international workshop on CITES non-detriment findings presented an overview of the use of vicuna in Peru, including a management system, whereby animals are kept in a semi-captive environment.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

AVES Amazona spp., Ara spp.

Mesoamerica (Lezama-Lopez, 2006) This publication included a number of articles on conservation in Mesoamerica, including on commercial wild parrot ranching as an alternative psittacine management tool to allow for the reduction of over-harvesting, with the primary intention not being trade, but the recovery of populations. The potential benefits from the commercial harvesting of chicks obtained were also discussed.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Ara ararauna

Brazil (de Faria Valle et al., 2008) The authors considered the knowledge of clinical and laboratory parameters of wild species bred in captivity to be limited. This study determined serum biochemical parameters of Ara ararauna reared in a commercial breeding facility, which may be used as reference parameters for the species.

Bio., Cons.

Literature review

4

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Ara macao cyanoptera

Mesoamerica (Garcia Feria and de los Monteros, 2007)

Dozens of Ara macao cyanoptera were reported to die every year in confinement areas after confiscations, due to their origin being unknown; only some surviving animals were reported to be donated to zoos. This project's goal was to identify wild population DNA markers in order to recognise the geographic source of confiscated macaws, therefore facilitating reintroduction measures. Furthermore, the authors considered that genetic surveys of captive individuals would allow implementing a breeding programme “that might reduce the inbreeding risk or incompatible mix-up of genetic lineages”.

Bio., Cons., Enf., Tra.

Aves global (Robinson, 2001) This study focussed on the effects of CITES trade restrictions on birds. It noted that the trade restrictions by CITES were reported to have created a situation in which rare and attractive bird species commanded high prices within the pet trade. As part of the study, a dynamic model of an avicultural market was constructed, with simulations showing that the high prices commanded by sought-after bird species tended to bring about oversupply and rapid price decline. The authors indicated that the high prices for protected bird species may be regarded as a potential source of windfall profits or as a factor that might be manipulated to discourage the poaching and smuggling of wild birds.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Falconiformes

South Africa (Lombard, 2008) This publication discussed criticism of wild harvest of falcons in the context of the availability of captive-bred specimens.

Bio., Tra., Cons.

Garrulax galbanus China (Wilkinson et al., 2004) The authors reported on the appearance of Garrulax galbanus from China in the bird trade in Europe in 1988. They noted that this species was previously only known from two museum specimens in China, originating from Wuyuan County, Jiangxi Province in 1919 and from near Simao, Yunnan Province in 1956.

Cons., Tra.,

Guaruba guarouba

Brazil (Reynolds, 2003) This study provided information on the status of Guaruba guarouba in the wild, in situ conservation efforts and captive breeding, including the finding that the age of first breeding is later than stated by many breeders in the U.S.

Bio., Cons., Enf.

Psittacines

Czech Republic (Vaidl, 2006) The author reported that Prague zoo observed increases in “important interventions into the breeding concept with arrivals of bird species as a result of illegal trade i.e. birds confiscated by the Czech Environmental Inspectorate at the Czech borders”. The following species were reported to have either been kept or bred at the zoo as a result of the confiscations: Amazona amazonica, Loriculus vernalis, Probosciger aterrimus, Cacatua goffini, Amazona leucocephala, Amazona collaria, Amazona agilis and Amazona festiva festiva.

Bio., Enf. Tra.

Psittacines

global (Frynta et al., 2010) This study analyzed whether the size of zoo populations of parrots was determined by not only by conservation needs but also by the perceived beauty of species. The authors found positive association between perceived beauty and the size of worldwide zoo population, whereas conservation needs appeared less significant.

Cons., Crit.

Literature review

5

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Pterocnemia pennata, Rhea americana

South America (Navarro and Martella, 2008)

The authors noted that commercial farming was considered to be a high value conservation tool for ratites, with studies showing that genetic variability of captive populations of Greater Rhea were similar to those of wild ones and no signs of inbreeding depression or difference in allele frequencies found.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Rhea americana

Argentina (Alonso Roldán et al., 2011)

This study evaluated the status of captive populations of Rhea americana as potential genetic reservoirs and found that differences with wild populations were not significant. The authors noted that captive populations of rheas in Argentina could therefore be considered genetic reservoirs and sources of individuals for reintroductions and translocations.

Bio., Cons.

Struthio camelus

Cameroon (Njikam et al., 2004) The authors discussed the introduction of breeding in "game ranching" or "game farming" of Struthio camelus in Cameroon as an alternative for the conservation of this species.

Cons., Tra.

REPTILIA Alligator sinensis

China Thorbjarnarson et al., 2000. This report focussed on the captive breeding of Alligator sinensis in China for conservation purposes and raised concerns about the commercial breeding of the species for meat and skins.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Alligator sinensis

China (Yan et al., 2005) The authors reported that illegal and mislabelled Chinese alligator, Alligator sinensis, meat had appeared in markets. They recommended developing a method for the identification of Chinese alligator meat to prevent illegally hunted meat from entering the market. They presented specific primers designed to be used for the rapid and accurate identification of not only alligator meat but also other commercial products from Chinese alligator.


Caiman latirostris Argentina (Poletta et al., 2008) The authors reported on the effect of density on growth in body mass and total length of Caiman latirostris hatchlings in commercial ranching programmes.

Bio.

Chamaeleonidae

global (Carpenter et al., 2004) This publication reviewed the global trade in chameleons from 1977 to 2001, based on import data from the CITES Trade Database. The authors reported that captive-bred and ranched individuals formed “a small but increasing contribution to the trade”.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Chelodina mccordi

Indonesia (Rhodin et al., 2008) This paper noted that international pet trade had led to the virtual commercial extinction of Chelodina mccordi in the wild within its restricted range on Roti Island in Indonesia. The authors urged that the species’ habitat should be protected and recommended the establishment of a captive breeding programme.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Crocodylia

Colombia Zimbabwe

(MacGregor, 2006) This study assessed the shift from wild harvest of Crocodylia to captive production and the observed impacts on markets, as well as the associated impacts on conservation of wild Crocodylia.

Cons., Tra.

Literature review

6

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Crocodylia global (Huchzermeyer, 2003) The author provided a comprehensive reference on the biology, management

and health of crocodiles, alligators and gharials, with particular emphasis on diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases, as occurring on crocodile farms.

Bio., Cons.

Crocodylia


(Elsey and Trosclair, 2008) The authors reported on the benefits of early egg collection for commercial crocodile farming. They found the accelerated growth rate of specimens collected earlier to be an economic benefit to the producer and likely to reduce the “impact of potential natural mortality factors (such as flooding, predation, and lightning fires) that eggs would otherwise be exposed to if not collected”.

Bio., Cons.

Crocodylus intermedius, Crocodylus acutus

South America (Boede and Sogbe, 2000) The authors reported that captive-breeding operations were established for both Crocodylus intermedius and Crocodylus acutus after commercial indiscriminate hunting left the wild populations at critical levels. Four crocodile farms were established for C. intermedius and one for C. acutus; however, annual mortality rates of hatchlings and juveniles were reported to have reached up to 70% per crocodile farm in 1985- 1998.

Bio., Cons., Crit., Tra.

Crocodylus niloticus South Africa (Flint et al., 2000) The authors reported that unexpectedly no detectable genetic variation was observed at a number of loci examined in wild and captive Crocodylus niloticus. According to the authors, this could either indicate captive inbreeding or represent the natural state of the wild population where the breeding stock was captured.

Bio., Cons.

Crocodylus niloticus

Zambia (Siamudaala et al., 2004) The authors reported on the biodiversity and socio-economic potential of farming of Crocodylus niloticus in Zambia. Furthermore, they reported that dependence on the wild stock for eggs was declining due to increased egg production in farms.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Crocodylus porosus

Australia (McClure and Mayer, 2001) This study focussed on captive breeding and reproductive efficiency of Crocodylus porosus in a farm in Queensland, Australia. The data was derived from a database, CROCTEL, developed by the Queensland Department of Primary Industries, to record production in crocodile farms.

Bio., Tra.

Crocodylus siamensis/ Crocodylia

Cambodia (Jelden et al. 2005) The authors considered the status of wild populations of C. siamensis in Cambodia to be a major concern, with the improving of management of farming and trade and improving compliance with CITES considered essential to improved conservation action.

Bio., Cons., Crit., Enf., Tra.

Cuora amboinensis kamaroma

Malaysia (Schoppe, 2008) The author reported that there were no captive breeding facilities for Cuora amboinensis kamaroma in Malaysia, although trade in captive-bred specimens had been reported and captive breeding had been encouraged by the authorities. The author recommended that CITES Authorities should not encourage the captive breeding of this species, due to poor suitability.


Literature review

7

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Cuora galbinifrons bourreti

Viet Nam (Fiebig and Lehr, 2000) This study indicated that Cuora galbinifrons bourreti, a highly endangered species throughout its distribution, was reported to have been bred successfully only since 1998. The founder stock was reported to have been acquired from the animal trade in central Viet Nam in 1993.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Cyclura collei

Jamaica (Wilson et al., 2004) Following the rediscovery of Cyclura collei, founder stock for captive breeding and "headstart" programmes was reported to have been collected. Furthermore, Wilson et al. noted that breeding nuclei were established at the Hope Zoo in Kingston and also at six U. S. Zoos.

Bio., Cons.

Eretmochelys imbricata

Australia (Webb et al., 2008)

The authors presented the farming of Eretmochelys imbricate as a potentially viable wildlife industry in northern Australia, as the demand for Hawksbill turtle shell was reported to be high and captive breeding was considered the quickest route through CITES for legal international trade.

Cons., Tra.

Geochelone elegans Malaysia (Shepherd et al., 2004)

This report provides an overview of the trade in Geochelone elegans in Malaysia. The species was reported to have been traded in significant numbers and that the trade was largely unregulated in Malaysia. The authors report incidences of mis-declaration of specimens as captive-bred in Malaysia.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Geoemyda spengleri

global (Pawlowski and Kramer, 2009)

Geoemyda spengleri was reported to be kept and bred in captivity, but although successful breeding was considered to be frequent under suitable conditions, reproductive output was reported to be low. The authors reported that excessive collecting of wild animals could cause an enormous decline of local populations due to the low reproductive potential of the species, and they considered it likely that the demand for the species in the European pet trade could be satisfied through existing breeding groups across Europe.


Geoemydidae China (Parham et al., 2001) According to the authors, ten of the 13 new species of geoemydid turtles described in the past 16 years [1985-2001] were reported to have been based on specimens obtained through the Hong Kong animal trade. After scientists failed to discover the wild populations of some of these species, questions about the “legitimacy of the type localities and concerns over the validity of the species” were raised. This study examined the phylogenetic and taxonomic validity of two of these species, Mauremys iversoni and Cuora serrata. The systematic status of turtles described from pet trade specimens was considered critical data for conservation efforts, particularly for captive breeding.


Goniurosaurus lui/ Reptilia

China/global (Kratochvil, 2006) The authors commented on a previous publication focussing on the detrimental effects that scientific descriptions can have on a species by bringing them to the attention of hobbyists and traders.

Cons., Tra., Enf.

Literature review

8

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Iguana delicatissima Antilles (Powell, 2004) Powell reported that the Lesser Antillean iguana populations included at least

two species, Iguana delicatissima and I. iguana, the latter of which possibly represented several species-level taxa. The author considered the provision for the harvest and export of I. iguana from many nations to be without consideration of the genetic distinctiveness of populations; particularly as most island populations are small, rendering them “vulnerable to natural or human-mediated, stochastic or non-random events”. The author considered that “conservation plans must be implemented and will have to include [...] in at least the instance of the St. Lucian Iguana, a captive-breeding and headstarting program.”

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Lygodactylus williamsi

Tanzania (van Leeuwen, 2009) Lygodactylus williamsi was reported to have been imported illegally into Europe, and the author considered trade in wild specimens likely to bring the species to the brink of extinction due to its endemism and limited distribution. The author recommended that an ESF studbook be initiated for this species in order to produce a “strong genetically based population in captivity” and enforce stricter control and regulation in its natural environment.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Mauremys spp./ General

Southeast Asia/global

(Fong et al., 2007) The accurate determination of species systematists was considered to be crucial in order to guide conservation strategies effectively. The authors analyzed the Mauremys mutica complex and found that the current taxonomy did not reflect the genetic diversity discovered. They therefore raised concerns over the breeding of trade-rescued specimens and releasing of their progeny into the wild. They recommended continued surveys to gain more accurate estimates of evolutionary lineages and “a shift in conservation focus to in situ preservation of wild populations and associated habitat”.

Bio., Cons., Crit.

Palea steindachneri, Pelodiscus sinensis

Viet Nam (Hendrie, 2004)

The author reported on the findings of an evaluation of a commercial captive breeding facility for Palea steindachneri and Pelodiscus sinensis in Hanoi.

Bio., Trad.

Pelodiscus sinensis

Viet Nam (Maran, 2003) Pelodiscus sinensis was reported to be frequently raised in Asia to supply mainly Asian restaurants. While many specimens were reported to be raised in farms, the authors also reported that turtles were heavily exploited in the wild and that the current trade in wild caught turtles may lead to drastic population decreases.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Pyxis arachnoids

Madagascar (Hofstra, 2004) The author noted that Pyxis arachnoides was considered to be Vulnerable in Madagascar due to habitat destruction and harvest for food and trade. The author described the successful captive breeding of this species.


Pyxis planicauda

Madagascar (Razandrimamilafiniarivo et al., 2000)

The authors reported on the captive breeding and care of the threatened Pyxis planicauda in Madagascar. The species was reported to be threatened through habitat destruction and collection for trade.

Bio., Enf. Tra.

Literature review

9

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Serpentes/ Crocodylia

Cambodia (Brooks et al., 2010) While the authors considered commercial trade to be a major driver of over-exploitation of wild species, they considered the pattern of demand and its responses to changes in supply to be poorly understood. In order to evaluate future exploitation, identify conservation needs and to illustrate the value of multi-scale analysis of markets, they explored the market for snakes from Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia. They reported that, in Cambodia, domestic trade in snakes was mainly driven by their use as crocodile food, with an estimated 2.7 to 12.2 million snakes per year consumed in crocodile farms.

Cons., Crit., Tra.

Serpentes/ Crocodylia

Cambodia (Brooks et al., 2008) This paper analysed the conservation of aquatic snakes and the sustainable livelihoods of fishers in Cambodia. The authors reported that fishing for water snakes had “become a widespread activity within the floating communities of Tonle Sap Lake in the last 20 years in response to new market opportunities, provided primarily by a crocodile farming industry”. This activity, however, was considered a conservation concern due to the scale and intensity observed and reports of declines in catch per fisher.

Cons., Crit., Tra.

Serpentes global (Maresova and Frynta, 2008) The effect of species attractiveness to humans on conservation efforts was analysed in the context of captive breeding. The authors found that “attractiveness, body size and, marginally, also taxonomic uniqueness of the species were the only significant predictors of the size of zoo populations”, rather than species rarity.

Cons., Crit.

Sphenodon spp.

New Zealand (Burgess et al., 2009) This study examined the diet and husbandry of captive tuatara (Sphenodon spp.), “in order to develop recommendations on provision of ultraviolet B light and diet, to reduce the incidence of nutritional secondary hyper-parathyroidism (NSHP)”.

Bio.,

Reptilia global (Stoltz, 2004) According to this paper, approximately 10% of the leather used by Hermès every year was reported to originate from species protected under CITES, with over 90% of these skins sourced from specialised farms. The author reported that Hermès had supported this production for about 30 years and considered the production beneficial to the conservation of the species involved.

Cons., Tra.

Reptilia/ Amphibia

Madagascar (Mattioli et al., 2006) The study analysed the cost of captive breeding of those Malagasy reptile and amphibian species that were found to be most in demand in trade. The authors considered the possibility of using captive breeding as a conservation tool for the management of endangered species in order to reduce the trade in wild caught specimens.

Cons., Tra.

Literature review

10

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Reptilia

Mexico (Arroyo-Quiroz et al., 2007) The role of Mexico in the reptile skin trade was analysed, and the authors reported that, while the country still relied on wild-sourced reptile skins from non-native species, skins from native species were mainly derived from captive breeding schemes. The authors considered the schemes to be biologically sustainable, but noted that they did not provide incentives for habitat conservation.

Cons., Tra.

Reptilia/ Amphibia

Mexico (Fitzgerald et al., 2004) This study focussed on the regulation of collection and trade of reptilian and amphibian species originating in the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion. The authors noted that due to the general prohibition of export of amphibians and reptiles from Mexico, virtually all specimens offered for sale outside the country had to be considered illegal, including specimens of captive origin, as the founder stock had likely been exported illegally.


Reptilia

Indonesia (Nijman and Shepherd, 2009)

The authors reported that many reptiles exported by Indonesia to the European Union were likely to be mis-declared as captive-bred to circumvent wildlife trade regulations. They found discrepancies between the numbers of reptiles that “purported breeding facilities in Indonesia are actually producing or have the capacity to produce”.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Reptilia Indonesia (Shepherd and Nijman, 2007).

The authors reported on the management and control of wildlife harvesting in Indonesia, including probable laundering of wild animals as captive-bred specimens in trade.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Testudines China (Shi et al., 2008) The authors reported that data collected from 644 out of 1499 large turtle farms indicated that more than 300 million turtles were traded annually. The majority of trade was in Pelodiscus sinensis, but many other species, ranging from Critically Endangered species to species native to North America, were represented in the trade. They suggested that the scale of the trade may actually be much higher, as 54% of known farms did not respond to their survey and as many Chinese turtle farms were thought to be operating covertly.

Cons., Crit., Tra., Enf.

Testudines China (Shi et al., 2007) The authors reported that there were over 1000 turtle breeding farms in China, which “vastly exceeds all predictions”. Such turtle farms were considered to be a “major threat to the survival of China’s diverse turtle fauna”, partly due to their requirement to add wild specimens to the breeding stock and due to the suspected illegal laundering of wild specimens as captive-bred.


Testudines China (Shi et al., 2004) The authors presented data on captive breeding and trade of turtles in Guangxi Province, China collected from four turtle farms and three markets. Whilst they reported that the scale of captive breeding in Guangxi was larger than previously known, the number of wild turtles in the markets appeared to be decreasing. They further discussed concerns over the licensing of turtle farms and the effectiveness of enforcement.


Literature review

11

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Testudines China (Zhou et al., 2006)

The authors provided an overview of turtle farming in Hainan, China, including sources and origins of breeding stock, numbers held and breeding methods applied in farming operations.

Bio., Trad.

Testudines

global (Syed et al., 2007) The authors considered captive breeding and subsequent translocation to be an important conservation strategy for some of the 40% of tortoises and freshwater turtles that were considered either threatened or critically endangered. They recommended that both large commercial operations and small non-commercial breeding programmes needed to include genetic management of their captive populations for eventual translocation into wild populations. They raised concerns over the loss of genetic diversity, as many captive breeding programmes did not include genetic management.

Bio., Cons.

Testudines

global (Vinke and Vinke, 2010) The authors reported that prices of captive-bred specimens in trade were higher than wild-caught/ranched specimens due to regulations driving prices for captive-bred specimens up whilst facilitating imports and trade in wild-caught/ranched specimens at lower costs.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Testudines

global (Vinke and Vinke, 2009) The authors raised concerns over irregularities found in various tortoise captive breeding facilities worldwide, leading to the mislabelling of wild specimens as captive-bred, captive born or ranched.


Testudo graeca graeca

Spain (Perez et al., 2004) The collection of Testudo graeca graeca for pets was reported to be a common activity in southeast Spain, with estimates of tens of thousands of tortoises believed to be kept in captivity. Wild tortoises were reported to be collected as a result of chance encounters but without commercial objectives. Captive breeding and the uncontrolled release of tortoises were reported to be common and were considered an important threat to the species.


Testudo horsfieldii Uzbekistan (Bykova, V et al., 2007) The authors reported on studies of commercial hatching of Testudo horsfieldii on farms conducted by associates of Zoocomplex (Tashkent, Uzbekistan) implemented since 1997. They discussed several methods applied to obtain eggs: “from tortoises constantly kept in captivity, those temporarily kept in the nursery, and incubated eggs collected in the wild”.

Bio., Tra.

Testudo horsfieldii Uzbekistan (Theile, 2000) The author provided an overview of the management and conservation status of Testudo horsfieldii in Uzbekistan, with a focus on the captive breeding/ranching operations in the country.

Bio., Cons., Enf., Trad.

Varanus spp. global (Wesiak and Koch, 2009) The authors reported on new species frequently first being available through the international pet trade “before they are recognized as new to science and prior to their formal description”, which had been observed for the Varanus indicus and V. prasinus species groups.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

AMPHIBIA

Literature review

12

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Amphibia global (Gascon et al., 2007) This publication presented a global Action Plan for Amphibians by the

IUCN/SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, including a chapter on captive breeding programmes.


Amphibia (incl. Scaphiophryne gottlebei)

Madagascar (Garcia et al., 2008) The authors discussed captive breeding as a conservation tool to address amphibian declines in Madagascar. The levels of expertise within captive breeding establishments were also assessed. The authors found that 27 of the 226 Malagasy amphibian species are currently kept in zoos, with only a few institutions having historical records of breeding for several generations or keeping large numbers of Malagasy frogs; private breeders were reported to keep approximately the same number of species as zoos.

Cons., Tra.

Amphibia/ Reptilia

Thailand (Nijman and Shepherd, 2011)

The authors reported on the performance of CITES reporting by analyzing the commercial trade in non-native reptiles and amphibians into Thailand. They found that whilst imports of amphibians and reptiles have into Thaland significantly increased, the proportions of captive-bred specimens versus wild caught specimens were erratic. They concluded that these “large discrepancies with respect to origin point to misreporting or possible violations of the rules and intentions of CITES”.


Atelopus carrikeri

Columbia (Marris, 2008) The author reported on the rediscovery of Atelopus carrikeri and another species of the same genus in Colombia. With half of the world's species of amphibians estimated to be threatened and about one-third at risk of extinction, the author reports on conservationists “gathering up frogs believed to be doomed, in some areas collecting every last individual of a species, in an effort to enable some to persist in captivity”.

Cons.

ACTINOPTERYGII Acipenseriformes Caspian Sea (Mathews et al., 2006) This study assessed the effort required to manage Caspian sturgeon in order to

facilitate recovery of wild stocks. While the authors based their analysis on a “simple bio-economic model”, they noted the importance of including “rehabilitation of spawning and nursery grounds, pollution control, careful control of genetic problems associated with restocking, access to sufficient brood stock and full implementation of the Caspian Framework Convention and all of its protocols”.


Acipenseriformes global (Gessner et al., 2008) The authors attempted to determine the chemical and biochemical composition of caviar, both of wild caught and farmed animals. They found that significant differences were only present in fatty acids, which depended on the feed sources utilised, and recommended the use of specific fatty acids as additives to the formulated diets.


Literature review

13

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Acipenseriformes global (Raymakers, 2006) This publication raised concerns over the pressure on Acipenseriformes stocks,

which was believed to remain even with the increased supply of caviar through captive production, due to the continued poaching of wild stocks. The author believed that “the CITES process has a stronger role to play in materialising action plans and in supporting synergies between stakeholders, including the commercial sector, scientists, socio-economists, investment institutions, government agencies, inter- and non-government organisations”.


Acipenseriformes

global (Wuertz et al., 2009) This study assessed the feasibility of using food additives (fatty acids and vitamin E) for labelling caviar from aquaculture origin in order to discriminate wild and aquaculture products. They found that Capric acid would provide “a cheap and easy-to-assess tool for labelling caviar from aquaculture, thereby allowing its utilization as an identification system under CITES as recently requested recently by the IUCN Sturgeon Specialist Group”.


Acipenseriformes global (Wuertz et al., 2007) Species identification in caviar was reported to be only possible through molecular techniques, and the authors recommended the use of DNase treatment to be integrated in the CITES standard testing procedure.


Acipenseriformes


(Billard and Lecointre, 2001) The authors reported on the output of sturgeon farming, which they hoped would contribute to a reduction of fishing pressure on the dramatically decreased wild stocks of Acipenseriformes.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Actinopterygii

global (Utter and Epifanio, 2002) The complexities of genetic considerations with regard to marine aquaculture were illustrated in the context of effects of cultured stocks on their wild conspecifics.

Bio., Cons. Crit.

Arapaima gigas

Brazil (Castello and Stewart, 2010) The authors assessed Brazil’s non-detriment-finding procedures for the harvest of Arapaima gigas and considered the regulations inadequate for ensuring the sustainability of harvest. They reported that the fishery was largely unregulated and pointed out that 'captive' specimens, which originated in the wild but were raised in captivity, can be exported as regulations do not specify that they must be 'captive-bred'.


Atractosteus spatula Mexico (Mendoza et al., 2002) The authors noted that commercial and sports fisheries were reported to have led to the decline of populations of Atractosteus spatula and that aquaculture was considered to be a short-term alternative to restore natural populations. The authors reported that multidisciplinary research was being used to describe the major morpho-physiological changes in order to provide a basis for the introduction of artificial diets for culture.

Cons., Tra.

Hippocampus erectus


(Lin et al., 2008) This study evaluated the breeding and juvenile culture of Hippocampus erectus, and the authors concluded that the species may be a good candidate for commercial aquaculture.

Bio., Tra.

Literature review

14

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content Hippocampus spp. global (Koldewey and Martin-

Smith, 2010) This publication reviewed historical and current information on global seahorse aquaculture, including “characteristics of aquaculture operations, species in culture, contribution to international trade and technical issues associated with raising seahorses in captivity”. The authors reported that the majority of seahorse aquaculture involved small-scale operations in developed countries, with currently at least 13 species either already in commercial culture or under research for their culture potential. They reported that no large-scale aquaculture to supply the traditional medicine market had been demonstrated to be commercially viable, despite active research.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Huso huso Caspian Sea (Doukakis et al., 2010) The authors reported that improving the survival rates of subadult and adult females would be a more efficient strategy for the conservation of Huso huso than improving fecundity and survival from egg to the age of one year by hatchery supplementation. They raised concerns over supplementation of wild populations with captive breed stock due to the failure of addressing the cause of the decline and the possibility of reducing the viability as “genetics are not factored into hatchery management practices”.

Bio., Crit., Cons.

Polyodon spathula United States of America

(Mims, 2001) The aquaculture of paddlefish was considered to be in a research and developmental phase, with most brood stock still being obtained from the wild, although some fish were reported to have matured in captivity.


Schroederichthys chilensis

Chile (Piaget et al., 2005) This study focussed on the feasibility of aquaculture of Schroederichthys chilensis, and the authors found that it would be possible to breed the species in captivity, an outcome which they considered to be a precedent for the culture of sharks.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Scleropages formosus

Singapore (Yue et al., 2004) The authors analysed the genetic diversity and population structure of three captive stocks of Scleropages formosus. They found that a recent bottleneck in any of the three captive populations was highly unlikely and expected the captive breeding programme to be successful and suitable for conservation and sustainable use of the species.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Various global (Moorhead and Zeng, 2010) The development of captive breeding techniques for marine ornamental species, particularly reef fish, was considered by the authors to be vital to ensure the sustainability of the marine ornamental industry and to potentially aid reef recovery through restocking. The authors, however, considered the marine ornamental aquaculture sector still to be in its infancy and receiving limited research attention.

Cons., Tra.

Various China (Jia and Chen, 2001) The authors described the development of marine fisheries over the last 50 year period [1950-2000] and the shift to aquaculture operations, with particular focus on major representatives of five species groups (seaweed, molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms and fish).

Bio., Tra.

Literature review

15

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content INVERTEBRATES

Insecta Tropics (Hardouin, 2003) The author reported on the predominant practice of collecting insects from the wild for use as food, fodder, medical purposes or handicrafts, and considered the prospects for developing sustainable insect production techniques to replace uncontrolled capture in the wild.


Lepidoptera

Tanzania (Morgan-Brown et al., 2010) This study focussed on the role of development in conservation in the context of butterfly farming in Tanzania. The authors found participation in butterfly farming “increased participation in conservation behaviours among project participants because farmers perceive a link between earnings from butterfly farming and forest conservation”.

Cons., Tra.

Ornithoptera spp./ Insecta

Papua New Guinea

(Small, 2007) The author reported that the while the government-sponsored Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) had been celebrated as a conservation and development success, the onset of large scale logging and mining in Papua New Guinea have resulted in the agency struggling to provide sustainable payments to village-based insect ranchers and collectors. The author noted that doubts were cast on this model of sustainable conservation as a result.

Cons., Crit., Tra.

Scleractinia

Australia (Department of Fisheries, 2006)

This report considered the aquaculture of live rock, live sand and corals to be “set for rapid industry development and expansion”, with the large range of species providing flexibility in the range of culture systems and technologies.

Cons., Tra.

Scleractinia

global (Borneman and Lowrie, 2001)

The authors reported that, due to advances in the husbandry of captive marine habitats, the asexual propagation of “150 species of Scleractinia, 100 species of symbiotic Octocorallia, and virtually all available Zoantharia” was achieved regularly in private aquaria. These techniques were thought to be transferable to large-scale facilities, however the authors consider the “lack of communication between the scientific community, public aquaria, and the private sector” responsible for the slow progress observed.


Strombus gigas United States of America

(Shawl et al., 2003) The authors reported on a captive breeding programme for Strombus gigas established in June 2000. The breeding success of the programme supported the establishment of a commercial captive breeding programme.

Bio., Tra.

Strombus gigas, S. raninus, S. alatus, S. costatus


(Shawl and Davis, 2004) This study examined the feasibility of a captive breeding programme for Strombus gigas, S. raninus, S. alatus and S. costatus; the authors considered it possible to establish a commercial scale captive breeding programme to supply the food and aquarium market.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

Ornithoptera spp. global (UNEP WCMC, 2007)

This review provided an overview of information available on trade and ranching of Ornithoptera spp. species from the various countries of origin.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

GENERAL General Australia (DSEWPC, 2010)

This website contains a list of Australian captive breeding programmes, as approved under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act

Tra.

Literature review

16

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content of 1999 (EPBC).

General Europe (Theile et al., 2004) This report raised concerns about the lack of coordination and cooperation amongst enforcement agencies within the EU in controlling wildlife trade, including the mis-declaration of wild specimens as captive-bred.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

General global (Damania and Bulte, 2007) The authors analysed the effects of “supply side” policies that were based on the assumption that pressure on wild stocks could be reduced by generating supplies from captive stocks. They concluded that those policies may contribute to a further depletion of wild stocks and compiled conditions under which captive breeding contributes to conservation.


General/ Salmonids

global (Fraser, 2008) The author analysed the ability of captive breeding programmes to conserve genetic diversity and fitness, or to facilitate the re-establishment of self-sustaining populations in the wild. Whilst reviewing these issues in salmonid fishes, the author noted that little evidence was available to show that captive-bred lines of salmonids could be reintroduced as self-sustaining populations and that the root causes of declines had not been mitigated. The author proposed guidelines for captive breeding and made management recommendations aimed at facilitating meta-analyses.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

General global (Gippoliti, 2004) The author addressed the need for two levels of captive breeding: 1) captive breeding programmes as part of the conservation strategy for threatened taxa and financed by state or federal agencies, and 2) "prophylactic" breeding of vulnerable taxa, for which private sector funding may be available. Furthermore, a closer collaboration amongst zoological gardens, zoologists and other agencies was considered to be necessary in order to avoid “ill-conceived, potentially dangerous captive-breeding and re-introduction projects”.

Cons., Crit.

General global (Hewitt and Fulbright, 2007) This publication compiled scientific papers on linking ecological theory and wildlife management applications, such as the increasing importance of genetics in conservation.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

General global (IUCN, 2002)

This publication discussed the benefits and risks involved in the various options for disposing of confiscated animals, including the option of keeping such specimens in captivity for captive breeding programmes.

Bio., Cons., Crit.

General global (Kuenzl et al., 2003) This study analysed the effects of rearing of wild animals in captivity on behaviour and physiological stress responses, using domestic Cavia aperea f. porcellus and wild Cavia aperea as a model. The authors did not find significant changes in behaviour and hormonal stress responses through long-term breeding and rearing and concluded that much longer periods of time and artificial selection by humans would be required to bring about characteristics of domestication in wild animals.

Bio., Cons.

General

global (Odgen et al., 2009) This review described the main technologies and applications available to wildlife forensic geneticists, with a particular focus on species identification,

Bio., Cons.,

Literature review

17

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content origin, owner and source. The authors provided a perspective on the “potential for new genetic techniques and their future role in the increasingly complex fight to enforce the protection of endangered species”.

Enf., Tra.

General global (Pickering, undated) This publication focussed on the increase in captive breeding successes and discussed issues with regard to the use of captive breeding as a conservation tool.

Bio., Cons., Crit.

General global (Roe et al., 2002) This publication addressed captive breeding of species in non-range states and the issue of genetic resource benefit sharing, as well as benefit distribution with regard to ranching.

Cons., Enf., Trad.

General global (Theodorou and Couvet, 2010)

This study evaluated the effectiveness of circular mating as a genetic management option for captive populations. They concluded that circular mating would fulfil the primary goals of captive breeding programmes, if a slight increase in extinction probability can be tolerated, as it was considered to maintain high levels of genetic diversity and to increase the success probability of reintroduced populations.

Bio., Cons.

General global (WWF, 2007) This policy statement considered the risks and benefits of captive breeding programmes on the conservation of threatened species.

Bio., Cons.

General South America/global

(Rushton et al., 2004)

This paper analysed the cost of producing meat in wildlife farms and the authors made recommendations on how policy makers should react to initiatives which promote such production. The authors pointed out that a conflict existed between the aims of domestication for meat production and animal conservation.

Bio., Cons., Tra.

General Southeast Asia (Nijman, 2010) This report presented an overview of international wildlife trade from Southeast Asia. The author found that about 4.5 million out of 35 million animals originating from Southeast Asia and traded over the period 1998–2007 were derived from captive breeding facilities. Records of illegal or undeclared international trade were found to be rare, but such trade was considered “significantly larger than levels of official exports”.


General Southeast Asia (Thomson, 2008)

This report was developed as a reference manual on the captive breeding of selected CITES-listed species in Cambodia and Viet Nam as a result of the increasing interest in captive breeding in Southeast Asia.


Rhinocerotidae/General

global (Bulte and Damania, 2005) A theoretical economic model was developed to examine whether wildlife farming or ranching contributes to conservation. The authors demonstrated that wildlife farming may stimulate harvesting (or poaching), rather than discouraging it and recommended that policy-makers restrict quantities of farmed output through a quota system in order ensure that conservation is promoted through farming. Policy-makers were advised to be careful when stimulating wildlife farming in the absence of such regulations, in order to


Literature review

18

Species Country/Region Reference Summary Content potentially adverse consequences.

Various Madagascar (Rabesihanaka, 2004) The author reported on the management of natural resources within Madagascar, including the ex-situ breeding of endangered animals. The author noted that a management plan was being developed, following “anomalies” found concerning the management of the international trade.

Cons., Enf., Tra.

Various Lebanon (Dakdouk, 2009) This report raised concerns over the legality of trade originating in Lebanon, particularly with regard to mis-declaration of specimens as captive-bred.


Contents Key: Bio. = Biological information on breeding in captivity Crit. = Concerns over captive breeding Enf. = Enforcement issues Tra. = Trade in captive-bred specimens Cons. = Conservation through captive breeding

Literature review

19

References

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Alonso Roldán, V., Navarro, J. L., Gardena, C. N. and Martella, M. B. 2011. May captive populations of Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) act as genetic reservoirs in Argentina? Zoo Biology 30 (1): 65–70.

Anon. 2010. Tigers among US: The impact of poorly regulated captive tigers in the United States on tigers in the wild. TRAFFIC North America. URL: http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/tigers/captive-tigers/WWFBinaryitem18371.pdf . Accessed 14/04/2011.

Arroyo-Quiroz, I., Pérez Gill, R., and Leader-Williams, N. 2007. Mexico in the International Reptile Skin Trade: a Case Study. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16 (4): 931-952.

Billard, R. and Lecointre, G. 2001. Biology and conservation of sturgeon and paddlefish. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 10 (4): 355-392.

Boede, E. O. and Sogbe, E. 2000. Diseases in Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) and American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) kept in Venezuelan farms. Revista Cientifica-Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, 10 (4): 328-338.

Borneman, E. H. and Lowrie, J. 2001. Advances in captive husbandry and propagation: An easily utilized reef replenishment means from the private sector? Bulletin of Marine Science, 69 (2): 897-913.

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Further Literature which may be of interest:

Abbott, B. and University of Victoria (BC). 2008. The economics of endangered species poaching. Resource Economics & Policy Analysis Research Group, Department of Economics, University of Victoria. 33 pp.

Anon. 2001. IUCN SSC Commercial captive propagation and wild species conservation. A draft workshop report. 7-9 December, Gainsville, Florida USA. Unpublished report. 35 pp.

Bezuijen, M. R., Phothitay, C., Hedemark, M., and Chanrya, S. 2006. Preliminary Status Review of the Siamese Crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis Schneider, 1801)(Reptilia: Crocodylia) in the Lao People's Democratic Republic. 114 pp.

Broghammer, S. 2008. Das Ranching beim Königspython. Draco 35: 69-73.

Costa, R. G. A. (2008). Diagnóstico da criação ilegal e tráfico de animais silvestres na região central do Rio Grande do Sul a partir de apreensões e entregas voluntárias. Atualidades Ornitologicas 144: 14-17.

Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. URL: http://iucncsg.org/ph1/modules/Publications/newsletter.html. Accessed 23/04/2011.

EIA. 2008a. Skin deep: the need for effective enforcement to combat the Asian big cat skin trade. Environmental Investigation Agency. Briefing for the 57th Meeting of the CITES Standing Committee. 14th-18th July 2008. 5 pp.

EIA. 2008b. Tiger bone wine briefing. Environmental Investigation Agency. 10 pp.

EIA/WPSA. 2006. Skinning the cat - crime and politics of the big cat skin trade. Environmental Investigation Agency. 26 pp.

Elsey, R. M., McNease, L., and Joanen, T. 2001. Louisiana’s alligator ranching programme: a review and analysis of releases of captive-raised juveniles. Grigg, Gordon C.; Seebacher, Frank; Franklin, Craig E (eds.). Crocodilian Biology and Evolution, 426-442.

Flank, L., Jr. 2001. Captive care of Mantella frogs. Reptile & Amphibian Hobbyist, 6 (8).

Davis, B. M. 2001. Improved nutrition and management of farmed crocodiles - from hatching to harvest. Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation. RIRDC Publication No. 01/123.

Derman, E. 2009. Models. Financial Analysts Journal, 65 (1): 28-33.

Germany. 2003. Trade in tortoises and freshwater turtles [Resolution Conf. 11.9 (Rev. CoP12) and Decision 12.43]. Development of Mid- and Long-term conservation measures for tortoises and freshwater turtles, The Nineteenth meeting of the Animals Committee, Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Geneva (Switzerland), 18-21 August 2003, p. -25.

Gratwicke, B., Bennett, E., Broad, S., Christie, S., Dutton, A., Gabriel, G., Kirkpatrick, C., and Nowell, K. 2008. The world can't have wild tigers and eat them, too. Conservation Biology, 22 (1): 222-223.

HerpDigest. Online electronic newsletter reporting on the latest news on reptile and amphibian science and conservation. URL: http://www.herpdigest.org/. Accessed 03/05/2011.

IFAW. 2007. Made in China: farming tigers to extinction. International Fund for Animal Welfare. 25 pp.

International Zoo Yearbook. Published annually by the Zoological Society of London. URL: http://www.zsl.org/info/publications. Accessed on 03/05/2011.

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Literature review

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overview of current trends in captive-bred and ranched ... · captive-bred and ranched specimens...

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