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REVIEW
Overview of transient liquid phase and partial transient liquidphase bonding
Grant O. Cook III • Carl D. Sorensen
Received: 19 January 2011 / Accepted: 12 April 2011 / Published online: 7 May 2011
� Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
Abstract Transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding is a rel-
atively new bonding process that joins materials using an
interlayer. On heating, the interlayer melts and the inter-
layer element (or a constituent of an alloy interlayer) dif-
fuses into the substrate materials, causing isothermal
solidification. The result of this process is a bond that has a
higher melting point than the bonding temperature. This
bonding process has found many applications, most nota-
bly the joining and repair of Ni-based superalloy compo-
nents. This article reviews important aspects of TLP
bonding, such as kinetics of the process, experimental
details (bonding time, interlayer thickness and format, and
optimal bonding temperature), and advantages and disad-
vantages of the process. A wide range of materials that
TLP bonding has been applied to is also presented. Partial
transient liquid phase (PTLP) bonding is a variant of TLP
bonding that is typically used to join ceramics. PTLP
bonding requires an interlayer composed of multiple lay-
ers; the most common bond setup consists of a thick
refractory core sandwiched by thin, lower-melting layers
on each side. This article explains how the experimental
details and bonding kinetics of PTLP bonding differ from
TLP bonding. Also, a range of materials that have been
joined by PTLP bonding is presented.
Transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding
Transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding is a joining process
that was developed to improve upon existing bonding
technologies. Specifically, this process was patented by
Paulonis et al. in 1971 [1] to overcome deficiencies of then
current bonding techniques in joining Ni-based superalloys
[2–6]. TLP bonding’s main advantage is that resulting
bonds have a higher melting point than the bonding tem-
perature. This bonding process characteristically lies
between diffusion bonding and brazing—for this reason, it
is commonly called diffusion brazing. The process is also
referred to by names such as transient insert liquid metal
bonding [7] and is sometimes mistakenly referred to as
diffusion bonding (which by definition relies solely on
solid-state diffusion). See reference [8] for a detailed his-
tory of TLP bonding and its many names.
TLP bonding process
The TLP bonding process involves the following steps:
• setting up the bond• heating to the specified bonding temperature to produce
a liquid in the bond region
• holding the assembly at the bonding temperature untilthe liquid has isothermally solidified due to diffusion
• homogenizing the bond at a suitable heat-treatingtemperature.
Bond setup usually consists of placing a thin interlayer
between the substrates, but the interlayer material is
occasionally placed outside the joint to flow in by capil-
larity [6, 7, 9–15] as is done in many brazing processes.
The interlayer material can be in many different formats:
• thin foil (rolled sheet) [2–4, 7, 16–62]• amorphous foil (melt-spun) [7, 58–84]• fine powders (with or without binding agent) [5, 7, 15–
17, 85–98]
G. O. Cook III (&) � C. D. SorensenIra A. Fulton College of Engineering and Technology, Brigham
Young University, 435 CTB, Provo, UT 84604, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
123
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DOI 10.1007/s10853-011-5561-1
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• powder compact (made by sintering, cold isostaticpressing, etc.) [57, 99–101]
• brazing paste [9, 17, 102–104]• a physical vapor deposition process such as sputtering
[7, 18–21, 62–64, 105]
• electroplating [10, 17–19, 30, 88, 106–112]• evaporating an element out of the substrate material to
create a ‘‘glazed’’ surface [113].
A pressure is usually applied to the bonding assembly to
keep the substrates aligned and to promote bonding; specific
pressures are categorized in Table 1 by their nearest order
of magnitude. For example, pressures in the nearest order
range of 10 MPa [log(10) = 1] lie between 3.1623 MPa
[log(3.1623) = 0.5] and 31.623 MPa [log(31.623) = 1.5].
Occasionally, the substrates are held a fixed distance apart
rather than applying a pressure, but this tends to cause
porosity in the final bond [6, 19, 43].
Heating of the bond assembly and homogenizing of the
bond is performed with many different equipment setups
and can occur by the following methods:
• radiation [4, 7, 16, 17, 20, 37–43, 77–80, 105, 109, 113,122, 124, 130, 135–138]
• conduction [35–37, 83, 95, 129]• radio-frequency induction [3, 7, 11, 21–24, 60–63, 71–
76, 108, 110, 125–127, 129, 139–141]
• resistance [46, 69, 100, 110]• laser [31]• infrared [7].
The bonding process is usually confined in a vacuum [3–
5, 7, 12, 14–17, 20–30, 35, 38–40, 46–58, 61–63, 65, 66,
68–72, 76–83, 86–88, 93–100, 103–105, 108, 110, 112–
115, 117, 119, 122–127, 130, 132–138, 140–157], although
an inert atmosphere, such as argon, can be used [6, 11, 14,
32, 33, 43, 45, 60, 67, 74, 75, 90, 111, 121, 134, 158, 159].
On rare occasions, TLP bonding is performed under a
different atmosphere, such as nitrogen [44], hydrogen
[160], nitrogen and hydrogen [18], or open air [129]. The
vacuum pressures used in the experiments referenced
above are normally distributed about 0.1 lmHg (millitorr)with minimum and maximum values of 0.00015 and
34 lmHg, respectively.
TLP bonding kinetics
TLP bonding kinetics are generally divided into the fol-
lowing discrete stages [2, 8, 25, 56, 62, 86, 90, 99, 105,
138, 141, 157, 161, 162] for ease of comprehending and
modeling the process:
• melting of the interlayer• dissolution of the substrate material• isothermal solidification• homogenization of the bond region.
Figure 1 is a schematic of TLP bonding kinetics for a
binary system with complete solid solubility.1 The con-
centration profiles in the lower part of the figure are
numbered according to the current temperature of the bond,
which is shown in the phase diagram above them. The
following analysis assumes that (1) the interlayer and
substrate materials are pure elements (2) the bond region
has a uniform temperature as it is being heated (3) the
diffusion rates of liquid metals are infinite, and (4) the
substrate melts back and solidifies as a plane. The second
assumption is likely true since the interlayer is quite thin
and generally composed of metallic elements that charac-
teristically have moderate to high thermal conductivities.
The third assumption is based on liquid diffusivity data
often being orders of magnitude greater than solid diffu-
sivity data [163]. The fourth assumption is necessary to
characterize the process in one dimension.
Concentration profile 1 (CP1) in Fig. 1 shows the TLP
bonding setup at room temperature. The interlayer element
(i) is sandwiched between two pieces of the substrate
material element (s). The thickness of the bond region in
Table 1 Fixturing pressures used during TLP bonding
Nearest order Freq. (%) References
1 kPa 8 [89, 93, 98, 114–116]
10 kPa 5 [66, 117–119]
100 kPa 16 [23–25, 33, 61, 68, 72, 88, 90, 99, 113, 120]
1 MPa 36 [3, 21, 22, 26, 27, 29–31, 34, 65, 69–71, 73, 97, 102, 103, 121–128]
10 MPa 31 [17, 28, 32, 35, 59, 60, 62–64, 67, 74, 94–96, 100, 110, 111, 129–133]
100 MPa 4 [110, 112, 134]
1 A numerical model was developed to calculate one-dimensional
solid-state diffusion in conjunction with a liquid region that expands
or contracts, assuming infinite diffusivity for the liquid region. The
model also accounts for a heating period and diffusivity data as a
function of concentration and temperature. Diffusivity data along with
solidus and liquidus profiles for a hypothetical binary system were
used to output concentration profiles that were the basis for the
concentration profiles in Figs. 1, 3, 5, and 6.
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Fig. 1 has been exaggerated to display changes in the
concentration profile. The interlayer can be composed of a
single element, an alloy, or a multi-layer combination of
elements and/or alloys.
Interlayer thicknesses for TLP bonding are summarized
in Table 2. Besides the frequency of each range, common
thicknesses are also included for those ranges derived from
at least ten references. These common thicknesses com-
prise at least one-third of the specified range and include
plus or minus two percent to account for differences
between metric and English units (e.g., 0.004 inches equals
101.6 lm and should be categorized with 100 lm). Themost common interlayer thickness is 50 lm, comprisingalmost 90% of the 40–60 lm range, or about 20% of allreported TLP bond thicknesses.
As the bond assembly is heated, the interlayer begins to
diffuse into the substrate materials (CP2). The amount of
diffusion that occurs is dependent upon the interdiffusion
coefficient between the substrate and interlayer materials as
well as the heating rate.
Melting
Upon reaching the interlayer element’s melting point
(CP3), the pure portion of the interlayer liquefies (L).
Heating of the bond region continues until the bonding
temperature has been reached. The bonding temperature is
usually well above the interlayer’s melting point to ensure
complete melting of the interlayer and to increase the rate
of diffusion (see Optimal bonding temperature).
CP5a
CP4
CP5e
CP3
CP5d
CP2
CP5c
CP1
CP5b
is s
L
L
L
L
c4,Lc4,S
c5,Lc5,S
c5,S
c5,F
c5,P
c5,Lc5,S
bond region
ci0 100
T5
TR,P
TR,F
T4
T3
T2
T1
c5,Lc4,L
c5,Sc4,S
c5,Pc5,F
Fig. 1 A schematic binarysystem with complete solid
solubility and associated
concentration profiles. These
profiles illustrate the interlayer
element’s concentration during
the TLP bonding process
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Dissolution
During heating past the melting point, the concentrations of
the liquid region follow the solidus (c4,S) and liquidus (c4,L)
lines of the phase diagram (CP4). This causes the liquid
region to melt back, or dissolve, the substrate material to
conserve mass. The movement of the solid–liquid interface
continues until the bonding temperature has been reached
(CP5a); at this point the liquid has attained its maximum
width and has consumed some of the diffused solute. The
amount of melt-back is dependent upon the solidus (c5,S)
and liquidus (c5,L) compositions for the given material
system at the bonding temperature (see Optimal bonding
temperature). The main two effects that lower melt-back
distance are (1) significant diffusion of the interlayer
material into the substrate before melting (see Critical
interlayer thickness) and (2) loss of liquid due to wetting of
the substrate’s sides [44] or a high bonding pressure that
squeezes liquid out [22, 44, 62, 134, 165].
Many materials that are joined by TLP bonding have
carefully designed microstructures to achieve certain
mechanical properties. Too much melt-back of the sub-
strate by the liquid interlayer can have detrimental effects
on the final bond in addition to lengthening the isothermal
solidification time (see Critical interlayer thickness). And,
in some systems melt-back can reach five to fifteen times
the original interlayer thickness [43, 121, 146]. To prevent
drastic melt-back that can adversely affect the micro-
structure, the interlayer should be thin [57, 62], of a
eutectic composition [85], or of a composition similar to
the substrate material [19].
Solidification
After the liquid interlayer has reached its maximum width,
the interlayer material diffuses into the substrates at a rate
somewhere between the diffusivity of the liquid and solid
[25, 43, 85, 163]. As this diffusion occurs isothermally, the
liquid region contracts (CP5b) to conserve mass as the
solidus and liquidus concentrations are now fixed. Iso-
thermal solidification occurs until all of the liquid has
disappeared (CP5c). At this point, the TLP bonding process
can be stopped if desired [71]. The bond already has an
elevated remelting temperature (T5) compared to the
melting temperature of the interlayer (T3).
Homogenization
In most cases TLP bonding is continued in order to
homogenize the bond. This can be an extended time in the
same heating apparatus or a post-bond heat treatment
applied at some other time [14]. Furthermore, if the sub-
strate material’s microstructure is extremely sensitive, this
stage can be conducted at a lower temperature [2, 9]. In
either case, the bond undergoes homogenization for some
predetermined time which causes smoothing of the solute
peak (CP5d) that remained at the end of isothermal solid-
ification (CP5c). The resulting remelting temperature of the
bond in this case is TR,P. If the peak concentration (c5,P) is
within the room-temperature solid-solubility limit of the
binary system, the precipitation of strength-reducing
intermetallic compounds upon cooling will be avoided [12,
110, 147, 150, 160].
If the bond is homogenized for a sufficient amount of
time, there is no gradient in the concentration profile
(CP5e) and the bond’s remelting temperature is even
higher (TR,F). However, despite the increases in bond
remelting temperature that can be achieved by complete
homogenization, an adequate homogenization time is
usually determined by a sufficiently high bond strength [2,
24, 26, 42, 83, 103, 122, 123, 146, 150] or economic
considerations that limit furnace time [77, 125, 173].
Nonetheless, the bond’s remelting temperature is often
hundreds of degrees (�C) above the melting point of theinterlayer and can be about 1000 �C higher if refractorymetals such as Ir, Mo, Nb, Os, Re, Ta, or W are used as the
Table 2 Interlayer thicknesses for TLP bonding
Thickness
range (lm)Common
thickness(es) (lm)Freq.
(%)
References
\1 5 [35, 103, 130]1–5 1, 2 10 [20, 21, 35, 54, 62–64, 102, 105, 107, 108, 114, 118, 129, 130, 144, 164, 165]
10–30 20, 25 35 [5, 8, 10, 20–25, 34, 35, 39, 44, 48, 54, 59–63, 66, 68, 74–76, 78–80, 82, 87, 89, 105, 107,
110, 117, 118, 120–123, 126, 131, 134, 137, 141–143, 145–147, 150, 152, 155, 166–171]
40–60 50 24 [2, 5, 20, 26, 27, 32, 33, 36, 37, 40, 42, 46, 51, 52, 55–60, 64, 69–71, 77, 78, 81, 83, 84, 87,
88, 90, 101, 115, 119, 124–128, 135, 136, 145, 148, 149, 153, 155, 157, 166, 167, 172]
70–150 75, 100 18 [4, 5, 11, 14, 17, 18, 22, 29, 31, 38, 42–45, 49–51, 53, 78, 86, 87, 109, 125, 134, 135, 147,
151, 155, 159, 162]
200–500 200, 500 6 [6, 16, 55, 77, 95–97, 100, 104, 140, 158, 159, 162, 171]
[500 2 [65, 97]
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substrate or if low melting-point metals such as Al, Ga, In,
Mg, Pb, Sb, Sn, or Zn are used as the interlayer.
Time frame of TLP bonding
The time frame of TLP bonding is highly dependent on the
material system (e.g., phase diagram particulars, diffusion
coefficients, grain size [18, 25, 142]) and the experimental
parameters (e.g., interlayer thickness, bonding pressure,
bonding temperature). The duration of each discrete stage
of TLP bonding lies within the following ranges:
• Heating to the bonding temperature, CP1–5a: less thana minute to about an hour; dependent on the method of
heating, the heating rate of the heating apparatus, and
the substrate material’s thermal properties
• Melting of the interlayer, CP3: less than a second [121,124, 138] to several seconds [19, 43, 77]
• Melting back of the substrate, CP3–5a: seconds [11, 71,73, 77, 124, 138, 161, 174] to minutes [7, 36, 37, 43,
71, 73, 85, 121]
• Isothermal solidification, CP5a–5c: minutes [7, 25, 36,37, 56, 74, 77, 95, 96, 105, 121, 125, 153] to hours [7,
11, 33, 36, 37, 43, 57, 58, 105, 146, 157, 175], although
it can occur in less than a minute [73, 161] or take more
than a day [12]
• Homogenization, CP5c–5e: hours [33, 43, 88, 109, 121]to days [88, 175] or, in a few cases, minutes [73].
The general trend is that initial melting of the interlayer
occurs an order of magnitude faster than melting back of
the substrate, which occurs an order of magnitude faster
than isothermal solidification, which occurs an order of
magnitude faster than complete homogenization. Isother-
mal solidification ends up being the limiting, or controlling,
time in producing a successful TLP bond [12, 36, 104, 125,
135, 138, 166, 167]. While the homogenization stage takes
longer if carried to completion, it rarely is. As previously
stated, homogenization can be performed during a sub-
sequent heat treatment or skipped in some cases; it can
even occur once the part is in service.
The foregoing explanation of TLP bonding kinetics also
applies to eutectic systems when the interlayer is a eutectic
composition alloy. The kinetics are slightly different (and
more importantly, TLP bonding takes much longer) for a
eutectic system when pure elements are used. (See refer-
ences [19, 44] for particulars of eutectic system kinetics).
Tuah-Poku et al. [43] reported a drastic decrease in time to
isothermally solidify by changing the interlayer: 200 h
when using the pure element as compared to 8 h when
using the eutectic composition. This occurs because (1) the
interlayer has to undergo a certain amount of solid-state
diffusion with the substrate at the bonding temperature
before any liquid appears and (2) melt-back of the substrate
is then greater.
Critical interlayer thickness
During initial heating, the interlayer element diffuses into
the substrates. The magnitude of diffusion depends upon
the specific material combination, but all solid-state dif-
fusion rates increase as the temperature rises. Depending
on the heating rate and the thickness of the interlayer, the
amount of diffusion can significantly decrease the inter-
layer’s width. In fact, for a combination of high diffusion
rate, slow heating, and/or thin interlayer, it is possible to
diffuse all of the interlayer material into the substrate
before reaching the interlayer melting point [114, 173],
although this is a rare occurrence. Because TLP bonding
requires the formation of a bulk liquid phase [9, 109, 114]
to create a consolidated, void-free bond while also
increasing diffusion rates, the interlayer must exceed a
minimum, or critical, thickness [105, 114].
In addition to the parameters listed above, the critical
interlayer thickness has been shown to depend on other
variables such as applied clamping force, solid/liquid sur-
face tension, surface roughness of the substrate, and
intermetallic formation [18, 94, 114]. In short, experiments
must be conducted for each material combination to
empirically reveal its critical interlayer thickness.
On the other hand, analytical models of TLP bonding
indicate that the isothermal solidification process time is
roughly proportional to the square of the interlayer thick-
ness [9, 18, 19, 25, 36, 44, 86, 104, 110, 114, 124, 138, 161,
173, 175, 176]; experimental data often corroborates this
trend [3, 26, 43, 44, 71, 86, 88, 153]. Therefore, to mini-
mize bonding time, an interlayer slightly thicker than the
critical thickness is ideal.
Optimal bonding temperature
The bonding temperature is sometimes completely limited
by the microstructural stability of the substrate material [7,
9, 87, 125]. If, however, the substrate material allows
flexibility in selecting an optimized bonding temperature, a
minimum isothermal solidification time (and therefore
bonding time) can be achieved at a certain temperature.
If phase diagram and diffusion data are available for the
material system in question, the isothermal solidification
time can be characterized with respect to temperature.
However, it is usually the case that experiments are the
only way to discover this relationship. In general, the
relationship is parabolic, yielding a minimum isothermal
solidification time at a given intermediate temperature
(between the melting points of the interlayer and substrate
materials) [9, 18, 43, 50, 78, 79, 159, 162]. And yet, in
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some cases the variables of the system yield either (1) a
monotonically increasing time, in which case the optimal
bonding temperature is just above the interlayer’s melting
point, [6, 9, 43, 114, 158, 162] or (2) a monotonically
decreasing time, in which case the optimal bonding tem-
perature is as high as the substrate material allows [4, 104,
114, 135, 141].
The behavior of this trend is highly system dependent
and results in part from the interplay of the diffusion rate
and the phase diagram of the system [19, 43, 50]. As the
temperature is increased, the rate of diffusion increases
exponentially. In addition, intermetallic regions, which
tend to slow down the rate of diffusion [60, 110], can often
be avoided by raising the temperature. As shown in Fig. 2,
Pb diffusing into Pd at 400 �C (T1) would pass through fiveintermetallic regions. T2 and T3 are ideal temperatures for
passing through just two and one intermetallic regions,
respectively. T4 completely avoids the intermetallic regions
while still providing a wide solubility range for the liquid
to solidify.
In addition to intermetallics, the shape of the solidus and
liquidus lines plays an important role in TLP bonding
kinetics and the optimal bonding temperature. Figure 3
demonstrates extremes of solidus and liquidus lines in a
binary system with complete solid solubility. The compo-
sition profiles below each set of phase diagrams demon-
strate the initial melting and isothermal solidification
behavior of the interlayer for each case. It is assumed that
all four systems (1) have the same diffusion coefficient and
(2) are heated instantaneously. The latter assumption is
accurate for many material systems since complete melt-
back often consumes much of the solute that has diffused
into the substrate (see CP5a in Fig. 1). The top concen-
tration profiles illustrate initial melt-back of a pure inter-
layer—the dotted line is the initial interlayer and the solid
line is the molten interlayer. The bottom concentration
profiles illustrate isothermal solidification for all four sys-
tems after a set time.
The partition coefficient (k) is included in the diagram
and is defined as:
k ¼ cScL
ð1Þ
where cS and cL are the solidus and liquidus compositions
of the interlayer element.
Systems a and b in Fig. 3 have the same convex-shaped
liquidus line and therefore experience the same amount of
melt-back (see the top concentration profiles). The same is
true for the concave-shaped liquidus line in systems c and
d. Systems a and c have the same partition coefficient (0.9).
The same is true for systems b and d (0.4).
A few principles of TLP bonding kinetics can be
gleaned from this figure. First, the convex-shaped liquidus
line (a and b) prevents melt-back from occurring to a large
extent, whereas the concave-shaped liquidus line (c and
d) causes much more melt-back. Second, isothermal
Fig. 2 Pb–Pd binary system[177] illustrating bonding
temperatures (dotted lines) thatavoid intermetallic regions
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solidification occurs faster in systems with a higher parti-
tion coefficient (a and c). To conserve mass, the volume of
solidified liquid is equal to the change in the concentration
profile of the solid region. The width of isothermal solid-
ification in an arbitrary time period is equal to the ratio of
this volume to the difference between the liquidus and
solidus compositions, or, written another way:
Vliq ¼ ðcL � cSÞwisoth:solidif: ð2Þ
Although systems a and c have the same partition coeffi-
cient, because the liquidus and solidus compositions of
system c are closer to zero, they are also closer to each
other, causing isothermal solidification to occur slightly
faster (see Fig. 3).
If the substrate material has a sensitive microstructure
that could be damaged by significant melt-back, then phase
diagrams such as systems c and d should be avoided.
Systems b and d will take much longer to isothermally
solidify, raising operating costs.
Systems a and c are quite similar in rate of isothermal
solidification. Because the solidus composition of system
c is closer to the completely homogenized composition
(shown as an x on the gray line), homogenization of the
solute peak after isothermal solidification will likely pro-
ceed more rapidly than in system a. However, because the
solidus line of system a has a convex shape, increases in
bond remelting temperature due to homogenization will
likely occur faster and be larger in this system.
Modeling of TLP bonding
Analytical models have been developed by many
researchers for the four stages of TLP bonding to provide
quick estimates or general trends, such as those illustrated
in the previous section. Equations for and descriptions of
TLP bonding analytical models are included in references
[8, 19, 162, 178]. Assumptions made for these models are
similar to those made in this article (see TLP bonding
kinetics). In some cases these equations provide good
results, but for many systems these simplified, binary-
system approaches do not supply accurate estimates [5, 8,
38, 78, 79, 86]. This is due in part to the diffusion coeffi-
cients being assumed independent of composition.
Some complexities of TLP bonding are quite difficult
to model. For example, grain boundaries can cause iso-
thermal solidification to occur at a different rate than that
predicted by analytical models using a bulk diffusion
coefficient [25, 36, 37]. Indeed, grain boundary diffusion
is faster than bulk diffusion in a certain temperature range
(based on the alloy’s melting point) [173]. Grain bound-
ary diffusion rates also increase as the substrate material’s
grain size decreases [179]. Further, grain boundaries can
be penetrated by the liquid to cause a non-planar solidi-
fication front, thereby increasing the area over which
diffusion occurs [5, 11, 18, 138]. See references [180,
181] for more information on the effect of grain bound-
aries in TLP bonding.
T
ci ci c i100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0c i
a b c
a cb d
a cb d
d
ka = = 0.983.793.0
kc = = 0.936.040.0
kd = = 0.416.040.0
kb = = 0.437.293.0
ci
c i
c L,a
cS,a c S,b c S,c
c L,cc S,d
c L,dc L,b
c L,ac S,a
cS,b
cL,b
cS,ccL,c
cS,d
cL,d
Fig. 3 Four binary systems (a–d) with complete solid solubility
and associated concentration
profiles. These profiles illustrate
the initial condition (dottedline), initial melt-back of thesubstrate, and resulting
concentrations after a set
amount of TLP bonding has
occurred in all four systems.
Partition coefficient values are
also shown for all four systems
at the given bonding
temperature
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Another interesting deviation is that isothermal solidi-
fication can occur in two different ‘‘regimes’’ [38, 50, 138].
The faster solute element of a multi-component interlayer
controls the rate of solidification for the first regime. Then,
a second solute element controls the rate of solidification
during the second regime, resulting in complex concen-
tration–time profiles.
Numerical models can account for some of the com-
plexities of TLP bonding to accurately predict bonding
kinetics [7, 8, 161, 162, 168, 173, 176, 179, 182, 183] and
can even be extended to multi-component systems [174,
184]. Despite the complexities and extra time required in
numerical modeling, especially for multi-component sys-
tems, the limiting factor is most often the lack of necessary
diffusion data [7, 8, 178]. But, when the necessary data is
available, modeling of TLP bonding can drastically reduce
the number of experiments required to determine optimal
bonding parameters [37, 162, 166].
Advantages and disadvantages of TLP bonding
The most distinctive advantage of TLP bonding is that the
resulting bond can operate at the bonding temperature or
higher temperatures. In other words, materials can be
bonded at a temperature equal to or lower than what the
assembled part will experience in service. This is espe-
cially important for temperature-sensitive materials whose
microstructures can be damaged by too much thermal
energy input [117] and therefore need to be joined at lower
temperatures.
Another advantage is that the resulting TLP bonds often
have microstructural, and therefore mechanical, properties
similar to the properties of the base materials [7, 12–14, 24,
32, 42, 49, 61, 62, 75, 77, 81, 95, 105, 109, 115, 119, 123,
141, 149, 153, 166, 175]. In fact, in some cases the bond
area becomes indistinguishable from other grain bound-
aries [18, 35, 37, 68, 108, 109, 130, 185] due to significant
diffusion at high temperature. Such bonds are often as
strong as the bulk substrate material [14, 164], or stronger,
causing the joined assembly to fail in the substrate material
rather than in the bond [14, 31, 71, 76].
Advantages of TLP bonding include:
• the process is highly tolerant to the presence of a fayingsurface oxide layer [2, 6, 7, 11, 13, 21, 42, 47, 48, 56,
67, 80, 93, 136, 147–149, 186] and therefore requires
less joint preparation and no fluxing agents [11, 18, 42,
173, 187]; in a few rare cases surface oxides are
actually beneficial to the process [129]
• fixturing pressures are much lower than those used inother joining processes like diffusion bonding [11, 14,
19, 24, 25, 33, 37, 42, 43, 49, 62, 68, 78, 136, 145–149]
• little melting of the substrate material occurs, ascompared to fusion welding processes [42, 64]
• many joints can be fabricated in one pass [11, 147]• the liquid formed during TLP bonding fills voids on
uneven mating surfaces, making costly finishing pro-
cesses unnecessary [2, 14, 18, 19, 33, 49, 161]
• overaging of temperature-sensitive materials can beavoided [80, 140, 186, 188].
For some material systems, bond properties and per-
formance capabilities that are difficult or impractical to
achieve using conventional joining methods are more
accessible [189].
However, TLP bonding is a specialized bonding tech-
nique that can be time-consuming and expensive compared
to other joining methods—the time required for isothermal
solidification and sufficient bond homogenization can be
unfeasibly long and/or uneconomical [36, 37, 104, 141].
TLP bonding is not always suitable, specifically in the
following cases:
• significant melt-back of a material with a specificallydesigned microstructure [7, 62, 141]
• the formation of a thick layer of intermetallic com-pounds in the bond that tend to lower its strength and
ductility [9, 36, 87, 110, 141, 146, 157, 158, 167]
• the segregation of particles in metal matrix compositesat the joint centerline, leaving a distinct weakened band
in the joint microstructure [19, 33, 39, 42, 54, 105].
See reference [7] for examples of specific difficulties
that occur in TLP bonding applications. Although many
disadvantages of TLP bonding can be overcome by opti-
mized bonding parameters, the optimization process often
requires much experimentation.
Applications of TLP bonding
Since TLP bonding was developed, it has successfully been
applied to join a broad range of materials and structures
including the following:
• Al-, Co-, Fe-, Ni-, and Ti-based alloys [7, 10, 11, 24,43, 47, 54, 65, 85, 109, 154, 173, 190, 191]
• Cellular structures [15, 91]• Ceramics [114, 173]• Metal matrix composites [7, 54, 93, 114, 173]• Microcircuitry components [102, 104, 152, 157, 173,
192, 193]
• Oxide-dispersion-strengthened alloys [7, 24, 65, 125,126]
• Single crystals [3, 65]• Stainless steels [25, 47, 54, 85, 190]• Structural intermetallics [7, 12, 47, 51, 83, 85].
5312 J Mater Sci (2011) 46:5305–5323
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TLP bonding is often used in high-stress, high-temper-
ature applications where brazing, welding, and diffusion
brazing cannot be used for various reasons (e.g., low
melting temperature bond, insufficient resulting mechani-
cal properties, unacceptable plastic deformation) [4, 11, 12,
14, 19, 44, 49–51, 69, 85, 86, 92, 119, 130, 136, 141, 146,
149, 164, 186]. Specific applications are the repair of Ni-
based superalloy turbine blade components [7, 9, 39, 74,
104, 105, 135, 142] and the joining of heat-resistant alloys
that are inherently susceptible to hot cracking or post-weld
heat treatment cracking [5, 11, 20, 38, 59, 78, 80, 135, 136,
140, 173]. Table 3 presents a spectrum of TLP bonds as of
now, including bonds of dissimilar materials.
Variants of TLP bonding
A few variants of TLP bonding also exist:
• Temperature gradient TLP bonding: the application ofa temperature gradient causes a non-planar bond
interface which tends to result in stronger bonds [8,
21, 164, 186, 194]
• Wide-gap TLP bonding: gaps of 100–500 lm can bebonded or repaired by the use of a melting and a non-
melting constituent (multiple layers or mixed powders)
[7, 16, 57, 92, 94–96, 100, 101, 136, 149, 173, 195]. This
technique can also be used in conventional TLP bonding
to accelerate isothermal solidification [13, 99, 140]
• Active TLP bonding: a ceramic and metal can be joinedby a multi-component interlayer; at least one constit-
uent reacts with the ceramic while another diffuses into
the metal to cause isothermal solidification [28, 42, 52,
54, 116, 132, 196]
• Partial TLP bonding (see next section).
Bonds made using temperature gradient, wide-gap, and
active TLP bonding have been included in Table 3.
Partial transient liquid phase (PTLP) bonding
Partial transient liquid phase (PTLP) bonding is a variant of
TLP bonding mainly used to join ceramics. PTLP bonding
overlaps both wide-gap and active TLP bonding, although
articles defining PTLP bonding predate the other two
techniques by a few years. Many advantages of conven-
tional TLP bonding carry over to PTLP bonding [188]. The
ensuing sections focus on how PTLP bonding differs from
TLP bonding.
PTLP bonding process
In PTLP bonding, the interlayer consists of thin layers of
low-melting-point metals or alloys on each side of a much
thicker refractory metal or alloy layer [188, 200–203].
Figure 4 presents a general, three-layer PTLP bond setup.
(In some cases, there can be multiple thin layers on each
side of the refractory core (see Table 4), but the general
principles of the process remain the same.) Upon heating to
the bonding temperature, a liquid is formed (through
melting or a eutectic reaction with the refractory core
[202–206]) by each thin layer. The liquid that is formed
wets each ceramic substrate while concomitantly diffusing
into the solid refractory core. As in TLP bonding, the liquid
regions solidify isothermally and homogenization of the
entire bond region leads to a refractory bond.
The refractory core tends to be a foil that is 20–30 lm[143, 207–214] or 100–127 lm thick [116, 188, 189, 201,207, 211–213, 215–222], although it can be in the
200–1000 lm range [202–205, 208, 223–225]. Therefractory core element is often Ni [144, 189, 196, 201–
204, 207–210, 218, 224, 226, 227]; other elements (and an
alloy) that have been used include Au, Co, Cu, Nb, Ni–Cr,
Pd, Pt, Si, Ta, Ti, and V [117, 188, 189, 200–202, 205–208,
214–218, 222, 227–229]. The thin layers can be most of the
formats used for TLP bonding interlayers (see TLP bond-
ing process) and are often in the 1–10 lm thick range. Theratio of the thin layer thickness over the refractory core
thickness is usually 1–5% [143, 188, 189, 201–204, 207,
208, 211–213, 215–218, 220, 222–225, 230, 231], although
it can be 6–20% [207, 210–213, 219, 221, 223], and some
PTLP bond experiments have utilized a ratio of 50% or
higher [116, 144, 208, 214, 226].
PTLP bonding kinetics
Figures 5 and 6 depict the two ends of the PTLP bonding
process. The following additional assumptions are made in
this analysis: (1) thin layer A (tlA), the refractory core (rc),
and thin layer B (tlB) are different pure elements (2) there
is no diffusion into the ceramic substrates (3) the ternary
system (tlA–rc–tlB) can be approximated by the two
associated binary systems (tlA–rc and rc–tlB), and (4) the
interlayers wet the substrate with a thin layer of interme-
tallic formation that conserves the amount of liquid and
results in a refractory intermetallic.
The second and fourth assumptions highlight the major
differences between TLP and PTLP bonding. First, the
multi-layer interlayer used during PTLP bonding has been
termed ‘‘self-contained’’ [215] because the liquid phases
must diffuse into the rc, rather than the much larger sub-
strate materials, to induce isothermal solidification. Sec-
ond, the liquid phases must wet the ceramic substrates to
create a strong bond. This tends to be difficult due to the
chemical inertness of ceramics [117, 180, 196, 216] and
usually requires the use of active elements such as Al, Cr,
Hf, Nb, Ni, Sc, Ta, Ti, V, or Zr [65, 117, 187, 189, 198,
J Mater Sci (2011) 46:5305–5323 5313
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Table 3 A spectrum of materials joined by TLP bonding
Substratea Interlayer(s)b Reference(s)
Ni-based alloys
GTD-111 MBF-30, MBF-50 [3, 68, 79, 82]
Inconel 600 NB 150 [135]
Inconel 617 BNi-3, BNi-6 [147, 156]
Inconel 625 BNi-2 [104]
Inconel 713C BNi-6 [88]
Inconel 718 BNi-2 [104]
Inconel 738 NB 30, NB 150, BNi-3, MBF-60, MBF-80,
DF-3
[5, 38, 45, 66, 78, 80, 86,
87, 159, 162, 178]
Inconel MA758 Ni–B, Ni–Cr–Si–Fe–B, MBF-80 [24, 108, 125, 141]
Inconel MA760 Ni–Cr–P, Ni–Cr–Si–Fe–B [64]
Inconel 939 F20, F24, F25, F26, F27, MBF-80 [59]
Mar-M247 F20, F24, F25, F26, F27, MBF-80 [59]
Nimonic 80A Ni|NB 125|Ni [109]
René N5 Ni–Ge, Ni–Mn, Ni–Mn–Si, D-15 [6, 16, 158]
Udimet 700 Ni–Cr–Co–Mo–B [14]
Waspaloy NB 150 [38, 50, 178]
Ni–6.4Al Ni–B [157]
Ni–15Cr–11.5Al–3 W–0.2Hf–0.1Si–0.1Mn (c/c0/b type) MBF-80, Ni–Cr–B–Ce (variouscombinations)
[65]
Al-based alloys
Al A356.0 Cu [107]
Al 5052 Ag–Cu [127]
Al 6060 Al–Cu, Al–Si–Cu [165]
Al 6061 Ag, Al–Si, BAg-8 [17, 27]
Al 6082 Cu, Ga [21, 129, 164]
Al 7475 Zn [30]
Al–7.5Si Cu [107]
Fe-based alloys
304 SSc Ni–Cr, 304L SSc, BNi-2 [77, 99]
304L SSc NB 51 [91]
Duplex SSc Cu, Fe–B–Si, Ni–Si–B, MBF-20, MBF-30,
MBF-35, MBF-50, MBF-80
[25, 47, 61, 76, 153, 169]
Carbon steel Cu, Fe–B [36, 37, 74]
Fe–Ni–Cr Ni–B–Cr–Si (various combinations) [133]
Incoloy MA956 B, Fe–B–Si [35, 63, 65, 130]
Incoloy MA957 Fe–B–Si, BNi-1a, BNi-3 [62, 63, 126]
Low carbon steel Fe–B–Si, BNi-2 [67, 75]
ODSc steel (Fe–Cr–W–Y2O3–Ti) Fe–Si–B [131]
PM2000 (Fe–Cr–Al) B, Fe–B–Si [35, 63, 130]
T91 steel Fe–B–Si, Fe–Ni–Cr–Si–B, BNi-2 [60]
Ti-based alloys
OT4 Cu–Ti, Ni–Ti, Ti–Cu–Zr [97, 134]
VT1 Cu [46]
Ti–6Al–4 V Cu [34]
Ti–22Al–25Nb (a) Ti–Cu–Ni [83]
Miscellaneous alloys
AZ31 (Mg–Al–Zn) Al, Cu [121, 150]
K640 (Co–Cr–Mo) Co–Ni–Cr–W–B–Si [2]
5314 J Mater Sci (2011) 46:5305–5323
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Table 3 continued
Substratea Interlayer(s)b Reference(s)
Co alloy (unspecified) Ni–Cr–B [10]
Cu (ODSc) Cu | Sn | Cu [110, 151]
Cu–Cr–Zr Cu | Sn | Cu [110]
Sn–Ag Sn–Bi, Bi–Sn (various combinations) [106]
Single crystals
Ni Ni–P [142]
CMSX–2 F24, MBF-80 [26, 70, 71]
CMSX–4 D-15, MBF-80 [9, 26]
IC 6 (with and without B) MBF-80 [53]
PWA 1483 (Ni–Cr–Co–Ta–Ti–W–Al–Mo) Ni–Ge [6, 158]
Intermetallics
Ni–45Ti–6Cu Cu [32]
NiAl Ni (glaze), BNi-3 [84, 113]
Ti–42Al–2Cr Ti | Cu, Ti | Ni, Ti | Fe [51]
Ti–45Al–2Nb–2Mn (a) ? 0.8 vol.% TiB2 Ti–Cu–Ni, Cu–Ni | Ti | Cu–Ni [20]
c-TiAl [Ti–47Al–2Cr–2Nb (a)] Tini 67 [40]
Ti–48Al–2Cr–2Nb (a) Cu, Cu & Ti–Al–Cr–Nb, Cu & TiAl [94, 96, 100, 197]
Gamma Met PX Cu & Gamma Met [95]
Pure metals
Ag Cu, Ag–Cu [8, 43, 44]
Al Ag, Cu, Ga, Al–Cu, Al–Si–Cu [22, 129, 148, 164, 165,
186]
Au Au–Sn, Sn, In, Ti | In [102, 152, 198]
Cu Ag, Sn, Ag–Cu, BiIn, BiIn2, BiSn, InSn, NB
51
[15, 18, 44, 114, 139, 160,
187, 192, 198]
Fe Sb, Fe–P, Fe–B [137, 140]
Nb Ti, Zr, V [155]
Ni B, Cu, Hf, BNi-3, BNi-6, MBF-60, MBF-80 [4, 81, 88, 117, 138, 162,
167, 168]
Sn Bi [103]
Metal matrix compositesd
Al/Al2O3 Ag, Cu, Al–Cu, Cu–Ti [22, 42]
Al/SiC Cu, Ni [144]
Al 2124/SiC Ni [48]
Al 2618/SiC Al–Ag–Cu, Al–Ag–Cu–Ti [93, 98]
Al 6061/Al2O3 Cu [39, 105, 145, 146]
Al 6061/SiC Cu [33, 90]
AZ91D (Mg–Al)/TiC Al, Cu [122, 123]
Haynes 230/Al2O3 Haynes 230 doped with B [85]
Ti–6Al–4 V/SiC Cu–Ti–Zr [73]
Ceramics
Al2O3 Al, Al & SiO2, B2O3 [118, 143, 170, 199]
SiC Ge [171]
Si3N4 Oxynitride glass [185]
TiO2 Bi2O3 [89]
Dissimilar metals
Al 7075 Ti–6Al–4 V Cu [23]
Astroloy Mar-M247 (directionally solidified) BNi-3 [124]
AZ31 (Mg–Al–Zn) 316L SSc Ni [120]
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200–202, 206, 215, 216, 218, 222, 228, 232, 233]. Also,
when analyzing the critical interlayer thickness of the thin
layers, a portion of the liquid that forms from those thin
layers will react with the ceramic substrate and add to the
critical thickness.
The PTLP bonding setup at room temperature is shown
in Figs. 5 and 6 as concentration profiles 1A and 1B, CP1Aand CP1B, respectively. Both binary systems exhibit
complete solid solubility. As the temperature of the bond is
raised to the melting points of each thin layer (T4 for tlA
Table 3 continued
Substratea Interlayer(s)b Reference(s)
Be Cu–Cr–Zr and Cu (ODSc) Cu | Sn | Cu [110]
Cu Cu–W composite Al [31]
Cu Steel BAg-8 [160]
Cu 304 SSc Ag [10]
Cu 304L SSc Ag [109]
Br.Kh. (Cu–Cr) 12Kh18N10T (Fe–Cr–Ni) Cu–Mn|Ni, Cu–Ag|Ni [111]
CMSX-4 Inconel 738 and 939 BNi-3, Niflex-110, Niflex-115 [136, 149]
DD98 (Ni–W–Co–
Mo–Ti–Al–Ta–Hf)
M963 (Ni–W–Co single crystal) Ni–Cr–B [128]
Inconel 718 Inconel X-750 BNi-2 [11]
Mar-M247 NiAl Cu [12, 55, 57, 58]
Mar-M247 NiAl-Hf (single crystal) Cu, NiAl & Cu, Ni3Al & Cu [55–57, 92, 101]
Ni NiAl Cu, BNi-3 [12, 55, 57, 58, 69, 115]
Low carbon steel Ti Cu–Mn–Ni [49]
SSc 321 Zircaloy-4 (Zr–Sn) Ti–Zr–Cu–Ni [172]
Steel 304L SSc Cu [160]
TS7 (Ti alloy) 5VMTs (Nb alloy) with W, Mo, & Zr; and
TV10 (Ta alloy) with W
Cu–Ni [112]
Ti–42Al–2Cr Ti 6242 Ti|Cu, Cu|Ti [29]
Ti–6Al–4 V Ti–45Al–2Nb–2Mn (a) ? 0.8 vol.% TiB2 Cu–Ni, Ti–Cu–Ni [20]
Metals to Metal matrix compositesd
Al 6082 Al 359/SiC Cu [21]
Ti–6Al–4 V Ti–6Al–4 V/SiC Cu–Ti–Zr [73]
Metals to Ceramics
Kovar (Fe–Ni–Co) SiC Ni–Si | Mo [116]
ODSc Fe alloy (Fe–Cr–
Al–Y2O3)
Si3N4 Fe–B–Si [72]
W18Cr4 V tool steel TiC–Al2O3 composite Cu|Ti [28]
Inconel 718 Si3N4 Ni|Cu|Ti [196]
Ni Ti(C,N) (50%TiC & 50%TiN) Cu|Nb [132]
Ti AlN Ag–Cu [52]
Metal matrix compositesd to ceramics
Al 6061/Al2O3 Al2O3 Cu [39, 54]
a Substrate material compositions are in weight percent, unless specified by an (a) for atomic percentb Interlayer material compositions are notated as either (1) X–Y–Z where X is the base element and Y and Z are alloying elements of at least one
weight percent in order of descending composition or (2) one of the following braze alloy designations in weight percent: BAg-8 (Ag–28Cu),
D-15 (Ni–15.3Cr–10.3Co–3.5Ta–3.5Al–2.3B), DF-3 (Ni–20Co–20Cr–3B–3Ta), F20 (Ni–21.6Cr–17.6Co–3.1 W–2.8Al–2.2B–1.3Ta), F24
(Ni–10.8Co–8.8Cr–3.9 W–3Al–3Ta–2.5B), F25 (Ni–9.8Co–8.6Cr–8.2 W–2.4B), F26 (Ni–9.2Co–8.6Cr–4.9Al–3.6B–2.7Ta), F27 (Ni–9.8Co–
7.5Cr–3.3B–1.9 W), BNi-1a (Ni–14Cr–4.5Fe–4.5Si–3B), MBF-20 or BNi-2 (Ni–7Cr–4.5Si–3.2B–3Fe), MBF-30 or BNi-3 (Ni–4.5Si–3.2B),
MBF-35 (Ni–7.3Si–2.2B), MBF-50 (Ni–19Cr–7.3Si–1.5B), MBF-60 or BNi-6 (Ni–11P), MBF-80 (Ni–15.2Cr–4B), NB 30 (Ni–19Cr–10Si),
NB 51 (Ni–25Cr–10P), NB 125 (Ni–14Cr–4.5Fe–4.5Si–3.13B), NB 150 (Ni–15Cr–3.5B), Niflex-110 and Niflex-115 (proprietary), Ticu-
sil (Ag–26.7Cu–4.5Ti), Tini 67 (Ti–33Ni)c ODS oxide dispersion-strengthened, SS stainless steeld Metal matrix composites are notated as X/Y where X is the matrix material and Y is the composite fiber material
5316 J Mater Sci (2011) 46:5305–5323
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and T3 for tlB), both thin layers diffuse into the rc (see
CP2A and CP3A as well as CP2B). Despite the small
amount of liquid that initially forms from tlB due to its high
diffusivity (CP3B), the liquid drastically melts back the rc
on further heating (CP4B) due to the concave shape of the
liquidus. This melt-back continues until the assembly is
heated to the bonding temperature (T5) shown in CP5aB.
On the other hand, the liquid formed from tlA (CP4A)
widens slightly to be about the same width as the original
thin layer (CP5aA) due to that system’s convex liquidus.
At this point, isothermal solidification occurs on both
sides of the multi-layer interlayer. It proceeds much faster
for tlB due to its high partition coefficient and diffusivity.
In fact, isothermal solidification is complete for tlB(CP5bB) when the other liquid region has only solidified
about halfway (CP5bA), despite the considerable melt-back
of the rc.
The liquid formed from tlA eventually solidifies iso-
thermally (CP5cA). On the other side of the bond, the
solute peak has been smoothed due to homogenization
(CP5cB), and the remelting temperature on that side has
increased to TR,P.
Further homogenization causes the remaining gradient
in the tlB element to disappear (CP5dB), thereby raising the
thinlayer
A
substrateA
substrateB
refractorycore
thinlayer
B
Fig. 4 A general PTLP bonding setup
Table 4 A spectrum of materials joined by PTLP bonding
Substrate Interlayera Combination(s) Reference(s)
Ceramics
Al2O3 Cr | Cu | Ni | Cu | Cr, Cu | Nb | Cu, Cu | Ni | Cu, Cu | Ni–Cr | Cu,
Cu | Pt | Cu, In | Ag ABAc | In, In | Cusil ABAc | In,
In | Incusil ABAc | In, Ni | Nb | Ni, Ti | Al | Ti
[143, 188, 189, 201, 207, 211–213,
215, 216, 218, 220–222, 230, 232]
Glass Au | InBi | Au [139]
Si3N4 Al | Ti | Al, Au | Ni–Cr | Au, Cu–Au | Ni | Cu–Au, Co | Nb | Co,
Co | Ta | Co, Co | Ti | Co, Co | V | Co, Cu–Au–Ti | Ni | Cu–Au–Ti,
Cu–Ti | Pd | Cu–Ti, Ni | Ti | Ni | Ti | Ni, Ni | V | Ni,
Ti | Au | Cu | Au | Ni | Au | Cu | Au | Ti, Ti | Cu | Ti,
Ti | Cu | Ni | Cu | Ti, Ti | Ni | Ti, Ti | Ni | 304SSc | Ni | Ti,
Ti | Ni | Kovarc | Ni | Ti, V | Co | V
[117, 202, 206–208, 210–212, 214,
217, 223, 224]
SiC C | Si | C, Cu–Au–Ti | Ni | Cu–Au–Ti, Ni–Si | Mo | Ni–Si,
Ti | Au | Cu | Au | Ni | Au | Cu | Au | Ti
[116, 210, 212, 213, 227]
WC Zn | Pd | Zn [219]
Y2O3-stabilized ZrO2 Al | Ni | Al, Ni | Nb | Ni [216, 231]
ZrO2-toughened Al2O3 Ni | Nb | Ni [216]
Compositesb
Al / SiC Cu | Ni | Cu [144]
Si3N4 / TiC Ti | Ni | Ti [203]
Al 6061 / Al2O3 Cu | Ni | Cu [209]
C / C Ti | Ni | Ti [226]
Metals to ceramics
FA-129 (Fe3Al
alloy, Fe–Al–Cr–
Nb)
Si3N4 Cu–Ti (ABAc) | Cu | Cu–Ti (ABAc), Cu–Ti | Cu | Ni | Al [202, 204, 205]
Kovarc Al2O3 Ni | Ti | Ni [200]
Ni Si3N4 Ti | Ni | Ti [225]
Si Al2O3 Ti | Cu | Sn | Au | Cu [229]
a Interlayer material compositions are notated as either (1) X–Y where X is the base element and Y is the minor alloying element or (2) one of
the following braze alloy designations, in weight percent: Cusil (Ag–28Cu), Incusil (Ag–27.3Cu–12.5In–1.3Ti), and Ticusil (Ag–26.7Cu–4.5Ti)b Composites are notated as X/Y where X is the matrix material and Y is the composite fiber materialc ABA active brazing alloy, Kovar Fe–Ni–Co alloy, SS stainless steel
J Mater Sci (2011) 46:5305–5323 5317
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remelting temperature of the bond next to substrate B to its
final value, TR,F. A similar melting temperature increase (to
TR,P1) simultaneously occurs on the other side of the bond
due to smoothing of its solute peak (CP5dA).
Prolonging the homogenization process continues to
raise the remelting temperature of the left side of the bond.
However, once its remelting temperature has reached TR,P2(CP5eA), which is higher than TR,F for the right side of the
bond, further homogenization will have little effect on
raising the bond’s remelting temperature. From an opti-
mization standpoint, homogenization should be stopped at
this time. However, real-world considerations usually
determine the homogenization time, which can be less
than—or greater than—the optimized time due to various
factors, such as cost, microstructural considerations, or
resulting bond strength.
The time frame of PTLP bonding is very similar to that
of TLP bonding. Isothermal solidification and homogeni-
zation times for TLP bonding depend on high-diffusivity
elements diffusing into ‘‘infinite’’ substrate materials. In
PTLP bonding, the elements tend to have lower diffusivi-
ties, but the maximum diffusion path is on the order of
100 lm, resulting in similar bonding times.
Advantages and disadvantages of PTLP bonding
The ‘‘self-contained’’ [215] nature of the PTLP bonding
multi-layer interlayer provides benefits and impediments.
Specific advantages include the following:
• the dual nature of the multi-layer interlayer combinessome beneficial properties of brazing and diffusion
CP5a
CP4 CP5e
CP3
CP2 CP5c
CP1 CP5brc
L
L
L
c5,Lc5,S
c5,S
c5,F
c5,P1
c5,P2
bond region
100 0
T5
TR,P2TR,F
T4
T3
T2
T1
c5,L c5,Sc5,P2c5,P1 c5,F
CP5f
TR,P1
c tlA
s A tlAA A
A
CP5dA
A
A
A
A
A
A
c5,Lc5,S
Fig. 5 A schematic binarysystem with complete solid
solubility and associated
concentration profiles for one
half of the PTLP bonding
process (thin layer A [tlA] and
refractory core). These profiles
illustrate the thin layer A
element’s concentration during
the PTLP bonding process,
starting with the initial
condition (CP1A) and ending
with the completely
homogenized bond (CP5fA)
5318 J Mater Sci (2011) 46:5305–5323
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bonding [117, 188, 204, 206, 208, 215] and provides
some flexibility in joint design
• lower bonding temperatures can mitigate thermallyinduced stresses [188, 214] and limit or avoid delete-
rious intermetallic reactions [188, 207]
• because diffusion occurs on a smaller scale (on theorder of 100 lm), bonding using slow-diffusing ele-ments occurs in a reasonable amount of time.
Major disadvantages are:
• the liquid interlayer must wet the ceramic [117, 143,215]
• matching the thermal expansion coefficients of theceramic substrates and metallic interlayer elements is
sometimes necessary to prevent thermally induced
stresses and cracking [117, 143, 188, 196, 203, 215]
• intermetallic formation is necessary, but a thick reac-tion layer tends to be brittle and can degrade joint
strength [143, 200, 202, 203, 210, 215].
However, most disadvantages of PTLP bonding can be
overcome by proper design. In the end, the limiting factor
is wettability on the specific ceramic material.
Applications of PTLP bonding
PTLP bonding has been used to successfully join some
ceramic and composite materials. Table 4 presents a
spectrum of PTLP bonds as of now, including bonds of
dissimilar materials. The interlayer combination of the
general PTLP bond setup shown in Fig. 4 would be notated
tlA | rc | tlB.
CP5a
CP4 CP5e
CP3 CP5d
CP2 CP5c
CP1 CP5brc s
L
L
L
c4,Lc4,S
c5,Lc5,S
c5,F
c5,F
c5,F
c5,P
c5,S
bond region
0 100
T5
TR,PTR,F
T4
T3
T2
T1
c5,Lc4,L
c5,Sc4,Sc5,Pc5,F
CP5f
ctlB
tlB BB B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Fig. 6 A schematic binarysystem with complete solid
solubility and associated
concentration profiles for one
half of the PTLP bonding
process (refractory core and thin
layer B [tlB]). These profiles
illustrate the thin layer B
element’s concentration during
the PTLP bonding process,
starting with the initial
condition (CP1B) and ending
with the completely
homogenized bond (CP5fB)
J Mater Sci (2011) 46:5305–5323 5319
123
-
Summary
TLP bonding is a relatively new bonding process that
results in a bond with a higher melting temperature than
that used to join the materials. Specific details of this
process, including experimental details, process kinetics,
and optimal bonding temperature, have been outlined in
this article. Also, the broad range of materials that have
been joined by TLP bonding was presented.
PTLP bonding, a more recent variant of TLP bonding
used to bond hard-to-join materials, was also outlined.
PTLP bonding has been successful in joining a smaller
range of materials, most notably, ceramics.
Both TLP and PTLP bonding are specialized joining
processes that require more resources to implement com-
pared to typical bonding processes. However, in some
cases these bonding processes are the best—or only—way
to join materials for specialized applications.
Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Office of NavalResearch under grant number N00014-07-1-0872, Dr. William Mul-
lins, Program Officer.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00357335
Overview of transient liquid phase and partial transient liquid phase bondingAbstractTransient liquid phase (TLP) bondingTLP bonding processTLP bonding kineticsMeltingDissolutionSolidificationHomogenization
Time frame of TLP bondingCritical interlayer thicknessOptimal bonding temperatureModeling of TLP bondingAdvantages and disadvantages of TLP bondingApplications of TLP bondingVariants of TLP bonding
Partial transient liquid phase (PTLP) bondingPTLP bonding processPTLP bonding kineticsAdvantages and disadvantages of PTLP bondingApplications of PTLP bonding
SummaryAcknowledgementsReferences
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