oxford aviation jeppesen-meteorology
TRANSCRIPT
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 1/495
JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES
AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT'S LICENCE
Theoretical Knowledge Manual,\,-
050 METEOROLOGY
APPROVEDThis learning material has been approved as
JAA compliant by the united KingdomCivil Aviation Authorttv.
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 2/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 3/495
AMENDMENT SERVICE
An amendment service to this series is provided free of charge on the Oxford Aviation Trainingwebsite at http://www.oxfordaviation.net/products/studyaids/amend.htm
First Edition: May 2001
Second Impression: October 2001 - incorporating Amendment List 1o Edition 1
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 4/495
CHAPTER ONE - THE ATMOSPHERE
Contents
Page
1.1 A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY. 1 - 1
1.2 REASONS FOR STUDYING METEOROLOGY 1 - 1
1.3 A DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. . 1-2
1.4 THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BY VOLUME). .... 1 -2
1.5 PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. . 1 - 2
1.6 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE 1 - 3
1.7 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT. 1-4
1.8 TEMPERATURES. . I - 4
1.9 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS 1 - 5
1.10 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA) 1 - 5
1.11 ISA DEVIATION. . 1 - 6
1.12 THE ICAO INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE.
ATMOSPHERE QUESTIONS
1 - 8
....... 1 - 9
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 5/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
1.1 A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY
"The branch of science dealing with the earth's atmosphere and the physical processes
occurring in it."
1.2 REASONS FOR STUDYING METEOROLOGY
a) To gain a better understanding of meteorologists' deductions.
b) To gain a better understanding of meteorologists' documentation.
c) To gain a better understanding of in-flight hazards.
d) To gain a better understanding of data and its collection.
e) To gain a better understanding of self-forecasting.
Weather is the one factor inmodem aviation over which man has no control, a knowledge of
meteorology will at least enable the aviator to anticipate some of the difficulties which
weather may cause.
Weather - influenced accidents to UK transport aircraft
Table! Transport aircraft acoidents, 1975-94
(ajAllaccidents
Aeroplanes Rotorcraft
20
20
• rncludes ramp and other minor g rrund acc idents, hence low percentage figures.
(b J Acddenl ii excluding.elec tedramp and other occurrences
Aeroplanes
*WI;Weather_influenced
Table 2 Weather -influence accidents to transport aircraft by element of weather, 1975 -94
1-1 © Oxfo rd A via tio n S erv ic es L im ite d
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 6/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
Element PercentageoftotaJ Percentage of total
Visibility
Icing/snow
Wind and turbulence
Rainlwetrunway
Lighming
All cases
Table 1.2.
For this course a knowledge of advanced physics is not required, but a knowledge of the
elementary laws of mati on, heating, cooling, condensation and evaporation will be useful.
1.3 A DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
"The spheroidal gaseous envelope surrounding a heavenly body."
1.4 THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BY VOLUME)
Nitrogen 78.09% Argon 0.93%
Oxygen 20.95% Carbon Dioxide 0.03%
Plus traces of:
Neon Nitrous Oxide Helium Nitrogen Dioxide
Krypton Carbon Monoxide Xenon Sulphur Dioxide
Hydrogen Ammonia Methane Iodine and Ozone
Plus water vapour and solid particles.
The proportions of the constituents remain constant up to a height of at least 60 kms (except for
Ozone), but by 70 kms the force of gravity, being less, causes the proportions to change.
Although the trace of ozone in the atmosphere is important as a shield against ultra violet
radiation, if the whole of the layer of ozone were brought down to sea level it would only be 3
mmthick.
1.5 PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
The earth's atmosphere varies vertically and horizontally in:
a) Pressure.
b) Temperature.
1 -2 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 7/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
c) Density.
d) Humidity.
The earth's aunosphere is a poor conductor.
The earth's atmosphere is fluid.
The earth's atmosphere supports life only at lower levels.
1.6 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
a) The Troposphcre..
rhar layer of the earth's atmosphere where temperature decreases with an
increase in height.
ii) consists of % of the total atmosphere in weight.
iii) contains almost all th e weather.
b) The Stratosphere Illay be defined as that layer above the troposphere where the
temperature remains constant with an increase in height. (In fac t temperature shows 1 1
gradual increase with hC!p'ht,especially at the top, where th e temperature is zero at 50
kms. This is due to the abs~rpth)nd}lhe SUIl 's ultra violet radiation by the concentration
of ozone at higher levels).
c) The Tropopausc..
marks the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere and is where
temperature ceases to fall with an increase in height, (Practically taken as the
height where tile temperature fall is Jess tban z=C per 1,000 n.)
ii) is not a continuous line - there is usually a gap at 40 degrees of latitude between
the so-called polar and tropical rropopauses.
~a....\.:...;, \iii) is nat uniform i n h eig ht it varies with..
I) Latitude.
2) Season of the year.
3) Temperature prevailing on the day.
4) Time of day.
1 - 3 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 8/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
90' JANUARY 90'JULY
70' 70'60'
Figure 1.2. The Mean Height of the Tropopause at the Greenwich
Meridian
o o 1. ~,.,.,~
1.7 THE SIGNIF1CANCE OF TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT
The significance of the tropopause height is that it usually marks;-
< I) the maximum height ofthe cloud.
b) the presence of Jetsrreams.
c) the presence of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT).
d) the maximum wind speed
1.8 TEMI'ERATURES
Temperature in the troposphere increases from the poles to the equator.
Temperature in the lower stratosphere increases from the equator to the poles in summer but
reaches max temperature in mid latitudes in winter
The lapse rate (the rate of change of temperature with height) in the troposphere is produced by
ILo. ; ! i f - : " " rising air, whilst that in the stratosphere is produced by solar radiation, and is in fact reversed.
1 -4 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 9/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
1.9 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS
As aircraft operating altitudes increase, so concentrations of OZONE and COSMIC
RADIATlON become of greater importance to the aviator.
Above 50,000fl, normal concentrations of ozone exceed tolerable limits and air needs to be
filtered before entering the cabin. The heat ofthe compressor system will assist in the breaking
down of the ozone to an acceptable level.
Cosmic radiation is not normally hazardous, but at times of solar flare activity a lower flight
level may be necessary .
' T . 2, v.~ {l\'''. ''>!.\h''' ......
Advances in meteorological forecasting and communications should result in pilots receiving
prompt and accurate information regarding high altitude hazards. but it is important that they
should be aware of these hazards and prepared to take the necessary re-planning action.
1.10 TI:lE iNTERNATIONAL STANDARDATMOSI)UERE (ISA)
~,CI ~ ~ '-'_
For a variety of reasons it is necessary to establish a standard average atmosphere, describing
variations in temperature, pressure and density throughout altitude.
There have been several different Standard Atmospheres, but the one i _ 1 1 genernl usc now is the
'ICAO {SA', dated 1964 which covers an atmosphere from -16.400ft(-5km) to 262,464ft.
The ISA is needed for.-
a) the calibration of aircraft instruments
b) the design and testing of aircraft.
The lCAO ISA is defined as follows>
a) a MSL temperature of + 15° Celsius,
b) a MSL pressure of 1013.25 millibars,
c) a MSL density of 1225 grarnrnes I cubic metre,
d) from-Skill, a lapse rare of 1.98° Celsius/lOCO ft (6.5 degs/km) up to 36,090 n (11 kms),
e) a constant temperature of -56.5° Celsius up to 65,617 n (20 kms),
1 ) an increase of'temperarure 01'0.3° Celsius /1 000 ft (I deglkm), up to 104,987 ft 32 krus)
1 -5 © Oxford Aviation services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 10/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
Tem erature tC
pressure rnb
Relative Density
-'13£..
122.,
112..
102.. I
90_1
80_
70_
60_
50_
, Upper Limit of Wright Air Development:l Centre Atmosphere J jO 000 ft
I I I I I i £ .I I/,1 I I ~
I I I I I
: /~ ~t"top~us 1Q4,9,87ft "
~ 5 6 J ' e i i 3 2 i k l ' ~~ I I I I I ....
i T '"~'~'"I'~'~q':l'7ftII-56.e- c I I :, I
f--~ i~ ~r()Ol':"~131:6k'mOi_Qft
~ . ; l ' ( . :: < t : : I
; ~ . < 1 ' I ? ~ ~ : :' ~ ~ " O S ' , , / ' ~ : I I
: " " ~ " : : :I I 'I I
I I 1'-
I I II I I
I I I
, "
40
30
20
10
I.H [SA DEViATION
Figure 1.2. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
Although meteorological observations are made in absolute figures, it is usual, when making
calculations involving aircraft performance or corrections to instruments, to consider them
relative to the ISA. These are known as "ISA deviations".
lffor instance, the observed temperature were SoC warmer than that expected in the ISA, then
the deviation would be+5°C
For the temperatures below, calculate the ISA deviations;-
1 - 6 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 11/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
Heighttft)Temperature ISA [SA
(0C) Temperature Deviation
[500 +28
17,500 -18
24,000 -35
37,000 -45
9,500 -5
5,000 +15
31,000 -50
57,000 -67
If the limiting deviation for your aircraft at an airfield 5,000 ft AMSL is ISA +10, what is
the maximum temp at which you can operate?
If the deviation at 3,500 ft is +12, what is the ambient temperature?
1-7 © Ox fo rd Av ia tio n Se rv ic e s L im ite d
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 12/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
•1.12 THE rcxo INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Height (kms) I Height(n) I Temp (,C) Pressure Height Change Density(%)
(mb) (permb)
32.00 104,987 -44.7 8.9 1.1
30.48 100,000 -46.2 11.1 1.4
27.43 90,000 -49.2 17.3 2.2
24.38 80,000 -52.2 28.0 3.6
21.34 70,000 -55.2 44.9 5.8
20.00 < " 1 ; , 0 -56.5 56.7 7.2
15.24 50,000 -56.5 116.6 15.3
13.71 45,000 -56.5 148.2 19.5
11.78 38,662 -56.5 h"'2oo 103 ft 26.3
11.00 36·,090 -56.5 228.2 91 ft 29.7
9.16 30,065 -44.4 .3.9Q 73 ft 36.8
5.51 18,289 -21.2 • • 5 0 ! ! 48 ft 56.4
3.05 10,000 -4.8 696.8 37 ft 73.8
3.01 9,882 -4.6 700 36 ft 74.1
1.46 4,781 +5.5 850 31 ft 87.3
0 0 +15 1013.25 27 ft 100
Note:
The above height change figures show how the pressure against height change equation is ......._,;
m odified as a ltitude changes but the figures offered only rela te to ISA conditions of T em perature
and Pressure. We can assess changes outside these conditions by using the following formula:
96TH=-p
where H =height change per Mb I Hpa in feet
T = Actual Absolute Temperature at that level
P =Actual Pressure in Mb I Hpa
K =96 (the equation constant)
The 4% Rule:
The 4% rule is an extension of the above which states that when the ELR temp' is ro-c
away from ISA a 4% height change error is generated at or through any given altitude
change. e.g at Fi360 (H) =96 x 226.5 divided by 228.2 = 95ft per Mb height change atthat level which equates to 4% difference from the ISA change of 91ft.
1-8 ©Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 13/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere Questions
1. The international standard atmosphere assumes a lapse rate of:
a) 2°C/IOOO ft
b) 1.5°CIlOOO ft
c) 3 °C /IOO O ft
, d) 1.98°C /IOOO ft
2. The tropopause is:
-1 a) The line where the temperature no longer decreases with increase of height.
b) The layer between the tropopause and the stratosphere.
c) The layer beyond which only CI cloud occurs.d) The line indicating clear air turbulence.
3. One of the most important characteristics of the atmosphere is:
a) Density is constant above 10000 ft.
1 b) The air is a poor conductor of heat.
c) Temperature lapse rate is very frequently above 3°e per
1000 ft.
d) The air is a good conductor of heat.
4. Most of the vapour in the atmosphere is contained in the:
a) tropopause
b) stratosphere
J c) troposphere
d) stratopause
5. The captain of an aircraft needs to know the height of the Tropopause because:
,j' a) it normally represents the limit of weatherb) density starts to increase
c) there are no longer jet streams and CAT
d) it indicates the height of the thermal wind
1 -9 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 14/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
6. The main Ozone layer is to be found in the:
a) thermosphere
b) troposphere
c) mesophere
,,'d) stratosphere
7. The level in the atmosphere where the air temperature ceases to fall with increase in height is
known as:
a) The troposphere.
b) The Stratopause.
c) The Stratosphere.
" d) The tropopause.
8. Which statement is correct when considering the lower layers of the atmosphere:
a) the majority of the weather is contained in the stratosphere and its upper boundary is the
tropopause
.J b) the majority of the weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is the
tropopause
c) the majorityofthe weather is contained inthe tropopause and its upper boundary is the
troposphere
d) the majority of the weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is thestratosphere
9. The atmosphere is a mixture of gasses of the following proportions:
v a)
b)
c)
d)
oxygen 21%
oxygen 21%
nitrogen 78%
nitrogen 78%
nitrogen 78%
hydrogen 78%
argon 21%
oxygen 21%
other gasses 1%
other gasses 1%
oxygen 1%
hydrogen 1%
10. In the ISA the temperature is isothermal:
a) Up to 36 090 ftlll kms
,. b) From 36 090 ft/II kms to 65 617 ftl20 kms.
e) From 36 090 ft/l l kms to 104987 ft!32 kms.
d) From 36 090 ft!11 kms to 45 090 ftl13.75 kms.
1 -10 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 15/495
METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE
11. The International (leAD) Standard Atmosphere assumes that the sea level atmospheric pressure
is :
v' a) 1013.25 mbs and decreases with an increase inheight
b) 1013.25 mbs and increases with an increase in height
c) 1013.25 mbs and falls to about half this value at 30000
d) 1013.25 mbs and decreases with an increase in height up to the tropopause. Above the
tropopause it remains constant
12. At se a level the ISA density is stated to be:
" a) 1225 grammes per cubic metre
b) 1252 grammes per cubic metre
c) 1013.2 mb (hpA)
d) 29.6 inchesof mercury
13. Which of the following statements is most correct when describing ISA:
a) the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is + 15°C
b) the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of
1.98°C/1000 ft
c) the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of
1.98°CIlOOOft up to 36090 ft above which there is frequently an 'inversion
\- d) the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of1.98°CII 000 ft up to 36090 ft
14. The following is true for the International Standard Atmosphere:
a)
J b)
c)
d)
at mean sea level the foilowingconditions prevail: temperature + 15 C, pressure 1013.25
hpa, density 1125 gmlm
within the troposphere the temperature decreases by 6.5 C per Ian
the tropopause is at a height of 36090 AGL
the temperature at the tropopause is 226.5 OK
IS. Pressure will \.eV\~DJ-._~ with increase of height and in the ISA pressure will be _'_CO_at
10000fiand '\.,,--0 at30000ft
a)
'b)
c)
d)
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
800 mb 400 mb
700 mb 300mb
200 mb 800mb
500 mb 200
1-11 ©Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 16/495
METEOROLOGY
ANSWERS
Ques Answer Ques Answer
1 D 9 A
2 A 10 B
3 B 11 A
4 C 12 A
5 A 13 D
6 D 14 B
7 D 15 B
8 B
1-12
THE ATMOSPHERE
© Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 17/495
CHAPTER TWO - PRESSURE
Contents
2.1 INTRODUCTION .
2.2 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ..
2.3 THE BAROGRAPH
2.4 ISALLOBAR.
2.5 TYPES OF PRESSURE
2.6 VARIATIONS OF PRESSURE
2.7 PRESSURE DEFINITIONS
2.8 SYNOPTIC CHARTS .
PRESSURE QUESTIONS .
Page
2 - I
........... 2-1
.......................... 2-2
.......................... 2-3
............................ 2-4
.... 2-7
...... 2 - 8
... 2 - 8
. 2-9
© Oxford Aviation Services Lim ited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 18/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Variations in pressure have long been associated with changes in the weather - the 'falling glass'
usually indicating the approach of bad weather. The Handbook of Aviation Meteorology makes
the statement:f"'11\~ I . , . , , , , p" ,, ~~<>_ \<> \ c . .. .. . ~ -i:l",o ~~,<
"The study of atmospheric pressure may be said to form (he foundations of the science of
meteorology. "
2.2 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure is the
force per unit area exerted by the
atmosphere on any surface in
contact with it. If pressure is
considered as the weight of a
column of air of unit cross
sectional area above a surface,
then it can be seen from the
diagram that the pressure (weight
of the column above) at the
upper surface will be less than
that at the lower surface.
A COLUMN OFUNITCROSS_
SECTION
TOTAL WEIGHT OF-ATMOSPHERE
ABOVE
TOTAL WEIGHT OF/ATMOSPHERE
L_ABOVE
Figure 2.1. The Weight of the Atmosphere on the
Thus atmospheric pressure will Surface of the Earth.
decrease with an increase in
height.
a) Units of Measurement. The standard unit afforce is the NEWTON (N) and an
average for atmospheric pressure at sea level is 100,000 Newtons per square metre.
(Pascals) This pressure is sometimes known as a BAR To measure small variations
in pressure, it is convenient to divide the bar into 1000 parts and so the standard
meteorological unit of pressure is the MILLIBAR (Mb). In some countries this is
known as the hectopascal. Other units which are still in use are related to the height
ofa column of mercury in a barometer (see below) and thus:
1000 mb = 750.1 nun =29.53 in = 100,000 N/M2
Note: It is possible to convert Mbs to Inches by using the formula __x_x_x_ and
1013.25 29.92
therefore if we are given (for example) IOOOMbswe may insert this into the formula and
find ___!_QQQ_x_x_ which gives us an answer of29.53In5 of mercury.1013.25 29.92
2 -1 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 19/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
b) Mercury Barometer. The basic instrument
used for the measurement of atmospheric
pressure is the mercury barometer. The
atmospheric pressure is measured by the
height of a column of mercury and thisheight can be read in terms of any of the units
shown above. The USA still uses inches of
mercury as their measurement of atmospheric
pressure.
Figure 2.2. A Mercury Barometer
c) Aneroid Barometer. A more compact means of
measuring atmospheric pressure is the Aneroid
Barometer. It consists of a partially evacuated
capsule which responds to changes in pressure by
expanding and contracting, and by a system of
levers, these changes of pressure being
indicated by a pointer moving over a scale.
Figure 2.4. An Aneroid Barometer.
To enable a continuous record of pressure changes
to be made, a paper covered rotating drum issubstituted for the scale and the instrument then
becomes a barograph. This instrument is used
by the meteorologist to measure what is known
as pressure tendency, the rise and fall of pressure
over a period of time. Pressure tendency is an
important forecasting tool.
2.3 THE BAROGRAPH
Figure 2.5. Met Office AneroidBarometer
2-2 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 20/495
METEOROLOGY
Figure 2.6. A Barograph
2.4 [SALLOBAR
An isallobar is a line joining places of the same pressure tendency.
Full and dashed lines represent ./ - - ......isobars and isallobars respectively. / '\
Unit of isaliobars:millibalS per hour. / .- -v , \
\ I I Isallobaric low
- = 4 ; II II./
Figure 2.7. An Isallobar Chart
2-3
PRESSURE
© Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 21/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
2.5 TYPES OF PRESSURE
a) QFE. The atmospheric pressure read from a barometer on an airfield will give
the aerodrome pressure, otherwise known as QFE.
Figure 2.8. QFE.
b) QFF. This is the barometric pressure at the surface (QFE) reduced to MSL using the
observed temperature at the surface (this therefore assumes an isothermallayer from
MSL to the surface). QFF accounts for the effect that temperature has on a pressure
reading. From Figure 2.8 it can be seen that although the pressure at the airfield was
980 mb/hPa, ifthe airfield was taken to Mean Sea Level, the pressure would be greater,
but an account rnust also be made of the effect that temperature has had on the pressure.
This allows us to accurately draw surface pressure charts. The correction to be made
to the surface pressure will depend on the height of the surface (or airfield) AMSL and
the temperature prevailing at the time.
The range of QFF so far recorded, low pressure to high pressure, is from 856 to
1083 mb, but meteorologically the range is taken from 950 to 1050 mb.
c) QNH. This is the barometric pressure at the airfield (QFE), reduced to MSL using the
ISA temperature at the airfield. This will provide a pressure which does not account for
any temperature deviation away from ISA. The correction 1'0 be made to the surface
pressure will depend solely upon the height of the airfield AMSL
In order to get QNH and QFF from a barometric reading at a surface we must use a
formulae which will be shown on the next page. It is not necessary to know the
formulae as such, but it is vital to know the difference that the temperature deviation
will have when being asked to analyse QNH and QFF.
2-4 © Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 22/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
The correction M (in hPa/mb), to be added or subtracted to the barometric pressure is
given by:
M~p(10m_1)
Where'" =
18429.1 + 67.531 + O.003h
and p = barometer level pressure in hPa/mb
t = the observed temperature at station level in °C (for QFF correction use
observed temperature, for QNH correction use [SA temperature)
h = the height of the station, in metres, above the level at which the corrected
pressure is required i.e. above or below mean sea level for QFF and QNH,official aerodrome elevation for QFE and touchdown zone elevation for runway
QFE. Note that h will be negative if below sea level.
Example I:
I) What is the difference between QFF and QNH given:
Station pressure = 1020 hPa
Station height = S O m BELOW mslTemperature = 30° C
Station BELOW sea level, temperature WARMER than ISA.
a) Calculate QFF using the formulae on the previous page
M = -5.6 hPa
The correction to be applied is:
Station pressure 1020 - 5.6 =QFF 1014.4 hPa
b) Calculate QNH using the formulae on the previous page
M = -5.9 hPa
The correction to be applied is
Station pressure 1020 - 5.9 =QNH 1014.1 hPa
2-5 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 23/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
Example 2:
I) What is the difference between QFF and QNH given:
Station pressure = 920 hPa
Station height = 300m ABOVE msl
Temperature = _200 C
Station ABOVE sea level, temperature COLDER than ISA.
a) Calculate QFF using the formulae on the previous page
M =41.2 hPa
The correction 10be applied is:
Station pressure 920 + 41.2 = QfF 961.2 hPa
b) Calculate QNH using the formulae on the previous page
M = 36.9 hPa
The correction to be applied is:
Station pressure 920 + 36.9 =QNH 956.9 hPa
SUMMARY
Stations ABOVE MSL a) HOTTER than [SA QFF<QNH
b) COLDER than ISA QFF>QNH
Stations BELOW MSL a) HOTTER than ISA QFF>QNH
b) COLDER than (SA QFF< QNH
2-6 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 24/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
2.6 VARIA TIONS OF PRESSURE
a) Height. Although pressure will decrease with an increase in height, density will also
decrease and therefore the reduction in weight of air above a surface will not varylinearly. In the ISA, a reduction in pressure of I mb would give a height difference of:
27 feet at MSL
3 6 feet at t O , O O O ft
73 teet at 30,000 ft
See Figure 1.3.
b) Diurnal Variation. There is a change in pressure during the day which although small
(about I mb) in temperate latitudes, can be as much as 3 mb in the tropics and would
need to be taken into account when considering pressure tendency as an indication ofchanging weather. The variation is shown in Figure 2.10.
THE DIURNALVARIATION INTEMPERATELATITUDES ISLESS THAN
1mb ~
MEAN PRESSURE
RECORDED PRESSURE
Figure 2.10. Diurnal Variation.
The variation is difficult to explain, but is probably due to a natural oscillation of the
atmosphere having a period of about 12 hours, this oscillation being maintained by the 24
hour variation of temperature.
2-7 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 25/495
METEOROLOGY
2.7 PRESSURE DEFINITIONS
QFE
QFF
QNH
FORECAST QNH
(RPS)
QNE
ISOBAR
ISALLOBAR
2.8 SYNOPTIC CHARTS
Isobars on normal
synoptic charts are
Mean Sea Level
Isobars (QFF) and are
normally drawn for
every even whole
millibar, (i.e. 1000,
1002, etc.). Figure
2.11. illustrates the
isobars on a synoptic
chart.
On larger area maps
the spacing may be
expanded to 4 or more
millibars but this willbe stated on the chart.
PRESSURE
The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected
to the official elevation.
The value of pressure reduced to MSL in accordance with isothermal
conditions.
The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected
to the MSL in accordance with the ICAO standard.
A forecast, valid for one hour, of the lowest QNH expected in any part
of the Altimeter Setting Region (ASR).
The height indicated on landing at an airfield when the altimeter sub-
scale is set to tOI3 mb or 29.92 ins.
A line joining places of the same atmospheric pressure (usually MSL
pressure QFF).
A line joining places of the same pressure tendency.
Figure 2.11. Isobars on a Synoptic Chart.
2-8 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 26/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
Pressure Questions
I. The barometric Pressure at the airfield datum point is known as;
0) QNE
b) QNH
v c) QFE
d) Standard Pressure
2. The instrument that gives a continuous printed reading and record of the atmospheric pressure
is:
a) barometer
b) hygrometer
c) anemograph
" d) barograph
3. The pressure of the atmosphere:
a) decreases at an increasing rate as height increases
b) decreases at a constant rate as height increases
oJ c) decreases at a decreasing rate as height increases
d) decreases at a constant rate up to the tropopause and then remains constant
4. When considering the actual tropopause which statement is correct:
a) it is low over the poles and high over the equator
b) it is high over the poles and low over the equator
c) it is the same height of36090 ft all over the world
d) It is at a constant altitude of 26000'
5. Atmospheric pressure may be defined as:
a) the weight of the atmosphere exerted on any surface with which it is in contact
b) the weight of the atmosphere at standard sea level
~ c) the force per unit area exerted by the atmosphere on any surface with which it is in
contact
d) a pressure exerted by the atmosphere of 1013.2 mbs
2-9
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 27/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
6. The QFF is the atmospheric pressure:
a) at the place where the reading is taken
b) corrected for temperature difference from standard and adjusted to MSL assuming
standard atmospheric conditions exist
- J c) at a place where the reading is taken corrected to MSL taking into account the prevailing
temperature conditions
d) as measured by a barometer at the aerodrome reference point.
7. With 1013.25 mb set on the altimeter sub scale with an aircraft stationary on the airfield the
altimeter will read:
" a) QNE
b) QNH
c) QFE
d) QFF
8. The aircraft altimeter will read zero at aerodrome level with which pressure setting set on the
altimeter sub scale:
a) QFF
b) QNHc) QNE
d) QFE
9. You are passed an altimeter setting of '29.53' You would then set your altimeter subscale to:
a) QFF
b) 1013
"c) 1000
d) QFE
10. The aerodrome QFE is:
a) the reading on the altimeter on an aerodrome when the aerodrome barometric pressure
is set on the sub scale
b) the reading on the altimeter on touchdown at an aerodrome when 1013.2 is set on the
sub scale
c) the reading on the altimeter on an aerodrome when the sea level barometric pressure is
set on the sub scaleJ' d) the aerodrome barometric pressure.
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 28/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE
! 1. When an altimeter sub scale is set to the aerodrome QFE, the altimeter reads:
a) the elevation of the aerodrome at the aerodrome reference point
b) zero at the aerodrome reference point
c) the pressure altitude et the aerodrome reference point
d) the appropriate altitude of the aircraft
12. The aerodrome QNH is the aerodrome barometric pressure:
a) corrected to mean sea level assuming standard atmospheric conditions exist
b) corrected to mean sea level, assuming isothermal conditions exist
c) corrected for temperature and adjusted to MSL assuming standard atmosphere
conditions exist
d) corrected to MSL using ambient temperature.
13. A line drawn on a chart joining places having the same barometric pressure at the same level and
at the same time is :
a) an isotherrn
b) an isallobar
c) a contour
, d) an isobar
14. An isobar on a meteorological chart joins all places having the same:
a) QFE
{ b) QFF
c) QNH
d) QNE
15. Pressure will~~--~-~--·-~withncrease of height and will be about=- ---~~-~~-t 10000 f1 and ~~~~~~~~~~at 30000 ft.
a) Increase 800 mb 400 mb
b) Decrease 700 mb 300 mb
c) increase 200 mb 800 mb
d) Decrease 500 mb 200 mb
16. An airfield in England is 100m above sea level, QFF is 1030hPa, temperature at the surface is
~15°C. What is the valueofQNH?
..\ a) Impossible to determine
b) Less than I030hPa
c) Same as QFF
d) More than lOJOhPa
2 -11 © Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 29/495
METEOROLOGY
ANSWERS
Ques Answer Ques Answer
I C 9 C
2 D 10 D
3 C 11 B
4 A 12 A
5 C 13 D
6 C 14 B
7 A 15 B
8 D 16 B
2 -12
PRESSURE
© Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 30/495
CHAPTER THREE - DENSITY
Contents
Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 3 - I
3.2 EFFECT OF CHANGES OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY .3- I
3.3 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY 3 - I
3.4 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT ... 3 - 2
3.5 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF ALTITUDE ON DENSITY . 3 - 2
3.6 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF LATITUDE ON DENSITY - 2
3.7 EFFECT OF CHANGES IN DENSITY ON AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS. 3-3
DENSITY QUESTIONS 3 - 5
© Ox fo rd Av ia tion Se rv ices L im i ted
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 31/495
METEOROLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
DENSITY
a) Grammes per cubic metre.
Density may be defined as mass per unit volume and may be expressed as:
b) A percentage of the standard surface density - relative density.
3.2 EFFECT OF CHANGES OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY
c) The altitude in the standard atmosphere 10which the observed density corresponds
- density altitude.
As pressure in a container of unit volume is increased, the mass of air will be increased
and therefore the density will rise. Likewise, if the pressure is reduced, the mass of air will
decrease and so will the density
p (rho) = density
We can therefore say that:
DENSITY IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO PRESSURE.
In the atmosphere density can be decreased by raising the
volume of air 10 a greater height since we know that
pressure decreases with an increase in altitude. Similarly,
density can be increased by lowering the volume of air to
a lower height.
3.3 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE ON
DENSITY
If a volume of air is heated it will expand and the mass of
air contained in unit volume will be less. Thus density
will decrease with an increase in temperarurc and we can
say:
3 - 1
DENSITY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE.
© Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 32/495
METEOROLOGY DENSITY
3.4 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT
The Fundamental Gas Equation (Boyles + Charles Laws)
says that PV RT (where R = gas constant)
1but p
V
~ RT
andp
RTWhere Pressure
R Gas constant
T Temperature
Density
Note: R for water vapour is 1.6 x that for dry air.
Therefore: p for water vapour is less than for dry air and so p for moist air must be less than p
for dry air
3.5 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF ALTlTUDE ON DENSITY
Although raising and thus expanding the volume of air will decrease its density due to the
reducuon of pressure, at the same time the temperature will decrease and therefore the density
should increase, the one effect cancelling out the other. In fact, there is a greater reduction in
pressure as height increases and the overall effect is for the density to decrease with an
increase of height.
(p = 100% at sea level, 50% at 20,000', 25% at 40,000' and 10% at 60,000')
Density will change by 1% for a 3 degree change in temperature or a 10mb change in pressure.
3.6 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF LATITUDE ON DENSITY
a) at the surface density increases with an increase in latitude.
b) at about 26,000 ft density remains constant with an increase in latitude.
c) above 26,000 ft density decreases with an increase in latitude. (Maximum deviation
from standard occurs at about 50,000 ft.)
3-2 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 33/495
METEOROLOGY DENSITY
Figure 3.1. The Effect of Latitude on Density.
Thus aircraft with poor performance at low levels will perform better above the tropopause at
the equator than at the poles.
3.7 EFFECT OF CHANGES IN DENSITY ON AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
a) Accuracy of aircraft instruments - Mach meters, ASIs.
b) Aircraft and engine performance - low density will reduce lift, increase take off run,
reduce maximum take off weight.
Where L Lift
Coefficient of Lift
Density
v TAS
Wing area
3-3 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 34/495
METEOROLOGY DENSITY
Airfields affected would be:
i) High Denver Nairobi Saana
ii) Hot Bahrain Khartoum Singapore
c) Humidity generally has a small effect on density (humidity reduces density), but
must be taken into account at moist tropical airfields, e.g. Bahrain, Singapore.
Figure 3.2. An Illustration of Pressure Decrease with Height in Airmasses with
Different Temperatures and therefore Different Densities
3-4 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 35/495
METEOROLOGY DENSITY
Density Questions
Consider the following statements relative to Air Density and select the one which is correct
a) Because air density increases with decrease of temperature, air density must increase
with increase of height in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
b) At any given surface temperature the air density will be greater in anticyclonic
conditions than it will be when the MSL pressure is lower.
c) Air density increases with increase of relative humidity.
d) The effect of change of temperature on the air density is much greaterthan the effect of
change of atmospheric pressure.
2. The tropopause in mid latitudes is:
a) Lower in summer with a lower temperature.
b) Lower in winter with a higher temperature.
c) Lower in summer with a higher temperature.
d) Lower in winter with a lower temperature.
3. Generally as altitude increases:
a) temperature decreases and density increasesb) temperature, pressure and density decreases
c) temperature and pressure increase and density decreases
d) temperature decreases and pressure density increases
4. ln the troposphere:
a) over cold air, the pressure is higher at upper levels than at similar levels over warm air
b) over cold air, the pressure is lower at upper levels than at similar levels over warm air
c) over warm air, the pressure is lower at upper levels than at similar levels over warm air
d) the upper level pressure depends solely on the relative humidity below
5. Density at the surface will be low when:
a) Pressure is high and temperature is high.
b) Pressure is high and temperature is low.
c) Pressure is low and temperature is low.
d) Pressure is low and temperature is high.
3-5 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 36/495
METEOROLOGY
ANSWERS
Qucs Answer
I B
2 B
] B
4 B
5 D
3-6
DENSITY
© Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 37/495
CHAPTER FOUR - SYNOPTIC CHARTS
Contents
4. I DEFINITION
4.2 OBSERVATIONS.
4.3 TIMING.
4.4 PLOTTING
4.5 DECODE.
4.6 ANALYSIS
4.7 PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
4.8 EXERCISES
Page
4 - I
4 - I
4-2
...... 4 - 2
.4-3
4-5
.4- 8
.... 4 - 9
© Ox fo rd Av ia ti on Se rv ic es L im it ed
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 38/495
METEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS
4. I DEFINITION
Synoptic Meteorology is defined as being concerned with a description of current weather
represented on geographical charts and applied especially to the forecasting of future weather.
4.2 OBSERVAnONS
Weather forecasting has always depended upon accurate observation of rhe weather prevailing
and the availability of that information to all forecasters. Observations made at observing
stations, will be encoded in a universally recognised numerical code (the SYNOP CODE), sent
to a cenrral communication centre (in the UK the National Meteorological Centre (NMC),
Bracknelf) and then re-transmitted to all interested parries in bulletin form.
Figure 4.1. is an example of coded observations from London/Heathrow. You will not berequired to decode such a message, but it is shown for information purposes.
0 . , . . - - , BLOCK NO (UK)
{ : > STATION NO (LHR)
~ CLOUD COVER
. 9 " " WIND VELOCITY (290/15)
VISIBILTYPRESENT WEATHERPAST WEATHER
AMOUNT TYPE & LOW CLOUD ~TYPE OF MEDIUM CLOUD 176'.,..
TYPE OF HIGH CI 01 JD
~ MSL PRESSURE
1777 DRY BULB PRESSURE
DEW POINT TEMP 0 0 9 .
PRESSURE TENDENCY i:>7,j'
RAINFALL ~MAX OR MIN TEMP 17-:;.
AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT cI'~
OF LOWEST CLOUD 0 ' " "
AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT cl'6'ulOF SECOND CLOUD LAYER ~
Figure 4.1. Heathrow Weather
4 -1 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 39/495
METEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS
4.3 TIMING
'Main' observations are made at 0000, 0600,1200 and 1800 UTe: 'intermediate' at 0300,
0900, 1500 and 2100 UTe.
4. 4 PLOTTING
The information fix each observing station is plotted in a standard format of numbers and
symbols around the station on a geographical chart.
Examples of a blank synoptic chart (Figure 4.2) and a station plot (Figure 4.3) are shown:
Figure 4.2. Synoptic Chart.
4-2 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 40/495
METEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS
4.5 DECODE
A full decode of the numbers and symbols follow:
FORM OF HIGH CLOUD
(DensefromCuAnvil)
\
FORM OF MEDIUM CLOUD
AIR (Formed from spreading CuI
~IGHT AND AMOUNT OF MEDIUM CLOUD
---'/ )/ (6/8 at 12,000 ft)
14.( / / MSL PRESSURE (1012.4 mba)
124 / PRESSURE CHANGE IN LAST 3 HRS
I . . . . . (1.5mbs)
15'{+- CH~~~~~~I~;SHANGE
(1.5mb.)
5/15./ .......... ~ FORM OF LOW CLOUD
/ "<, (LargeCu)
AMOUNT OF LOWEST CLOUD (518) HEIGHT OF LOWEST CLOUD
(1,500tt)
Figure 4.4. Station Circle Decode.
4-3 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 41/495
: 1 :,~
I; I I I I T !~Ii
~ f:1 1 II ~
j Ii
Figure 4.5 The Station Circle Decode
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 42/495
METEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS
L !fthere are no symbols in the past weather position then it rneans that observed weather was not
significant.
2. Past weather can have double symbol (W I W2) eg -
.\l
Rain showers in the past 6 hours OR a double precipitation symbol as
distinct from a single symbol:
Rain showers throughout the past 6 hours.
Rain in the past 6 hours.
Rain throughout the past 6 hours (NOTE: not slight continuous rain).
3. lf past weather has a double character but using different symbols e.g.
, 0 * •then the first symbol is the dominant characteristic. Hence the decode for the two examples
above would be respectively:
Rain during the past 6 hours with some drizzle: Snow during the past 6 hours with some rain.
4. Past weather is in the past 6 hours for synoptic times: 0000, 0600,1200,1800 z.
Past weather is in the past 3 hours for synoptic times: 0300, 0900, 1500,2100 z.
Past weather reports for any other times refer to weather in the past hour.
4.6 ANALYSIS
a) Isobars Once the data has been plotted on the chart, the meteorologist will draw in the
isobars, using the plotted values ofQFF, usually for even whole numbers on a chart
ofthis size. Charts covering a greater area, like the North Atlantic, may space the isobars
every four or even eight millibars.
b) Fronts. The positioning of fronts on the chart will require a little marc skill and a
knowledge of the weather changes to be expected at frontal passage. It is common
nowadays for this plotting procedure 10 be completely computerised and the resultingcharts to be despatched by Fax.
Figure 4.6. is an example of a completed (analysed) surface chart.
4-5 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 43/495
METEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS
T,"" __ 1200 _611L __
Figure 4.6. Analysed Chart.
4-6 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 44/495
sZ
NN
Ut-
~
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 45/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 46/495
METEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS
4. 8 EXERCISES
We use a number of these synoptic charts in practical exercises in this course and you will need
to be able to deduce the observed weather from the plotted station circles.
A simple exercise using such a chart is appended to this chapter (Chart 85.3). It covers MSL
pressure, pressure tendency and isobar values. More detailed exercises will follow later.
STAnON CIRCLE DECODE EXERCISE (CHART 85/3)
What is the pressure and pressure tendency at the stations listed below and what is the value of
the isobar to the south of each station?
I. 48N 05W
2. SON 06W
3. 56N 04Y2W
4. 4 7 Y 2 N )W
5. 53Y2N 13Y,W
6. 51N 15W
7. 56Y2N 07W
8. 54N lOW
9. 5SV,N 07Y2W
4-9 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 47/4954 -10 © OxfordAviationServ" Ices Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 48/495
METEOROLOGY
ANSWERS
PRESSURE PRESSURE TENDENCY
1004 1.4 Fal1!Slight rise
1000 0.2 Slight fall/rise
994 0.1 Slight rise/fall
1006 1.2 FaHlSlighl rise
996 0.0 Slight rise/fall
1002 0.8 Fall/Slight rise
992 0.4 Fall/slight rise
990 0.8 Fall
992 0.4 Fall/steady
4 -11
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
© Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 49/495
CHAPTER FIVE - PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Contents
Page
5.1 INTRODUCTION 5 -
5.2 DEPRESSIONS. 5 - I
5.3 DEPRESSION WEATHER 5-2
5.4 ANTICYCLONES 5-2
5.5 ANTICYCLONIC WEATHER. .5 - 4
5.6 TROUGHS .5 - 5
5.7 TROUGH WEATHER 5-6
5.8 RIDGES -7
5.9 RIDGE WEATHER. .5-
5.10 A RIDGE BETWEEN TWO LOWS .5-8
5.11 COLS. .5 - 8
5.12 COL WEATHER. . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 5 - 8
5.13 PRESSURE SYSTEMS MOVEMENT. ....... 5- 10
5.14 TERMINOLOGY 5 - II
5.15 BUYS BALLOT'S LAW. 5-11
5.16 PRESSURE GRADIENT. 5 - 12
PRESSURE SYSTEMS QUESTIONS. 5 - 13
© Ox fo rd Av ia ti on Se rv ices L im i ted
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 50/495
METEOROLOGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Isobars can form patterns,
which when they are recognized,can help us forecast the weather.
These patterns are called pressure .,,"
distribution systems They
include:
a) Depressions, or lows.
b) Anticyclones, or highs.
c) Troughs.
d) Ridges.
e) Ccls.
f) Secondary depressions
(See Chapter 22)
5.2 DEPRESSIONS
A depression is a region of
comparatively low pressure
shown by more or less circular
and concentric isobars
surrounding the centre, where
pressure is lowest. A depression
is sometimes called a low or acyclone.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Figure 5.1. A Depression in the NorthernHemisphere.
~ DIVERGENCE > -:7 )
~
There are two types of
depression, frontal and
non-frontal.
A depression is a region of
converging and rising air as
shown in Figure 5.2. Surface
winds blow anticlockwise arounda low (in the northern
hemisphere) and across the
isobars towards the centre. ,,"L', 1 ' ' - ' ..c...:..L...L.""",;,c_=C£..e...L...L.~.L.CL..L;,.c.J
ASCENT
Fig 5.2. Vertical Cross Section.
5 -1 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 51/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
5.3 DEPRESSION WEATHER
Cloud 8/ 8 extending to tropopause and with a low base
Precipitation Can be continuous light to moderate and also heavy showers and
thundcrstonns.
Visibility Poor in precipitation, otherwise good due to ascending air.
Temperature Mild.
Winds Winds arc usually strong- the deeper the depression and the closer the isobars,
the stronger the wind.
5.4 ANTICYCLONES
An anticyclone or high is a region of relatively high pressure shown by more or less circular
isobars similar to a depression but with higher pressure at the centre.
Isobars are more widely spaced than with depressions. There are three types of anticyclone,
warm, cold and temporary cold. They are regions of diverging and descending air. Surface
winds blow clockwise in the N0I1hem Hemisphere and across the isobars away from the centre.
Figure 5.3 An Anticyclone in the Northern
Hemisphere.
5-2 © Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 52/495
METEOROLOGY
Warm Anticyclones
Wann anticyclones are caused by
an excess of air at high level. Thedescending air will be heated by
compression and surface
temperatures wil l rise as a result.
Warm anticyclones normally
occur in lower latitudes.
Cold Anticyclones
These are caused by high density
and low surface temperatures.
As a result, cold anticyclones
occur in Polar and high latitudes
and are more seasonal (Winter)
than warm anticyclones.
Temporary Cold Anticyclones
A temporary cold anticyclone is
produced in the cold air between 50 N
depressions on the polar front.
When eventually the cold air
terminates the series of lows, the
cold anticyclone may be of some
size though not of great depth.
Over the sea, and over the land in
Summer, such an anticyclone will
last only a few days to be replaced
by the subsequent polar frontal
depression.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Figure 5.4. Vertical Cross Section.
- ,!
Figure 5.5 A Temporary Cold Anticyclone.
5-3 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 53/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Blocking Anticyclones
Warm anticyclones, which are often an extension of high pressure areas developed in the sub-
tropical regions, may hold up or divert the normal west-east passage of polar front depressions
and persist for several days. The diagram shows how the usual west-east flow becomes morenorth-south, or meridional as the effect of the extension of the Azores High affects the air flow.
There is a decided tendency for blocking highs to persist in certain geographic areas such as 10
to 20W over the North Atlantic. The air within the systems is subsiding down from high levels
and this means that extensive sheets of Stratus or Strata cumulus may develop but there will be
little vertical extent. It is worth noting that a warm anticyclone, in the South, may join up with
a cold anticyclone from the North to create this meridional flow.
Figure 5.3a. High from Azores to Scandinavia.
5.5 ANTICYCLONIC WEATHER
Cloud None except on the edge of the anticyclone.
Precipitation None.
Visibility Generally poorer than with a depression. Autumn/Winter - fog early morning
and night. Summer - haze is possible, otherwise good.
Temperature Dependent on type.
Winds Light.
5-4 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 54/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
5.6 TROUGHS
Troughs of [ow pressure are indicated by isobars extending outwards from an area of low
pressure so that the pressure is lower in the trough than on either side.
Figure 5.6. A Trough of Low Pressure.
5-5 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 55/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
5.7 TROUGH WEATHER
Cloud Non-frontal: Great vertical development of cloud - CU and CB.
frontal: The cloud will depend on whether cold air is overtaking
warm, when the cloud tends to be as above, or ifwann air is overtaking
cold, in which case the cloud is likely to have much Jess vertical
development.
Precipitation Showers, thunderstorms, hail, with non frontal orcold front; continuous
drizzle, light or moderate rain with warm frontal trough.
Vlsiblllty Fair except in showers, though at a warm frontal trough visibility willbe poor in continuous rain.
Winds Moderate with gusts and squalls.
@CrownCopyright
Figure 5.7. A Frontal Trough Extending from the North
5-6 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 56/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
5.8 RIDGES
Ridges of high pressure are indicated by isobars extending outwards from an anticycloneand always rounded, never V-shaped as seen in a trough. They arc also sometimes referred to
as 'wedges'.
Figure 5.8. A Ridge of High Pressure.
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 57/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
5.9 RIDGE WEATHER
Ridge weather is similar to anticyclonic weather.
5.10 A RIDGE BETWEEN TWO LOWS
A ridge often brings a period of good weather between two depressions
5.11 eOLS
Cols are regions of almost level pressure between two highs and two lows. It is an area of
stagnation. This is illustrated in Figure 5.9.
5.12 eOL WEATHER
Col weather is normally settled, but is dependent on changing pressure.
In autumn and winter co Is produce poor visibility and fog, whilst in summer thunderstorms are
common. Figure 5.10 is an example of a weather forecast for a day when a col influenced the
weather over the U.K.
5-8 © Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 58/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
GENERAL SITUATION: Eastern counties of Englal1d and Scotland
will be cloudy and misty at first with some showers.
coast il sllould brighten up, although there is still a chan~y~. The rest ctthe UK will become very
?£Od spells of sunshine. although a scattering of
~~areexpectedfrom late-.-momlngonwards
CHAN ISLES, LONDON. SE ENGLAND. CENT S ENG·LAND, SW
~ ~ ~ ; : ~ , D ~ c r e : : ~~ ~ V : f 1 : : o ~ ~ tU I ~ ; ~ i : da~;;~~wind. Max 73-79f. {23-26c}
MIDLANDS, CENT N ENGLAND, NW ENGLAND, WALES, LAKE
OIST, IOM~N IRELAND: Warm and humid with sunny spells. A40%
chartceof~ryshowers_ Lighlal1dv8nablewinds. Max 73-79f.
(23-26c)
~:v~~~~.P~I~~~~~ ~~~~~nf~ ~~t~I~~~!~U~a~I~~~~~
oullater. Alight north-easterly wind. Max 66-72f. (19-22c)
NE ENGLAND, SE SCOTLAND, EDINBURGH, DUNDEE,
CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, ABERDEEN, MDRAY FIRTH, NE
SCOTLAND: Showers at f irst. SUnr 'iy spells and~aw"yfrom
the coastlater oo. Alight,~ariablewir'ld. MaK64-7Of. (23-26c)
SW SCOTLAND, NW SCOTLAND_._GLASGDW, ARGYLL: Warm L..!!!!!!!!~~~_lf..:~::.J~"'!:~::.Jsunshine end a growing risk of ~~_ A light south to IIlodt drdu: r~ffJj in·C rFin br(Kk~ts). ArfI)WJ:: whisouth-easterlywind. Max 70-751. (21-24c) $pffdinmph. hUl.Vr~1rrmilJlbtvs(incJ.ntnbt~lI)
ORKNEY, SHETLAND: ~y__!gg and low cloud. A light south- ~!!!I!!asterly wind. Max61c(16f)
S_J±_DRTH S~ht north-easterly wind. 'Showers_ Visibility'
bioderate or cssr with !QgJ.'!atches. Slight seas
DOVER STRAIT, ENGLISH CHANNEL, ST GEORGE'S CHAN,
~~~~. S~7ti%~~r n~i~~i~~s~:;~~~. ~~a!~:te~~~c~:r rv-..../ '~._.o-
Slightsaas.
OUTLOOK: Unsettled in the north-west; a good deal of fioe. warm I~~~~~~f-}~~~r,~weather in the south--east tPOLLEN: A moderate count in the south, but high in the north end
west away from coasts
(Pollen forecast from the National Asthma Campaign.)
"/gil Ii 1 4 ' 1 / 1 drift nul hul mglrs K < 7 " " 0 #Ie J lQw _vr'l'Ig.
lAw V i$ utmost SW-fjOlf(lry '!'ltl lA w X wifJ d e _ < t e w p atif riml qNiCkly t M l ' K - a r d s - l..(. ....W i t ltiJ fd ly m o 'l lll1 l
Figure 5.10. Col Weather.
5-9 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 59/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
5.13 PRESSURE SYSTEMS MOVEMENT
Weather patterns (pressure systems) vary across the globe. They are mobile in high latitudes
while slow moving in equatorial latitudes. Patterns of isobars which indicate weather will retain(heir general shape while moving, but change their numerical value.
Movement of the systems is the key to accurate forecasting.
The following figures show the movement of weather over a period of four successive days.
Figure 5.11. Maintenance of Shape.
5 -10 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 60/495
METEOROLOGY
5.14 TERMINOLOGY
Depressions will fill up or decay as pressure rises.
Depressions will deepen as pressure falls.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Depressions move rapidly. their average lifetime is 14 days.
Anticyclones will build up as pressure rises
Anticyclones will weaken or collapse as pressure falls.
Anticyclones are very slow moving, they can last for a lengthy period, up to 6 months.
Cols last a few days only and are then absorbed into other systems.
5.15 BUYS BALLOT'S LAW
Changes of shape and intensity are slight intropical regions where pressure is generally low, but
in temperate and polar latitudes changes are much more varied and rapid.
Buys Ballot's Law states that..
In the 19
th
century the Dutch meteorologist Buys Ballot produced a law based on the observationof wind direction and pressure systems.
[f an observer stands with his back to the
wind, the [ower pressure is on his left in
the northern hemisphere, and on his right
in the southern hemisphere.
A corollary of this law is that if you are
experiencing starboard drift in the
northern hemisphere you are heading
towards [ow pressure. This is illustrated
in Figure 5.12.
~
I ~ I I L O W : _ ~ , .S~UREn lf i•• ~: ~!
:J:, "i
-r /~/6...~ . +~~==£IGH PRESSURE
Figure 5.12. A Corollary of Buys Ballot's Law.
5 -11 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 61/495
METEOROLOGY
5.16 PRESSURE GRADIENT
The pressure gradient is the difference in
pressure between consecutive isobarsdivided by the distance between them, this
is illustrated in Figure 5.13.
Note.
The greater the pressure change fOT a
given distance the faster the wind velocity
Air tries to move from high to low
pressure and this will generate a pressure
gradient force which develops into the
wind velocity that we feel. This will be
discussed in full in chapter 11.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Figure 5.13. Pressure Gradient.
rr_."rBGr~dl .. ' fr.mAto 0 102mb. 'n'lII mllH. orO.D2mblml
P,•• u,. Gradi . , fromc,. 0 IoZmb. '"~O", ...... ,a."'rillmI
Figure 5.14. Why Speed Depends on
Gradient.
5 -12 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 62/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Pressure Systems Questions
A trough of low pressure is generally associated with:
a) convergence causing increased cloud and precipitation
b) divergence causing increased cloud and precipitation
c) subsidence causing increased cloud and precipitation
d) subsidence causing decreased cloud a':ld precipitation
2. A ridge of high pressure is generally associated with:
a) convergence causing increased cloud and precipitation
b) divergence causing increased cloud and precipitationc) divergence causing cloud to break up and rnore precipitation
d) divergence and subsidence causing clear skies and good weather
3. A small low established within the circulation of another [ow is called
a) a trough
b) a col
c) an anticyclone
d) a secondary depression
4. An area ofindetenninate pressure between two lows and two highs is called:
a) a trough
b) a ridge
c) a col
d) a saddle
5. A trough of low pressure is:
a) a small low established within the circulation of another low
b) an extension or elongation ofa low pressure system alongan axis on each side of which
pressure Increases
c) a centre of pressure surrounded on all sides by higher pressure
d) an area where the pressure is lower than anywhere else in the area
5-13 © Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 63/495
METEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS
6. If in the southern hemisphere an aircraft in flight at 2000 ft is experiencing starboard drift, the
aircraft is flying towards:
a) an area of high pressureb) an area of low pressure
c) a warm front
d) a depression
7. ln the Southern Hemisphere, the surface winds at Bl; and C2 would be respectively:
a) clockwise across the isobars away from the centre: and anti-clockwise across the isobars
towards the centre.
b) Anti-clockwise across the isobars towards the centre: and clockwise across the isobarsaway from the centre.
c) Anti-clockwise across the isobars away from the centre: and clockwise across the
isobars towards the centre.
d) Clockwise across the isobars towards the centre: and Anti-clockwise across the isobars
away from the centre.
8. Subsidence in an anticyclone produces:
a) saturated air and an inversionb) dry air and an inversion
c) isothermal dry and stable air
d) increased pressure at the surface
9. With an anticyclone over the UK the expected weather is:
a) Thunderstorms in summer, fog in winter.
b) Stratus in summer with drizzle, CU and snow in winter.
c) Clem skies or fair weather CU in summer, fog in winter
d) Clear skies in summer with haze, cold frontal weather in winter.
Refer to appendix A and answer questions IOta 14
10. The pressure systems at A2; 8 I; 82; 83; and C2 are respectively:
a) Depression; Anticyclone; Col; Ridge; and Trough.
b) Ridge: Anticyclone; Col; Trough; and Depression.
c) Trough; Depression; Col; Ridge; and Anticyclone.
d) Ridge: Depression; Col; Trough; and Anticyclone.
5 -14 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 64/495
METEOROLOGY
11. Two important weather factors at 82 will be:
a) Frontal weather in winter, fog in summer,
b) Clear conditions in summer, thunderstorms in winter.c) Thunderstorms in summer, fog in winter.
d) Fog in summer, thunderstorms in winter.
12. Haze in summer and radiation fog in winter can be expected at:
a) C2
b) 83
c) B!
d) 82
13. In the non-frontal pressure system at B3, the expected weather
a) ST SC with drizzle or light precipitation.
b) Clear skies with moderate winds.
e) CU CB with showers.
d) Light winds and haze with an inversion
A c
5 -15
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
2
3
© Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 65/495
METEOROLOGY
ANSWERS
Ques Answer Ques Answer
I A 8 D
2 D 9 C
3 D 10 D
4 C II C
5 8 12 A
6 A 13 C
7 D
5 -16
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
© Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 66/495
CHAPTER SIX - ALTIMETRY
Contents
Page
6.1 THE ALTIMETER .6- I
6.2 ALTIMETER SETTTNGS . .6-3
6.3 TERM INOLOGY 6 - 5
6.4 ALTIMETER ERRORS 6 - 5
ALTIMETRY QUESTIONS ... 6 -7
6.5 TERRAIN CLEARANCE. 6-
6.6 MINIMUM FLIGHT LEVEL .6-8
6.7 TRANSITION ALTITUDE. ....... .... 6-9
6.8 TRANSITION LEVEL 6-9
6.9 TRANSITION LAYER. . .. 6 - 9
ALTIMETRY QUESTIONS. 6 - 1 1
© O xfo rd A viatio n Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 67/495
METEOROLOGY
6. I THE ALTIMETER
ALTIMETRY
An altimeter is an instrument which measures pressure and causes a needle to move across a dial.
The dial is calibrated in feet rather than pressure as we know that pressure decreases as altitudeincreases.
The instrument is
calibrated in accordance
with the ICAO
International Standard
Atmosphere so that all
altimeters will read the
same altitude for the samepressure. (See previous
notes on the need for the
ISA).
Inaddition, altimeters have
a means of adjusting the
needle setting to take
changes in the surface
atmospheric pressure intoaccount.
Figure 6.1. shows how the
altimeter reading will
change with a change in
pressure.
In Figure 6.2. section A,
the pressure at the
airfield, which is at sea
level, is 1010 mb. The
altimeter reads zcro feet.
In section B, the pressure
at the airfield has fallen to
1000 mb and t he
altimeter, rather than
showing a decrease in
pressure, shows
increase in height.
Figure 6.1. A Simple Altimeter.
A
B
~MSl
Figure 6.2. The Altimeter Responding to Changes in
Pressure.
6 -1 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 68/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
a) When flying at a constant
indicated altitude, outside
air pressure must remain the
same. To achieve this wemust fly along a pressure
level. However, when we
fly to an area of lower
pressure, these pressure
lines will dip, consequently
our true altitude will
decrease. Conversely when
flying into a region of
higher pressure, the pressurelines will rise and our true
altitude will increase.
HIGH TO LOW , L OOK 0l1T BElOWI
Figure 6.3
HIGHER PRESSURE; TRUE ALTITUDE> INDICATED ALTITUDE
LOWER PRESSURE; TRVE AL TITVDE < INDICATED ALT1TVDE
b) Varying temperatures within
the atmosphere havesignificant effects on the
pressure and the shape of the
pressure lines. Cold air will
tend to compact and lower
pressure lines whilst warm air
will expand and raise
pressure lines. Using Figure
6.4 you can see that when
flying to a colder area at a
constant indicated altitude
your true altitude decreases.
Conversely, when flying into
warmer region your true
altitude will increase.
Figure 6.4
COLDER THAN ISA; TRVE ALTITUDE < INDICATED AL T1TVDE
WARMER THAN ISA; TRUE ALTITUDE> INDICATED ALTITUDE
c) There is a need to be able to reset the altimeter to take account of the fall in pressure.
Consequently, if the altimeter is reset when the pressure changes, the altimeter will read
correctly. We may, by altering the altimeter subscale setting, set QFE, QNH or SPS for use
when we fly to ensure more accurate readings.
6-2 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 69/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
6.2 ALTIMETER SETTINGS
QFE Airfield pressure, With this pressure set on the altimeter, the instrument will
read zero on the ground, or the height of the aircraft above the airfield
Figure 6.5. Airfield Pressure - QFE,
QNH
This is the airfield pressure converted to MSL in accordance with the ICAO
(SA. The altimeter will then read the height ofthe airfield above MSL, or the
aircraft's height AMSL.
Figure 6.6. Mean Sea Level Pressure - QNH.
Forecast QNH
The lowest forecast QNH within an area. forecast for one hour ahead. The
altimeter will be in error, but as the setting is the lowest forecast, the actual
pressure will always be higher, or at least equal to the forecast QNH, and the
altimeter will read low (or safe) or the correct altitude.
6-3 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 70/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
Figure 6.7. Altimeter Setting Regions.
FO UK 70 EGRR 1100600
FOQNH
VALIDITY PERIOD 0070K 01992 02995 03003 04007 05001 RUilON NUMBER
07011 08011 09011 10014 110[4 12019
13020 14015 15017 16987 17998 189K9 R.P_S
19998 20004 21981 22987 23001 24011
25014
Note: The Cotswold area where Kidlington is situated is No.1S on the above decode table.
6-4 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 71/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
SPS (Standard Pressure Setting) If the standard pressure of 1013 mb is set on the
altimeter, the instrument will read what is known as pressure altitude height
in the Standard Atmosphere. This is the altimeter setting used when flying
above the transition altitude.
6.3 TERMINOLOGY
Altitude Vertical distance above mean sea level.
Height Vertical distance of a level or point measured from a specific datum, e.g.
height above a surface.
Elevation Height when the datum is MSL.
Flight Level Surface of constant atmospheric pressure measured from the 1013.25 datum
used for vertical separation by specified pressure intervals (usually 500 or 1,000
ft). Flight Level is measured in hundreds of feet.
e.g., FL 350 ~ 35,000 FT.
Figure 6.9 Altimetry Terminology.
6. 4 ALTIMETER ERRORS
Apart from instrument errors, there are two errors of interest meteorologically. They are:
a) Barometric Error - Errors caused by setting a pressure on the subscale other than the
correct one.
6-5 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 72/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
INDICATED HEIGHT 4.000 FT
TRUE HEIGHT 3,850 FT
SUBSCALE
SETTING
1010
TRUE MSL PRESSURE 1005 mb
Figure 6.10. Barometric Error.
b) Temperature error - The altimeter is calibrated in accordance with the ICAO [SA. If
the temperature is other than that in the lSA, the altimeter will be in error. Corrected
altitude is calculated by using a navigational computer, or a correction table. HI-LO-HI
will still apply. An example ofa temperature error correction is shown:
ALTIMETER TEMPERATURE ERROR CORRECTION
a) Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate true altitude under ISA conditions. Any
deviation from ISA will result in erroneous readings.
b) When temperatures are less than ISA an aircraft will be lower than the altimeter
reading.
c) The error is proportional to the difference between actual and lSA temperature, and the
vertical distance or the aircraft above the altimeter setting datum, i.e. height above
touchdown. The error is approximately 4 ft/I OOO tt for each °C of difference.
d) To ensure adequate obstacle clearance on approach add figure in body of table to
calculated DH/MDH.
6-6 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 73/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
ISA TEMP HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN OR HEIGHT ABOVE AERODROME IN
DEVIATION FEET
'C200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
-15 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
-25 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-35 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140
-45 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180
-55 44 66 88 110 132 154 176 198 220
-65 52 78 104 130 156182
208234 260
QUESTIONS ON ALTIMETRY. For all of the following questions assume that 1mb=27ft.
An aircraft is at an airfield with an elevation of 350 fl. The altimeter setting is 1002, but the
actual QNH is 993. What is the altimeter reading? Assume that I mb = 27ft.
2. An aircraft is on an airfield, elevation 190 ft and has an altimeter reading or70 fI with a
setting of 1005. What is the actual QNH?
3. What is the altimeter reading if the setting is 978, rho QNH 993 and the airfield elevation
770ft?
4. The regional pressure setting is 1012, the altimeter setting is 1022 and the indicated altitude
is 4100 ft. Ahead is some high ground shown on the map as being at 3700 ft. Willthe
aircraft clear the high ground, and if so, by how much?
6-7 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 74/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 75/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
Altimetry Questions
An aircraft is flying at 3000 feet indicated with the altimeter sub scale set to 1020 rub
towards a mountain range with an elevation of 1600 feet. Ifduring theflight
the QNH in thearea falls to 989 mb and the altimeter sub scale is not reset, the expected clearance over the
mountain range will be: (assume 27 feet = I rub)
a) 1400 ft
b) 470 F t
c) 930 ft
d) 563 n
2. When flying towards a depression at a constant indicated altitude, the true altitude will be:
a) Lower than indicated.
b) Higher than indicated.
c) The same as indicated.
d) Lower than indicated at first then the same as indicated later.
3. The name given to the lowest forecast mean sea level pressure in an area is:
a) QFE
b) Regional QNH
c) QFF
d) QNE
4. The Altimeter will always read
a) With 1013setthealtitudeaboveMSL
b) With airfield QNH set the height above the airfield datum
c) The vertical distance above the pressure level set
d) the correct flight level with regional QFE set.
5. An aircraft at airfield P elevation 270 ft has the airfield QNH 1012 mbs correctly set. The
altimeter setting is not changed. Later on landing at airfield Q elevation 450 ft the aircraft
altimeter reads 531 fl. What is the correct QNH at airfield Q? (Assume 27 ft = 1mb)
a) 1014.7 mbs
b) 1009.3 mbs
c) 1015mbs
d) 1009 mbs
6 -11 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 76/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
6. The altimeter subscale is set to 1030 mbs and the altimeter reads 4500'. QNH is 996 mbs
What is the altitude of the aircraft? (Assume I mb = 27')
a) 3480'b) 3990'
c) 5418'
d) 3582'
7. An aircraft flies over high ground 4730 metres' above rnsl. The track is 1400M and the QNH
995 mbs. The required clearance is a minimum of 1500' What is the minimum flight level
in cloud? (Assume I mb=27')
a) 175
b) 195
c) 190
d) 215
An aircraft, flying at FL 100 at a constant RAS, flies from an area ofwann air into an area of
cold air. The QNH is unchanged. How has the aircraft altitude and TAS changed?
Altitude TAS
a) decreased increased
b) Increased increased
c) decreased decreased
d) Increased decreased
An aircraft flies on a track of356°M over high ground which rises to 4693 metres above msl.
Drift is 10° Port and the regional QNH 993 mbs. The aircraft is required to clear this high
ground by 1500'. What is the minimum quadrantal rules flight level? (Assume [ mb=27')
a) FL 210
b) FL 205
c) FL 190
d) FL 185
[0 QNH at Johannesburg is [025 hPa, elevation is [600m amsl. What is the QFE. (Assume I
mb=8tn)
a) IOOO.8'Pa
b) 830.6 hPa
c) 1002hPa
d) 825 hPa
6 -12 © Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 77/495
METEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY
11. When flying from Paris (QNH 1012) to London (QNH 1015) at FL 100. You neglect to reset
your altimeter but why does your true altitude remain the same throughout the flight.
a) Paris has a higher pressure than Londonb) The air at London is warmer than Paris
c) London is at a lower altitude than Paris
d) The air at Paris is warmer than London
12. An airfield in Holland is 20m below sea level, QFF is 1020 hPa, temperature at the surface is
+30"C. What is the value ofQNH.
a) impossible to determine
b) Less than 1020 hpa
c) Same as QFF
d) More than 1020 hPa
6 -13 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 78/495
METEOROLOGY
ANSWERS
Ques Answers
I 0
2 A
3 8
4 C
5 0
6 0
7 B
8 C
9 0
10 0
II 0
12 B
6 -14
ALTIMETRY
© Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 79/495
CHAPTER SEVEN - TEMPERATURE
Contents
Page
7.1 INTRODUCTION .7- I
7.2 MEASUREMENT 7 - I
7.3 INSTRUMENTS. 7-2
7.4 HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE 7-4
7.5 TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH HEIGHT 7 -7
7.6 LAPSE RATE 7-7
7.7 INVERSIONS .7-7
7.8 SURF ACE TEMPERATURE. .7 - 8
TEMPERATURE QUESTIONS 7 -18
© Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 80/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the important variables in the atmosphere is temperature. The study of temperature
variation. both horizontally and vertically has considerable significance in the study ofmeteorology.
7.2 MEASUREMENT
There arc three scales which may be used to measure temperature though only Celsius and
Kelvin arc used in meteorology. The ligures show the melting point oficc and the boiling point
ofwater (nr STP) in each scale.
a) The FAHRENHEIT scale: +3210 +2 12degrees.
b) The CELSIUS (or Centigrade) scale: 0 10 + 100 degrees.
c) The KELVIN (or Absolute) scale: +273 to +373 degrees.
Conversion factors:
(.56)
(1.8)
K = °CI 273
7 -1 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 81/495
METEOROLOGY
7.3 INSTRUMENTS
The standard means of measurement on
the ground is a mercury thermometerplaced in a Stevenson Screen. Electrical
resistence thermometers may be used
where the Screen is nor readily accessible
to the observer.
TEMPERATURE
Figure 7.1. The Stevenson Screen.
A Thermograph (similar in its output to a Barograph) will also be found inside the screen. The
Stevenson Screen is a louvred box 4 feet (1.22m) above the ground. This screen, shown in
Figure 7.1, is used worldwide.
Figure 7.2. Thermograph.
7-2 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 82/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
Upper air temperatures (Ire taken using a Radiosonde, shown in Figure 7.5, - a device
transmitting continuous readings of temperature, pressure and humidity whilst being carried
aloft beneath a balloon. Rate of climb is 1200 fpm and maximum ceiling between 65,000 and
115,000 n.
,
•
BALLOON
RADAR
REFLECTOR
RADIOSONDE
Figure 7.3. A Radiosonde.
GROUND RADAR
•t , \ ,
~
Aircraft readings, though often the only way in which atmospheric temperature may be measured
over the oceans and other areas far away from meteorological stations, are notus accurate as they
arc affected by compressibility and lag. The electrical thermometer will give a digital readout
oftcmpcruturc and this can be automatically calibrated and transmitted on some modem aircraft.
" ' _ " ' ~ - - = - ,~ ,..,~ ~, ~ . . _ ~~. - - . . . . .
t;t-----_;___.,~ 'C
- - > . /
/
Figure 7.4. Electrical Thermometer
7-3 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 83/495
METEOROLOGY
7.4 HEATING OF THEATMOSPHERE
TEMPERATURE
The atmosphere is heated by 5 different processes:
a) Solar Radiation. Radiation [TOm the sun is of Short wave-length ( / 0 . . ) and passes
through the atmosphere almost without heating it at all.
A~ 0.151Q 4 microns (micron
Some solar radiation is
reflected back to the
upper air from cloudtops and from water
surfaces on the earth.
The rest of this radiation
heals the earths surface.
The process whereby the
surface is heated by solar
radiation is called
insolation
b) Terrestrial Radiation.
106m)
microns, peaking < I t 10
The earth radiates heat at all times. It is relatively long wave radiation A"" 4 to 80
Figure 7.5, Solar Radiation.
lt is absorbed and then
retransmitted us heat by
the water vapour and
C02 in the
atmosphere. This
retransmission of heat to
the surrounding air is
the main method by
which the atmosphere is
heated and explains why
the atmosphere reduces
in temperature with an
increase in height. It is
heated from below -
hence there is a lapse
rate.Figure 7.6. Terrestrial Radiation.
7-4 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 84/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
c) Conduction. Air lying in contact with the earths surface by day will be heated by
conduction. AI night air in contact with the earths surface will be cooled by
conduction. Because of the air's poor conductivity, the air at a higher level will remain
at the same temperature as during the day and an inversion will result.
Figure 7.7. Conduction.
d) Convection. Air heated by conduction will be less dense and will therefore risco This
will produce up currents called thermals or convection currents. These will takethe warm air to the upper levels, thus helping to heat the upper atmosphere.
Figure 7.B. Convection Currents.
7-5 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 85/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
e) Condensation. As the air is lifted it will cool by adiabatic process and the water
vapour in the air will condense out as visible droplets forming cloud. As this occurs
latent heat will be released by the water vapour and this will heat the atmosphere.
WATER VAPOUR RISES
t t ~ t t
Figure 7.9 Latent Heat being released through
Condensation.
Figure 7.10. Heat Processes in the Atmosphere.
7-6 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 86/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
7.5 TEMPERATURE VARIA TlON WITH HEIGHT
We have seen thai although our source of
heat is the sun, because of the
atmosphere's virtual transparency to
insolation, it is in fact heated (by long
wave TR) from the surface upwards.
TEMPERATURE
Thus as we move further and further from
the surface we would expect the heating
effects to diminish.
Figure 7.11. Temperature Variation with
Height
7. 6 LAPSE RATE
The rate at which temperature falls with an increase in height is called the Lapse Rate. An ideal
uniform atmosphere would show a constant lapse rate rather like the ISA, which is 1.98°C (2°)
per 1000ft .
7.7 ISOTHERM
If temperature remains constant with height it is called an isothermal layer.
7.8 INVERSIONS
Where the temperature increases with an increase in height, then we have what is called an
inversion. We have already seen that at night we can expect an inversion above the surface, but
this can occur in many different ways.
Radiation, on a night of clear skies, will also result in a temperature inversion above the surface.
This is called a Radiation Inversion.
When we look at cloud formation, we shall see that because of turbulence in the layer closest
to the surface we can have an inversion at a height of 2 or 3 thousand feet.
Quite often, at the tropopause instead of the temp. remaining constant, it may show a slight rise
for a few thousand feet.
At the higher levels of the stratosphere, temp. will show an increase with height (in ISA from
65,617ft temperature increases at a rate of 0.3°/1 OOOft).
7-7 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 87/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
In.a high pressure system, air descends at the centre. As the air descends it will be heated
adiabatically (more of this later) and will be warmer than the air at a lower level. This is called
a Subsidence Inversion.
l-IomI
TEMPERATURE
7.9 SURFACE TEMPERATURE
Figure 7.12. Inversions.
The surface air temperature measured in a Stevenson Screen is subject to considerable
variations: Latitude Effect. Seasonal Effect, Diurnal Variation and multiple effects due to cloud
and wind.
a) The angular elevation of the sun.
i) Latitude Effect. At the equator
only a small area is affected by
the suns rays and therefore will
be subject to the greatest
heat/unit area. At the poles the
SUIlS fays will cover a larger area
and there will be the least
heat/unit area. The actualdistance of polar regions from the
sun is only fractionally more than
that from the equator, and the
effect may be ignored. Figure 7.13. The Effect of Latitude.
lOW LATITUDE
SMALL AREA
7 - 8 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 88/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
ii) . Seasonal Effect. On thep~(~~~1;~12
and 23 Septe~~?'~;J\I~~:,y~rnalnd
Autumnal Equinoxes) the sun is
directly overhead the equator andmaximum heating occurs. On 21
June" ;tb~_ sun:i~. overhead the
T J j p i c "'0'[ C ~ r i c - e rand maximum
heating will occur there. 111the
Northern hemisphere the
temperature will increase as the
sun moves north and decrease as it
moves South, reaching minimum
about 23 December
Figure 7.14. The Seasonal Effect.
b) TimeofDay(Diurnal Variation).
i) The sun is at its highest elevation at noon, but for two to three hours after this time,
the earth is receiving more solar radiation than it is giving up as terrestrial radiation
(Thermal Inertia). As a result temperature is highest at about 15:00 (Tmax).
ii) From 15:00 onwards, the temperature falls continuously until a little after sunrise. The
lowest temperature occurs at about 0500 (T min) C.
iii) Diurnal Variation is greatest with clear skies and little wind. DV varies with a number
offactors, but in temperate latitudes is about ± 6 degrees about the mean.
JUST AFTER
SUNRISEMINIMUM
TEMPERATURE
, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,: '" ....... DIURNAL VARIATION IN I
, -,.-.,-.,-, -' -,,- CLEAR.CALM CONDITION~
! . . . _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,[ " , - , , - , , - , , - , - , , - , , - ' - " O i U ' R ' N A - L " V A ' R I ' A T i c i N - w i T H :, -- .. CLOUD COVER OR STRON"
L .. _ ,_ ,, _ ._ . . _ . ._ ._ . ._ _ .~ .I~ .I?._._.._. ._.._._._.._._.._.j
0000 1200 1800 2400
Figure 7.15. Diurnal Variation.
7-9 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 89/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
some ofthe solar
1. Cloud cover by
day. By day
radiation isreflected back by
the cloud tops
and T Max is
reduced.
Figure 7.16. Cloud Cover by Day
Figure 7.17. Cloud Cover by Night.
2. Cloud cover by night. By night terrestrial radiation is absorbed and radiated back to
the earth's surface from the clouds. T min is increased.
Note.
The so called greenhouse effect has a similar affect upon temperature as that of cloud
cover by night but is generated differently in that long wave radiation f r 0 1 1 1 the Earth
heats up the large quantities of carbon dioxide trapped in the lower levels of the
atmosphere. This process continues day or night and is said to be leading to an overall
increase in atmospheric temperature.
7 -10 © Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 90/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 91/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
In summary. wind on cloud cover will cause T max to be reduced and T min 10be increased.
Therefore DV will be reduced
5. DV over sea. As the Specific Heat (SH) of water is unity, compared to othersubstances whose SH is much less, and as the temperature rise is inversely
proportional to the Specific Heat, the temperature rise and fall over the sea is srnall,
generally less than 1°C.
c) Nature of the Surface.
i) Sea. The sea takes a long time to heat (and cool) and as we have seen has a
very small DV.
The difference in DV values between land and sea is the cause of sea breezes,
The minimal DV of sea temperature is the reason why the most common form
of fog, radiation fog, never fonns over the sea.
When the angular elevation of the sun is low, much solar radiation is reflected
back to the atmosphere.
Figure 7.20. Diurnal Variation Over the Sea.
7 -12 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 92/495
~1 §ill
~f-
'5ill
g >~»,
;: ?~c I'-r oill
:;;
N
, . . :
~CO
u :
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 93/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 94/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 95/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
e) Origin of air supply. Air tends to retain its temperature and humidity for a
considerable time, therefore air from high latitudes will bring lower temperatures to
UK for example. A southerly wind, however, will normally provide an increase in
temperature.
Figure 7.25 Origin of Air Supply
7 -16 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 96/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
Temperature Questions
1. The measurement of surface rcrnperature is made:
a) at ground level
b) at approximately 10 metres from ground level
c) at approximately 4 feet above ground level
d) at approximately 4 metres above ground level
2. The purpose of a "Stevenson Screen" is to:
a) maintain a moist atmosphere so that the wei bulb thermometer can function correctly
b) to prevent the mercury freezing in the [ow winter temperatures
c) protect the thermometer from wind, weather and from direct sunshine
d) keep the wet and dry bulb thermometers away from surface extremes of temperature
lf rernperature remains constant with an increase in altitude there- is:
a) an inversion
b) an inversion aloft
c) uniformlapse rule
d) an isothermal layer
4. The surface of the earth is heated by:
a) convection
b) conduction
c) long wave solar radiation
d) short wave solar radiation
5. Cloud cover will reduce diurnal variation of temperature because:
a) incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space and outgoing terrestrial radiation is
reflected back to earth
b) incoming solar radiation is re-radiated back to space and atmospheric heating ·by
convection will stop at the level of the cloud layer
c) the cloud stops the suns rays getting through to the earth and also reduces outgoing
conduction
d) incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space and outgoing terrestrial radiation is
re-radiated from the cloud layer baek to the surface
7 -17 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 97/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
6. Diurnal variation ofthe surface temperature will:
a) be unaffected by a change of wind speed
b) decrease as wind speed increasesc) increase as wind speed increases
d) be at a minimum in calm conditions
Which of the following surfaces is likely to produce a higher than average diurnal variation of
temperature:
a) rock or concrete
b) water
c) SIlOW
d) vegetation
8. Most accurate temperatures above ground level are obtained by:
a) tephigram
b) aircraft reports
c) temperature probe
d) radio sonde
The method by which energy is transferred from one body to another by contact is called:
a] radiation
b) convection
c) conduction
d) latent hea t
[0. The diurnal variation of temperature is:
a) greater over the sea than overland
b) less over desert areas then over temperate grassland
c) reduced anywhere by the presence of cloud
d) increased anywhere as wind speed increases
1 1 The troposphere is heated largely by:
a) absorption of the sun's short wave radiation
b) radiation of heat from cloud tops and the earth's surface
c) absorption by ozone of the sun's short wave radiation
d) conduction from the surface, convection and the release of latent heat
7 -18 © Oxford Aviation Services limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 98/495
METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE
12 An inversion is one in which:
a) there is no horizontal gradient of temperature
b) there is no change of temperature with height
c) there is an increase of temperature as height increases
d) there is a decrease of temperature as height increases
13. The sun gives OU\ amount of energy with wavelengths.
The earth gives out relatively amounts of energy with reiatively _
wavelengths:
a) Large, large, small, small.
b) Small, small, large. large.
c) Large, large, small, large.
d) Large, small, small, large.
14. With a clear night sky, the temperature change with height by early morning is mostlikely to
show:
a) A steady lapse rare averaging 2 C per 1000 ft.
b) A stable lapse rate o r I C per 1000 ft.c) An inversion above the surface with an isothermal layer above.
d) An inversion [rom Ileal' the surface and a 2 C per 1000 ft lapse rate above.
15. Over continents and oceans, the relative temperature conditions are:
a) Wanner in winter over land, colder in summer over sea
b) Colder in winter over land, warmer in winter over sea.
c) Cold in winter over land and sea,
d) Wanner in summer over land and sea.
7 -19 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 99/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 100/495
CHAPTER EIGHT - HUMII)ITY
Contents
Page
8 - 1
8 - 1
.... 8-1
.. 8-1
8-
8 - 2
8 - 2
..... 8 - 2
8 - 3
8.10 DRY-BULB AND WET-BULB HYGROMETER OR PSYCHROMETER 8 - 4
8.11 DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE .8 - 4
8.12 DIURNAL VARIA nON OF HUMIDITY .... 8 - 5
8. I DEFINITION OF LATENT HEAT
8.2 EVAPORATION .
8.3 SATURATION
8.4 CONDENSA TlON
8.5 FREEZING
8.6 MELTING
8.7 SUBLIMATION
8.8 HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
8.9 WET BULB TEMPERATURE .
HUMIDITY QUESTIONS. 8-7
© Oxfo rd Aviation Serv ices Lim ited
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 101/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 102/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 103/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 104/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 105/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 106/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 107/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 108/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 109/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 110/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 111/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 112/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 113/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 114/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 115/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 116/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 117/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 118/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 119/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 120/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 121/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 122/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 123/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 124/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 125/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 126/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 127/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 128/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 129/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 130/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 131/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 132/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 133/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 134/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 135/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 136/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 137/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 138/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 139/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 140/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 141/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 142/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 143/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 144/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 145/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 146/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 147/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 148/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 149/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 150/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 151/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 152/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 153/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 154/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 155/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 156/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 157/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 158/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 159/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 160/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 161/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 162/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 163/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 164/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 165/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 166/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 167/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 168/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 169/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 170/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 171/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 172/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 173/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 174/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 175/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 176/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 177/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 178/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 179/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 180/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 181/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 182/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 183/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 184/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 185/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 186/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 187/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 188/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 189/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 190/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 191/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 192/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 193/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 194/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 195/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 196/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 197/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 198/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 199/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 200/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 201/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 202/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 203/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 204/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 205/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 206/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 207/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 208/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 209/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 210/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 211/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 212/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 213/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 214/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 215/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 216/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 217/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 218/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 219/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 220/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 221/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 222/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 223/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 224/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 225/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 226/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 227/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 228/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 229/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 230/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 231/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 232/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 233/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 234/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 235/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 236/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 237/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 238/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 239/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 240/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 241/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 242/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 243/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 244/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 245/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 246/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 247/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 248/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 249/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 250/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 251/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 252/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 253/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 254/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 255/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 256/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 257/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 258/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 259/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 260/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 261/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 262/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 263/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 264/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 265/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 266/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 267/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 268/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 269/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 270/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 271/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 272/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 273/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 274/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 275/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 276/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 277/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 278/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 279/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 280/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 281/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 282/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 283/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 284/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 285/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 286/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 287/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 288/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 289/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 290/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 291/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 292/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 293/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 294/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 295/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 296/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 297/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 298/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 299/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 300/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 301/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 302/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 303/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 304/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 305/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 306/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 307/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 308/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 309/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 310/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 311/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 312/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 313/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 314/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 315/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 316/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 317/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 318/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 319/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 320/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 321/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 322/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 323/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 324/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 325/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 326/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 327/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 328/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 329/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 330/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 331/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 332/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 333/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 334/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 335/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 336/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 337/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 338/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 339/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 340/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 341/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 342/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 343/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 344/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 345/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 346/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 347/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 348/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 349/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 350/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 351/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 352/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 353/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 354/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 355/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 356/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 357/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 358/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 359/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 360/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 361/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 362/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 363/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 364/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 365/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 366/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 367/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 368/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 369/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 370/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 371/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 372/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 373/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 374/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 375/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 376/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 377/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 378/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 379/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 380/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 381/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 382/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 383/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 384/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 385/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 386/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 387/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 388/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 389/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 390/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 391/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 392/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 393/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 394/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 395/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 396/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 397/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 398/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 399/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 400/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 401/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 402/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 403/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 404/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 405/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 406/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 407/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 408/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 409/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 410/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 411/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 412/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 413/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 414/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 415/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 416/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 417/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 418/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 419/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 420/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 421/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 422/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 423/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 424/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 425/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 426/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 427/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 428/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 429/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 430/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 431/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 432/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 433/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 434/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 435/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 436/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 437/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 438/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 439/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 440/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 441/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 442/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 443/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 444/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 445/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 446/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 447/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 448/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 449/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 450/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 451/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 452/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 453/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 454/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 455/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 456/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 457/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 458/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 459/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 460/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 461/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 462/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 463/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 464/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 465/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 466/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 467/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 468/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 469/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 470/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 471/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 472/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 473/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 474/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 475/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 476/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 477/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 478/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 479/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 480/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 481/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 482/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 483/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 484/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 485/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 486/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 487/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 488/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 489/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 490/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 491/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 492/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 493/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 494/495
8/7/2019 Oxford Aviation Jeppesen-Meteorology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/oxford-aviation-jeppesen-meteorology 495/495