p232 energy and development - soas.ac.uk

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Centre for Development, Environment and Policy

P232

Energy and Development

Written by Frauke Urban

Energy and Development Module Introduction

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ABOUT THIS MODULE

This module explores the main issues around energy and development. As 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity and 2.8 billion people rely on traditional biomass for basic needs such as cooking and heating (IEA, n.d.), access to energy is a key development issue and is a prerequisite to achieving development goals. At the same time, energy use is closely intertwined with environmental challenges, such as climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion, air pollution and natural resource management (land, water, forests).

This module elaborates the key issues and concepts in the field of energy and development; it addresses policy responses such as the energy issues underlying the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the United Nations’ (UN) target of universal energy access. The module further outlines various options for delivering energy access (both low carbon and fossil fuel based) and their environmental, socioeconomic and technological implications, and how this links to contemporary global challenges in the fields of environmental management and sustainable development.

The module is highly topical and very timely as the role of energy for development is a fiercely debated topic that is receiving increasing attention due to climate change, natural resource scarcity, prevailing global poverty and policy responses to these issues at the international, regional and national level.


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STRUCTURE OF THE MODULE

The module is divided into three parts:

• Part I introduces the linkages between energy and development, as well as providing a brief overview of the environmental implications of energy use (Unit 1). In Units 2–6, key issues and concepts of energy and development are explored, such as energy use, demand, supply, energy systems in different countries and different contexts, and energy transitions from traditional biomass to fossil fuels to low carbon energy. The units also include a critical discussion of concepts such as the energy ladder, fuel switching and the environmental Kuznets curve in theory and practice.

• Part II explores the social, environmental, economic and technological implications of energy and development (Units 7–14). This part looks in detail at the energy–poverty–climate nexus, the role of reducing energy poverty and increasing energy access for the UN’s target of universal energy access, the link between energy use and climate change, technological advances in energy technology and issues of technology transfer. Finally, methods of financing universal energy access and low-carbon energy transitions are considered.

• Part III presents some policy responses to energy poverty and critically discusses how they can be implemented in practice (Unit 15).

Part I The linkages between energy and development

(1) Energy, poverty and development: the challenges (2) Energy use and energy systems in different countries and contexts (3) Energy transitions: from traditional biomass to fossil fuels to low carbon energy (4) Sectoral energy needs and household energy (5) Concepts of energy and development (6) The energy–poverty–climate nexus

Part II The implications of energy and development

(7) The health implications of energy use (8) The social implications of energy and development (9) Environmental implications: Energy use and climate change

(10) Environmental implications: Natural resource depletion and air pollution (11) The economics of energy supply and universal energy access (12) Financing a low carbon energy transition (13) Technology for energy and development: fossil fuels (14) Technology for energy and development: low carbon energy and energy

efficiency

Part III Overcoming energy poverty

(15) Policy responses to energy poverty


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WHAT YOU WILL LEARN

Module Aims

The module is aimed at postgraduate students and professionals from a range of disciplinary and professional backgrounds who realise a need to understand more about energy and development for their existing work or for branching out into new fields. It provides a foundational understanding of core social, environmental, technological, economic and policy issues on which students can develop subsequent more specialised interests, knowledge and skills.

The specific aims of the module are:

• To promote students’ understanding of the relationships between energy and development, as well as between energy and poverty.

• To promote students’ understanding of key issues and concepts in the field of energy and development from a theoretical and practical perspective.

• To provide an understanding of how energy production, use and supply contribute to environmental challenges, such as global climate change, peak oil, natural resource depletion and air pollution.

• To enable students to apply this understanding to policy analysis, design and implementation tasks, particularly with regard to delivering energy access (both low carbon and fossil fuel based), and their environmental, socioeconomic and technological implications.

• To provide a foundation from which students’ understanding of energy and development can be maintained as the understanding of energy and poverty, related sciences, social practices and policy change.

Module Learning Outcomes

By the end of this module, students should be able to:

• understand the links and recognise interdependencies between energy and development, as well as between energy and poverty

• critically discuss the key issues and concepts in the field of energy and development from a theoretical and practical perspective

• demonstrate understanding of how energy production, use and supply contribute to environmental challenges, such as global climate change, peak oil, natural resource depletion and air pollution

• critically discuss various options for delivering energy access (both low carbon and fossil fuel based), and their environmental, socioeconomic and technological implications

• be familiar with and interpret national and international policy responses to energy poverty such as the energy target of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the UN’s target of universal energy access (SE4All).


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ASSESSMENT

This module is assessed by:

• a 1000-word commentary and peer discussion on a key reading, and assessment of the commentaries of two other students (10%)

• an examined assignment (EA) worth 40%

• a written examination in worth 50%.

Since the EA is an element of the formal examination process, please note the following:

(a) The EA questions and submission date will be available on the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE).

(b) The EA is submitted by uploading it to the VLE.

(c) The EA is marked by the module tutor and students will receive a percentage mark and feedback.

(d) Answers submitted must be entirely the student’s own work and not a product of collaboration. For this reason, the VLE is not an appropriate forum for queries about the EA.

(e) Plagiarism is a breach of regulations. To ensure compliance with the specific University of London regulations, all students are advised to read the guidelines on referencing the work of other people. For more detailed information, see the FAQ on the VLE.


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STUDY MATERIALS

Textbook

There is one textbook for this module.

❖ Goldemberg, J. & Lucon, O. (2009) Energy, Environment and Development. 2nd edition. Oxford, Earthscan, Routledge.

This book covers the key environmental, social, economic and technological issues related to energy and development. It thereby provides a comprehensive foundation for the module.

Individual units of the module make reference to specific sections of the textbook as Readings, but students are encouraged to read other parts too, as complementary and optional Further Readings.

For each of the module units, the following are provided.

Key Study Materials

Key readings are drawn mainly from the textbooks, relevant academic journals and internationally respected reports. They are provided to add breadth and depth to the unit materials and are required reading as they contain material on which you may be examined. Readings are supplied as digital copies and ebooks via the SOAS Online Library. For information on how to access the Library, please see the VLE.

For some units, multimedia links have also been provided. You will be invited to access these as part of an exercise or activity within the unit, and to discuss their implications with other students and the tutor.

Further Study Materials

These texts and multimedia are not always provided, but weblinks have been included where possible. Further Study Materials are NOT examinable; they are included to enable you to pursue your own areas of interest.

In addition, the four Further Readings listed below will be useful for the whole module.

IEA. (2010) World Energy Outlook 2010. Energy Poverty: How to Make Modern Energy Access Universal? Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from: http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2010/weo2010_poverty.pdf

This is an insightful report about the current status of energy poverty and energy access issues in the developing world. It raises key challenges and offers some solutions of how to overcome energy poverty.

http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2010/weo2010_poverty.pdf


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IEA. (2011) World Energy Outlook 2011. Energy for All: Financing Access for the Poor. Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from: http://www.iea.org/media/weowebsite/energydevelopment/weo2011_energy_for_all.pdf

This useful report addresses the financial perspectives of providing energy access for all by 2030 (in line with the UN’s sustainable energy for all initiative SE4All). It emphasises the need for decentralised, renewable energy options as a means of providing modern energy access for the world’s poor.

Sagar, A.D. (2005) Alleviating energy poverty for the world's poor. Energy Policy, 33 (11), 367–1372.

Bhattacharyya, S.C. (2012) Energy access programmes and sustainable development: A critical review and analysis. Energy for Sustainable Development, 16 (3), 260–271.

References

Each unit contains a full list of all material cited in the text. All references cited in the unit text are listed in the relevant units. However, this is primarily a matter of good academic practice: to show where points made in the text can be substantiated. Students are not expected to consult these references as part of their study of this module.

Self-Assessment Questions

There is a set of Self-Assessment Questions at the end of each section within a unit. It is important that you work through all of these. Their purpose is threefold:

• to check your understanding of basic concepts and ideas

• to verify your ability to execute technical procedures in practice

• to develop your skills in interpreting the results of empirical analysis.

In addition, you will find Unit Self-Assessment Questions at the end of each unit, which aim to help you assess your broader understanding of the unit material. Answers to the Self-Assessment Questions are provided in the Answer Booklet.

In-text Questions

This icon invites you to answer a question for which an answer is provided. Try not to look at the answer immediately; first write down what you think is a reasonable answer to the question before reading on. This is equivalent to lecturers asking a question of their class and using the answers as a springboard for further explanation.

http://www.iea.org/media/weowebsite/energydevelopment/weo2011_energy_for_all.pdf


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In-text Activities

This symbol invites you to halt and consider an issue or engage in a practical activity.

Key Terms and Concepts

At the end of each unit you are provided with a list of Key Terms and Concepts which have been introduced in the unit. The first time these appear in the study guide they are Bold Italicised. Some key terms are very likely to be used in examination questions, and an explanation of the meaning of relevant key terms will nearly always gain you credit in your answers.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

As you progress through the module you may need to check unfamiliar acronyms that are used. A full list of these is provided for you in your study guide.


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TUTORIAL SUPPORT

There are two opportunities for receiving support from tutors during your study. These opportunities involve:

(a) participating in the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)

(b) completing the examined assignment (EA).

Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)

The Virtual Learning Environment provides an opportunity for you to interact with other students and tutors. A discussion forum is provided through which you can post questions regarding any study topic that you have difficulty with, or for which you require further clarification. You can also discuss more general issues on the News Forum within the CeDEP Programme Area.


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INDICATIVE STUDY CALENDAR

Part/unit Unit title Study time

(300 hours)

Study week

(16 weeks) Part I The Linkages Between Energy and Development

Unit 1 Energy, Poverty and Development: The Challenges 15 1

Unit 2 Energy use and Energy Systems in Different Countries and Contexts

15 2

Unit 3 Energy Transitions: From Traditional Biomass to Fossil Fuels to Low Carbon Energy

15 3

Assessment Critical Commentary and Peer Assessment 10 3—4

Unit 4 Sectoral Energy Needs and Household Energy 15 4

Unit 5 Concepts of Energy and Development 15 5

Unit 6 The Energy—Poverty—Climate Nexus 15 6

Part II Implications of Energy and Development

Unit 7 The Health Implications of Energy Use 15 7

Unit 8 The Social Implications of Energy and Development 15 8

Assessment Examined Assignment 25 9

Unit 9 Environmental Implications: Energy Use and Climate Change

20 10

Unit 10 Environmental Implications: Natural Resource Depletion and Air Pollution

15 11

Unit 11 The Economics of Energy Supply and Universal Energy Access

15 12

Unit 12 Financing Low Carbon Energy Transitions 15 13

Unit 13 Technology for Energy and Development: Fossil Fuels 15 14

Unit 14 Technology for Energy and Development: Low Carbon Energy and Energy Efficiency

20 15

Part III Overcoming energy poverty

Unit 15 Policy Responses to Energy Poverty 15 16

Assessment Revision and examination 40 After end of study session

REFERENCE IEA. (n.d.) Statistics. Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA. Available from:

http://www.iea.org/statistics/ [Accessed 23 March 2018]

http://www.iea.org/statistics/

Unit One: Energy, Poverty and Development:

The Challenges

Unit Information 2 Unit Overview 2 Unit Learning Aims 2 Unit Learning Outcomes 2 Unit Interdependencies 2

Key Study Materials 3

1.0 The link between energy and development 4 Section Overview 4 Section Learning Outcomes 4 1.1 What is energy? 4 1.2 What is development? 5 1.3 Energy and development 7 1.4 Energy and poverty 10 Section 1 Self-Assessment Questions 12

2.0 Dealing with energy poverty 13 Section Overview 13 Section Learning Outcomes 13 2.1 Measuring energy poverty 13 2.2 Policy and practice for overcoming energy poverty 17 Section 2 Self-Assessment Questions 20

3.0 Energy and environmental problems 21 Section Overview 21 Section Learning Outcomes 24 3.1 Energy and climate change 21 3.2 Energy and other environmental problems 23 Section 3 Self-Assessment Questions 30

Unit Summary 28

Unit Self-Assessment Questions 29

Key Terms and Concepts 30

Further Study Materials 33

References 35

Energy and Development Unit 1

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UNIT INFORMATION

Unit Overview

This unit will be an introduction to energy and development. The unit will first define

what energy is and discuss why it is needed. The unit will then discuss the link between

energy and development, the challenge posed by energy poverty, the scale of the

problem, how to define energy poverty, how to measure it and some of the options in

policy and practice for reducing energy poverty and providing energy access. The unit

will then discuss how energy use is closely intertwined with climate change, fossil fuel

resource depletion and air pollution. Energy use has, therefore, become a national and

global challenge. Understanding these issues is vital for understanding how policymakers,

institutions and individuals manage energy and development, and how some of the

biggest developmental and environmental issues of our times could be solved.

Unit Learning Aims

• To provide overviews and definitions of key terms and ideas for this module,

including ‘energy’, ‘development’ and ‘energy poverty’.

• To present a discussion of the link between energy and development.

• To highlight the challenges of energy poverty and energy access.

• To discuss how energy use is intertwined with global environmental challenges

such as climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion and air pollution.

Unit Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

• define key terms and ideas, including ‘energy’, ‘development’ and ‘energy

poverty’

• understand how energy and development are linked

• state the challenges of energy poverty and energy access

• critically elaborate how energy use is intertwined with global environmental

challenges such as climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion and air

pollution.

Unit Interdependencies

This unit provides introductory material that underpins Units 2–15, although it is of

particular relevance to Units 2–10, in which key issues relating to energy, development

and poverty will be elaborated, in addition to the social and environmental implications

of energy use. This unit also presents a brief overview that is of relevance to

understanding the material presented in Units 11–15.


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KEY STUDY MATERIALS

Sections 1 and 2

Goldemberg, J. & Lucon, O. (2009) Energy, Environment and Development. 2nd edition. Oxford, Earthscan, Routledge.

Section 2 (pp. 3–34) of the book gives an overview of what energy is and some of the

physical science background to understanding the concept of energy.

Section 4 (pp. 45–64) of the book provides a useful overview of different sources of

energy.

Section 5 (pp. 65–100) provides a good discussion of how energy and development are

linked. Section 5 takes into account income issues, the Human Development Index

(HDI) and other concepts that will be elaborated throughout this module.

You are not expected to read the entire book, nor the entire sections mentioned above.

Please do, however, read the sections ‘The concept of energy’ and ‘power’ in Section 2

(pp. 3–15), the section ‘Classification of energy sources’ in Section 4 (pp. 45–49) and

the sections the ‘Energy and development’ (p. 65–76), ‘Human Development Index

(HDI)’ (pp. 85–89) and ‘The relationship for energy and development’ (pp. 90–93).

Section 3

Goldemberg, J. & Lucon, O. (2009) Energy, Environment and Development. 2nd

edition. Oxford, Earthscan, Routledge.

Section 6 (pp. 101–181) of the book gives an overview of the environmental impacts of

energy production and use. These issues will be elaborated in more detail throughout

this module.

Section 8 (pp. 243–336) provides detailed information about technical solutions to the

environmental problems caused by energy production and use. These issues will be

elaborated in more detail throughout this module.

You are not expected to read the entire book, nor the entire sections mentioned above.

Please do however read the sections ‘Environmental impacts due to energy production

and use’ (pp. 101–107) and ‘Global aspects: the greenhouse effect’ (pp. 139–166) in

Section 6. You may also want to read the section ‘Renewable energies’ (pp. 257–281) in

Section 8, although this will be covered in more detail in later units.


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1.0 THE LINK BETWEEN ENERGY AND DEVELOPMENT

Section Overview

This section presents overviews and definitions of some key terms and issues: energy

and development and energy poverty. It discusses the link between energy and

development, as well as the link between energy and poverty. Knowledge of these

issues is vital to understanding how policymakers, institutions and individuals manage

energy and development and how some of the biggest developmental issues of our time

could be solved.

Section Learning Outcomes

By the end of this section students should be able to:

define key terms and ideas, including ‘energy’, ‘development’ and ‘energy

poverty’

understand how energy and development are linked.

1.1 What is energy?

Define the term ‘energy’.

Energy is a physical term that describes the capacity of a physical system to perform

work. Energy exists in several forms, such as thermal energy (heat), radiant energy

(light), mechanical energy (kinetic), electric energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy or

gravitational energy. There is also a difference between potential energy that is being

stored, such as the water in the reservoir of a hydropower dam, and kinetic or working

energy, such as the energy produced when the water is released and the turbines are

operating (Cutnell & Johnson, 2012).

Energy is also a physical unit. It is usually measured in Joules (J).

In physics, the law of conservation of energy suggests that within a closed system the

total energy remains constant and cannot change. This means that energy is conserved.

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, however, it can change its form (Cutnell &

Johnson, 2012). An example is thermal energy – such as from a thermal coal-fired

power station – that is being converted into electric energy; or kinetic energy – such as

from the water of a hydropower dam that produces electric energy (Goldemberg &

Lucon, 2009).

Energy carriers and energy sources can be differentiated. Energy carriers are a

substance or system that contains potential energy than can be released and used as

actual energy in the form of mechanical work, heat or to operate chemical and physical

processes. For example, energy carriers include batteries, coal, dammed water,

electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, petrol and wood. Energy carriers do not produce

energy; however, they ‘carry’ the energy until it is released.


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Energy sources can be divided in renewable and non-renewable energy sources. The

term refers to the resources that are being used for the energy, for example, coal or

wind. Renewable energy resources, such as energy from wind, the sun (solar), water

(hydropower) and biomass, are abundantly available and can be renewed over time.

Non-renewable energy sources come from resources that are finite and can be

depleted, such as fossil fuel energy resources like coal, oil and natural gas, but also

nuclear energy, such as uranium (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

We can differentiate between primary and secondary energy. Primary energy has not

been subject to any conversion or processing and contains raw fuels, such as crude oil

or solar energy. Secondary energy has been subject to conversion or processing, such

as from crude oil to petrol for powering vehicles. Another example is the conversion of

solar power to electricity (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

The next section will discuss the term development. Section 1.3 will then elaborate the

links between energy and development.

1.2 What is development?

Define the term ‘development’.

There are various definitions for development and despite its universal use; there is no

universally agreed definition. Some scholars, such as Chambers, simply define

development as ‘“good” change’ (Chambers, 1995: p. 174); others associate it with

progress and/or modernisation, or economic growth. Yet others make a distinction

between formal development, such as development aid, and development as a deeper

process of change, such as capitalism (Urban et al, 2011). Hart (2001: p. 650)

distinguishes between ‘big D’ and ‘little d’ development whereby ‘“big D” development

[is] defined as a post-second world war project of intervention in the “third world” that

emerged in the context of decolonisation and the cold war, and “little d” development

or the development of capitalism as a geographically uneven, profoundly contradictory

set of historical processes’ (cited by Urban et al, 2011: pp. 6–7; Urban & Nordensvärd,

2013: p. 10).

There are various approaches to Western development thinking, including rights-based

approaches, which focus on human rights and/or increasing the voice of marginalised

groups (Mohan & Holland, 2001; Hickey & Mohan, 2005; Urban et al, 2011). There are

human development approaches, which incorporate broader development objectives

than economic ones and aim to expand human choices and strengthen human

capabilities related to education, health and income (Jolly, 2003; Urban et al, 2011).

There are also approaches that are based on concerns for the poorest ‘bottom billion’

(Collier, 2007; Urban et al, 2011). Some approaches come from different disciplines,

such as anthropology, economics and political science, and different perspectives, such

as gender, globalisation and the environment. In other parts of the world, such as

China, different streams of non-Western development thinking prevail; these are more

related to the countries’ own experiences, culture and philosophy of development

(Urban et al, 2011; Urban & Nordensvärd, 2013).


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While humans have been concerned about economic development and social

transformation for centuries, the concept of international development and

development studies as a discipline is reported to have emerged in the late 1940s,

1950s and early 1960s. Development studies began as a post-Second World War

project in support of poorer ‘developing countries’. ‘Development’ was driven by so-

called ‘developed’ Western/Northern countries. ‘Development’ has often been accused

of paternalism and trusteeship (Cowen & Shenton, 1996; Urban et al, 2011). Back in the

1950s, development policy was dominated by the goal of achieving modernity, by an

optimist worldview, by expecting the state to play an active, positive role and by

focusing on national development (Humphrey, 2007; Urban et al, 2011; Urban &

Nordensvärd, 2013).

[Please note: The terms ‘developing’ country and ‘developed’ country are used in line

with international practice. Nevertheless, the author acknowledges the following: First,

there is a wide range of so-called developing countries, ranging from the least

developed countries to low-income countries, lower-middle-income countries, upper-

middle-income countries to emerging economies. Some of these terms overlap. For

example, China is an emerging economy and an upper-middle-income country, whereas

Haiti is a least developed country and a low-income country. However, these categories

are changing from year to year, meaning that one year a country can be in the low-

income group and the next year can be classified by the World Bank as a middle-income

country. Second, the categorisation into ‘industrialised countries’ is not helpful as some

emerging economies, such as China, are increasingly industrialised and no longer

predominantly agrarian-based economies. Third, there is a geographical confusion with

regards to the global ‘North’ and the global ‘South’. The global North is often referred to

as developed, industrialised countries including mainly North America (USA and

Canada), Europe (the EU), Australia (Australia and New Zealand) and Japan. Obviously,

Australia, for example, is situated in the southern hemisphere, therefore this

classification is false. The global South includes all developing countries; however,

several of these are not located in the southern hemisphere, including most of Asia,

Northern Africa and some parts of Latin America. Fourth, these classifications often

conceal information about income distribution. While a country such as Angola may be

classified as an upper-middle-income country, this does not imply that most of its

citizens would be classified as living on a middle income. The reality is that stark

differences exist between the poor and the rich in a mineral-rich country such as

Angola, thereby creating an average middle-income classification that conceals the

realities for many of its citizens. Fifth, many of these classifications, such as developing

versus developed, industrialised versus agrarian, South versus North, East versus West

are outdated and stem from a time when globalisation did not exist to the same extent

as today and the world was much easier to classify, both in terms of income and in

terms of ideologies (eg East versus West). These classifications for grouping countries

are flawed. In the absence of a valid alternative, the author has chosen to refer to

developed/industrialised and developing countries as well as low income, middle

income, high income, emerging economy and specific country names as appropriate.]

While development studies started with optimism after the Second World War, the

concept of development, and development studies as a discipline, has endured criticism

in recent years (Urban et al, 2011). This is linked to ongoing problems such as

widespread poverty in many parts of the world; global neoliberalism, which sees states

as part of the problem rather than part of the solution (Humphrey, 2007); and the


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occurrence of various transboundary phenomena. Challenges like the global financial

crisis, terrorism and large-scale environmental problems, such as climate change and

natural resource depletion, are seen to require international and multilateral

solutions (Urban et al, 2011). One other major shift in development policy is due to the

so-called ‘Rising Powers’: the rise of countries such as China, India, Brazil, South Africa

and states of the Middle East (Urban et al, 2011). This questions dominant ‘Western’

approaches to development (Humphrey, 2007). Unfortunately, the optimism of earlier

decades has been replaced by some pessimism, including development being declared

dead in the 1990s by both the political right and the political left (Hart, 2001; Urban et

al, 2011). Fifteen years later, Rist argued that development as practised and imposed

by the West was ‘toxic’ (Rist, 2007; Urban et al, 2011; Urban & Nordensvärd, 2013).

The notion of ‘reimagining development’ therefore prevails within the discipline of

development studies, with new thinking on what development policy and practice

means today, who is driving it and for whom, particularly after the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs) (Urban et al, 2011) and in the wake of the newly

established Sustainable Development Goals (see UNDESA, n.d.). In the field of energy

and development, the recently established UN energy access initiative SE4All is a major

milestone that provides a positive and forward-looking pathway to achieving access to

sustainable energy access for everyone worldwide to enable sustainable development

(SE4All, 2014).

1.3 Energy and development

Explain what energy is used for and why it is important for development.

Energy is used for virtually everything. Energy is required for basic human needs: for

cooking, lighting, boiling water, heating and cooling, and for other household activities.

Energy is also required to sustain and expand economic processes such as agriculture,

electricity production, industries, services and transport. Energy is also needed for

health care, telecommunications and to provide clean water and sanitation.

In 2010, Ban Ki-moon, the United Nations Secretary General said in a speech:

‘Universal energy access is a key priority on the global development

agenda. It is a foundation for all the MDGs. […] Without energy services,

the poor are cut off from basic amenities. They are forced to live and work

in unhealthy, polluted conditions. Furthermore, energy poverty directly

affects the viability of forests, soils and rangelands. In short, it is an

obstacle to the MDGs.’

Source: Ban Ki-moon (21 September 2010)

In line with this statement, it is commonly suggested that access to energy is closely

linked with development and economic growth (eg UNDP & WHO, 2009; IEA, 2010;

SE4All, 2014) and that alleviating energy poverty is a prerequisite for fulfilling the

MDGs (IEA, 2010; SE4All, 2014). This has been acknowledged in the UN Sustainable


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Energy for All Initiative (SE4All), which aims to provide access to modern energy

services to everyone worldwide by 2030 (as well as double the rate of improvement of

energy efficiency and double the share of renewable energy in the energy mix) (SE4All,

2014). Access to modern energy services is important for reducing the time, burden

and danger of fuelwood collection, for power industries and services that generate

economic growth and for increased energy security.

When we talk about modern energy services we refer to options other than

traditional biomass (such as fuelwood, dung, agricultural residues and charcoal)

referring instead to electricity and other modern energy options, such as biogas. This

will be discussed in more detail in the following sections and units.

Access to modern energy services is therefore crucial for development. There are,

however, various ways of defining energy access. Practical Action defines ‘total energy

access’ as having access to energy for lighting, cooking and water heating, space heating

and cooling, information and communications and energy for earning a living (Practical

Action, 2010). Partial energy access is defined as having access to energy for some of

these activities, for example energy for cooking, but not energy for lighting. There is

therefore a differentiation between access to electricity, access to household fuels (such

as for cooking) and access to mechanical power (such as a treadle pump for pumping

water).

Access to modern energy services is often equated with access to electricity. The

definition of electrification differs between various institutions and countries. In

principle, a household or village should only be classified as electrified once everyone

in the household or village has access to reliable electricity. This is, however, not the

case. The IEA (2007) uses the definition that a village or neighbourhood is electrified

when at least 10% of the households have access to electricity. Other interpretations

are that a village or neighbourhood is electrified if electricity is being used there for any

purposes. This may not necessarily mean that people have access to electricity at home,

it may mean that one household or building (eg a school or clinic) has access to

electricity. Statistics on electrification rates therefore have to be viewed with caution as

they might overestimate the actual number of people who have access to electricity.

Electrification rates also do not give information about the reliability of the supply, as

power cuts (black outs or load shedding) are common in many countries around the

world. Bear this in mind when reading the following paragraph and looking at the

figure in 1.3.1.

There is a link between income levels and energy access. A correlation has been

found between rising income levels, both at household level and at national level, and

rising energy access. This is valid for electricity access and access to modern fuels

(World Bank, 2014). Consequently, countries that have higher incomes tend to have

higher electricity access rates (Urban & Nordensvärd, 2013). [Please note. While a clear

trend can be seen there are always exceptions. An exception is, for example, China,

which is a middle-income country, but has an electrification rate of almost 100%. This

is due to consolidated government efforts over several decades for rural

electrification.] The figure in 1.3.1 shows the national electrification rates in several

Asian developing countries. The countries are displayed in the graph according to their

gross domestic product (GDP) per capita purchasing power parity (PPP) and their

electrification rates in percentages. It is evident that countries that have higher per

capita incomes, such as Malaysia, China and Thailand, have higher electrification rates,


© SOAS CeDEP 9

whereas countries with lower per capita incomes, such as Cambodia and Bangladesh,

have lower electrification rates.

1.3.1 Electrification rates in Asian developing countries versus GDP/capita (PPP)

for the year 2016

The x axis shows gross national income (GNI)/capita (PPP) in US$, the y axis shows

electrification rates in %.

Source: data from the IEA (2017a) on electrification and from the World Bank (2017) on GDP/capita PPP

Similar to the correlation between per capita incomes and electricity access, the

International Energy Agency (IEA) has calculated a correlation between the Human

Development Index (HDI) and the Energy Development Index (EDI).

The United Nations’ HDI is an indicator that shows how developed a country is. It takes

into account the GNI per capita, life expectancy and an education index that is

composed of average education level and expected length of schooling in the country.

OECD countries, particularly the Nordic countries, such as Norway, have traditionally

been very high in the HDI ranking. Sub-Saharan countries, particularly those affected

by armed conflict, have traditionally been low in the HDI ranking. For more information

about the HDI and the Human Development Reports, see UNDP (n.d.).

The IEA’s EDI is an indicator that shows how developed a country is in energy terms.

The EDI takes into account per capita commercial energy consumption (excluding

traditional biofuels that were not purchased), per capita electricity consumption in the

residential sector, the share of modern fuels in the total residential sector energy use,

and the share of the population with access to electricity. The EDI is only calculated for

developing countries, as for developed countries the EDI would be 1, the highest value.

The highest-ranking countries are typically located in the Middle East and Latin

America. The lowest ranking countries are typically located in sub-Saharan Africa. For

more information about the EDI and the Energy and Development Reports of the IEA,

see IEA (2010).

The figure in 1.3.2 shows the correlation between the HDI and EDI.

[Y VALUE]% China

[Y VALUE]% Philippines 99% Thailand

[Y VALUE]% Pakistan

81% India

[Y VALUE]% Malaysia

[Y VALUE]% Indonesia

76% Nepal [Y VALUE]% Laos

90% Mongolia

[Y VALUE]% Bangladesh

[Y VALUE]% Cambodia

[Y VALUE]% Vietnam

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

Electrification rates (%) vs GDP/capita PPP (US$)


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1.3.2 Correlation between the Human Development Index and the Energy

Development Index for developing countries

Source: IEA (2010) p. 32.

More details about the social implications of energy and development will be discussed

in Units 6, 7 and 8. Unit 15 will discuss in more detail how to enable energy access and

how to overcome energy poverty, while the next sections will provide an introduction

to energy poverty.

1.4 Energy and poverty

Despite the importance of energy access, 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have

access to electricity and 2.8 billion people rely on traditional biomass – such as

fuelwood and dung – for basic needs such as cooking and heating (IEA, n.d. b). This

means that about 20% of the global population does not have access to electricity,

although in many developing countries the figure can be as high as 80 or 90%. About

85% of these people without access to electricity live in rural areas and 95% of them

live in sub-Saharan Africa and developing Asia. About 40% of the global population

relies on traditional biomass, although in many developing countries the figure is much

higher (World Bank, 2014).

Define the term ‘energy poverty’.

Energy poverty is defined as the lack of access to electricity and a reliance on the

traditional use of biomass for cooking (IEA, 2010; Practical Action, 2010).

There are two so-called ‘hotspots’ of energy poverty: one in sub-Saharan Africa and one

in developing Asia. In sub-Saharan Africa, almost 70% of the population does not have

access to electricity and 80% rely on traditional biomass. The entire population of sub-

Saharan Africa (excluding South Africa) – 791 million people – use as much electricity

as the 20 million people of New York, USA. The share of access to electricity and


© SOAS CeDEP 11

modern energy is higher in developing Asia, but, due to large populations, almost 800

million people do not have access to electricity and 50% of them live in India (IEA,

2010). Energy poverty is therefore widespread and poses a global development

challenge.

While the technical term used in developing countries is ‘energy poverty’, the technical

term used to describe a similar situation in developed countries is ‘fuel poverty’. An

individual or a household lives in fuel poverty when they cannot afford to pay to keep

adequately warm in their home given their low income. The term is mainly used in the

UK, Ireland and New Zealand, although similar discussions exist across Europe and the

USA. In the UK, an individual or a household is classified as living in fuel poverty when

they spend 10% or more of their income on the costs of heating (UK Government,

2000). Fuel poverty can have several causes: low income, high fuel prices, poor energy

efficiency or under-occupancy of homes. It is often suggested that those affected the

most are the elderly as they often tend to live on low pensions in homes that are not of

the latest energy efficiency standard.


© SOAS CeDEP 12

Section 1 Self-Assessment Questions

1 Which of these statements is correct? Choose two out of five options.

(a) Energy is a chemical term that describes the capacity of a chemical system to

cause a chemical reaction.

(b) Energy is a physical term that describes the capacity of a physical system to

perform work.

(c) Energy exists in several forms such as thermal energy (heat), radiant energy

(light), mechanical energy (kinetic), electric energy, chemical energy, nuclear

energy or gravitational energy.

(d) Energy exists in only one form, namely electric energy.

(e) Energy exists in only one form, namely thermal energy.

2 True or false?

Development is a globally accepted definition for progress and economic growth.

3 How are energy and development linked? Choose two of the five options.

(a) Modern energy access is directly linked to income levels at the household and

national level.

(b) Modern energy access is not linked to any development processes.

(c) Only fossil fuel energy plays a role for development, not non-fossil fuels such as

renewable energy.

(d) Energy is needed for basic human needs, for sustaining and expanding economic

processes like agriculture, electricity production, industries, services and

transport, as well as for health care, telecommunications and for providing clean

water and sanitation.

(e) Energy plays only a marginal role for development processes, as it is not linked

to issues such as income, health and an improvement of living standards.


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2.0 DEALING WITH ENERGY POVERTY

Section Overview

This section discusses the challenges posed by energy poverty, how to measure it and

some of the efforts in policy and practice for reducing energy poverty and providing

energy access, particularly efforts by the international community. Understanding

these issues is vital for understanding how policymakers, institutions and individuals

aim to overcome energy poverty and how to solve some of the biggest developmental

challenges of our times.


By the end of this section students should be able to:

• state the challenges of energy poverty and energy access and how to measure

them

• be aware of efforts in policy and practice for overcoming energy poverty.

2.1 Measuring energy poverty

This section deals with energy poverty and how to measure it. Before delving into the

theories and practicalities of how to measure energy poverty we will first look at two

real-life examples of what energy poverty means to poor people.

Can you think of examples of what energy poverty means for the daily lives of

poor people?

Rosa from Kenya says:

‘For me getting energy for cooking and lighting is a daily worry. It’s so

hard to find firewood that I cook for my family only once a day, in the

evening. The fire provides the light for cooking and eating a meal with my

children. After eating is bedtime.’

Source: Practical Action (2010) p. v.

Maya from Nepal reports:

‘We are totally dependent on firewood for cooking energy as we don’t have

other alternatives. Managing firewood is a very tedious job for us. We have

to walk about 7 hours to collect a Bhari (about 30 kg) of firewood. The

track to the forest is very difficult and unsafe.’

Source: Practical Action (2010) p. 13.


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Keeping in mind how difficult it is to live with energy poverty, we will discuss how to

measure it, followed by Section 2.2, which discusses how to overcome energy poverty

by providing energy access.

How is energy poverty measured?

There are various ways of measuring energy poverty. Two very simple and rather

crude measurements that we elaborated in Section 1.3 are electrification rates and

the rates of people cooking with traditional biofuels, such as fuelwood, charcoal

dung and agricultural residues.

Another measurement, the EDI, was also discussed in Section 1.3. The EDI measures

per capita energy use for residential and commercial purposes, the share of the

population with access to electricity and the share of modern fuels in the residential

energy use (IEA, 2010).

Another useful indicator is the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI). The MPI is not

a pure energy indicator, but it measures development levels from a holistic perspective,

taking into account energy poverty indicators as some of several development

indicators. The MPI measures the lack of access to electricity and the prevalence of

traditional biofuels for cooking (OPHI, 2010). More on the MPI can be found on OHPI

(OPHI, n.d. a; n.d. b).

A further index for measuring energy poverty is the (Total) Energy Access Index

developed by the non-governmental organisation (NGO) Practical Action (2010). This

index specifies the minimum energy standard individuals or households should have

for specific energy services, such as lighting, cooking and water heating, space heating,

cooling, information and communications, and earning a living. The table in 2.1.1 shows

this description of energy access standards for various energy services. Total energy

access is defined as meeting all the minimum energy standards.

2.1.1 Minimum energy standard for specific energy services for achieving total

energy access

Energy service Minimum standard

1. Lighting 300 lumens at household level

2. Cooking and water

heating 1 kg woodfuel or 0.3 kg charcoal or 0.04 kg liquefied petroleum

gas (LPG) or 0.2 litres of kerosene or ethanol per person per

day, taking less than 30 minutes per household per day to

obtain

Minimum efficiency of improved wood and charcoal stoves to

be 40% greater than a three-stone fire in terms of fuel use

Annual mean concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5) < 10

µg/m3 in households, with interim goals of 15 µg/m

3, 25 µg/m

3

and 35 µg/m3

3. Space heating Minimum daytime indoor air temperature of 12 °C


© SOAS CeDEP 15

4. Cooling Food processors, retailers and householders have facilities to

extend life of perishable products by a minimum of 50% over

that allowed by ambient storage

All health facilities have refrigeration adequate for the blood,

vaccine and medicinal needs of local populations

Maximum indoor air temperature of 30 °C

5. Information and

communications People can communicate electronic information beyond the

locality in which they live

People can access electronic media relevant to their lives and

livelihoods

6. Earning a living Access to energy is sufficient for the start up of any enterprise

The proportion of operating costs for energy consumption in

energy efficient enterprises is financially sustainable

Source: Practical Action (2010) p. ix.

The Energy Access Index then ranks access to energy services on levels from 1 to 5 for

access to household fuels, electricity and mechanical power. Depending on the quality

of the supply, this can, for example, range from no access to electricity (level 1) to

reliable 240 V alternating current (AC) connection for all uses (level 5) (Practical

Action, 2010). More detail about the Energy Access Index is found in the table in 2.1.2.

2.1.2 Energy Access Index

Energy supply Level Quality of supply

Household fuels 1 Collecting wood or dung and using a three-stone fire

2 Collecting wood and using an improved stove

3 Buying wood and using an improved stove

4 Buying charcoal and using an improved stove

5 Using a modern, clean-burning fuel and stove

combination

Electricity 1 No access to electricity at all

2 Access to third party battery charging only

3 Own low-voltage DC access for home applications

4 240 V AC connection but poor quality and intermittent

supply

5 Reliable 240 V AC connection available for all uses

Mechanical power 1 No access to mechanical power. Hand power only with

basic tools

2 Mechanical advantage devices available to magnify

human/animal effort


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3 Powered (renewable or fossil) mechanical devices

available for some tasks

4 Powered (renewable or fossil) mechanical devices

available for most tasks

5 Mainly purchasing mechanically processed services

Source: Practical Action (2010) p. x.

The figure in 2.1.3 gives two examples of how the Energy Access Index is being used in

practice and what it means for poor people and poor countries. The first example is at

the household level from a family in Nepal, whereas the second example is at the

national level from Sri Lanka.

2.1.3 Energy Access Index: two practical examples of how to use the index at the

household and national level

Source: Practical Action (2010) p. xi.

Why is it important to understand how energy poverty is measured?


© SOAS CeDEP 17

It is important to understand how energy poverty is measured to be able to understand

the underlying issues that cause energy poverty and the impacts of energy poverty,

such as health problems from indoor air pollution, the burden of fuelwood collection,

limited opportunities to earn a living, limited access to communications and services,

etc. These issues will be discussed in detail in Units 6, 7 and 8. Understanding how

energy poverty is measured is also important for understanding how policy and

practice can be designed to overcome energy poverty and to increase energy access.

This will be discussed in the next section and in more detail in Unit 15.

2.2 Policy and practice for overcoming energy poverty

As 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity and 2.8 billion people

rely on traditional biomass for basic needs such as cooking and heating (IEA, n.d. b),

there is an urgent need to overcome energy poverty. As mentioned in earlier sections,

energy poverty is linked to low national per capita incomes, to low development levels

and to a wider range of social, economic and environmental challenges. Overcoming

global energy poverty is therefore one of the biggest challenges of our times. This is

recognised by the fact that none of the MDGs can be achieved without energy access.

For example, MDG 1 states that the global community needs to overcome extreme

poverty and hunger. Poverty can, however, only be reduced when there are

opportunities for income generation, which are often constrained by lack of energy

access. Hunger can only be overcome when fuels for cooking and preparing meals are

available. The link between the MDGs and energy access will be discussed in Unit 15.

Omitting energy targets from the MDGs has therefore displayed a major lack of

understanding energy poverty and energy access issues. The MDGs have not been

reached, as global poverty and hunger continue to exist as well as many other problems

related to underdevelopment. The MDGs were followed up by a new set of targets for

global development after 2015, namely the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Fortunately the understanding of energy poverty has improved and its importance has

gained some global attention in recent years, hence the SDGs present an opportunity to

include energy targets.

Efforts to reduce energy poverty and increase energy access have been ongoing for

several decades, however, they have had limited success. While many country- and

local-level initiatives aimed (and still aim) at alleviating energy poverty and increasing

energy access there have been no far-reaching international energy access targets in

the past. This has changed with the UN’s targets for universal energy access. The UN

made 2012 the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All, 2014–2024 the Decade

of Sustainable Energy for All, and has set a target for providing universal modern

energy access by 2030. This initiative is called Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All).

This target aims to provide access to electricity and to clean cooking facilities to

everyone in every country worldwide. This goal is linked to renewable energy

provision as the UN estimates that about two-thirds of the rural population in

developing countries will get access to electricity through decentralised renewable

energy, such as from wind, solar and small hydro. This will be delivered by renewable-

energy-powered mini-grids and off-grid solutions. Decentralised renewable energy,

such as biogas, also plays a key role in providing the rural poor with access to clean

cooking facilities (IEA, 2010).


© SOAS CeDEP 18

One of the key questions is how the universal energy access targets will be financed. It

is suggested that parts of the costs will have to be borne by national governments and

authorities, other parts may be funded by the international community and NGOs, and

other parts by the private sector as a means of investing in energy infrastructure and

technology. Nevertheless, some of the costs will be borne by consumers, who in this

case are predominantly poor and have limited ability to pay (IEA, 2011).

The figure in 2.2.1 indicates the targets for the SE4All initiative and how energy access

should be provided in the urban and rural areas.

2.2.1 Targets for the UN’s universal modern energy access to be achieved by 2030

2015 2030

Rural Urban Rural Urban

Access to

electricity

Provide 257

million people

with

electricity

access

100% access to

grid 100% access,

of which 30%

connected to

the grid and

70% either

mini-grid (75%)

or off-grid

(25%)

100% access to

grid

Access to clean

cooking

facilities

Provide 800

million people

with access to

LPG stoves

(30%), biogas

systems (15%)

or advanced

biomass

cookstoves

(55%)

Provide 200

million people

with access to

LPG stoves

100% access to

LPG stoves

(30%), biogas

systems (15%)

or advanced

biomass

cookstoves

(55%)

100% access to

LPG stoves

Note: LPG stoves are used as a proxy for modern cooking stoves, also including

kerosene, biofuels, gas and electric stoves. Advanced biomass cookstoves are biomass-

gasifier-operated cooking stoves which run on solid biomass, such as wood chips and

briquettes. Biogas systems include biogas-fired stoves.

Source: IEA (2010) p. 16.

After examining international policy and practice for overcoming energy poverty, we

will briefly examine examples from two national governments.

We will first look at India. With about 390 million people without access to electricity in

2010, India hosts the world’s largest population deprived of electricity. About 90% of

this population lives in rural India, equalling about 350 million people or 65 million

households (IEA, 2007). Energy poverty is clearly an issue: electrification rates were as

low as 50% in rural areas and 62% overall in 2005, while electrification rates had

increased to 75% in total by 2010 (IEA, n.d. a; Urban, 2014).

Indian rural electrification schemes were in the past mainly linked to rural

development in the form of promoting irrigation for increased agricultural

productivity. Recent electrification schemes mainly aimed to electrify villages and


© SOAS CeDEP 19

households, with an emphasis on households below the poverty line, as in the Kutir

Jyoti programme (Bhattacharyya, 2006). The government’s ambitious plans to achieve

complete village and household electrification by 2010, under the Rajiv Gandhi

Grameen Vidhyutikaran Yojana scheme, were challengeable from the outset, as 71.7

million households were still non-electrified in 2005 (IEA, 2007). This target was not

achieved; in 2010, 25% of the total population, equalling 65 million rural households,

was still without access to electricity (IEA, n.d. a). However, this was followed up with a

new target to achieve electricity access for all of India’s population by 2012 (UNDP &

WHO, 2009). This target is also challengeable as the IEA estimates that complete rural

electrification is unlikely to be achieved before 2030 (IEA, 2010). The Indian

government has initiatives in place to achieve rural electrification increasingly through

decentralised renewable energy, as grid connections are very expensive, particularly in

remote areas. There are several bottlenecks with regard to electrification, as India has

suffered for decades from an underfinanced power sector, poor infrastructure,

customers who are too poor to pay, electricity theft and problematic restructuring of

mostly state-owned utility firms (IEA, 2002; 2012).

After looking at India, the country hosting the world’s largest population without

electricity access, we will now look at China. China has achieved an electrification rate

of almost 100% in recent years due to a decade-long history of providing rural

electricity access through small-scale hydropower and recent large-scale government-

funded electrification programmes. The first large-scale rural electrification initiatives

in the 1950s to 1970s were based on small-scale hydropower and aimed at increasing

agricultural productivity by means of improved irrigation, driven by a centrally

planned state. Over time, the policy on rural electrification became driven by local

governments that made considerable investments, thereby helping to roll out rural

electrification efforts all over the country as a means of providing access to electricity

for millions of people. This happened at a time when China shifted from being mainly

agrarian based to becoming increasingly industrialised in the 1980s and 1990s. Since

2000, the aim has been to invest in upgrading rural grids and extending electricity

access to remote areas of China (Jiahua et al, 2006). In recent years, China launched the

China Township Electrification Programme to provide electricity from renewable

energy to 1000 townships, which was one of the largest of such programmes

worldwide. This was followed by the China Village Electrification Programme, which

aimed to bring electricity from renewable energy to 3.5 million households and to

achieve complete electrification by 2015. Renewable energy, particularly small

hydropower, has therefore always played a prominent role in reducing energy poverty

in China. At the same time, China sets itself apart from many other countries due to its

formerly centrally planned state and what Chinese may today call a ‘market economy

with Chinese characteristics’ that has abundant investments, well-operating state-

owned enterprises and access to modern power technology.

The two examples above highlight some historic and current developments in the

policy and practice of overcoming energy poverty. While the focus of these policies and

programmes is often on electrification, household fuels are often less prominent. There

are several NGOs, such as Practical Action, that work on improved cook stoves and

cleaner fuels, nevertheless national efforts and investments in this area are often limited.

Unit 15 will discuss some of the issues mentioned here in more detail. It will also discuss

key issues related to delivery models for energy access for developing countries.

http://dict.leo.org/ende?lp=ende&p=thMx..&search=challengeable


© SOAS CeDEP 20


4 What is energy poverty? Choose one of the three options.

(a) Energy poverty is defined as lack of access to fossil fuels, particularly oil and

natural gas.

(b) Energy poverty is defined as having access to electricity, but being on a low

income level.

(c) Energy poverty is defined as a lack of access to electricity and a reliance on the

traditional use of biomass for cooking.

5 True or false?

Common indicators of energy poverty include the Energy Poverty Index, the Energy

Development Index, the Energy Access Index and electrification rates.

6 What initiatives exist in policy and practice to overcome energy poverty? Choose two of

the five options.

(a) The UN’s Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) initiative to achieve universal

modern energy access for everyone by 2030. This includes access to electricity

and clean cooking fuel.

(b) Saudi Arabia’s initiative to provide all households in the Middle East with

private diesel generators.

(c) The World Nuclear Association’s initiative to provide universal electrification

through nuclear energy-based electricity.

(d) There are no initiatives to overcome energy poverty.

(e) Rural electrification schemes that aim to increase electricity access in rural

areas, for example in India, China and many other countries.


© SOAS CeDEP 21

3.0 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Section Overview

This section discusses the wider environmental implications of energy use and why

energy use poses a global environmental challenge. The section focuses particularly on

the links between energy and global climate change, natural resource depletion and air

pollution. The section then discusses alternative, non-fossil energy options that can

mitigate some of these environmental implications. Understanding these issues is vital

to understanding how policymakers, institutions and individuals manage energy and

development, and how to solve some of the biggest developmental and environmental

issues of our times.


By the end of this unit students should be able to:

• understand how energy use is intertwined with global environmental

challenges such as climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion and air

pollution

• be aware of alternative, non-fossil energy options that can mitigate these

environmental implications.

3.1 Energy and climate change

How is energy linked to climate change?

About 80% of the global primary energy supply comes from fossil fuels, primarily oil

and coal (IEA, n.d. a). Fossil energy resources are limited and fossil energy use is

associated with a number of negative environmental effects, most importantly global

climate change, but also natural resource depletion and air pollution. The next section

discusses how energy use and climate change are linked.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that about 70% of all

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide come from energy-related activities. This

is mainly from fossil fuel combustion for heat supply, electricity generation and

transport, and includes carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and some traces of nitrous

oxide (IPCC, 2007). It is well documented that these emissions contribute to global

climate change. Energy use has potentially significant climate impacts, which are

assumed to exceed the impacts from other sources, such as land use and other

industrial activities. It is therefore considered crucial to promote GHG emission

reduction technologies for fossil fuel combustion processes (Urban, 2014).

The IPCC states that the ‘atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and

nitrous oxide have increased to levels unprecedented in at least the last 800 000 years.

carbon dioxide concentrations have increased by 40% since pre-industrial times,

primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land use change


© SOAS CeDEP 22

emissions’ (IPCC, 2013: p. 7). Energy use from fossil fuels therefore contributes directly

to GHG emissions and thereby contributes to rising temperatures and other observed

effects of global climate change.

The IPCC has an extremely high confidence level of 95% probability that global climate

change is anthropogenic, caused due to excessive GHG emissions (IPCC, 2013; 2014a;

2014b). At the global scale, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has

increased from a pre-industrial value of approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) to

around 380 ppm in 2005 (IPCC, 2007), with a reported peak level of 396 ppm in 2007

(Richardson et al, 2009). In summer 2013, it was reported that the atmospheric

concentration of carbon dioxide had even surpassed the 400 ppm level at one stage

(Tans & Keeling, 2013; Urban, 2014). See the figure in 3.1.1 for details.

3.1.1 Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations in part per million (ppm) at

Mauna Loa Observatory between 1960 and 2013, reported in September

2013

Source: Tans and Keeling, NOAA (2013)

According to the IPCC (2013), the global mean surface temperature rose by 0.85

± 0.2 °C between 1880 and 2012 (IPCC, 2013; 2014a; 2014b). This increase has been

particularly significant over the last 50 years. From a global perspective, the IPCC

(2013; 2014a; 2014b) reports that they found high increases in heavy precipitation

events, while droughts have become more frequent since the 1970s, especially in the

(sub)tropics. They also document changes in the large-scale atmospheric circulation

and increases in tropical cyclone activity since the 1970s (IPCC, 2013; 2014a; 2014b).

The IPCC’s latest 5th Assessment Report highlights the observed and partly irreversible

changes to the earth’s ecosystems, particularly the changes to the oceans, that absorb a

large part of the carbon dioxide and thereby become acidified, and the cryosphere

(IPCC, 2013; 2014a; 2014b; Urban, 2014).


© SOAS CeDEP 23

Today, the majority of climate scientists agree that ‘the possibility of staying below the

2 C threshold by 2100 between “acceptable” and “dangerous” climate change

becomes less likely as no serious global action on climate change is taken’ (Urban,

2014: p. 4 also citing Anderson, 2009; Richardson et al, 2009). Climate scientists

estimate that for a 50% chance of achieving the 2 °C target, a global atmospheric

carbon dioxide equivalent concentration of 400 to 450 ppm should not be exceeded

(Richardson et al, 2009; Pye et al, 2010), which would require an immediate reduction

of global GHG emissions to about 60–80% by 2100 (Richardson et al, 2009).

Nevertheless, the 400 ppm target is reported to have been reached recently

(Richardson et al, 2009; Tans & Keeling, 2013) and still emissions are rising. There is

therefore a need to reduce emissions rapidly and significantly to avoid dangerous

climate change (Urban, 2014).

The scientific consensus after the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) Paris Agreement is that the current Nationally Determined

Contributions (NDCs) of the signatory nations are not sufficient to keep a global

temperature increase below 2 °C. Rather, leading scientists estimate that the average

warming will be between 2.6 and 3.1 °C by 2100 or even higher (Rogelj et al, 2016).

Knutti et al (2016) argue that the target of 2 °C (or even 1.5 °C as some suggest) is

unrealistic and not in line with real-world developments as the required emission

reductions are still not happening.

Energy from non-fossil fuels, such as renewable energy and lower carbon energy, is

therefore crucial for mitigating the GHG emissions that lead to climate change. This will

be discussed briefly in Section 3.2. Other strategies such as reducing energy use and

increasing energy efficiency are also required.

3.2 Energy and other environmental problems

Natural resource depletion

Another key environmental impact of energy use is natural resource depletion.

Energy resources are a form of natural resource. One differentiates between fossil and

non-fossil resources. Fossil resources have been formed over millions of years from

the organic remains of prehistoric animals and plants. They have a high carbon content

and include coal, oil and natural gas. These fossil fuels are non-renewable energy

sources as their reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being

formed. For example, it takes millions of years to form an oil field, but it can be depleted

in a few years of exploitation. Mining and extraction are therefore major causes of the

depletion of fossil fuel resources (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

Non-fossil resources include renewable non-finite, non-depletable energy such as

wind energy, solar energy and hydropower that are abundantly available from the

wind, sun and water. Renewable energy comes from the earth’s elements that are

always available such as sun and wind.

Biomass-based energy is another energy source that is being classified as renewable.

Nevertheless, there is a division between traditional biomass, such as fuelwood,

modern biomass, such as pellets and wood briquettes, biogas such as for cooking, as

well as biofuels that are divided into first-generation, second-generation and third-


© SOAS CeDEP 24

generation groups. First-generation or conventional biofuels are usually based on

edible biomass-based starch, sugar or vegetable oil. This means these fuels are usually

based on food products such as corn, wheat or other cereals, cassava, sugar beet and

sugar cane, which are used for making bioethanol. Soy, jatropha and palm oil are used

for making biodiesel. Second-generation biofuels are usually made from feedstock and

waste (eg municipal waste). Third-generation biofuels or advanced/unconventional

biofuels do not usually depend on food products or feedstock, but can be derived from

algae, cellulose and other forms of plant biomass, which makes it harder to extract fuel

(Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

Nuclear energy also falls into the category of non-fossil resources. While nuclear energy

is a non-fossil resource, it is finite and depletable as it relies on uranium resources.

There is heated debate on whether uranium will become a rare and near-depleted

resource, similar to oil, any time soon or whether uranium resources will remain

abundant for hundreds or even thousands of years to come.

At the same time, the harvesting and use of traditional biomass, such as fuelwood,

can contribute to the depletion of natural forest resources. While many people rely

on the collection of fallen branches from trees, others depend on felling trees. The

production of charcoal also involves the felling of trees. This can lead to a degradation

and/or decrease of woodlands and forests that can eventually lead to larger-scale

deforestation, erosion and desertification. This practice can also lead to a decrease in

biodiversity, negative impacts on water and food security. In areas where forests offer

some protection again natural disasters, felling trees for access to fuelwood can have

devastating impacts. For example, as mangrove forests are cleared for fuelwood this

reduces the natural protection from floods, tsunamis and sea-level rise, thereby leaving

people, economies and ecosystems even more vulnerable to natural disasters and

climatic impacts than before.

Another key issue around energy use and natural resource depletion is linked to peak

oil. Peak oil is a concept that describes first an increase in oil production up to a peak

and afterwards a decline in oil production. This is based on an observed rise of oil

production, a peak and then a fall in the production rate of oil fields over time as the oil

resources are depleted. The theory is that this phenomenon of peaking oil production is

not only limited to oil fields, but that it applies globally as all oil resources could be

depleted at some point. This is due to rapid oil extraction from finite natural resources

that can be depleted and that needed millions of years to be built. Peak oil is therefore

the point of maximum oil production. There is lively debate among scientists and the oil

lobby over whether peak oil has already happened or whether it still lies ahead. Some

experts argue that we are already beyond peak oil as the rate of depletion is rapid, oil

prices have increased to formerly unseen levels in recent years, few new oil resources

are being found and the extraction of so-called unconventional oil resources has

expanded rapidly, such as from shale gas, shale oil and tar sands. The extraction of

unconventional oil resources involves environmentally destructive methods such as

fracking (Leggett, 2013). The UK Energy Research Centre published a report that

reviewed over 500 studies on peak oil and global supply forecasts and concludes that a

peak in oil production is likely to happen before 2030, if not earlier (UK ERC, 2009).

These issues will be discussed in more detail in Units 9 and 10.


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Air pollution

Energy use is not only likely to contribute to global climate change, but also gives rise

to other negative impacts such as air pollution (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009). This

includes indoor air pollution and outdoor air pollution.

Indoor air pollution is caused by the combustion of traditional solid fuels, such as

fuelwood and charcoal. The combustion of these solid fuels causes indoor air pollution

through the release of smoke, soot and small particles that are linked to negative

impacts on health. This is associated with pneumonia, chronic respiratory disease, lung

cancer and adverse pregnancy outcomes (WHO, 2000; 2005; 2006). The World Health

Organization (WHO) reports that about 5% of all deaths in least developed countries

could be due to traditional solid fuel use (WHO, 2000). According to WHO and the

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP & WHO, 2009), almost 2 million

people – mostly women and children who spent much of their time close to the hearth –

are likely to die every year, because of exposure to indoor air pollution from traditional

biofuels. Introducing modern renewable and low carbon energy sources as a

replacement for traditional biofuels is likely to increase the health of the population in

developing countries.

Outdoor air pollution is another observed phenomenon that is linked to the

combustion of fossil fuels from energy generation, transport and industry. Outdoor air

pollution can create smog and cause adverse health effects. Many of the world’s mega-

cities, such as Beijing, Cairo, Delhi, Dhaka, Karachi, Mexico City, Shanghai, London and

Los Angeles, have had considerable air pollution problems for decades. Health

problems linked to local air pollution, such as lung cancer and chronic respiratory

diseases, are a serious problem. These diseases also result in high cost burdens on the

world’s health systems (WHO, 2000; 2005).

Increased car ownership in emerging economies, such as China, India and Mexico, is

likely to worsen the air pollution problem. Some countries and cities have regulations

in place to reduce urban air pollution, for example by (temporarily) closing down

polluting industries and introducing licence plate regulation and restriction systems for

private vehicles. The city of Beijing is following this approach; however, there are

various ways around the system.

Outdoor air pollution also brings with it the problem of transboundary air pollution.

Transboundary air pollution refers to pollution that is caused at one specific

geographic location, for example, in one city in country A, but due to wind and climatic

conditions is transported to other areas, for example over the border into country B.

Transboundary air pollution was a major issue in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s in

relation to acid rain that had its origins in the polluting coal-fired factories of Russia

and eastern Europe, but was swept over to northern and north-western Europe with

the prevailing winds and caused acidification of lakes and water bodies there.

These issues will be discussed in more detail in later units.

Alternative energy options

The above sections discussed key issues related to energy use and its implications for

development as well as the contribution of energy use to climate change, resource

depletion and air pollution. The combustion of fossil fuels leads to GHG emissions that


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cause climate change, the extraction of fossil fuels depletes finite natural resources that

have formed over millions of years and the use of fossil fuels contributes to air

pollution. So-called ‘low carbon energy technologies’, such as renewable energy

technology, nuclear energy technology and carbon capture and storage (CCS), are

therefore key mechanisms to reducing carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions. Low

carbon energy emits less GHGs than conventional fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and

natural gas. Some low carbon energy technologies, such as large hydropower and

nuclear energy, have witnessed a recent revival due to climate change concerns.

Nevertheless, this brings with it other adverse effects, such as concerns about health, safety

and environmental impacts with regard to nuclear power (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

While about 80% of the world’s energy supply comes from fossil fuels there is an

increasing trend towards using alternative non-fossil energy options, such as

renewable energy (IEA, n.d. a). Renewable energy has high growth rates around the

world. Due to its rapid implementation time, renewable energy may also avoid carbon

lock-in and path dependency. Implementing renewable energy technology today may

provide low carbon energy quickly and may avoid lock-in effects, such as dependence

on fossil fuel power plants for decades.

Renewable energy comes from renewable natural resources, such as sunlight, wind,

water, tides, geothermal heat and biomass. Unlike fossil fuels and nuclear energy, which

are finite and depletable, these energy resources are renewable and non-depletable.

Renewable energy has a large global potential. The World Energy Council estimates

that the theoretical potential for solar energy is 370 PWh/year, for primary biomass

315 PWh/year, for wind energy 96 PWh/year and for hydropower 41 PWh/year.

Nevertheless the technical and economic potential is lower due to variations in land

availability and financial competition with fossil fuels (WEC, 2007). About 20% of

global electricity consumption came from renewable energy in 2010, mainly from

hydropower, but also from wind, solar and geothermal energy, as well as from biomass

(IEA, n.d. a). The most widely used and commercialised renewable energy technologies

are wind turbines, solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and hydropower technology. This will

be discussed in detail in Unit 3.

While the environmental benefits of renewable energy are well established, renewable

energy also offers an alternative for improving energy access and reducing energy

poverty. As we discussed in Section 2.2, the UN’s universal modern energy access target

by 2030 is expected only to be achievable if a large part of the rural population in

developing countries gets access to electricity and clean cooking fuels through

renewable energy. This includes options such as mini-grids and off-grid renewable

energy, particularly solar and micro-hydro, as well as biogas for cooking (IEA, 2010).

This also reduces the reliance on traditional biofuels such as fuelwood, which has

adverse health impacts. Nevertheless, there are major barriers, particularly of an

economic, political and social nature.

These issues will be elaborated from various perspectives throughout the following

14 units.


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7 Which environmental problems are directly linked to energy use? Choose three.

(a) global climate change

(b) tsunamis

(c) natural resource depletion

(d) invasive species

(e) air pollution

8 How is climate change linked to energy use? Choose one.

(a) The drilling for fossil fuels in the Artic leads to melting of glaciers and sea ice,

which causes global climate change.

(b) Renewable energy use, particularly solar energy use, leads to an excessive

warming of the planet, which causes global climate change.

(c) Renewable energy use leads to the emission of GHGs, most importantly carbon

dioxide, which causes global climate change.

(d) The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the emission of GHGs, most importantly

carbon dioxide, which causes global climate change.

(e) The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the emission of GHGs, most importantly

uranium, which causes global climate change.

9 Fill in the missing words/phrases.

Non-fossil fuels, such as _______ energy sources, have near-zero _______ emissions and

thereby contribute to _______ carbon energy generation that mitigates the carbon _______

that lead to global _______ _______. These energy sources are abundantly available

worldwide and therefore do not deplete finite _______ _______ resources.


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UNIT SUMMARY

This unit provided an introduction to energy and development. Energy is a vital

commodity and is closely intertwined with development and economic growth.

Alleviating energy poverty is a prerequisite for fulfilling the MDGs and achieving the

UN’s universal energy access targets by 2030. Despite the importance of energy access,

about 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity and approximately

2.8 billion people rely on traditional biomass, such as fuelwood and dung, for basic

needs, such as cooking and heating (IEA, n.d. b). Energy poverty is therefore

widespread and poses a global development challenge.

At the same time, energy use is closely intertwined with climate change, fossil fuel

resource depletion and air pollution. Energy use has therefore become a national and

global challenge. Understanding these issues is vital to understanding how

policymakers, institutions and individuals manage energy and development and how to

solve some of the biggest developmental and environmental issues of our times.


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UNIT SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1 Which two of the following 10 options are NOT energy sources?

(a) wind

(b) batteries

(c) coal

(d) sun

(e) water

(f) natural gas

(g) wood

(h) oil

(i) electricity

(j) uranium

2 Which one of the following three statements is correct?

(a) There is a correlation between the Energy Development Index and the Human

Development Index.

(b) There is no correlation between electrification rates and per capita income

levels measured as GNI/per capita (PPP).

(c) The Multidimensional Poverty Index and the Total Energy Access Index have

nothing in common and are therefore not correlated.

3 How much of the global energy supply comes from fossil fuels today? Choose one option.

(a) 50%

(b) 60%

(c) 70%

(d) 80%

(e) 90%

(f) 100%


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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is the most important GHG as

its concentration in the atmosphere has risen rapidly in recent

decades. It is emitted when fossil fuels are combusted, for example,

for energy generation, transport and industrial activity.

climate change The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC) defines climate change as ‘a change of climate which is

attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the

composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to

natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’.

The effects of climate change are rising temperatures, melting glaciers

and ice sheets, sea-level rise, acidification of the oceans, changes in

precipitation, increases in extreme weather events like floods,

droughts and cyclones, changes to biodiversity and impacts on

socioeconomic systems.

climate change mitigation

The IPCC defines climate change mitigation as ‘an anthropogenic

intervention to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the climate

system; it includes strategies to reduce GHG sources and emissions and

enhancing GHG sinks’.

decentralised energy Energy that comes from off-grid or mini-grid energy sources and is not

connected to the central grid.

development There are many different definitions for development. Some scholars

and organisations equate development with ‘good change’ (eg

Chambers, 1995), others associate it with progress, others with

economic growth, others with right-based approaches, others with

human choices and capabilities.

development studies The study of the process of development.

electrification A term for which various definitions exist. In principle, a household or

village should only be classified as electrified once everyone in the

household or village has access to reliable electricity. This is, however,

not the case. The IEA (2007) uses the definition that a village or

neighbourhood is electrified when at least 10% of the households have

access to electricity. Other interpretations are that electricity is being

used in a village or neighbourhood for any purpose, rather than for

residential purposes.

energy A term that describes the capacity of a physical system to perform

work. Energy exists in several forms such as thermal energy (heat),

radiant energy (light), mechanical energy (kinetic), electric energy,

chemical energy, nuclear energy or gravitational energy.

energy carrier A substance or system that contains potential energy than can be

released and used as actual energy in the form of mechanical work,

heat or to operate chemical and physical processes. Energy carriers

include batteries, coal, dammed water, electricity, hydrogen, natural

gas, petrol and wood. Energy carriers do not produce energy; however,

they ‘carry’ the energy until it is released.


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Energy Development Index (EDI)

The EDI is an indicator that shows how developed a country’s energy

setting is. It takes into account per capita commercial energy

consumption (excluding traditional biofuels that were not purchased),

per capita electricity consumption in the residential sector, the share

of modern fuels in the total residential sector energy use and the

share of the population with access to electricity.

energy poverty The lack of access to electricity and a reliance on the traditional use

of biomass for cooking.

energy source A natural resource that is used to provide the energy, for example coal

or wind.

fossil fuel energy Energy that is based on fossil fuels that have been formed over

millions of years from the organic remains of prehistoric animals and

plants. Fossil fuels have a high carbon content and include coal, oil

and natural gas.

greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is a process in which the GHGs in the

atmosphere absorb infrared radiation and thereby warm the earth. The

natural greenhouse effect can be differentiated from the

anthropogenic or enhanced greenhouse effect. The natural greenhouse

effect creates an average surface temperature of around 15 °C on

earth, which makes it a place ideal for human habitation. Without the

natural greenhouse effect, the earth’s temperature would be about

18 °C. The anthropogenic greenhouse effect is caused by the

excessive emissions of climate-relevant GHGs, particularly carbon

dioxide, that warm up the earth by trapping excessive amounts of

infrared radiation in the atmosphere.

greenhouse gases (GHGs)

GHGs include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide

(N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur

hexafluoride (SF6). These GHGs are emitted from the combustion of

fossil fuels, from land-use changes and deforestation, from industrial

activity and transport.

Human Development Index (HDI)

The HDI is an indicator that shows how developed a country is. It takes

into account the GNI per capita, life expectancy and an education

index that is composed of average education level and expected length

of schooling in the country.

kinetic energy Working or operational energy, such as when the water from a dam is

released and the turbines are operating.

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

A set of 10 development goals that were launched in 2000 with the

ultimate goals of eradicating world poverty and hunger, and achieving

global development by 2015. Some improvements have been made,

however, the goals fell short and were replaced by a new set of goals

in 2015: the Sustainable Development Goals.

mini-grid Decentralised, connected to a small local grid, such as a local system

of interconnected solar PV panels.

modern energy Other energy options than traditional biomass (such as fuelwood, dung

and agricultural residues). This often refers to electricity and modern

cooking options such as biogas.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

The MPI is an indicator that measures development levels from a

holistic perspective, taking into account energy poverty indicators as

some of several development indicators. The MPI measures the lack of

access to electricity and the prevalence of traditional biofuels for

cooking such as fuelwood, charcoal or dung.


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natural resource depletion

The depletion of natural resources such as fossil fuel resources.

off-grid Decentralised, not connected to the central grid, often stand-alone

energy technology such as a solar cooker.

peak oil A concept that describes first an increase in oil production up to a

peak and afterwards a decline in oil production. This is based on an

observed rise of oil production, a peak and then a fall in the

production rate of oil fields over time as the oil resources are

depleted. The theory is that this phenomenon of peaking oil

production is not only limited to oil fields, but that it applies globally,

as all oil resources could be depleted at some point. The exact timing

of peak oil is yet uncertain.

potential energy Stored energy that can be released at point in time, such as dammed

water in a reservoir.

primary energy Energy that has not been subject to any conversion or processing and

contains raw fuels, such as crude oil or solar energy.

renewable energy Energy that comes from non-fossil fuels and is abundantly available

worldwide, such as energy from the sun, wind, water and biomass.

These resources are renewed within short time frames.

secondary energy Energy that has been subject to conversion or processing, such as

petroleum from crude oil to or electricity from solar energy.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)

A set of post-2015 development goals set by the UN that will come in

force at the end of the MDG era. The SDGs include targets for energy

access and climate change.

Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) initiative

The UN’s SE4All initiative aims to achieve universal modern energy

access in the form of electricity access and access to modern cooking

fuels by 2030.

traditional energy/biomass

Fuelwood, dung, agricultural residues and other forms of traditional

biomass that are not classified as modern energy.

(Total) Energy Access Index

This index specifies the minimum energy standard individuals or

households should have for specific energy services, such as lighting,

cooking and water heating, space heating, cooling, information and

communications, and earning a living. Total energy access is defined

as meeting all certain minimum energy standards. The Energy Access

Index then ranks access to energy services on levels from 1 to 5 for

access to household fuels, electricity and mechanical power.


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FURTHER STUDY MATERIALS

IEA. (2010) World Energy Outlook (2010) Energy Poverty: How to Make Modern Energy

Access Universal? Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from:


This is an insightful report about the current status of energy poverty and energy

access issues in the developing world. It raises key challenges and offers some solutions

of how to overcome energy poverty.

IPCC. (2013) Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013. The Physical Science

Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner,

M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex & P.M. Midgley (Eds.)].

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Available from: http://www.climatechange2013.org/spm

Please read the summary for policymakers of this overview of the latest 2013/2014

findings on climate change – the physical science – by the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (IPCC).

IPCC. (2014a) Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014. Impacts, Adaptation

and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken,

K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova,

B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)].

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp.

1–32.

Available from:

https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/ar5_wgII_spm_en.pdf

Please read the summary for policymakers of this overview of the latest 2014 findings

on climate change – impacts, adaptation and vulnerability – by the IPCC.

IPCC. (2014b) Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014. Mitigation of

Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y.

Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier,

B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)].

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Available from: http://ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_

summary-for-policymakers.pdf

Please read the summary for policymakers of this overview of the latest 2014 findings

on climate change mitigation by the IPCC.


http://www.climatechange2013.org/spm

https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/ar5_wgII_spm_en.pdf

http://ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_‌summary-‌for-policymakers.pdf

http://ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_‌summary-‌for-policymakers.pdf


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Practical Action (2010a) Access to Energy – Fighting Poverty. [Video]. Duration 2:55

minutes.

Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JHs2y9x-pw

A video by the NGO Practical Action that talks about the challenges of energy poverty

and suggests solutions of how to overcome it.

Practical Action (2010b) The Poor People’s Energy Outlook. Rugby, Practical Action.

Available from: http://practicalaction.org/ppeo2010

This report discusses the challenges of energy poverty, relates it to the daily

experiences of poor people in developing countries and introduces methods of

measuring energy poverty and energy access. This report gives a useful overview of the

[Total] Energy Access Index and its application.

SE4All (2012) SE4All. [Video]. Duration 30 seconds.

Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyFZ8BQeRro

A very brief video on the purpose and the benefits of the SE4All.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JHs2y9x-pw

http://practicalaction.org/ppeo2010

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyFZ8BQeRro


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