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OVERVIEWVOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAININGIN SYRIA AND ITS RELEVANCE TOTHE LABOUR MARKET

THE EUROPEAN TRAINING FOUNDATION IS THEEUROPEAN UNION’S CENTRE OF EXPERTISESUPPORTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAININGREFORM IN THIRD COUNTRIES IN THE CONTEXT OFTHE EU EXTERNAL RELATIONS PROGRAMMES

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VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAININGIN SYRIA AND ITS RELEVANCE TOTHE LABOUR MARKET

This report was produced by the European Training Foundation with the involvement of

Ms Eva Jimeno Sicilia, Syrian country manager, Mr Olaf McDaniel, and Mr Mustafa Kazziha

ETF, 2003

A great deal of additional information on the

European Union is available on the Internet.

It can be accessed through the Europa server

(http://europa.eu.int).

Reproduction is authorised, provided the

source is acknowledged.

Printed in Italy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 5

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

1.1 The socio-economic context and the characteristics of the labour market 7

1.2 Brief description of the VET system 8

1.3 Relevance of the VET system to labour market needs 9

1.4 Recommendations 10

2. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

THE LABOUR MARKET 13

2.1 About Syria 13

2.2 The Syrian economy 14

2.3 The labour market 16

3. THE SYRIAN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM 19

3.1 Structure of the Syrian education system 19

3.2 Vocational education and training provision 20

3.3 Continuing training 23

3.4 Legislative, regulatory, administrative and financing framework 24

3.5 VET policy aims 25

3.6 Main constraints of the Syrian VET system 27

4. THE INTERFACE BETWEEN VET AND THE LABOUR MARKET 29

4.1 Vocational guidance and counselling system 29

4.2 Employment services 29

4.3 Current system for the collection of information on the labour market 30

4.4 Attitude of firms, organisations and society in general towards VET 30

5. DONOR ACTIVITIES 33

5.1 European Union 33

5.2 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 34

5.3 German co-operation 35

5.4 French co-operation 35

5.5 Italian co-operation 35

5.6 Japanese co-operation 36

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6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 37

6.1 Background: the challenges of future economic development 37

6.2 The Syrian VET system: main conclusions 38

6.3 Recommendations 39

ANNEXES 43

Annex 1. Statistical data 43

Annex 2. List of contacts 51

Annex 3. Structure of the education system in Syria 52

LIST OF ACRONYMS 53

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VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN SYRIA AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THELABOUR MARKET

INTRODUCTION

This report is one of a series produced bythe European Training Foundation on thestate of play of vocational education andtraining (VET) systems in the countries ofthe Mediterranean region. In the secondhalf of 1999 reports were developed onAlgeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Malta, theRepublic of Cyprus and Turkey. This reporton the Syrian system continues the seriesand incorporates a new dimension to theanalysis on the relevance of the VETsystem to labour market needs.

OBJECTIVES

These reports were prepared at therequest of the European Commission andaim to provide a complete overview of thenational vocational education and trainingsystems. They also indicate the keychallenges the systems face in a widersocio-economic development strategy.

More precisely, the report aims to describeand analyse:

� the main characteristics of the Syrianvocational education and trainingsystem;

� the role VET plays in the widersocio-economic Syrian context and, inparticular, its links with and relevance tolabour market and the development ofhuman resources;

� recent developments within theframework of programmes funded bythe European Union and other donors;

� the Syrian labour market.

METHODOLOGY

Staff from the European TrainingFoundation and a number of externalexperts worked in teams to produce thereport.

Work began with an analysis of existingreports produced for the EuropeanCommission or other internationalorganisations. This form of desk researchwas used to identify the main issues facedby each country and to select keyinterlocutors.

The second phase of preparation involvedvisits to the main stakeholders in thecountries themselves.

In the case of Syria, the conclusions drawnfrom these first two stages were discussedand agreed in a workshop held in Syria inNovember 2001 involving the mainstakeholders.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report owes much to the activecooperation with the EuropeanCommission, its local delegation, whoseadvice and practical help proved essentialto the project and to the many intervieweesthroughout the country, who helped thefocus on key issues.

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1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.1 THE SOCIO-ECONOMICCONTEXT AND THECHARACTERISTICS OF THELABOUR MARKET

Syria is one of the oldest inhabitedcountries in the world. In 2001, itspopulation was estimated at17.5 million of which no less than 41%were aged under 14. Syria has one of thehighest population growth rates in theregion (approx. 2.6%).

As is well known, the Syrian economy wascentrally planned with a large public sector.

The composition of GDP per economicsector is as follows: agriculture 29%,industry 22% and services 49%. This onlypartly matches the distribution of theworkforce by occupation: agriculture 40%,industry 20% and services 40%.

Although it is difficult to find statistics onthe public and the growing private sectorcontributions to GDP, many estimate thatthe private sector contributes more thanthe public sector (the figure of 70/30 was

suggested by one of the interviewees).These percentages would be reversed interms of the contribution to employment:the public sector remains the mainemployer in the country.

In 1999, the total number of workers inSyria was estimated at 4,095,000 (maleand female) of which at least 43% were inthe informal sector. Female participation inthe labour force is estimated at less than30%, but is slowly but steadily increasing.The unemployment rate is estimated atbetween 12 and 15% (1998 estimates),although official registered unemploymentremains very low.

Finding relevant data on labour marketdevelopment and future economic growthindications for the key sectors of the Syrianeconomy and the expectations for theschool system is difficult. Some institutionsinvest a lot of effort in looking for relevantdata. However, the relevance of theinformation available for the direction of thelabour market in the coming years and fortraining needs is very limited.

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1.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OFTHE VET SYSTEM

Education in Syria is in five stages:pre-school, primary (grades 1 to 6),preparatory (grades 7 to 9), secondary (10to 12) and post-secondary (or tertiary). The1973 constitution guarantees freeeducation for everyone at all levels1. Fromthe academic year 2002, compulsoryeducation will last for nine years2.

Almost all children reaching compulsoryschool age attend the first year of primaryschool, apart from the nomad population.However, and in spite of the widespreadprovision of school facilities and the highattendance, the literacy rate is still 71%,with a considerable difference betweenmales (85.7%) and females (55.8%).

The Syrian VET system is basically madeup of two sections: secondary (vocationalsecondary school) and post-secondary(intermediate institutes).

1. First level: secondary vocational

education and training (grades 10 to 12)

Secondary VET programmes last for threeyears. Secondary vocational schoolgraduates are granted a vocationalsecondary certificate as skilled workers.The graduates can either join the labourmarket or continue their studies atpost-secondary vocational institutes or (in avery limited numbers) at universities.

Secondary VET is provided by technicalsecondary schools. As many as11 ministries participate in the provision ofsecondary VET. However most VETprovision (up to 90%) falls under theresponsibility of the Ministry of Education.

2. Second level: post-secondary

vocational education and training

(grades 13 to 15)

Post-secondary VET is provided attechnical intermediate institutes. The

post-secondary programmes last for twoyears. Entry requirements include ageneral or vocational secondary schooldegree. Intermediate institute graduatesare granted a degree of “high gradetechnician”. After that they can join thelabour market or (in limited numbers) beginuniversity.

A total of 16 ministries are involved in theprovision of post-secondary VET, althoughthe majority of institutes fall under theMinistry of Education and the Ministry ofHigher Education (approx. 35% and 20%respectively). The Higher Council forIntermediate Institutes, under theresponsibility of the Ministry of HigherEducation, is the policy body in charge ofpost-secondary VET.

Governance

The regulation and organisation of the twosub-sectors are under the overallsupervision of the Higher MinisterialCommittee for technical education andvocational training, headed by the DeputyPrime Minister for Service Affairs andwhich includes ministers from all theministries involved in VET. A follow-upcommittee headed by the Ministry ofEducation’s Vice Minister for technicaleducation and vocational training, acts asthe executive body of the HigherCommittee3.

The governance and administrative systemis highly centralised. Both secondary andpost-secondary institutions have verylimited autonomy: the main decisionsregarding the supply, content, personnel,finance, equipment and buildings are takenby the central authority.

The position of VET in the Syrian

education system is, in theory, acrossroads leading from and to variousroutes. However, in practice currentregulations limit this particular role. As aresult, VET has become a second-besttype of education with only tenuous links to

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1 A recent decree allows the set up of private universities on a fee-paying basis.

2 According to Law No 32 approved on 7 April 2002.

3 A June 2002 decision of the Higher Ministerial Committee for TVET approved the creation of two differentboards, one in charge of vocational education under the leadership of the Ministry of Education and one incharge of vocational training under the leadership of the Ministry of Industry.

more promising streams4. The absence ofa lifelong learning facility makes it almostimpossible to re-enter the school system.

1.3 RELEVANCE OF THE VETSYSTEM TO LABOUR MARKETNEEDS

This study concentrates on the architectureof the VET system and its relation to theoverall education system, its governanceand relevance to labour market needs. Themain conclusion is that the current SyrianVET system is not sufficiently gearedtowards the needs of the labour market.The lack of responsiveness of the VETsystem can be attributed, on one hand, tothe current economic context in which itoperates.

� Given the challenges of globalisation,Syria must contemplate the gradualreplacement of the government-plannedeconomy with a market-orientedapproach. This inevitably makes itdifficult for vocational institutions toknow which way to turn.

� Labour market mechanisms are, insome respects, distorted. The reasonsfor this include the facts that a large partof the labour market (public companiesand services) is centralised; anotherlarge part of it is informal; the serviceslinking supply and demand(employment services, labour offices,etc.) are not performing as they shouldor are simply inexistent.

� To find a viable market approach, theavailability of qualitative and quantitativedata to steer the system or to guide theinstitutions is vital. The current datacompilation system does not provide theanalysis needed. The absence of otherchecks and balances (e.g. systematicinvolvement of companies in the designand delivery of training, functioningemployment and vocational guidanceservices, etc.) that could provide somekind of automatic response to the labourmarket exacerbates the problem.

There are also a number of elementsintrinsic to the current VET system thathinder better links with the labour market.

1. Governance and management of the

system

The current system is complex andfragmented. No less than 11 ministrieshave responsibilities for VET and run theirown schools or institutes. Although somemechanisms exist to enhanceco-ordination, the co-ordination andco-operation between governmentagencies could be greatly improved. Therecent decision (see footnote 3) to set uptwo different boards dealing separately withvocational education and training, underthe Ministry of Education and Ministry ofIndustry, respectively, may prove to be anadditional burden.

As far as the governance of vocationalschools and institutes is concerned, thelack of autonomy in decision-makingrelating to the implementation of curricula,management of human and financialresources and relations to the local labourmarket, hinders their performance.

Furthermore, in this complex picture, socialpartners (such as representatives from theemployers associations) are not involved inthe management, design and delivery oftraining.

2. The structure of the VET system and its

relation to the overall education system

in Syria

The VET system consists of twosub-systems (secondary andpost-secondary) that do not alwaysinter-relate well. The fragmentation of VETgovernance does not help this situation.

There are few effective and efficienteducational routes between VET and othertypes of education. VET is in many cases a“dead end”, and rarely leads to furthereducation.

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4 In its June 2002 meeting, the Higher Ministerial Committee for TVET adopted a number of measures toimprove the connection between VET and the other education sub-systems, i.e. the number of VET studentsallowed to join university has been increased from 2% to 5%. In addition, the so-called Applied Colleges,under the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Education, providing post-secondary education will start inthe academic year 2002/03.

There is an absence of a clear qualificationstructure in which a limited number ofeducational modules and efficient studypathways lead to an education which isflexible and relevant to the labour market.

3. Lifelong learning: youth education and

continuing training for workers and/or

unemployed

By tradition and regulation, vocationalschools are oriented towards young people.This in itself resembles the situation in manycountries. However, in Syria, although thereare some attempts to open education for all(e.g. open learning facilities at universities),and there are some facilities for retraining, astructured system for retraining the existingworkforce (continuing training) does notexist. To develop the economy, much of theexisting labour force (both workers and theunemployed) should be retrained, andparticipate in lifelong learning.

4. The institutional side and size of the

VET system

The present system is comprised of aremarkable number of institutions: over800 vocational institutions (including bothvocational secondary schools andintermediate institutes). With an estimated300,000 VET students in total, the averagesize of an institute is around 370 students.Much larger institutions are needed for themto be well-equipped, well-staffed, efficientlyrun, multi-disciplinary, innovative and havehigh service levels and active interactionwith the labour market. As it is, schools arenow too small to offer a wide range ofeducational options or to forge strong linksbetween VET and the labour market.

5. The content of the system: the curricula

and the teachers

Syrian vocational institutions lack updatedequipment. The current pre-service trainingsystem for vocational teachers does notprovide the required qualifications. Althoughthere are some in-service courses, basedon ad hoc requests, there is no system forsystematic in-service training that allows acontinuous upgrading of skills.

Although some attempts are being made toinvolve trade and industry in the revision ofcurricula, more often than not curricula

usually fail to generate the future skills thatwill be required by the labour market. Thefact that the VET system is almost fullyschool-based with little room for practice in“the real world of work” and in which boththeory and practical skills are provided inthe classroom limits its ability to respondquickly to social and labour market change.

6. Labour market information systems

The availability of statistical material tosupport the future choices of VETmanagement needs to be strengthened.The process of information gathering andanalysis on expected labour marketdevelopments (in close interaction with theworld of work and providing suggestions onwhat vocational institutions should teach) ismore important than actual figures. Thestrive for better statistics should therefore beincluded in the search for modern interactivegovernance and management practice.

1.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

The conclusions above show a picture of aVET system that can be optimised andmade ready for the country’s future needs.

1. Improve the governance of VET

It has been explained that the presentgovernance system faces two keyproblems. The first is the large number ofactors (ministries) involved in governance,and the second is the limited involvementof the social partners. Other relatedchallenges include the need for integrationbetween the different VET sub-systems;the need for higher educational coherencein the architecture of courses and learningpathways and the need to revise the scaleand size of vocational institutions.

There is, therefore, a clear need to improvethe governance of the system byincreasing the co-ordination between theconcerned parties, involving social partnersand establishing a clear allocation ofresponsibilities.

A solution could involve the creation of asingle governing board representing bothgovernment and social partners (trade andindustry representatives). This board wouldplay a major role in steering the reform of

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the system and have a decision-makingpower.

2. Revision of the educational structure:

the need for a new qualification

structure

As mentioned above, the currenteducational system is flawed in a numberof ways. Its structure is monolithic andlacks a qualification structure that is variedenough to satisfy the different skills needsof the labour market. The current two-levelmonolithic system should be substituted bya multi-level qualification structure, whichwould allow a wider variety of courselengths, educational routes and diplomas.

3. Involvement of economic actors in the

provision of VET: alternative pathways

for school and company based training

At present, the VET system is mainlyschool-based. Practical experience islimited. For VET to be relevant, contactwith “the real world” is of key importanceand in the new system only courses with asignificant period of practical trainingoutside the school should be included. Theintroduction of school and company basedtraining models should be consideredwhere different models (e.g. traineeship,apprenticeship, etc.) are applied accordingto the different needs and characteristics ofoccupations. Co-operation with companiescan also be applied to, for instance,handling equipment. If the equipment oftraining and industry is co-shared, theproposed investment in new schoolequipment can be used for other usefulpurposes.

4. A continuing training system within the

context of lifelong learning

Syria still has no system of continuingtraining, although some retraining coursesare provided by a variety of centres. Anumber of initiatives in the direction of“open education” are proposed, but theyare yet to be implemented and it will takesome time before they show results. Usingthe advised qualification structure,re-schooling and all other aspects oflifelong learning can be dealt with byexisting vocational institutions. This ismuch more efficient and cost-effective and

will help to make education more flexibleand relevant to the labour market.

5. Revising the VET system to include

large-scale multi-disciplinary institutions

The average school has some 370students. This is far less than the minimumnumber needed to create a well-equippededucational environment that facilitatesefficient and effective learning. A significantreduction in the number of schools throughmergers is essential to improve efficiencyand quality and strengthen service levels.The merged institutions could providemulti-level VET for both young people andadults. The process should beaccompanied by a number of measures toempower the larger institutions with theproper management skills to enable anefficient use of resources.

6. Curriculum reform and upgrading

teachers

Proper institutional management is onlyone aspect of successful innovation.Teachers to transfer knowledge,experience and competencies to theirstudents is another. A revision of thecurrent pre-service system and theintroduction of a system for in-servicetraining is necessary for the teaching forceis to be successfully revitalised. Animprovement of working conditions must bemade in parallel. A conducive learningenvironment in large-scale,multi-disciplinary institutions with strongties to the labour market is vital. Workingwith competencies rather than withknowledge and applying modern teachingmethods are pre-conditions for relevanttraining.

7. Labour market information mechanisms

As mentioned above, the current labourmarket information system is not relevantfor training purposes. It is not only a matterof the type and methodologies used forcompilation of the statistical data but also,and more importantly, the need to developan interactive network of stakeholders thatcan put the information to its best use. Araising of awareness on the importance ofinformation for VET policy developmentwould also contribute to the process.

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2. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC

CONTEXT AND THE

CHARACTERISTICS OF

THE LABOUR MARKET

2.1 ABOUT SYRIA

Syria is one of the oldest inhabitedcountries in the world. It has occupied aposition of importance in the fields ofscience, culture, politics, art, commerce,and industry from the earliest times.Damascus became the capital of the firstArab State at the time of the Omeyyads in661 A.D. It gained independence in 1941after a period of a French rule, whichformally ended by the departure of Frenchmilitary forces in 1946. The currentconstitution that forms the basis of thejuridical and political system wasimplemented in 1973.

The country has a centralised politicalsystem. Since July 2000, Bashar al-Assad,son of the previous president Hafezal-Assad has been the Head of State andthe President. The President is elected bypopular vote for a seven-year term and heappoints the Vice Presidents, the PrimeMinister, deputy Prime Ministers and othercabinet ministers.

Syria has a unicameral Parliament(People's Council or Majlis al-shaab) with250 seats. Its members are elected bypopular vote to serve four-year terms. Inthe last elections (1998) the NationalProgressive Fund (which includes theBaa’th Party) gained 167 seats. Otherparties gained 83 seats. The constitutionguarantees that the Baa’th party receiveshalf of the seats.

Since Bashar Al Assad came to power,some steps have been taken (see below)to boost economic growth.

The current population of Syria is17,460,000, of which at least 41% is under14. This is due to a high population growthrate of 2.58%. Life expectancy is 68.46years (male 67.35 and female 69.64),which explains the relatively lowpercentage of population over 65.

With a size of 185 square kilometres, Syriacan be considered as a sparsely populated

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2

country. The map shows the main countryfeatures.

Around 71% of the population over the ageof 15 can read and write. Of these 85.7%are male and 55.8% female.

Syria has freedom of religion. Muslim is thedominant religion: around 90% of thepopulation are Sunni Muslim (74%),Alawite, Druze, and other Muslim branchescomprise 16%. The further 10% arepredominantly Christian.

2.2 THE SYRIAN ECONOMY

Key economic facts and figures

(see also Annex 1)

Syria is rich in agricultural land andminerals essential to industry. Indeveloping the economy, attempts havebeen made to promote the manufacturingsector. It is assumed that agriculture willcontinue to contribute economically andthat commerce and tourism will progressand thereby meet the socio-economicneeds of the rapidly growing population. Interms of external trade, Syria is slowly butsurely opening up and seeking new meansto increase the capital necessary to sustaincontinued economic development.

According to the World Bank classification,Syria is a lower middle-income country5

. In1999, GDP per capita was estimated atUS$ 1,030 (�1,160)6. It has one of thehighest population growth rates (2.6%) inthe region, and it is estimated that thepopulation will increase from 17 million toapproximately 32 million by 2025. Atendency towards urbanisation continues,while opportunities arise in rural economicdevelopment.

For the last few years, Syria has been ineconomic decline. Over the past few yearsgrowth has been low (0.5% in 2000). Anincrease is expected in 2001 (up to 2%).Economic growth has been dependent onthe fluctuations in oil price and the resultsof agriculture crops. The inflation rate ismoderate, and has been around 2 to 3%for the last few years.

The composition of GDP shows three mainsectors: agriculture (29%), industry (22%)and services (49%). This is only partlyconsistent with the breakdown of theworkforce by occupation: agriculture 40%,industry 20% and services 40%.

Within the agricultural sector, livestock, fruitand cereal production are the maincomponents. The industrial products are:

petroleum, textiles, food processing,beverages, tobacco, phosphate rockmining, while the agricultural productscomprise: wheat, barley, cotton, lentils,chickpeas, olives, sugar beet, beef, mutton,eggs, poultry, and milk. Most of theagro-industry is centred in the area north ofDamascus. The main trading centres areDamascus and Aleppo and to a lesserextent Latakia, Tartous, Deir al Zour andHoms. The oil sector is mainlyconcentrated on the Deir al Zour region,and around the refineries at Aleppo andBanias, where some related heavy industryhas developed. Damascus and Aleppo arealso home to light industry, such as textilesand ceramics.

The export level in 1999 was $3.3 billion,the import slightly less: $3.2 billion. Exportsconcentrate strongly on petroleum (65%),while a smaller role is reserved for

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5 Country Support Strategy: Syrian Arab Republic, UNIDO, 1996.

6 Economist Intelligence Unit Report, EIU, July 2001.

textiles (10%), manufactured goods (10%),fruits and vegetables (7%), raw cotton(5%), live sheep (2%), phosphates (1%).Exports are mainly destined to Germany14%, Turkey 13%, Italy 12%, France 9%,Lebanon 9%, Spain7.

Imported goods are predominantlyequipment or raw materials for industrialactivities. The imported goods can bedefined as machinery and equipment(23%), foodstuffs/animals (20%), metal andmetal products (15%), textiles (10%) andfinally chemicals (10%) (1998 est.).Importing parties are: Ukraine 16%, Italy6%, Germany 6%, Turkey 5%, France 4%,South Korea, Japan, US (1998 est.).

The Syrian economy has been based on acentrally planned model with a large publicsector. Although it is difficult to findstatistics as to the GDP contributions of thepublic and the growing private sectors,many estimate that the private sectorcontribution to the GDP is higher than thatof the public sector (the figure of 70/30 wassuggested by one of the interviewees).These percentages can be reversed interms of contribution to employment: thepublic sector remains by far the mainemployer in the country.

A change at hand

Despite the gradual pace of reform, theSyrian economy is changing radically. Anumber of laws have been passed topromote economic growth: the 1991Investment Law No 10 has been modifiedto allow for foreign ownership of realestate, tax incentives, etc.; foreignexchange regulations have been simplifiedand progress made on the conversiontowards a unified exchange rate; a 2001law has been passed for the liberalisationof the banking sector allowing jointprivate-public banks, etc. A debate iscurrently ongoing to bring the public sectorup to market standards. However, acomprehensive economic policy is still tobe put in place.

Globalisation has not left the Syrianeconomy untouched. As its policies show,the country is ambitious and enthusiastic

about participating in the larger network ofthe Euro-Mediterranean partnership whichaims, among others, at the establishmentof an open trade zone by 2010. Othercommercial agreements are beingdiscussed with countries in the region.

The country is at a watershed and in manyfields there is still debate about future aimsand actions. However, there is agreementon some points.

� Syria’s economy has evolved into apredominantly low wage and low skillproduction model.

� Economists in both the public andprivate sectors are well aware that if thecountry is to survive in global markets,the economy needs to deliver higher“value added” and better qualityproducts and services.

� As a hangover from the past, theeconomic system and its actors are notmarket-orientated. Not being subject tomuch competition in the past,productivity levels are low andproduction methods are notcost-effective, let alone competitive inmany fields.

� These changes require a better-qualified workforce. Therefore, a majorchange in the education system isessential for future generations as wellas the current workforce.

� The future role of the public economywill gradually have to adapt to a higherskilled, more productive and moreefficient system. In fact, publicenterprises will have to befundamentally reviewed to prevent themfrom becoming a millstone for futureeconomic development.

Syria has major economic challengesahead, and this will significantly change theeconomic landscape in the coming 5 to10 years. The emphasis will be onincreasing productivity and value added inorder to be competitive in the region. Majorinvestments in infrastructure andtechnology and the modernisation of publicadministration and the public economicsector as well as massive investment in thewhole education system will be required.

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2. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OFTHE LABOUR MARKET

7 These breakdowns are based on 1998 figures.

2.3 THE LABOUR MARKET

In 1999, the total number of workers inSyria was estimated at 4,095,000 (maleand female) of which no less than 43% arein the informal sector. Female participationin the workforce is estimated at less than30% although it is slowly but steadilyincreasing. Official registeredunemployment remains low at around8 to 10%, but unofficial reports put theunemployment rate at around 20%8.

In October 2002, the Government of PrimeMinister Mustapha Miro adopted aUS$ 1 billion plan to create 440,000 newjobs over the next five years. Funds will beused to finance small-scale investmentprojects, mainly in rural areas9.

As mentioned before, the composition ofthe workforce by occupation is estimated at40% in the agriculture sector, 20% in theindustrial sector and 40% in services.Precise data on public versus privateemployment was not available but the stateremains the main employer in the country.Data for regional or local levels are notavailable.

The difference in payment between thepublic and private sector is substantial.According to the statistics, the wages paidin the private sector are twice as high forunskilled workers, three times as high forsemi-skilled workers and four times higherfor highly skilled workers. The payment ofcivil servants (as well as teachers) is in thesemi-skilled worker range.

Finding relevant data on labour marketdevelopment and future economic growthindications for the key sectors of the Syrianeconomy and the expectations on thedesired outcome of the school system isdifficult in Syria. Some institutions (like theState Planning Commission or the CentralBureau of Statistics) invest a lot effort inmaking relevant data available.Nevertheless, it has proven almostimpossible to make accurate predictions.

Distorted labour market mechanisms

In the past in a planned economy, manyorganisations “planned” the future. Theeconomy developed along the lines set bythe governmental plans. The generalguidelines for production were the markersfor resource planning, including the needfor graduates of certain disciplines. Thistime is long gone and has been replacedby a promising but much more uncertaineconomic future. The value of theinformation about the future of the labourmarket is very limited. It has proven verydifficult to find this information in Syria forseveral reasons.

� As explained before, Syria still has alarge public industrial sector. Theseindustries are centrally directed andsteered. Human resourcesmanagement policies are implementedby government. While this policy mayhave some social benefits (e.g.employment security), it does notcontribute to the understanding of thetrue market needs nor to the formulationof successful economic andemployment policies.

� The economy is shifting from a plannedeconomy to a more market-orientedone. Private industry has been anoption for over a decade. At the sametime, public companies still benefit, forexample, from special pricing orproduction subsidies. In this complexsituation, predictions on thedevelopment of economic sectors aredifficult.

� The focus of data compilation has oftenbeen for registration purposes ratherthan for policy design. One example isthe responsibility of the Ministry ofSocial Affairs and Labour forunemployment. Until now, their workhas focused on the registration ofunemployed. However, this informationhas not been used for the developmentof other active or passive employmentpolicies.

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8 The Syria Report, www.Syria-report.com, 8 August 2002.

9 A first loan of US$ 100 million by the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development was signed byMr Hussein al-Amash, Head of the “Agency for combatting unemployment” in Spring 2002. AnotherUS$ 1.4 million loan was agreed by UNDP in mid 2002. (The Syria Report, Thursday, 8 August 2002).

� Social partner organisations are not yetorganised or ready to play an active roleas representatives of the labour market(supply and demand). At present, theChambers of Industry are starting totake up this role, but there is not yet aclear tri-partite network nor a socialdialogue culture.

� On a totally different note, but no lessimportant, is the large-scale informalsector in Syria.

The informal workforce

A complex factor in the understanding ofthe economy in general and the labourmarket in particular, is the existence of ahuge informal sector. As mentioned above,43% of the workforce has a place in theinformal market, and this figure seems tobe increasing (from 40% in 1995 to 43% in1999). There is no single definition of theinformal sector, but the one used in the1999 census was those who are “playing arole in the economic activities outside theinstitutions“. This implies all small units andindividuals producing and distributinggoods and/or services, working forthemselves, with a very small capital (ifany), using primitive methods requiring lowlevel technologies and low skilled workers.

The existence of the informal sector can beattributed to the high population growthrate, the sluggish economy, the lack ofadequate services and/or new projects inrural areas and an environment thatdiscourages business start-ups.

The main economic fields covered by theinformal sector are agriculture, transport,mining and converting industries, trading,maintenance, building and construction,sewing, household, food preparation andservice, personal services andsubcontracting. Agriculture (41%), buildingand construction (24%), and trade (14%)account for 80% of the informal sector.

Over half the workers in the informal sectorare aged between 15 and 29, and about19% are between 15 and 19. This lattergroup points at a high dropout percentagefrom secondary education. Furthermore, atleast 4% of the informal sector may well bechildren.

It may come as no surprise that theeducational background of most of theinformal sector workers is low. Around 77%of them are below primary school level,and some are even illiterate and, therefore,highly vulnerable.

17

2. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OFTHE LABOUR MARKET

3. THE SYRIAN VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

SYSTEM

3.1 STRUCTURE OF THESYRIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

The Syrian education system is in fivestages (see diagram in annex 3):pre-school, primary, preparatory,secondary and post-secondary (or tertiary)education.

The 1973 constitution guarantees freeeducation for everyone at all levels10, andcompulsory education for six years, thiswas raised to nine years by Law No 32approved in April 2002.

Almost all children reaching compulsoryschool age attend the first year of primaryschool, apart from the nomad population.However, in spite of the widespreadprovision of school facilities and the highattendance, the literacy rate is still only71%, with a considerable differencebetween males (85.7%) and females(55.8%).

Pre-school education is voluntary.Schools are run by the Ministry ofEducation, by associations such as theGeneral Union of Syrian Arab Women andTeachers’ Union, and by privateorganisations.

Primary education lasts for six years. Themain provider is the Ministry of Education,while UNRWA11 or private organisationsprovide the rest (1% each). The curriculumcomes from the Ministry of Education andis compulsory for all providers.

Preparatory school lasts for three years(grades 7 to 9). It is considered the firststep of secondary education. All pupilswho successfully complete primaryeducation can join the preparatory school(there is no entrance examination). It isestimated that around 70% of a given agegroup succeed in reaching secondaryschool. Some 95% of preparatory schoolprovision is state run, while the rest is

19

3

10 A recent decree allows the set up of private universities on a fee-paying basis.

11 United Nations Relief and Works Agency (for Palestinian Refugees).

divided between UNRWA and privateorganisations. It can be estimated that halfof the schools are co-educational, exceptfor UNRWA schools.

Secondary education lasts for three years(grades 10 to 13) and is divided12 into twosegments:

� general secondary school (GSS):leading to the Baccalaureate diploma,which entitles pupils to go onto highereducation, subject to numerus clausus;

� technical secondary schools (TSS).

The main provider is the State (approx.95%), the rest being covered by UNRWAand private organisations.

According to the policy decision of 2000the distribution of students betweengeneral and technical secondary educationshould be 50/50. The selection is done onthe basis of the final examination resultsafter the preparatory school.

Post secondary (or tertiary) education canbe divided into two branches:

� university education, which usually lastsfor four years but can go up to sixdepending on the subject;

� technical education: lasting for twoyears.

3.2 VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONAND TRAINING PROVISION

As described above, the Syrian VETsystem is basically in two parts: secondarylevel (vocational secondary school) andpost-secondary level (intermediateinstitutes).

First level: secondary vocational

education and training

Following the 2000 policy decision, allsecondary VET programmes last for threeyears. A preparatory school certificate isthe entrance requirement. Secondaryvocational school graduates are granted avocational secondary certificate as skilled

workers. The graduates can either join thelabour market or continue their studies atpost-secondary vocational institutes or (inrare cases) at universities.

Secondary VET takes place at technicalsecondary schools. As many as11 ministries participate in the provision ofsecondary VET. However most (up to 90%)is under the responsibility of the Ministry ofEducation.

Secondary VET includes five majorspecialisations: industrial, commercial,agriculture, women’s studies and religion.

Second level: post-secondary

vocational education and training

Technical intermediate institutes providethis type of training, which lasts for twoyears. Entry requirements include ageneral or vocational secondary schooldegree. Intermediate institute graduatesare granted a degree of “high gradetechnician”. After that they can join thelabour market or in rare cases, universitystudies.

A total of 16 ministries are involved in theprovision of post-secondary VET, althoughthe majority are under the Ministry ofEducation and the Ministry of HigherEducation (approx. 35% and 20%respectively). The Higher Council forIntermediate Institutes, under theresponsibility of the Ministry of HigherEducation, is the policy body responsiblefor post-secondary VET.

As shown in the diagram below, the

position of VET in the Syrian education

system is, in theory, an importantcrossroads leading to and from variousroutes. However, in practice governmentregulations limit this role and VET marksthe end of a student’s education. VET is inmost cases an end route for students. TheHigher Ministerial Committee for VET, thehighest policy making body (see below),has approved a number of decisions toimprove the links between VET and theother education sub-systems.

20


12 The professional secondary school, of two years and with a vocational orientation, was abolished in 2000. Allvocational schools and programmes were unified under the technical secondary system lasting three years.

This includes the increase (from 2 to 5%)of the number of VET graduates that areallowed to join universities and the creationof “applied colleges” under theresponsibility of the Ministry of HigherEducation. The new entrances to thecolleges will be distributed as follows:50% graduates from vocational secondary

schools, 25% of graduates fromintermediate institutes and 25% fromgeneral secondary schools.

The absence of a lifelong learning facilitymakes it almost impossible to re-enter theschool system.

21

3. THE SYRIAN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM

University

IntermediateInstitutes

General SecondaryEducation

Vocational SecondarySchool

Preparatory School

Post primary school system in Syria

The table below summarises basic figures of VET provision under the Ministry of Education:

VET secondary schools Year 2000

Number of students Approx. 113,750

Number of schools 647

Number of professions/specialisation 135

Technical intermediate institutes Year 1999

Number of students33,947

(number of secondary graduates accepted in institutes)

Number of institutes 131

Number of professions 119

Source: Ministry of Education.

The number and the average size of the

institutions, is one of the main

challenges for the future. The institutionsare now small scaled and usuallyconcentrate on just one discipline. The lackof equipment and the general poorcondition of school buildings leaves muchroom for improvement in the future. One ofthe reasons given for the expansion in thenumber of centres has been governmentpolicy towards education for girls, whohave a right to receive education within alimited distance from home.

This well-intentioned measure has forcedthe authorities to open a vast number ofsmall-scale institutions, causing problemsin terms of quality and relevance ofeducation.

The number of VET students is rising.The figures show that in nearly all types ofschool student numbers increased over the1990 to 1999 period. The 1999 figurespoint to a participation level of around300,000 students (all ministries included) inthe various stages of vocational education.

That in itself, with a population of around17 million people, is a rather low figure,compared to western European andneighbouring Middle Eastern countries.The government has been trying toincrease the number of students in VET fora number of years and, as the figuresshow, has been partially successful.

3.2.1 STAFFING ATVOCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Theoretical subject teachers (e.g.mathematics, physics, Arabic, etc.) arerecruited from universities. Professionalsubject teachers are university engineeringgraduates. Practical teachers (workshoptrainers) are graduates from intermediateinstitutes and, in some cases, universitygraduates. Prior practical experience inindustry is not required in any of thesethree cases, not even in the case ofworkshop trainers.

Prior pedagogical training is notcompulsory to enter the teachingprofession. Therefore, the pedagogicalskills rely on the individual teacher’spersonality.

School and institute directors can ask theMinistry of Education for upgrading coursesfor new teachers if considered necessary.Pedagogical courses can also berequested. These courses are provided bythe pedagogical faculties at universities.

Teacher recruitment is centrally organisedby the government. The management ofthe vocational institution concernedparticipates in the final selection ofcandidates.

The social and economic status of teachersis fairly low. Salaries are often not highenough to cover the cost of living of astandard family. Teachers therefore needto find a second wage earning occupation.While this could have a negative impact onthe quality of the tuition, a parallel activityin industry is often considered as a positiveinput for the teaching process, particularlyas regards practical training.

Administrative staff is also centrallyappointed. No prior specific managementskills are required.

3.2.2 METHODS ANDAPPROACHES

VET in Syria is one-dimensional.

� School-based education with verylimited (and in most cases voluntary)work-based training. Intermediateinstitute students are supposed tospend a three-month period in acompany. However, this is notcompulsory and has little influence onthe final evaluation. The only exceptionto this rule is the current pilotapprenticeship scheme.

� The world of work has a very limitedinfluence on the government decisionsregarding the content of courses andcurricula. Mixed curriculum committeeswith involvement from enterprises haveonly been created for new professions.

� There is a shortage of modernpedagogical material. The pedagogicalclimate (didactics, methodology, etc) isalso influenced by the lack of modernequipment and outside influence.Conditions for modernisation, e.g.through the use of e-learning, are poor.

� Curricula and educational material arecentrally designed. There is littleautonomy for schools to adapt to localconditions.

The infrastructure is weak. The equipmentand other facilities show a gap between thelevel of equipment at the schools/institutesand companies. The small scale of theinstitutions and the inadequate budget forequipment and services has caused thissituation. A few exceptions can be noted, inwhich companies donated equipment andexpertise to individual vocational schools.

3.2.3 STANDARDS,ASSESSMENT ANDCERTIFICATION

Within the legal framework, almost allvocational education is centrally designedand administered and at a standardisedlevel. There is a unified system ofcertification: one certificate for graduates ofvocational secondary schools and one forgraduates of intermediate institutes. Even ifissued and signed by different ministries,certificates of the same level have thesame value.

22


However and beyond this formalstandardisation, the involvement ofdifferent ministries in the provision of initialsecondary and post-secondary VET has, inreality, resulted in a difference in quality.For example, certain specialisations areoffered at the same time by differentministries, resulting in graduates withsimilar diplomas having received differentlevels of training in qualitative terms.

The public accountability of the system isvery low. The present system of inspection,through a form of inspectorate, does notseem to be able to direct and control theissues of quality in an active andpersuasive way. Financing issues are notlinked to qualitative but quantitative criteria.

The current evaluation and certificationsystem is centrally based with noinvolvement from social organisations.

The system should relate more to openlydiscussed standards and skills relevant tothe future labour market. Assessmentmethods and forms of certification andbenchmarking should be revised bothnationally and internationally. This way allconcerned could be motivated to reshapethe vocational education and trainingsystem in the most appropriate way for thefuture.

3.3 CONTINUING TRAINING

Syria has no organised system ofcontinuing training for the existing labourforce. When required, e.g. when newequipment needs new skills, continuingtraining takes place in the workplace and isorganised by the company itself. Althoughaccording to the regulations the Ministry ofSocial Affairs and Labour should organisetraining for the unemployed, in practice thisdoes not yet happen. A forthcomingchange of policy might lead to a moreactive role by this Ministry13. The currenttraining infrastructure and the inexperienceof vocational schools in dealing with theunemployed is a serious challenge for thefuture.

There are however, a number of courses

provided by several ministries that cater

for a small proportion of current

workers and education dropouts.

Alongside standard vocational educationand training provision in secondary schoolsand intermediate institutes, a number ofmore flexible vocational training coursesranging from two weeks to nine months areregularly provided by other ministries atvocational training centres (VTC).

In concrete terms, the Ministry of Industryhas four VTCs, (specialising in electronics,metals, spinning and weaving, and motorvehicles), in four regions (Damascus,Aleppo, Homs and Deir El-Zor). They caterfor 1,500 trainees per year, for agesranging from 16 to 35.

The Ministry of Building and Constructionhas 11 such centres in 11 places. Thesecentres provide training in the area ofbuilding and construction and cater for1,000 trainees a year. Training costs aremet from the State budget, and training isprovided free.

Ministry of Agriculture centres offer adifferent training profile. Courses last foraround 40 days and are open to both tofarmers and engineers. In 1996approximately 19,000 people benefitedfrom these courses.

Some of these courses fall outside regulareducation path and cater for both educationdropouts and workers.

For the sake of clarity it must be

understood that the above-mentioned

ministries (and many others) are also

involved in the provision of regular

secondary and post-secondary VET.

In the private sector there are currentlyabout 400 small training centresnationwide, which depend on fees fromtrainees. They cover subjects includinglanguages and computer sciences. Thistype of training is outside the formalsystem.

23


13 Although the 2000 Government plan to fight unemployment is led by an ad hoc Agency, a revision of the roleof the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour is expected.

3.4 LEGISLATIVE,REGULATORY,ADMINISTRATIVE ANDFINANCING FRAMEWORK

3.4.1 LEGISLATIVEFRAMEWORK

Vocational education and training in Syriais controlled by a complex legal andregulatory system. A summary of the mainlegal and political acts that were (in theirtime) milestones in the development ofVET in the country is provided below.

� The 1955 law No 47 was the first legalact on VET.

� Following the political set up in the1960s, the 1973 constitution becamethe point of reference for educationpolicy development.

� Law No 4 of 1978 created aco-ordinating body involvingrepresentatives from the Ministry ofHigher Education, the Ministry ofEducation and other ministries to decideon curricula, examination arrangementsand entrance requirements forintermediate institutes. The body ismanaged by the Ministry of HigherEducation.

� The 1998 ministerial decree issued bythe Prime Minister was a majormilestone in the history of VET. Thedecree approved the creation of aHigher Ministerial Committee forVocational and Technical Education(HMC, see below). The HMC deals withpolicy development in VET issues. It issupported by a follow-up committee,chaired by the Vice Minister for VET atthe Ministry of Education.

� In 1988/89 a plan was set by the HigherMinisterial Committee that fixed thetarget for the intake of students at VETsecondary schools at 70% of the totalnumber of preparatory students. Theremaining 30% were to enter generaleducation. This plan underlined thepriority given to VET as an alternative.The Ministry of Education, in closeco-operation with the State PlanningCommission, was to take the lead inpreparing executive plans forimplementation of the policy.

� In 1994, the presidential decree No 13 wasissued (by the President of the State) to

set the legal basis for the modernisationof vocational education and trainingprovision. It aims at improving thecondition of vocational schools and theirgraduates; identifying a certificate forthe graduates; giving VET graduatespriority in employment in both privateand public sectors, etc. To improve theimplementation of VET provision and toincrease co-ordination, the decreeforesaw the creation of the followingcommittees that are still in place:(i) a committee to initiate new

vocational schools and technical andvocational professions and establishits by-laws; as a result, a total of115 professions were defined;

(ii) an inter-ministerial curriculumco-ordination committee;

(iii) an examination committee to followup exams and establish a unifiedexamination system.

� A decision was taken in 2000 todistribute preparatory school graduatesequally between VET and generaleducation (instead of 70/30).Furthermore, all specialist studies atsecondary vocational level werelengthened to three years, thusabolishing the two-year programme.

3.4.2 GOVERNANCE ANDADMINISTRATION

To summarise what has been said inprevious chapters, as many as11 ministries are involved in the provisionof secondary VET. The Ministry ofEducation is, however, principallyresponsible for the school system up toand including secondary level.

Various ministries (16) provide andorganise post-secondary VET. The HigherCouncil for intermediate institutes headedby the Minister of Higher Educationco-ordinates post-secondary VET provision.

Besides the Ministry of Education andMinistry of Higher Education, the Ministryof Industry plays an important role in VETnot only through the vocational schools andinstitutes but also through its vocationaltraining centres.

The regulation and organisation of the twosub-sectors is under the overall supervision

24


of the Higher Ministerial Committee fortechnical education and vocational training,headed by the Deputy Prime Minister forService Affairs. As mentioned before, thecommittee was created in 1988 following aministerial decree issued by the PrimeMinister reflecting the boost given to VETprovision at that time. This committeeincludes the ministers of education,agriculture, industry, health, constructionand building, communications,transportation, electricity, tourism, oil andmineral resources, and irrigation. Thecommittee is in charge of policy setting. Afollow-up committee headed by the Ministryof Education’s, Vice Minister for technicaleducation and vocational training, wascreated as the executive body of theHigher Committee. This follow upcommittee includes the directors general ofthe ministries listed above.

The governance and administrative systemis, therefore, highly centralised. Both

secondary and post-secondary

institutions have very limited autonomy:

the main decisions regarding educationsupply and content, personnel, finance,equipment and buildings are taken by thecentral authority. Although regionalsections of the Ministry of Education exist,they are responsible for policyimplementation rather than formulation.

With the exception of the pilotapprenticeship scheme (where an ad hoccommittee has been created involvingrepresentatives from the DamascusChamber of Industry) there is no

participation from social partners

(employers and employee organisations)in the governance or management of theVET system, either at national or atlocal-school level. Given the lack ofexternal input in VET provision, and thelack of contacts between the schools andtheir local environment, schools aredistanced from the real world of work. Thisposes a serious threat to the socialrelevance of VET.

3.4.3 FINANCING

According to the 1973 Syrian constitution,education in Syria is free in its entirety –from pre-school to university.

The percentage of public expenditure oneducation rose steadily from 7.64% in 1970to 12.8% in 1994. However, since then ithas been falling reaching 10% in 1998, inspite of the large absolute increase in theMinistry of Education’s budget. Educationexpenditure as a percentage of GDP canbe estimated at 4.5% and has remainedfairly steady over the years.

Of the overall education budget, the sharefor elementary education varied from 42%to 55% between 1970 and 1998, while theshare for intermediate and secondaryeducation varied between 20.5% and28.6% over the same period.

The Ministry of Education’s budget fortechnical and vocational education rosefrom about 6% in 1970 to 13.48% in 1981.In recent years (1994-98) it has varied from7.6% to 8.8%. The marked increase in1981 was as a result of an expansion planto build and equip a number of technicaland vocational schools. In 1997expenditure was 71.5%, the rest went oninvestments.

It can be estimated that the cost of a VETstudent is four times that of a generalsecondary student (due to the high cost ofequipment, buildings, training material,consumables and the low student teacherratio).

With regard to the financing of VET in theother ministries involved in technical andvocational education, despite the fact thatthe growth rate of government funding inthese ministries rose by about 18% overthe 1992 to 1998 period, the actual fundingamounted to less than 10% of governmentoutlay in that area.

As for training provided by privateinstitutions, the 1998 job market survey onthe distribution of training funding in privatesector establishments revealed that 71.2%was spent on in-service training, 20.9% onprivate training centres and 7.9% abroad.

3.5 VET POLICY AIMS

Over the years, VET had a relativelyimportant place in the education systemand attracted special political attention.

25


The government considered it as one ofthe important tools for economic prosperity.Despite this commitment in many policydocuments, actual political priorities do notback this up. VET was, as most other typesof education in Syria, subject to budgetreductions and increases of scope. Thefragmentation of the system between thedifferent ministries, the high level ofcentralisation and the limited capability torespond to changing labour market needs,clarifies that the VET policies are still verymuch in need of a well-defined position.

The Syrian Ministry of Education hasrecently taken a number of steps todevelop a comprehensive strategy aimingto increase the relevance of the Syriantechnical and vocational education andtraining system for labour market needs.Amongst the areas of focus, specialattention was given to the development ofapprenticeship schemes that could bringinitial training, which is at present mostlyschool based, closer to industry andcompanies, thus increasing the activeparticipation of the production sector in thedevelopment and delivery of training Thestrategy also includes the creation of newspecialist areas for existing studies,emphasis on the skills of teachers andtrainers, and the upgrade of equipment(with computer equipment a priority).

The pilot apprenticeship scheme (whichbegan in September 2000 and developedwith the support of the European TrainingFoundation) has brought VET in Syria tothe forefront of discussions: the weakrelationship between curricula and thelabour market, the need to revise subjectswithin the curriculum, the strongschool-based orientation of VET provision,the need to upgrade teaching staff so thatthey can play a more interactive role withthe world of work, the need forcompetence-based training and the needfor investment in school infrastructure andequipment.

The high level of commitment from allparties involved in the pilot scheme is agood sign of support for change. TheDamascus Chamber of Industry plays avital role bridging the gap between privateindustry and the VET system. However, theroles of the different partners (the Chamber

of Industry, Ministry of Education, Ministryof Industry, schools and institutes) need tobe institutionalised to ensure sustainabilitybeyond the commitment of the group ofindividuals currently involved. The recentagreement of a draft memorandum ofunderstanding between the Ministry ofEducation and the Chamber is a good signof the commitment to move forward.

The main challenge is the development oflocal capacities to manage theimplementation of the process. Thecreation of a joint Ministry ofEducation/social partner apprenticeship‘secretariat’ to deal with operational taskslinked to the recruitment of apprentices andcompanies, curriculum development,standards, assessment, information tostakeholders and the public etc. is to beencouraged.

Recently, the government has published a

new policy document outlining thegeneral objectives for education:

� helping young people to teachthemselves to achieve a continuinglearning process;

� approving a comprehensive policy fordeveloping the educational process,encompassing new technologies, theenvironment, and population education;

� encouraging the use of the Arabiclanguage (particularly in scientificsubjects), and unifying the scientificterms locally and among the Arabcountries;

� taking care of special groups such asdisabled students.

This was translated into the following policylines:

� realising the principle of democracy ineducation;

� applying the compulsory educationpolicy;

� giving special attention to computerskills, foreign languages, scientificsubjects;

� enhancing the quality of educationthrough improving the competencies ofteaching staff and innovating teachingmethods;

� improving the relevance of VET tolabour market requirements;

26


� encouraging the private sector toparticipate in education.

It is still to be seen how the policystatements will translate into concreteimplementation plans.

The pilot apprenticeship scheme and thenew policy document are signs of anawareness of the needs of the Syrian VETsystem and even of a commitment tochange. In that sense, it can be consideredthat VET must be made more prominent

on the political agenda. However, it mustbe concluded that the government is not

(yet) prioritising many of the key

elements of the VET system, nor it issuccessfully bridging the gap between theinvolvement of the stakeholders and themanagement of the system. Neither has itbeen able to position VET clearly andunambiguously as a key issue in thedebate regarding future economic policy.

3.6 MAIN CONSTRAINTS OFTHE SYRIAN VET SYSTEM

As mentioned above, the SyrianGovernment has taken important stepsover the last decade to update the VETsystem and is still striving forimprovements. But the task is a difficultone, especially under the sometimes harshconditions in which the VET system, itsschools and teachers have to work.Fundamental changes will have to takeplace in order to drastically upgrade thesystem to the level that it can contribute tothe desired economic changes in thecountry.

Weighing up the problems of the system,the following issues are the most pressing(see also Chapter 6 – Conclusions).

� The current VET system is not anattractive alternative to generalsecondary education. For studentswanting to continue their studies afterthe first or second cycle, it is virtually adead-end.

� The education model isone-dimensional. It provides only(secondary) three-year courses and

(intermediate level) two-year courses,while the labour market requires a widervariety of skills and levels varying fromassistant level to higher management.

� The gap between education and thereal world of work is substantial. Moreimportantly, there are few integratedmechanisms to fill the gap (limitedinvolvement of social partners in themanagement, design and delivery oftraining; no vocational guidancesystems; limited performance ofemployment services and labour marketinformation systems, etc.).

� The schools are small and poorlyequipped. The situation does notpromote innovation and educationalroutes for students are not welldesigned and restrict choice andopportunity. Teachers are workingunder difficult conditions. Pre-servicetraining and recruitment procedures donot ensure the best match of skills forthe teaching profession. There is nosystematic in-service training that wouldallow a constant updating of skills.

� A large number of ministries areinvolved in the centrally managed VETsytstem. In a rapidly changing market,switching from a public economy to agrowing private sector, the involvementof the social partners is needed to makethe system more relevant. The largenumber of government actors involvedcalls, at the same time, for simplifiedmanagement mechanisms.

� Given the desire for economic progressand the shift from a low-wage, lowadded value production to products of ahigher standard and added value, theretraining of many adults will be theautomatic consequence. The presentVET system has limited potential toaddress the issues of lifelong learning,including the continuing training of theexisting workforce.

� The high number of schools and theirsmall size hinder any possible qualityimprovements and reduce the overallcost-effectiveness of the system. Are-dimensioning of the VET system isneeded in terms of quantity ofinstitutions and their profile to cover avariety of specialisations.

27


4. THE INTERFACE BETWEEN

VET AND THE LABOUR

MARKET

Chapter 1 outlined the state of the Syrianeconomy and the characteristics of itslabour market.

From that it can be inferred that many ofthe issues that this chapter should address(e.g. demand for training, vocationalguidance services, employment services)can be dealt with briefly as much of theinformation required is simply not there.

4.1 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCEAND COUNSELLING SYSTEM

At present, there is no vocational guidanceand counselling system in place. The linksbetween the labour market and the VETsystem are weak. This implies that if anyvocational guidance and/or counsellingsystem were to exist, it would be destinedfor a short life. In other words there is amismatch between the current system –based exclusively on two skill levels – andthe variety of skills levels required by thelabour market.

4.2 EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

In Syria, the Ministry of Social Affairs andLabour is responsible for the mediation ofthe unemployed. Although legislationsuggests that this ministry should play anactive role in looking for jobs and/or the(re)schooling of clients, in practice its workhas consisted in registering theunemployed. Even so, registration is notcompulsory and since there are no visibleunemployment benefits (e.g. nounemployment subsidy) people do notoften register themselves.

Recent changes in legislation and thereorganisation of the Ministry should putthis important task more in the spotlight. Amain concern is whether the existingcapacities and network structure will allowfor a change. Beyond that, anotherproblem will be to find relevant courses forthe unemployed. The current vocationalinstitutions do not provide much educationof that sort.

29

4

Although the quality and quantity of thematerial collected is high, it has littlerelevance for labour market policies or VETplanning. In fact, most of this material wasnever meant to serve that purpose.Therefore, there is a problem of availabilityand compilation of data relevant to labourmarket needs. This in itself has to do withthe lack of local mechanisms to make dataavailable (lack of vocational guidance,employment services, enterprises, etc.).Beyond that there is also a need toreinforce local capacities for data analysisand to raise awareness on the use of thatanalysis for policy development.Furthermore, there is the problem of theuse of the information. At present there isno culture or an established network ofstakeholders that could make use of thedata for policy making.

Confronted with the gradual transformationfrom a planned economy with a mass ofpublic industries to a more market-driveneconomic system, the ministriesresponsible for the planning of facilities(including educational forecasts) are nowtrying to get a better understanding of themarket. The growth of private industriesand the insecure future of public industriescreate even more difficulties in makingreliable future predictions.

In short, there is limited information on thelikely developments in the labour market tothe extent that government agenciescannot provide clear signals to the VETsystem and its schools, nor can it informthe public and private industries on futureworkforce needs.

4.4 ATTITUDE OF FIRMS,ORGANISATIONS ANDSOCIETY IN GENERALTOWARDS VET

VET in its present state is not consideredan important part of the education system.Society regards it as a second choiceeducation. This second choice nature isdue, on the one hand, to the architecture ofthe education system that makes VET adead-end and, on the other hand, to theirrelevance of the education provided.

Companies endorse this view and usuallyassume that they will have to invest acertain amount of time and financialresources in “re-training” young graduatesjoining their services.

Another difficulty is that there is limitedunderstanding among companies on theneed and benefits of training. Size and a

30


Furthermore, the link between the Ministryof Social Affairs and Labour and themainstream of the VET system is lacking.

4.3 CURRENT SYSTEM FORTHE COLLECTION OFINFORMATION ON THELABOUR MARKET

The collection of relevant and reliable dataon the present and future labour market is

one of the weakest parts of the datacollection in Syria. The institutionsresponsible for gathering statisticalinformation are the Central Bureau ofStatistics, the State Planning Commissionand the statistics departments in variousministries.

The table below shows their status andtheir main products:

Organisational

profileProducts Main users

Central Bureau ofStatistics (CBS)

Governmental withaccess to all ministriesand institutions

Year Book, periodiccensus, and individualsurveys

The Cabinet, someministries and privateinstitutions

State PlanningCommission (SPC)

Governmental withaccess to all ministriesand institutions

Different studies andsurvey results

Statistical and planningdepartments indifferent ministries

GovernmentalYear book ofinformation

family management style may be behindthis approach. Most of the privatecompanies are small. By their nature theyare unlikely to have much interest inexternal support, in general, and training inparticular. Many of these companies do nothave outside capital, use locally-producedmaterials and sell in local markets. Theinvestment in technology is low andtherefore, the need for external support isnot felt. These companies are moreconcerned with survival than with long-termdevelopment that could justify investmentin training. Family ownership implies thatthe companies are family run. They are not

used to getting advice from externalsources.

In the case of bigger companies with aclear management structure, owners aremore willing to invest in training becausethey recognise the benefits. In this case theproblem is the inability to identify the keytraining needs.

Both aspects – the recognition of thebenefits of training and the reinforcementof the ability to analyse training needs – willneed to be reinforced if a continuingtraining market is to be put in place.

31

4. THE INTERFACE BETWEEN VET AND THE LABOUR MARKET

5. DONOR ACTIVITIES

Unlike many other countries in the region,Syria has not been one of the traditionalrecipients of donor assistance. TheEuropean Union is the main multilateraldonor in the country. However, thissituation may change in parallel to thepolitical developments in the country.

Most of the donor assistance has beentargeted to priority economic sectors, suchas textiles, agriculture and chemicals. Morerecently tourism, health, watermanagement and environmental issueshave been integrated into the priorityareas. Local rural development has been aconstant priority for UNDP assistance. Onthe basis of the economic reformprogramme launched by the Syriangovernment, donor assistance is nowfocusing on support to economic policyadvice (SME development, support toWTO membership) and to the reform ofpublic administration, as a cornerstone forthe overall process of economicmodernisation. Education has not been amain sector (although higher education isone of the key sectors under an Italianbilateral agreement), and very little hasbeen done in the area of vocationaleducation and training.

Focusing on the field of vocationaleducation and training, although quite anumber of donor projects include a trainingcomponent for upgrading of skills, there arevery few initiatives that address the VETsector specifically. Furthermore, VETinitiatives remain fairly limited in scope,focusing on the provision of support toindividual institutions (cf. below French andGerman co-operation) or on thedevelopment of sectoral studies that couldbe of use in policy development. So far theEuropean Union programme for theModernisation of VET in Syria currentlyunder preparation and funded under theMEDA programme, is the only attempt toprovide support for wide systemic reform.

Summary of donor activities in the field ofVET:

5.1 EUROPEAN UNION

Most of the current EU projects include atraining component aiming at the upgradingof skills of the current workforce in differentsectors (tourism, health, publicadministration).

33

5

The Syrian European Business Centre

The Syrian European Business Centre(SEBC) is a significant initiative whichsupports the development of the privatesector. Started in 1996, the SEBC iscurrently in its second phase for the period2000-04. SEBC plays a key role in thedevelopment of private companies'awareness and understanding of theimportance of investment in humanresources as a key factor for theircompetitiveness. To this end, the SEBCprovides support in four key areas:business upgrading, business informationand co-operation, export development andmanagement training. A fifth component oninstitutional and policy support aims atstrengthening the chambers and otherentrepreneurial organisations to be able toact as representative organisations activein the definition of national policies,including human resources.

Higher Institute of Business Administration

Also in the field of management training,the EU is supporting the establishment ofthe Higher Institute of BusinessAdministration (HIBA) that will providegraduate diploma and MBA courses.

ETF support: the pilot apprenticeship

scheme and the observatory function

As mentioned in previous sections, the EU,via the ETF, is financing a small pilotproject to introduce a pilot apprenticeshipscheme. Against a background of a highlyschool-based VET system, the pilot projecthas been a breakthrough. Although verylimited in its coverage (three pilot schoolsand four pilot trades) it has developed abasis for wider reform: joint public-privatestructures both at decision (steeringcommittee) and operational (curriculumcommittees) levels, innovative elements inthe design and delivery of training, etc.Furthermore, the ETF is providing supportto the establishment of an observatoryfunction. Although at an early stage, it hasprovided a forum for public and privatevocational and labour market institutions tomeet and discuss. Further support willconcentrate on exchange of practices with

neighbouring countries and on supportingthe development of methodologies for theanalysis of information.

Regional MEDA programme: Education

and Training for Employment

The European Union is also working on thepreparation of a regional project, coveringthe whole MEDA region on "Education andTraining for employment". The projectaims, among others, at combating andpreventing unemployment, supporting theintegration of young people and promotingshared understanding and increasedco-operation at region level on issuesrelated to training and labour marketsystems. The project is currently under theidentification phase and, therefore, theactivities are still to be defined.

5.2 UNITED NATIONSDEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME(UNDP)

The 2002-06 Country Co-operationFramework, identifies three key priorityareas: (1) poverty alleviation andsustainable livelihood, (2) sustainable useof natural resources and environmentalconservation and (3) institutionaldevelopment and good governance.Among the first priority area, support isbeing provided to the Agency to CombatUnemployment (ACU). UNDP supportfocuses on the preparation of anunemployment map (to identify the mostcritical areas in the country), thepreparation of a national employmentcreation strategy and capacity building forthe ACU staff to manage micro-creditschemes. UNDP is also involved in a ruraldevelopment project in the Jabal al-Hosregion based on the concept of villagefunds.

In the field of VET, UNDP had previouslysupported the development of acomprehensive study on VET in Syria(1998) that resulted in a draft NationalStrategy and the creation of a trainingcentre for the textile industry at theDamascus Chamber of Industry.

34


The United Nations provide, throughUNRWA (United Nations Relief and WorksAgency for Palestinian Refugees),assistance to Palestinian refugees inseveral countries in the Middle East, i.e.Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, West Bank andGaza. The education programme, coveringschool education, vocational education andtechnical education and teacher training, isUNRWA's largest single activity,accounting for about half of the Agency'sregular budget. VET activities are howeverrather limited if compared to basiceducation. In the case of Syria UNRWAhas one training centre catering for roughly800 students.

5.3 GERMAN CO-OPERATION

German co-operation in Syria in the field ofVET has a long history through the supportto the Third Industrial Intermediate Institute(providing post-secondary VET) inDamascus. The co-operation that started in1978 and lasted over 20 years, providedtechnical assistance, equipment and staffretraining, for the introduction of newspecialisations based on the dual systemapproach.

Due to problems with external debt,German co-operation stopped but wasresumed in 2001 following the signature ofan “Agreement on the consolidation ofdebts owed to the Federal Republic ofGermany by the Syrian Arab Republic” inNovember 2000. Current priorities includethe water sector and the setting up of aninstitute for water management. Throughthe CIM programme, a German consultantis based at the Damascus Chamber ofIndustry to support the establishment ofcontinuing training.

GTZ is launching a regional project invocational education and training involvingEgypt, Jordan, Lebanon, the PalestinianAuthority and Syria. The project aims atstrengthening regional co-operation in VETby promoting the exchange of experiencesat policy, organisational andimplementation level in VET. The dualtraining arrangements and the necessarymeasures that go with it (occupationalprofiles, standards, curriculum

development, training of trainers, etc.) arespecifically mentioned as one of the areasfor exchange. The total project duration willbe eight years divided in three phases. Thefirst project phase will run between April2003 and March 2006 with a budget of�2 million.

5.4 FRENCH CO-OPERATION

A pilot project to update technical

training at industrial intermediate

institutes (Projet pilote de rénovation de

l’enseignement technique des instituts

moyens industriels en République arabe

syrienne) was carried out in the frameworkof a co-operation agreement signed by theFrench and Syrian Governments in 1996.Following a first phase for projectidentification, it was agreed that one singlepilot project would be carried out. Theproject methodology could then be appliedto other sectors and/or establishments. Thepilot project aims at the provision ofsupport for the introduction of three newspecialisations (fabrication mécanique,

construction métallique, mécanique

automobile) at the Second IndustrialIntermediate Institute. The project activitiesinclude the modernisation of programmes,retraining of teachers and trainers, and theupgrade of workshops, laboratories andteaching equipment.

The five-year project started in 1998. Itsuffered some delays so its duration maybe extended.

5.5 ITALIAN CO-OPERATION

Italy remains, by its financial volume, oneof the key bilateral donors in the country.The 2001-03 bilateral cooperationagreement includes a financial package ofapproximately �84 million for grants andsoft-loans. The following sectors have beenearmarked for support: agriculture,environment, health, industry and culturalheritage. Support to sectoral training is akey component in all its projects. Highereducation is also a key priority area.Support to the development of master levelstudies in the tourism and cultural heritagefields are currently in the pipeline.

35

5. DONOR ACTIVITIES

A separate agreement has been signedwith the Ministry of Higher Education tosupport academic co-operation andscientific and technological research. Thelatter includes support to the new ICTinitiatives, such as the e-village and theSyrian Virtual University.

5.6 JAPANESECO-OPERATION

Japanese co-operation (JICA) has carriedout some projects in the field of continuingtraining and some field studies on keyeconomic sectors (tourism in 1998, textilesin 1998).

Projects related to training included thedevelopment of an electronics trainingcentre, improvement of equipment forvocational training for people with

disabilities and a study for rehabilitationand manpower training for power plants.

JICA has also carried out some projects inthe field of continuing training, includingtechnical training in Japan. This programmeis targeted at key administrators,technicians and researchers and foreseesthe provision of training courses in Japan.Around 65 trainees benefited from this typeof aid in 2000.

JICA is currently carrying out theidentification for an SME, employment andvocational training support programme.

Toyota centre at the Second

Intermediate Institute. Toyota hasfinanced the equipment and rehabilitationof a workshop and a classroom on carrepairing.

36


6. CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 BACKGROUND: THECHALLENGES OF FUTUREECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The relationship between VET and thelabour market is developing in the contextof present and future economicdevelopment in Syria. Many studies andpolicy analysis have been devoted to thisissue. Although the views and proposedsolutions vary considerably, there is acommon understanding on the followingthree points.

� Syria’s economy is largely characterisedby low wages and low skill production. IfSyria is to survive in the global market,it must ensure higher “value-added”products and services.

� The economic system, including bothpublic and private companies, is tryingto reach a clear understanding of themarket. Without much competition in thepast, productivity levels are low in manyfields and production methods are notcost-effective, let alone competitive.Globalisation and future free trade

areas involving several countries in theregion and with Europe, will call for amajor change.

� The public economy will also have toswitch to a higher skilled, moreproductive and more efficient system.

The present low-skill economy requiresrelatively low training skills. The futureeconomy will demand a major shift in theskill-level of the population and thus theeducation system both for futuregenerations as well as for current workersand the unemployed (continuing training).Emphasis will be on substantiallyincreasing productivity, quality and addedvalue in order to be competitive in theregion, particularly in the context of theestablishment of the Euro-Med free tradearea. A further increase in investments ininfrastructure and technology,modernisation of the public administrationand the public economic sector andmassive investment in the education levelsof the population will be required. There isno choice: progress will require afundamental change.

37

6

6.2 THE SYRIAN VET SYSTEM:MAIN CONCLUSIONS

Given the ambitions for the economy, theexisting VET system faces a number ofchallenges if it is to adapt to therequirements of global markets. This fact isnot disputed. None of the actorsinterviewed were satisfied with the currentsystem. However, the definition ofproblems and policy analysis shows a widevariety of opinions. International examplesshow how much time it takes tofundamentally restructure (vocational)education systems. Given the swiftimprovement expected of the economy, therethink of VET “should have startedyesterday and the implementation ofchange should start tomorrow”. Certainly,important proposals for change are alreadyin hand or in the pipeline. In that respect,the experiment with the introduction ofapprenticeship modalities comes at a goodtime.

VET systems and the way they aregoverned, their content and methodologyare subject to permanent change. This isan index of the need to have a close andinteractive relationship with society ingeneral and the labour market in particular.Like many countries with public educationsystems, Syria is also struggling to find thebalance. At the same time, the interviewsand visits showed involved institutionalmanagement, dedicated teachers and highlevel ministerial officials lookingconstructively towards the future. Inthemselves, these are preconditions forany type of innovation.

Main conclusions

The study focussed on the architecture ofthe VET system and its relationship withthe overall education system, itsgovernance and relevance to labourmarket needs. The main conclusions canbe divided into six categories.

1. Governance and management of the

system

The current VET governance system iscomplex and fragmented: no less than11 ministries are responsible for VET and

run their own schools and institutes.Although some mechanisms exist toenhance co-ordination (e.g. the HigherVET Ministerial Council), the co-ordinationand co-operation between governmentagencies could be greatly improved.

With regard to the governance ofvocational schools and institutes, the lackof autonomy in decision-making as far asthe implementation of curricula,management of human and financialresources and relations to the local labourmarket are concerned, hinders theirperformance.

Furthermore, in this complex picture, socialpartners (such as representatives from theemployers associations) are not involved inthe management, design and delivery oftraining. Policy instruments that areavailable to strengthen the relationshipbetween the labour market and the VETsystem are not optimally applied. In short,the present governance and managementsystem is barely able to facilitate or createthe conditions for an improved relationshipbetween VET and the labour market.

2. The structure of the VET system and its

relationship with the overall education

system in Syria

The VET system comprises twosub-systems (secondary andpost-secondary), which are not always wellintegrated. The fragmentation in VETgovernance does not help this situation.

There are few effective and efficientcontinuing education pathways betweenVET and other educational routes. VET isin many cases a “dead end” as far asfurther education is concerned.

There is no clear qualification structure inwhich a limited number of educationalmodules and efficient study pathwayswould ensure labour market-relevant andflexible educational content. The vastdistance between educational practices inVET and the labour market makes the VETsystem a poor alternative to generaleducation, leading to university. Inconclusion, the structure and culture ofeducation limits the possibilities for an

38


improved relationship between VET andthe labour market.

3. Lifelong learning: youth education and

continuing training for workers and/or

unemployed

By tradition and regulation, vocationalschools are youth-oriented. This in itselfresembles the situation in many countries.In the case of Syria, although there areattempts to open up education to all (e.g.open learning facilities at universities), andthere are some facilities, there is nostructured system for retraining the existingworkforce (continuing training). To ensureeconomic development, much of thecurrent labour force (both workers andunemployed) must be retrained throughlifelong learning opportunities.

4. The institutional side and size of the

VET system

The present system contains over800 vocational institutions (including bothvocational secondary schools andintermediate institutes). With an estimated300,000 VET students each instituteaverages 370 students. Well-equipped,well-staffed, efficiently run multi-disciplinaryinstitutions in which the education climateis innovative and service levels are high,need to be much larger. The present size(and thus the educational opportunities inthe broadest sense) limits activerelationships between VET and the labourmarket.

5. The content of the system: the curricula

and the teachers

It is well known that vocational institutionslack updated equipment. The currentpre-service training system for vocationalteachers does not lead to the requiredqualifications. Although there are some

in-service courses, based on ad hocrequests, there is not a system forsystematic in-service training of teachers toconstantly upgrade their skills. Althoughsome attempts are currently taking place toassociate trade and industry in the revisionof curricula, in most cases it still lacksrelevance to future labour marketrequirements. The VET system is almostfully school-based with little practicalexperience in “the real world of work”. Boththeory and practice are provided on theschool campus which prevents quickresponses to social and labour marketchange.

6. Labour market information systems

More statistics to support the futurechoices of VET management arenecessary. This information is the basis ofall decisions taken regarding thedevelopment of government controlled VETsystems. The process of informationgathering on the expected labour marketdevelopments (in close cooperation withthe world of work, leading to a view onwhat vocational institutions should teach) ismore important than actual figures. Thestrive for better statistics should thus beincluded in the search for moderninteractive governance and managementpractices.

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

The conclusions above show a picture of aVET system that can be optimised to makeit ready for the country’s future needs. Thechanges required vary in nature, but theyare to be considered as a “package” ofrequired change. Success can only beachieved if significant progress is made onall issues. All issues are stronglyintertwined and interactive and, so tospeak, “a chain of required change”.

39

6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Improve the governance of VET

The current governance system has twoimportant problems. The first is the largenumber of actors (ministries) involved andthe second is the limited involvement of thesocial partners. Other related challengesinclude the need for integration betweenthe different VET sub-systems, the needfor higher educational coherence in thearchitecture of courses and learningpathways, and the need to revise the scaleand size of vocational institutions.

There is, therefore, a clear need to improvethe governance of the system byincreasing the co-ordination between theconcerned parties, involving social partnersand establishing a clear allocation ofresponsibilities.

A solution to these problems could foreseethe creation of a single governing boardrepresenting both government and socialpartners (trade and industryrepresentatives). The board should play amajor role in guiding the system reform andshould have decision-making power.

2. Revision of the educational structure:

the need for a new qualification

structure

As explained before, the presenteducational model has several flaws.

Amongst those is its monolithic structure,lacking a differentiated and variedqualification structure able to satisfy thedifferent skills needs (in terms of levels) ofthe labour market. There is a need tocreate a multi-level qualification structurewith a wider variety of course lengths andeducational routes. The introduction of thenew model based on a clear qualificationstructure will solve most of the problemslinked to the present system (the numbersrefer to those in the diagram below).

(1) The connection between thepreparatory school and the vocationalsecondary school is problematic (andsubject to entry percentage limits),because VET is not an attractive choiceat present.

(2) There is no integrated educational routefrom vocational secondary school to theintermediate institutes.

(3) The relevance of VET (secondary andpost-secondary) to the labour market islow.

(4) The connection from general secondaryeducation to post-secondary VET is notappealing.

(5) The connection from secondary VETand the intermediate institutes touniversity is problematic.

(6) The present VET system targets onlyyouth education.

40


The VET systemof the future

Lifelong learning:training for all

The educational processitself: curricula and

teachers

The structure anddelivery of the

VET system

Governance andmanagement of the

VET system

The institutionalscale and size

Syrian VET

LM info systems

The chain of required change

Present situation Proposal for present (left) VET system

into a multi-level system (right)14

3. Involvement of the economic actors in

the provision of VET: alternative

pathways for school and company

based training

At present the VET system is mostly

school-based. Practical experiences are

limited. For relevant VET, contact with “the

real world” is of key importance and in the

new educational model only courses with a

significant period of practical training

outside the school should be designed.

Co-operation with companies can also be

applied to, for instance, handling

equipment. If the training and industry

equipment is co-shared, the required

investment for new equipment for schools

can be used for other purposes.

In light of the above, the introduction of

apprenticeships is an important step.

However, the meaning and limitations of

apprenticeships have to be fully

understood. Apprenticeship is the most

structured and established form of

work-linked training but it is by no means

the sole option15

. In apprenticeship, the

student (called the apprentice) has a

contractual relationship with the company.

The practical training forms a major part of

the VET study programme.

The responsibility for training is fully

co-shared between the school and the

company. In many of the western

European countries, VET always contains

a level of practical training in the

workplace. Other alternatives or

work-linked training include, for example,

the so-called traineeship. The student

(called the “trainee”) spends a certain

amount of time outside the school in a

work-related environment to learn and

experience. So it is working and learning

(apprenticeship) and learning and working

(traineeship).

Both routes (traineeship and

apprenticeship), lead to the same diploma,

but the educational pathway is different.

With traineeships, the time spent in school

is dominant; in the apprenticeship system,

the time at work is (see diagram below).

Choosing a single apprenticeship route can

put in danger the whole sustainability of the

VET system because it implies a high

dependence on companies (and, therefore,

to a large extent on the prosperous

economic situation of the country) to be

able to train youngsters. A combination of

both pathways is preferable for long-term

sustainability.

41

6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

UniversityUniversity

Intermediateinstitutes

IntermediateinstitutesGeneral

secondaryeducation

Vocationalsecondary

school

Vocationalsecondary

schoolPreparatory school Assistant/operational

(level 1)

Craftsmanship(level 2)

Advanced craftsmanship(level 3)

Middle management(level 4)

Senior management(level 5)

Present model

Advised model

1

24

5

6

3

3

Labour market =all youtheducation

14 The five-level qualification structure is based on the European model and should only be used as an example.

The Syrian qualification structure should, of course, be based on an analysis of the qualification needs in the

market.

15 Discussion paper for DGVT meeting September 1999, Rovaniemi, Finland - Cedefop.

4. Continuing training system within the

context of lifelong learning

Syria still lacks a system of continuingtraining, although some retraining coursesare provided by a variety of centres. Anumber of initiatives in the direction of“open education” are proposed, but theyare yet to be implemented and it will takesome time before they will show results. Innearly all western European countries anexpensive mistake was made by setting uptwo (basically separate) systems: one foryouth education and one for continuingtraining. Such a mistake should beavoided. Using the suggested qualificationstructure, re-schooling and all otheraspects of lifelong learning can be taken onby the existing vocational institutions. Thisis much more efficient and cost-effectiveand will be a great educational stimulus inthe direction of flexible and labourmarket-relevant education.

5. Re-dimensioning the VET system:

multi-disciplinary large-scale institutions

The system is currently on too small ascale, with an average of less than300 students per school. This is way underany minimum student number to create awell-equipped educational environmentthat can facilitate efficient and effectivelearning. A large merger operation in whichthe number of institutions is significantlyreduced is essential for any progress inefficiency, quality and service levels. Themerged institutions could providemulti-level VET for both young people andadults. The merger should be accompaniedby a number of measures to empower thecentres with the proper management skillsthat would ensure an efficient use ofresources.

6. Curriculum reform and upgrading

teachers

Apart from institutional management,teachers able to transfer knowledge,experience and competencies to theirstudents are an essential element in theprocess. A conducive environment tolearning in large scale, multi-disciplinaryinstitutions with strong ties to the labourmarket is vital. It is equally important toteach educational modules structured in aqualification structure in different educationalpathways (see proposals 2 and 3 above) inwhich social partners are involved in thedesign and delivery of the training. Workingwith competencies rather than withknowledge that is quickly outdated andapplying modern teaching methods arepre-conditions for relevant training. Arevision of the current pre-service systemand the introduction of a system forin-service training would be necessary ifthe teaching force is to successfullyundergo a massive revitalisation. Animprovement of working conditions needsto be carried out in parallel. A well-trainedand motivated teaching force will be thebasis for a successful VET system.

7. Labour market information mechanisms

As mentioned above, the current systemfor labour market information is notrelevant for training purposes. It is not onlya matter of the type and methodologiesused for data compilation but also, andmore importantly, the search anddevelopment of an interactive network ofstakeholders that can put the information tobest use. The importance of raisingawareness on the need and best use ofthat information for VET policydevelopment should also be recognised.

42


Two educational routes to VET qualifications

QualificationQualification

Traineeship training Apprenticeship training

Minimum 20%Maximum 60%

practice

Minimum 60%Maximum 80%

practice on the job

Minimum 40%theory

Minimum 20%theory

ANNEXES

ANNEX 1. STATISTICAL DATA

A. Main economic and social indicators

A.1 Economic data

GDP: purchasing power parity - $42.2 billion (1999 est.)

GDP - real growth rate: 0% (1999 est.)

GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,500 (1999 est.)

GDP - composition by sector:

� agriculture: 29%

� industry: 22%

� services: 49% (1997)

Population below poverty line: 15%-25%

Household income or consumption by percentage share:

� lowest 10%: NA%

� highest 10%: NA%

Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.3% (1999 est.)

Labour force: 4.7 million (1998 est.)

Labour force - by occupation: agriculture 40%, industry 20%, services 40% (1996 est.)

Unemployment rate: 12%-15% (1998 est.)

43

Source is also http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sy.html#Econ

Budget:

� revenues: $3.5 billion

� expenditure: $4.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)

Industries: petroleum, textiles, food processing, beverages, tobacco, phosphate rock mining

Industrial production growth rate: 0.2% (1996 est.)

Agriculture - products: wheat, barley, cotton, lentils, chickpeas, olives, sugar beets; beef, mutton,eggs, poultry, milk

Exports: $3.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

Exports - commodities: petroleum 65%, textiles 10%, manufactured goods 10%, fruits andvegetables 7%, raw cotton 5%, live sheep 2%, phosphates 1% (1998 est.)

Exports - partners: Germany 14%, Turkey 13%, Italy 12%, France 9%, Lebanon 9%, Spain (1998est.)

Imports: $3.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment 23%, foodstuffs/animals 20%, metal and metalproducts 15%, textiles 10%, chemicals 10% (1998 est.)

Imports - partners: Ukraine 16%, Italy 6%, Germany 6%, Turkey 5%, France 4%, South Korea,Japan, US (1998 est.)

Debt - external: $22 billion (1999 est.)

Economic aid - recipient: $199 million (1997 est.)

Currency: 1 Syrian pound = 100 piastres

Exchange rates: Syrian pounds per US$1: 50.6 (2001); 46 (1998); 41.9 (1997)

Fiscal year: calendar year

A.2 Social data

Facts and figures regarding the population

Population: 17,460,000 (2001)

Age structure:

� 0-14 years: 41% (male 3,410,417; female 3,210,215)

� 15-64 years: 56% (male 4,688,967; female 4,476,022)

� 65 years and over: 3% (male 254,448; female 265,590) (2000 est.)

Population growth rate: 2.58% (2000 est.)

Birth rate: 31.11 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

Death rate: 5.29 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

Gender ratio:

� at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female

� under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female

� 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female

� 65 years and over: 0.96 male(s)/female

� total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

Infant mortality rate: 34.86 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

Life expectancy at birth:

� total population: 68.46 years

� male: 67.35 years

� female: 69.64 years (2000 est.)

44


Source: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sy.html#People

Total fertility rate: 4.06 children born/woman (2000 est.)

Religions: Sunni Muslim 74%, Alawite, Druze, and other Muslim branches 16%, Christian (variousbranches) 10%

Languages: Arabic (official); Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian widely understood; French,English somewhat understood

Literacy:

� definition: age 15 and over can read and write

� total population: 70.8%

� male: 85.7%

� female: 55.8% (1997 est.)

B. Labour market

B.1 Labour force and unemployment

Labour force: 4.7 million (1998 est.)

Labour force - by sector: agriculture 40%, industry 20%, services 40% (1996 est.)

Unemployment rate: 12%-15% (1998 est.)

Source: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sy.html#Econ

B.2 Distribution of the employed population by sector

Distribution of active labour force 1991As % of

GDPNo In %

Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishery 30 917,000 28.2

Mining, quarrying and oil refinery 10 6,700 0.2

Manufacturing 5 456,200 14.0

Electricity and water 1 8,400 0.2

Construction 4 340,800 10.4

Trade, hotel industry and gastronomy 24 378,300 11.6

Transport and communication 9 167,000 5.1

Finance and insurance 3 24,700 0.7

Governmental, social and personal services 14 951,000 29.2

Total 100 3,249,900 100

Source: Regional Study on Labour Market Oriented Training – submitted to the Regional Economic Development

Working Group of the Middle East Peace Process – Country Monograph, Technical Education and Vocational

Training in The Syrian Arab Republic, September 1995, p.6 (No information available regarding employment by

region).

B.3 Percent distribution of labour force by economic activity and gender, 1999

Economic activity Male Female Total

Agriculture and forests 23.5 51.2 28.5

Mining industries 0.3 0.0 0.2

Converting industries 14.1 6.2 12.7

Electricity gas and water 0.1 0.0 0.1

Building and construction 17.0 2.0 14.3

Source: Central Bureau of statistics , statistical abstract 2000 , p. 76 – Table 1/3.

45

ANNEXES

Economic activity Male Female Total

Internal and external trade 18.3 3.5 15.7

Storage transport and communication 6.4 1.1 5.4

Insurance finance and real estates 0.8 0.8 0.8

Community and personal service 19.5 35.2 22.3

Total 100 100 100

B.4 Wages and salaries in the public and private sector

Status of occupationNominal income

(public sector) (private sector)

Unskilled or semi-skilled worker 1,000 2,000

Semi-skilled worker 2,500 7,000

Engineer 3,500 15,000

Civil service and administration 2,500 – 3,500

Teacher in governmental schools 2,500 – 3,500



Training in The Syrian Arab Republic, September 1995, p. 8.

B.5 Percent distribution of labour force by category’s age and gender, 1999

AgeUrban Rural Total

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female total

10-14 1.7 1.2 1.6 2.9 8.8 4.2 2.2 6.0 3.0

15-19 11.3 5.8 10.5 14.1 24.7 16.5 12.7 17.7 13.5

20-24 13.9 17.0 14.3 14.3 18.3 15.2 14.1 17.8 14.7

25-29 13.9 19.3 14.6 14.0 12.7 13.7 14.0 15.2 14.1

30-34 12.8 18.0 13.5 11.6 10.0 11.2 12.2 12.8 12.3

35-39 11.0 14.8 11.5 10.0 8.7 9.7 10.5 11.0 10.6

40-44 10.0 10.2 9.6 8.5 5.2 7.8 9.0 7.1 8.7

45-49 8.1 7.3 8.0 7.2 4.0 6.5 7.7 5.2 7.3

50-54 7.0 4.0 6.6 6.0 3.3 5.3 6.5 3.5 6.0

55-59 4.0 1.5 4.1 3.5 1.8 3.1 4.0 1.7 3.6

60-64 3.0 0.7 2.7 3.2 1.3 2.8 3.1 1.2 2.7

65+ 3.3 0.2 3.0 4.7 1.2 4.0 4.0 0.8 3.5

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100


B.6 Percent distribution of labour force by gender and kind of profession, 1999

Profession Male Female Total

Technician and professional 9.0 27.4 12.2

Administrators clerical works 9.3 9.6 9.4

Sales workers 12.8 2.0 10.9

Service workers 5.9 2.8 5.4

Agriculture workers 23.2 51.1 28.2

Product workers 39.8 7.1 33.9

Total 100 100 100

Source: Central Bureau of statistics, statistical abstract 2000, p. 78 – Table 3/3.

46


B.7 Percent distribution of labour force by gender and occupation status, 1999

Employment status Male Female Total

Employers 9.5 1.7 8.1

Own account 27.9 7.2 24.2

Paid worker 52.2 54.1 52.6

Family unpaid worker 10.4 37.9 15.1

Unpaid worker Not available Not available Not available

Total 100 100 100

Source: Central Bureau of statistics, statistical abstract 2000, p. 80 – Table 5/3) feasibility study.

B.8 Rates of economic activities by age and gender, 1999

Age

group

Gender Place of residency

Male Female Urban Rural Total

10-14 7.3 4.4 3.5 7.9 5.9

15-19 43.4 13.9 22.6 35.4 29.1

20-24 69.9 19.9 41.0 50.1 45.3

25-29 89.9 21.3 54.4 56.8 55.6

30-34 96.6 21.9 58.6 59.7 59.1

35-39 98.7 21.2 58.0 60.0 59.0

40-44 98.1 16.6 56.5 58.0 57.2

45-49 97.3 16.0 57.8 61.0 59.2

50-54 92.5 11.8 52.1 55.5 53.6

55-59 87.4 9.2 49.4 53.4 51.1

60-64 68.7 6.7 35.4 48.9 41.3

65+ 49.4 3.8 24.5 42.1 32.4

Source: Central Bureau of statistics, statistical abstract 2000, p. 81 – Table 6/3.

B.9 Percent distribution of labour force by gender, educational level and business

sector, 1999

Work sector Element. Preparat. Secondary

Post.

sec.

VET

University Total

Governmental

M 13.0 24.1 43.4 70.6 58.6 23.7

F 6.8 45.5 70.4 92.0 74.9 36.5

T 12.0 26.7 48.1 97.1 62.2 26.0

Private organised

M 33.5 34.0 27.9 16.6 31.0 32.0

F 28.5 19.9 12.9 5.1 19.9 21.6

T 32.7 32.2 25.3 12.1 28.5 30.1

Privatenon-organised

M 52.9 41.6 28.3 12.6 10.0 43.8

F 63.3 34.5 16.4 2.5 4.2 40.9

T 54.6 40.8 26.2 8.6 8.7 43.3

Collectiveco-operative

M 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.5

F 1.4 0.1 0.3 0.4 1.0 1.0

T 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.6

Total T 100 100 100 100 100 100


47

ANNEXES

C. Education

C.1 Global number of students in the technical and professional secondary schools,

and technical institutes, 1997-2000

Class 1997/1998 1998/1999 1999/2000

Secondary technical industrial

1st 13,743 13,147 15,840

2nd 11,405 9,807 11,501

3rd 10,214 10,236 11,099

total 35,362 33,190 38,440

Secondary commercial

1st 10,217 11,471 11,430

2nd 8,195 8,751 10,240

3rd 7,934 8,204 9,070

total 26,346 28,426 30,740

Secondary for women

1st 15,168 16,071 17,103

2nd 12,006 11,662 12,380

3rd 11,807 10,789 10,340

total 38,981 38,522 39,823

Total technical secondary

1st 39,128 40,689 44,373

2nd 31,606 30,220 34,121

3rd 29,955 29,229 30,509

total 100,689 100,138 109,003

Professional industrial

1st 2,255 2,632 2,965

2nd 2,169 1,664 1,782

total 4,424 4,296 4,747

Professional commercial

1st 0 0 0

2nd 0 0 0

total 0 0 0

Professional for women

1st 0 0 0

2nd 0 0 0

total 0 0 0

Total professional

1st 2,255 2,632 2,965

2nd 2,169 1,664 1,782

total 4,424 4,296 4,747

Global technical & professional 105,113 104,434 113,750

Intermediate institutes, technicalindustrial

1st 2,960 3,178 3,393

2nd 2,087 2,472 2,561

total 5,047 5,650 5,954

Intermediate institutes, technicalcommercial

1st 1,194 1,434 1,499

2nd 968 1,097 1,294

total 2,162 2,531 2,793

Intermediate institutes, technicalfeminine

1st 1,774 2,136 2,286

2nd 1,669 1,705 2,005

total 3,443 3,841 4,291

Total intermediate institutes

1st 5,928 6,748 7,178

2nd 4,724 5,274 5,860

total 10,652 12,022 13,038

Grand Total 115,765 116,456 126,788

Source: Ministry of Education, Planning and statistics department.

48


C.2 Number of graduates of intermediate schools, 1990-1996 (Ministry of Education)

1990 1992 1994 1996

Total 97,281 104,565 113,714 122,240

Source: Ministry of Education

C.3 Pupils by gender

Primary

Year Total Male Female

1994 2,651,247 1,413,911 1,237,336

1995 2,672,960 1,426,130 1,246,830

1996 2,690,205 1,433,385 1,256,820

Secondary

Year Total Male Female

1994 928,882 516,014 412,868

1995 935,048 508,541 426,507

1996 957,664 513,927 443,737

Source: Statistics Unesco, www.unesco.org

C.4 Pupils by grade

Primary

Year Total Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1994 2,651,247 504,374 476,654 450,064 430,849 410,767 378,539 - - -

1995 2,672,960 513,441 477,260 453,356 431,947 410,468 386,488 - - -

1996 2,690,205 502,114 485,064 456,236 436,429 418,347 392,015 - - -

Secondary (including preparatory school)

Year Total Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1994 841,964* 266,823 195,926 213,073 49,452 44,268 72,422 - - -

* Including UNRWA.


49

ANNEXES

C.5 Pupils by programme orientation and gender (secondary)

YearTotal General Vocational

M/F F M/F F M/F F

1994 928,882 412,868 841,964 373,481 869,918 393,387

1995 935,048 426,507 846,778 381,750

1996 957,664 443,737 865,042 396,010


D. Expenditure on education and training

D.1 Current and capital expenditure on education (in million)

Year Currency Total Current Capital

1994 Pound 17,987.0* 15,621.0* 2,366.0*

1995 Pound 18,182.0* 15,403.0* 2,779.0*

1996 Pound 25,555.2 16,424.2* 3,380.5*

1997 Pound 21,164.1* 17,703.3* 3,460.7*

* Not including third level education.


D.2 Current public expenditure by level of education (in million)

Year

Cu

rren

cy

To

tal

Pre

-Pri

mary

Pri

mary

Pre

-Pri

mary

+P

rim

ary

Seco

nd

ary

Pre

-Pri

mary

+P

rim

ary

+S

eco

nd

ary

Tert

iary

Oth

er

Typ

es

No

tD

istr

ibu

ted

1994 Pound 15,621.0* .. .. 10,245.0 4,993.0 15,238.0 0.0 0.0 383.0

1995 Pound 15,403.0* .. .. 8,773.0 6,073.0 14,846.0 0.0 0.0 557.0

1996 Pound 22,174.7* .. .. 9,289.1 6,599.2 15,888.2 5,750.5 0.0 536.0

1997 Pound 177,03.03* .. .. 9,610.0 7,529.6 17,139.6 0.0 0.0 563.7

* Not including third level education.


D.3 Budgets for the period from 1987 to 1992

Consolidated

budget

Consolidated

budget for

education

As

%

of 1

Higher

education

As

%

of 1

Pre-higher

education

As

%

of 1

1987 41,703 3,666 8.8 1,273 3.05 2,392 5.74

1988 51,545 (+23.6%) 4,165 (+13.6%) 8.0 1,840 (+44.5%) 3.57 2,325 (+ %) 4.5

1989 57,000 (+10.6%) 5,053 (+21.3%) 8.9 2,042 (+11.1%) 3.58 3,010 (+ %) 5.3

1990 61,875 (+8.5%) 5,660 (+12.0%) 9.1 2,288 (+11.9%) 3.7 3,372 (+ %) 5.45

1991 84,690 (+36.9%) 5,968 (+5.4%) 7.0 2,411 (+5.4%) 2.85 3,557 (+ %) 4.2

1992 93,042 (+9.9%) 7,594 (+27.2%) 8.2 3,126 (+29.6%) 3.36 4,468 (+ %) 2.8

() The data in brackets shows changes in percentage with respect to the previous year.



Training in The Syrian Arab Republic, September 1995, p. 35.

50


ANNEX 2. LIST OF CONTACTS

Institution Contact Person Title

Ministry of Education

Samir Habbabah

Haswan Al Waz

Deputy Minister for VET

Director of VETDepartment

Ministry of Higher Education Omar Karmo Deputy Minister

Ministry of Industry/General Organisation for EngineeringIndustries (GOEI)

Ziad Kutayni

Nidal Fallouh

Director General

Assistant to DirectorGeneral

Ministry of Labour & Social affairs Rakan Ibraheem Director of Labour office

State Planning Commission

Sheih Oughli

Maher. Al Rez

Director of Labour Forceand PopulationDepartment

Director of Training

Department

Vice Prime Minister forServices Office

Hatem Al HomsiAdvisor on TVET Affairs toVice Prime Minister

Syrian European Business Centre(SEBC)

Alf Monaghan

Nawaf Zeidan

Director

Training and DevelopmentManager

Second Intermediate Institute A.K. Khudr Director

Bassam Hamsho School for WomenEducation

Manal Bisharah Director Assistant

First Commercial School Fakrieh delli Director Assistant

Damascus Training Centre of Ministry ofIndustry

M.K. Jasayri Director

General Company for Cables Industry M. Balsheh Director General Assistant

General Converting Industries Company Salah Zaza Director General

Al - Rasheed Factory (private) Haytham Al Yafi Director General

Al - Hafez Factory (private) Nael Hammami Production Director

Damascus Chamber of Industry

Samer Debs

Haytham Al Yafi

Said Al-Halabi

Chairman

Board Member

Consultant

51

ANNEXES

List of participants to discussion meeting of 11 November 200116

Institution Contact Person Title

Al Hafez Company Said Al Hafez Director General

Minister for Social Affairs Hatem Al Homsi Consultant to Vice Prime

Ministry of Education Haswan Al WazDirector of Vocational andTechnical Education

Damascus Chamber of Industry Said Al HalabiEconomic and SocialConsultant

Damascus Chamber of Industry Haytham Al Yafi Board Member

Ministry of Industry Nidal FallouhDirector General Assistantof GOEI

Ministry of Education Samir HabbabehDeputy Minister forVocational Education andTraining

European Training Foundation Eva Jimeno Sicilia ETF Country Manager

European Training Foundation Mustafa Kazziha ETF Expert

European Training Foundation Olaf Mc Daniel ETF Expert

European Training Foundation Karl Axel Skjolstrup ETF Expert

Second Intermediate Institute A. K. Kudhr Director

European Commission Delegation inDamascus

Gregory Kehailia Junior Expert

Al Hafez Company Ahmed Shrineh Training Advisor

ANNEX 3. STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN SYRIA

Source: Report on VET in the Syrian Arab Republic, Ministry of Education, 1999-2000.

52


Age

23

22

21

20

19

18

16

15

13

12

11

10

9

8

6

5

4

3

14

17

7

University 6 years

University 5 years

University4 years

Intermediate institutes2 years

General secondary school3 years

Vocational secondary school3 years

Preparatory school3 years

Primary school6 years

Pre-primary3 years

16 The following people were invited but could not attend the meeting: Mr Karmo, Deputy Minister HigherEducation, Mr Qutainy, Director General of General Organisation for Engineering Industries, Ministry ofIndustry, Representative from State Planning Commission, Department of Labour and Population andMessrs Al Bahra and Daaboul, private industrialists.

LIST OF ACRONYMS

ACU Agency to Combat Unemployment

DGVT Directors General for vocational training

EU European Union

GDP Gross domestic product

GOEI General Organisation for Engineering Industries

ICT Information and communication technology

LM Labour market

SEBC Syrian European Business Centre

TVET Technical vocational education and training

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency

VET Vocational education and training

VTC Vocational training centre

53

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