p4 hazards and uses of name: emission and background · 2018-03-29 · (c) €€€€the table...

P4 HAZARDS AND USES OFEMISSION AND BACKGROUNDRADIATIONPractice Questions

Name: ________________________

Class: ________________________

Date: ________________________

Time: 172 minutes

Marks: 172 marks

Comments: GCSE PHYSICS ONLY

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Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays are types of nuclear radiation.

(a) Describe the structure of an alpha particle.

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(1)

1

(b) Nuclear radiation can change atoms into ions by the process of ionisation.

(i) Which type of nuclear radiation is the least ionising?

Tick (✔) one box.

alpha particles

beta particles

gamma rays

(1)

(ii) What happens to the structure of an atom when the atom is ionised?

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(1)

(c) People working with sources of nuclear radiation risk damaging their health.

State one precaution these people should take to reduce the risk to their health.

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(1)

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(d) In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising informationclearly and using specialist terms where appropriate.

The type of radiation emitted from a radioactive source can be identified by comparing theproperties of the radiation to the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation.

Describe the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation in terms of their:

• penetration through materials• range in air• deflection in a magnetic field.

(6)

(Total 10 marks)

(a) Radioactive sources that emit alpha, beta or gamma radiation can be dangerous.

What is a possible risk to health caused by using a radioactive source?

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(1)

2

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(b) In an experiment, a teacher put a 2 mm thick lead sheet in front of a radioactive source.She used a detector and counter to measure the radiation passing through the leadsheet in one minute.

She then put different numbers of lead sheets, each 2 mm thick, in front of the radioactivesource and measured the radiation passing through in one minute.

The apparatus the teacher used is shown in Figure 1.

(i) When using a radioactive source in an experiment, how could the teacher reduce therisk to her health?

Suggest one way.

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(1)

(ii) The number recorded on the counter is actually higher than the amount of radiationdetected from the source.

Complete the following word equation.

The numberrecorded onthe counter

=The amount ofradiation detectedfrom the source

+___________________radiation

(1)

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(c) The readings taken by the teacher are plotted in Figure 2.

(i) Draw a line of best fit to complete Figure 2.

(1)

(ii) How does the amount of radiation absorbed by the lead change as the totalthickness of the lead is increased?

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(1)

(iii) Use Figure 2 to estimate the reading on the counter when the total thickness of thelead is increased to 12 mm.

Estimated counter reading = _____________________

(1)

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(d) What type of radiation was emitted from the radioactive source?

Draw a ring around the correct answer.

alpha beta gamma

Give a reason for your answer.

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(2)

(Total 8 marks)

Different radioactive isotopes have different values of half-life.

(a) What is meant by the ‘half-life’ of a radioactive isotope?

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(1)

3

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(b) Figure 1 shows how the count rate from a sample of a radioactive isotope varies with time.

Figure 1

Time in days

Use information from Figure 1 to calculate the half-life of the radioactive isotope.

Show clearly on Figure 1 how you obtain your answer.

Half-life = ___________________ days

(2)

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(c) The table below shows data for some radioactive isotopes that are used in schools.

Radioactiveisotope

Type of radiationemitted

Half-life inyears

Americium-241 Alpha and gamma 460

Cobalt-60 Gamma 5

Radium-226 Alpha, beta and gamma 1600

Strontium-90 Beta 28

Thorium-232 Alpha and beta 1.4 x 1010

(i) State which radioactive isotope in the table above emits only radiation that is notdeflected by a magnetic field.

Give a reason for your choice.

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(2)

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(ii) Figure 2 shows a radioactive isotope being used to monitor the thickness of paperduring production.

Figure 2

State which radioactive isotope in the table should be used to monitor the thicknessof the paper.

Explain your choice.

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(3)

All the radioactive isotopes in the table have practical uses.

State which source in the table would need replacing most often.

Explain your choice.

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(3)

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(iii) When the radioactive isotopes are not in use, they are stored in lead-lined woodenboxes.

The boxes reduce the level of radiation that reaches the surroundings.

Figure 3 shows two of these boxes.

Figure 3

© David McKean

State one source from the table which emits radiation that could penetrate the box.

Explain your answer.

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(3)

(Total 14 marks)

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Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are two processes that release energy.

(a) (i) Use the correct answer from the box to complete each sentence.

Geiger counter nuclear reactor star

Nuclear fission takes place within a ____________________________ .

Nuclear fusion takes place within a _____________________________ .

(2)

4

(ii) State one way in which the process of nuclear fusion differs from the process ofnuclear fission.

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(1)

(b) The following nuclear equation represents the fission of uranium-235 (U-235).

Chemical symbols:

Ba - barium

Kr - krypton

(i) Use the information in the equation to describe the process of nuclear fission.

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(ii) An isotope of barium is Ba-139.Ba-139 decays by beta decay to lanthanum-139 (La-139).

Complete the nuclear equation that represents the decay of Ba-139 to La-139.

(3)

(Total 10 marks)

A doctor uses the radioactive isotope technetium-99 to find out if a patient’s kidneys are workingcorrectly.

The doctor injects a small amount of technetium-99 into the patient’s bloodstream.Technetium-99 emits gamma radiation.

If the patient’s kidneys are working correctly, the technetium-99 will pass from the bloodstreaminto the kidneys and then into the patient’s urine.

Detectors are used to measure the radiation emitted from the kidneys.

The level of radiation emitted from each kidney is recorded on a graph.

5

(a) How do the graphs show that technetium-99 is passing from the bloodstream into eachkidney?

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(1)

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(b) By looking at the graphs, the doctor is able to tell if there is a problem with the patient’skidneys.

Which one of the following statements is correct?

Put a tick ( ) in the box next to your answer.

Only the right kidney is working correctly.

Only the left kidney is working correctly.

Both kidneys are working correctly.

Explain the reason for your answer.

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(3)

(Total 4 marks)

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The pie chart shows the sources of the background radiation and the radiation doses that theaverage person in the UK is exposed to in one year.Radiation dose is measured in millisieverts (mSv).

(a) (i) What is the total radiation dose that the average person in the UK receives?

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Total radiation dose = _________________________ mSv

(1)

6

(ii) A student looked at the pie chart and then wrote down three statements.

Which one of the following statements is a correct conclusion from this data?


In the future, more people will be exposed to agreater proportion of radon gas.

People that have never had an X-ray get50 % of their radiation dose from radon gas.

The radiation dose from natural sourcesis much greater than from artificial sources.

(1)

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(b) The concentration of radon gas inside a home can vary from day to day.

The table gives data for the radiation measured in homes in four different parts of the UK.The radiation was measured using two detectors, one in the living room and one in thebedroom. The measurements were taken over 3 months.

Area of the UKNumber of

homes in thearea

Number ofhomes in the

sample

Averageradiationin Bq/m3

Maximumradiationin Bq/m3

A 590 000 160 15 81

B 484 000 130 18 92

C 221 000 68 000 162 10 000

D 318 000 35 300 95 6 900

(i) Give one reason why the measurements were taken over 3 months using detectorsin different rooms.

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(1)

(ii) Use information from the table to suggest why a much higher proportion of homeswere sampled in areas C and D than in areas A and B.

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(2)

(Total 5 marks)

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The pie chart shows the sources of the background radiation and the radiation doses that theaverage person in the UK is exposed to in one year.

Radiation dose is measured in millisieverts (mSv).

7

(a) (i) What is the radiation dose that the average person in the UK receives from radon gas?

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Radiation dose from radon gas = __________________ mSv

(1)

(ii) A person may receive a higher than average dose of radiation from backgroundsources.

Suggest two reasons why.

1. ____________________________________________________________

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2. ____________________________________________________________

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(2)

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(b) Exposure to radon gas can cause lung cancer.A recent study has compared the risk of getting lung cancer, by the age of 75 years, forcigarette smokers and non-smokers.The people in the study had been exposed throughout their lives to different levels of radongas.A summary of the data produced from the study is given in the table.

Exposure to radongas

Risk of lung cancer by age of 75

Non-smoker Smoker

No exposure 0.4 % 10 %

Moderate exposure 1.0 % 14 %

Very high exposure 1.5 % 32 %

(i) Why were people that have had no exposure to radon gas included in the study?

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(1)

(ii) Using information from the table, what conclusions can be made about exposure toradon gas and the risk of getting lung cancer?

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(c) At the moment, the regulations designed to protect people from over-exposure to radiationare based on a model called the ‘linear no-threshold’ (LNT) model.Some scientists believe that the LNT model is too simple.These scientists believe that atlow radiation levels a process called ‘radiation hormesis’ happens.

The graphs show that each model suggests a link between the risk of developing a cancerand exposure to low levels of radiation.

The link between the risk of developing cancer and exposure to low levels of radiationsuggested by each of the models is different.

Describe how.

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(2)

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(d) Scientists have conducted experiments in which mice have been exposed to differentlevels of radiation. The number of mice developing a cancer has then been measured.

Discuss whether it is ethical to use animals in scientific experiments.

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(2)

(Total 10 marks)

(a) Background radiation is all around us all the time.

(i) Radon is a natural source of background radiation.

Name another natural source of background radiation.

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(1)

8

(ii) X-rays are an artificial source of background radiation.

Name another artificial source of background radiation.

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(1)

(iii) An atom of radon-222 decays by emitting an alpha particle.The equation representing the decay is shown below.

How can you tell from the equation that ‘X’ is not an atom of radon?

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(1)

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(b) Having an X-ray taken increases your exposure to radiation.

The table gives:

• the radiation doses received for 6 different medical X-rays;

• the number of days’ of exposure to natural background radiation each dose isequivalent to.

Medical X-rayRadiation dose

received(in arbitrary units)

Equivalent number of daysof exposure to naturalbackground radiation

Chest 2 2.4

Skull 7 8.4

Pelvis 22 26.4

Hip 44 52.8

Spine 140

CT head scan 200 240

A hospital patient has an X-ray of the spine taken.Calculate the number of days of exposure to natural background radiation that an X-ray ofthe spine is equivalent to.

Show how you work out your answer.

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Equivalent number of days = _________________________

(2)

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(c) Scientists have shown that X-rays increase the risk of developing cancer.The scientists came to this conclusion by studying the medical history of people placed inone of two groups, A or B.The group into which people were put depended on their X-ray record.

(i) Person J has been placed into group A.Place each of the people, K, L, M, N and O, into the appropriate group, A or B.

Person

J

K

L

M

N

O

MedicalX-ray

record

3 arm None None 2 skull None 4 leg

Group A Group B

J

(1)

(ii) To be able to make a fair comparison, what is important about the number of peoplein each of the two groups studied by the scientists?

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(1)

(iii) What data would the scientists have compared in order to come to the conclusion thatX-rays increase the risk of developing cancer?

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(1)

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(iv) The chance of developing cancer due to a CT head scan is about 1 in 10 000.The chance of developing cancer naturally is about 1 in 4.

A hospital patient is advised by a doctor that she needs to have a CT head scan.The doctor explains to the patient the risks involved.

Do you think that the patient should give her permission for the CT scan to be taken?

Draw a ring around your answer.

Yes No

Give a reason for your answer.

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(1)

(Total 9 marks)

(a) A doctor uses the radioactive isotope technetium-99 to find out if a patient’s kidneys areworking correctly.

The doctor injects a small amount of technetium-99 into the patient’s bloodstream.

Technetium-99 emits gamma radiation.

Give two reasons why an isotope that emits gamma radiation is injected into the patientrather than an isotope that emits alpha radiation.

1. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

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(2)

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(b) If the patient’s kidneys are working correctly, the technetium-99 will pass from thebloodstream into the kidneys and then into the patient’s urine.

Detectors are used to measure the radiation emitted from the kidneys.

The level of radiation emitted from each kidney is recorded on a graph.

(i) How do the graphs show that technetium-99 is passing from the bloodstream intoeach kidney?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(ii) By looking at the graphs, the doctor is able to tell if there is a problem with thepatient’s kidneys.

Which one of the following statements is correct?


Only the right kidney is working correctly.

Only the left kidney is working correctly.

Both kidneys are working correctly.


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(3)

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(c) The patient was worried about having a radioactive isotope injected into their body. Thedoctor explained that the risk to the patient’s health was very small as technetium-99 has ashort half-life.

(i) What does the term half-life mean?

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(1)

(ii) Explain why it is important that the doctor uses an isotope with a short half-life ratherthan an isotope with a long half-life.

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(2)

(Total 9 marks)

The pie chart shows the sources of the background radiation and the radiation doses that theaverage person in the UK is exposed to in one year.Radiation dose is measured in millisieverts (mSv).

10

of 69

(a) (i) What is the total radiation dose that the average person in the UK receives?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Total radiation dose = _________________________ mSv

(1)

(ii) A student looked at the pie chart and then wrote down three statements.

Which one of the following statements is a correct conclusion from this data?


In the future, more people will be exposed to a greater proportion of

radon gas.

People that have never had an X-ray get 50% of their radiation dose from

radon gas.

The radiation dose from natural sources is much greater than from artificial

sources.

(1)

(b) The concentration of radon gas inside a home can vary from day to day. In some homes,the level can build up to produce a significant health risk. It is estimated that each year1000 to 2000 people die because of the effects of radiation from radon gas.

(i) It is not possible to give an exact figure for the number of deaths caused by theeffects of radiation from radon gas. Why?

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(1)

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The table gives data for the radiation levels measured in homes in 4 different parts ofthe UK. The radiation levels were measured using two detectors, one in the livingroom and one in the bedroom. The measurements were taken over 3 months.

Areaof

the UK

Number ofhomes

in the area

Number of homesin the sample

Averageradiationlevel inBq/m3

Maximumradiationlevel inBq/m3

A 590 000 160 15 81

B 484 000 130 18 92

C 221 000 68 000 162 10 000

D 318 000 35 300 95 6 900

(ii) Give one reason why the measurements were taken over 3 months using detectorsin different rooms.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(iii) Use information from the table to suggest why a much higher proportion of homeswere sampled in areas C and D than in areas A and B.

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(2)

(Total 6 marks)

Electricity is generated in a nuclear power station.

Fission is the process by which energy is released in the nuclear reactor.

(a) Figure 1 shows the first part of the nuclear fission reaction.

Complete Figure 1 to show how the fission process starts a chain reaction.

Figure 1

(3)

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(b) Figure 2 shows the inside of a nuclear reactor in a nuclear power station.

Figure 2

In a nuclear reactor a chain reaction occurs, which causes neutrons to be released.

The control rods absorb neutrons.

The control rods can be moved up and down.

Explain how the energy released by the chain reaction is affected by moving the controlrods.

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(2)

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(c) Figure 3 shows how the power output of the nuclear reactor would change if the controlrods were removed.

Figure 3

Calculate the rate of increase of power output at 10 minutes.

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Rate of increase of power output = _________ MW / minute

(2)

(Total 7 marks)

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A teacher used the equipment shown in the diagram to measure the count rate at differentdistances from a radioactive source.

Metre rule

(a) Her results are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Distance in metresCount rate in counts

per minuteCorrected count rate in

counts per minute

0.4 143 125

0.6 74 56

0.8 49 31

1.0 38 20

1.2 32 14

1.4 28 10

1.6 18 0

1.8 18 0

2.0 18 0

The background count rate has been used to calculate the corrected count rate.

(i) What is the value of the background count rate?

Background count rate = _______________ counts per minute

(1)

12

(ii) What information does the corrected count rate give?

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(1)

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(iii) The radioactive source used in the demonstration emits only one type of radiation.

The radioactive source is not an alpha emitter.

How can you tell from the data in the table?

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(1)

(iv) Plot a graph of corrected count rate against distance for distances between 0.4 m and1.4 m.

Draw a line of best fit to complete the graph.

Distance in metres

(3)

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(v) The ‘half-distance’ is the distance a detector has to be moved away from aradioactive source for the corrected count rate to halve.

A student has the hypothesis:A radioactive source has a constant ‘half-distance’.

Table 1 has been repeated for your information.

Table 1

Distance in metresCount rate in counts

per minuteCorrected count rate in

counts per minute

0.4 143 125

0.6 74 56

0.8 49 31

1.0 38 20

1.2 32 14

1.4 28 10

1.6 18 0

1.8 18 0

2.0 18 0

Use Table 1 to determine if the hypothesis is correct for this radioactive source.

You should use calculations in your answer.

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(b) A teacher places a beta source and a detector in a magnetic field.

The arrangement of the magnetic field is shown.

____The teacher repeated the experiment with the magnetic field in a different direction.

A set of results is shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Distancebetween source

and detectorin metres

Count ratein counts per

minute withoutmagnetic field


minute inExperiment 1



0.8 48 48 32

(i) Describe and explain the effect of the magnetic field on the count rate detected bythe detector.

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(2)

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(ii) The experiment is repeated with a different distance between the source and thedetector.

Table 3 shows the repeated results.

Table 3

Distance betweensource and

detectorin metres


minute withoutmagnetic field





1.8 19 18 20

Explain these results.

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(2)

(Total 13 marks)

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(a) A teacher used a Geiger-Műller (GM) tube and counter to measure the backgroundradiation in her laboratory.

The teacher reset the counter to zero, waited one minute and then took the count reading.The teacher repeated the procedure two more times.

(i) Background radiation can be either from natural sources or from man-made sources.

Name one man-made source of background radiation.

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(1)

13

(ii) The three readings taken by the teacher are given in the table.

Count afterone minute

15

24

18

The readings given in the table are correct.

Why are the readings different?

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(1)

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(b) Some scientists say they have found evidence to show that people living in areas of highnatural background radiation are less likely to develop cancer than people living in similarareas with lower background radiation.

The evidence these scientists found does not definitely mean that the level of backgroundradiation determines whether a person will develop cancer.

Suggest a reason why.

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___________________________________________________________________

(1)

(c) An atom of the isotope radon-222 emits an alpha particle and decays into an atom ofpolonium.

An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus. The symbol below represents an alphaparticle.

(i) How many protons and how many neutrons are there in an alpha particle?

Number of protons = ________

Number of neutrons = ________

(2)

(ii) The decay of radon-222 can be represented by the equation below.

Complete the equation by writing the correct number in each of the two boxes.

(2)

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(d) The graph shows how, in a sample of air, the number of radon-222 nuclei changes withtime.

Time in days

Use the graph to find the half-life of radon-222.

Show clearly on the graph how you obtain your answer.

Half-life = _________________________ days

(2)

(Total 9 marks)

Food irradiation is a process that exposes food to radiation. Irradiation can be used to kill thebacteria that cause food poisoning or to slow down the ripening of fresh fruit and vegetables.Frozen foods and food inside packaging can also be irradiated.

(a) The table gives information about five radioactive isotopes.

Isotope Half-life Radiation emitted

Caesium-134 2.1 years beta

Cobalt-60 5.3 years gamma

Curium-242 160 days alpha

Strontium-90 28 years beta

Technetium-99 6 hours gamma

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Which of these radioactive isotopes would be most suitable for irradiating food?

___________________________________________________________________

Explain the reasons for your choice.

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(3)

(b) Many people think that food should not be irradiated. Consumer groups have said that theyare worried about the nutritional value and safety of eating irradiated foods.

(i) Suggest one reason why some people may be concerned about the safety of eatingirradiated food.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(ii) Independent scientific committees in several countries, including Sweden, Canadaand the UK, have concluded that it is safe to eat irradiated food.

These scientific committees need to be independent from government influence.

Suggest why.

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(iii) One group of scientists has compared the vitamin content of non-irradiated foods withirradiated foods.

The table below gives the data obtained for 1 kg of cooked chicken.

Vitamin Non-irradiated foodin milligrams

Irradiated foodin milligrams

B6 1.22 1.35

B12 21.00 28.00

E 3.30 2.15

Niacin 58.00 55.50

Riboflavin 2.10 2.25

Considering only the data in the table, is it valid to conclude that irradiated food isless nutritional than non-irradiated food?

Explain your answer.

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(2)

(iv) In a restaurant, meals with ingredients that have been irradiated must be clearlyidentified on the menu.

It is important that people eating in a restaurant are given this information.

Suggest why.

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(c) The isotope caesium-137 decays by emitting beta radiation.Caesium-137 has a half-life of 30 years.

(i) What is a beta particle, and from which part of an atom is a beta particle emitted?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(ii) A sample containing caesium-137 has a count rate of 600 counts per minute.

Calculate how long it would take for the count rate from the sample to fall to 75counts per minute.

Show clearly how you work out your answer.

______________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________

Time taken = _________________________ years

(2)

(Total 11 marks)

(a) A radioactive source emits alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) radiation.

(i) Which two types of radiation will pass through a sheet of card?

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(ii) Which two types of radiation would be deflected by an electric field?

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(iii) Which type of radiation has the greatest range in air?

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(1)

15

(b) A student suggests that the radioactive source should be stored in a freezer at – 20 °C.The student thinks that this would reduce the radiation emitted from the source.

Suggest why the student is wrong.

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(c) Phosphorus-32 is a radioactive isotope that emits beta radiation.

(i) How is an atom of phosphorus-32 different from an atom of the stable isotopephosphorus-31?

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______________________________________________________________

(1)

(ii) The graph shows how the count rate of a sample of phosphorus-32 changes withtime.

Use the graph to calculate the half-life of phosphorus-32.

Show clearly how you used the graph to obtain your answer.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Half-life = ____________________ days

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(iii) Plants use phosphorus compounds to grow. Watering the root system of a plant witha solution containing a phosphorus-32 compound can help scientists to understandthe growth process.

Explain why phosphorus-32 is suitable for use as a tracer in this situation.

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______________________________________________________________

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(2)

(Total 9 marks)

In 1986, a nuclear reactor exploded in a power station at Chernobyl in the Ukraine.

(a) The table gives information about some of the radioactive substances released into the airby the explosion.

Radioactivesubstance

Half-lifeType of

radiationemitted

Iodine-131 8 days beta and gamma

Caesium-134 2 years beta

Caesium-137 30 years beta

(i) How is the structure of a caesium-134 atom different from the structure of acaesium-137 atom?

______________________________________________________________

(1)

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(ii) What is a beta particle and from which part of an atom is a beta particle emitted?

______________________________________________________________

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(1)

(iii) Once a radioactive substance is dissolved in rainwater, it can enter the food chain.

Following the Chernobyl explosion, some milk supplies were found to be radioactive.

If one litre of milk contaminated with iodine-131 gives a count rate of 400counts/second, how long will it take for the count rate to fall to 25 counts/second?

Show clearly how you work out your answer.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Time taken = _________________________ days

(2)

(iv) After 20 years, the caesium-137 emitted into the atmosphere is a more seriousproblem than the iodine-131.

Explain why.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(2)

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(b) The bar chart compares the incidence of thyroid cancer in Ukrainian children, aged 0–14years, before and after the Chernobyl explosion.

Of the children that developed thyroid cancer, 64% lived in the areas most contaminatedby the radiation.

Considering this data, can you be certain that a child who developed thyroid cancerbetween 1986 and 1990 did so because of the Chernobyl explosion?


___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(2)

(c) In 1991, some scientists compared the health of two groups of people: a control group anda group that had been exposed to the radiation from Chernobyl.

What people would have been in the control group?

___________________________________________________________________

(1)

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(d) Although there are some risks associated with nuclear power stations, it is likely that newones will be built.

Give two reasons to justify the use of nuclear power.

1. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(2)

(Total 11 marks)

(a) Alpha particles (α), beta particles (β) and gamma rays (γ) are types of nuclear radiation.17(i) Which of the three types of radiation is the most strongly ionising?

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(ii) What effect does nuclear radiation have on living cells?

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(b) The diagrams show a G-M tube and counter used to measure the radiation emitted from asource. Both diagrams show the reading on the counter one minute after it was switchedon.

Explain why the counter readings show that the source is giving out only gamma radiation.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(2)

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(c) The box gives information about the radioactive isotope technetium-99.

Type of radiation emitted: gamma

Half-life: 6 hours

Used as a medical tracer

What is meant by the term half-life?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(1)

(d) To study the blood flow in a patient’s lungs, a doctor injects a small quantity of atechnetium-99 compound into the patient. The radiation emitted by the technetium-99atoms is detected outside the patient’s body.

Explain why a doctor would not use a radioactive isotope with a very short half-life, such as2 seconds, as a medical tracer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(2)

(Total 7 marks)

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(a) The table gives information about six radioactive isotopes.

Isotope Type of radiation emitted Half-life

hydrogen-3 beta particle 12 years

iridium-192 gamma ray 74 days

polonium-210 alpha particle 138 days

polonium-213 alpha particle less than 1 second

technetium-99 gamma ray 6 days

uranium-239 beta particle 24 minutes

(i) What is an alpha particle?

______________________________________________________________

(1)

18

(ii) Two isotopes of polonium are given in the table. How do the nuclei of these twoisotopes differ?

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(iii) A doctor needs to monitor the blood flow through a patient’s heart. The doctor injectsa radioactive isotope into the patient’s bloodstream. The radiation emitted by theisotope is then detected outside the body.

Which one of the isotopes in the table would the doctor inject into the bloodstream?

______________________________________________________________

Explain the reasons for your choice.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(3)

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(b) Igneous rock contains uranium-238 which eventually changes to the stable isotopelead-206. The graph shows how the percentage of uranium-238 nuclei present in anigneous rock changes with time.

A rock sample is found to have seven atoms of uranium-238 for every three atoms oflead-206. Use the graph to estimate the age of the rock. Show clearly how you obtain youranswer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Age of rock = __________________ million years

(2)

(Total 7 marks)

The diagram shows a badge used to monitor radiation. It measures the amount of radiation aworker has been exposed to in one month.

19

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(i) What is used inside the badge to detect radiation?

___________________________________________________________________

(1)

(ii) What would indicate that the worker has been exposed to a high level of radiation asopposed to a low level of radiation?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(1)

(iii) Why is it important to monitor the amount of radiation the worker has been exposed to?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(1)

(Total 3 marks)

(a) The table shows the half-life of some radioactive isotopes.

Radioactive isotope Half-life

magnesium-27 10 minutes

sodium-24 15 hours

sulphur-35 87 days

cobalt-60 5 years

20

(i) What is meant by the term radioactive?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(1)

(ii) Which one of the isotopes in the table could form part of a compound to be used as atracer in medicine? Explain the reason for your choice.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(3)

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(iii) Draw a graph to show how the number of radioactive atoms present in the isotopecobalt-60 will change with time.

(3)

(b) Nuclear power stations provide about 17% of the world’s electricity. They add less than 1%to the total background levels of radiation. Some people are opposed to the use of nuclearfuels for the generation of electricity. Explain why.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(3)

(Total 10 marks)

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Mark schemes

(a) 2 protons and 2 neutrons

accept 2p and 2n

accept (the same as a) helium nucleus

symbol is insufficient

do not accept 2 protons and neutrons1

1

(b) (i) gamma rays1

(ii) loses/gains (one or more) electron(s)1

(c) any one from:

• wear protective clothing• work behind lead/concrete/glass shielding• limit time of exposure• use remote handling

accept wear mask/gloves

wear goggles is insufficient

wear protective equipment/gear is insufficient

accept wear a film badge

accept handle with (long) tongs

accept maintain a safe distance

accept avoid direct contact1

(d) Marks awarded for this answer will be determined by the Quality of Written Communication(QWC) as well as the standard of the scientific response. Examiners should apply a‘best-fit’ approach to the marking.

Level 3 (5 – 6 marks):There is a description of all three types of radiation in terms of at least two of theirpropertiesora full description of two types of radiation in terms of all three properties.

Level 2 (3 – 4 marks):There is a description of at least two types of radiation in terms of some propertiesora full description of one type of radiation in terms of all three propertiesorthe same property is described for all three radiations

Level 1 (1 – 2 marks):There is a description of at least one type of radiation in terms of one or more properties.

Level 0 (0 marks):No relevant information

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examples of physics points made in the response

alpha particles• are least penetrating• are stopped by paper / card

• have the shortest range• can travel (about) 5cm in air

• are (slightly) deflected by a magnetic field• alpha particles are deflected in the opposite direction to beta particles by a magnetic

field

beta particles• (some are) stopped by (about) 2mm (or more) of aluminium/metal• can travel (about) 1 metre in air• are deflected by a magnetic field• beta particles are deflected in the opposite direction to alpha particles by a magnetic

field

accept (some are) stopped by aluminium foil

gamma rays• are the most penetrating• are stopped by (about) 10cm of lead• have the longest range• can travel at least 1 km in air• are not deflected by a magnetic field

6

[10]

(a) cell damage or cancer

accept kills / mutates cells

radiation poisoning is insufficientionising is insufficient

1

2

(b) (i) any one from:• use tongs to pick up source• wear gloves• use (lead) shielding• minimise time (of exposure)• maximise distance (between source and teacher).

accept any other sensible and practical suggestion

ignore reference to increasing / decreasing the number / thicknessof lead sheets

1

(ii) background1

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(c) (i) curve drawn from point 2,160

do not accept straight lines drawn from dot to dot1

(ii) (also) increases

less radiation passes through is insufficient1

(iii) 50

accept any value from 40 to 56 inclusive1

(d) gamma1

only gamma (radiation) can pass through lead

accept alpha and beta cannot pass through leada general property of gamma radiation is insufficient

1

[8]

(a) (average) time taken for the amount / number of nuclei / atoms (of the isotope in a sample)to halveortime taken for the count rate (from a sample containing the isotope) to fall to half

accept (radio)activity for count rate1

3

(b) 60 ±3 (days)1

indication on graph how value was obtained1

(c) (i) cobalt(-60)1

gamma not deflected by a magnetic fieldorgamma have no charge

dependent on first marking point

accept (only) emits gamma

gamma has no mass is insufficient

do not accept any reference to half-life1

(ii) strontium(-90)1

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any two from:

• only has beta• alpha would be absorbed• gamma unaffected• beta penetration / absorption depends on thickness of paper

if thorium(-232) or radium(-226) given, max 2 marks can beawarded

2

(iii) cobalt(-60)1

shortest half-life

accept half-life is 5 years

dependent on first marking point1

so activity / count rate will decrease quickest1

(iv) americium(-241) / cobalt(-60) / radium(-226)1

gamma emitter1

(only gamma) can penetrate lead (of this box)

do not allow lead fully absorbs gamma1

[14]

(a) (i) nuclear reactor14

star1

(ii) nuclei are joined (not split)

accept converse in reference to nuclear fission

do not accept atoms are joined1

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(b) (i) any four from:

• neutron• (neutron) absorbed by U (nucleus)

ignore atomdo not accept reactsdo not accept added to

• forms a larger nucleus• (this larger nucleus is) unstable• (larger nucleus) splits into two (smaller) nuclei / into Ba and Kr• releasing three neutrons and energy

accept fast-moving for energy4

(ii) 56 (Ba)1

57 (La)

if proton number of Ba is incorrect allow 1 mark if that of La is 1greater

1

accept e for β

scores 3 marks1

[10]

(a) (both graphs show an initial) increase in count rate

accept both show an increase1

5

(b) only the right kidney is working correctly1

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any two from:

if incorrect box chosen maximum of 1 mark can be awarded

reference to named kidney can be inferred from the tick box

• count-rate / level / line for right kidney decreases (rapidly)

it decreases is insufficient

• count-rate / level / line for left kidney does not change

it does not change is insufficient

• radiation is being passed out into urine – if referring to right kidney

• radiation is not being passed out – if referring to the left kidney

• left kidney does not initially absorb as much technetium-992

[4]

(a) (i) 2.516

(ii) The radiation dose from natural sources is much greater than from artificialsources

1

(b) (i) any one from:

• different concentrations in different rooms

• to average out daily fluctuations

accept to find an average

accept to make the result (more) reliable / valid

do not accept to make more accurate on its own1

(ii) average level (much) higher (in C and D)

accept converse1

some homes have very high level (in C and D)

accept maximum level in A and B is low1

or

maximum level in some homes (in C and D) is very high

accept higher radiation levels (in C and D) for 1 mark

[5]

(a) (i) 1.25 (mSv)17

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(ii) any two from:

• (frequent) flying

accept stated occupation that involves flying

• living at altitude

• living in areas with high radon concentrations

accept a specific area, eg Cornwall

• living in a building made from granite (blocks)

• having more than the average number of X-raysorhaving a CT scan

accept more medical treatments

• working in a nuclear power station

accept any suggestion that could reasonably increase the level froma specific source

2

(b) (i) to be able to see the effect of exposure (to radon gas)oras a control

accept to compare (the effect of) exposure (with no exposure)1

(ii) increased levels of exposure increases the risk (of developing cancer)

accept exposure (to radon gas) increases the risk1

smoking increases the (harmful) effect of radon

answers that simply reproduce statistics are insufficient1

(c) LNT model – risk increases with increasing radiation (dose) level

accept in (direct) proportion

accept low doses increase the risk1

Radiation hormesis - low radiation (dose) levels reduce the risk1

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(d) two valid points made – examples:

• animals have no choice and so should not be used

• should not make animals suffer

• better to experiment on animals than humans

• experiments lead to a better understanding / new knowledge

• experiments may lead to health improvement / cures for humans

results for animals may not apply to humans is insufficient2

[10]

(a) (i) any one from:

• food / drink

• rocks / building materials

• cosmic rays / rays from space

accept correctly named example1

8

(ii) any one from:

• nuclear power / coal power (stations)

accept nuclear waste

• nuclear accidents

accept named accident eg Chernobyl

• nuclear weapons testing

accept named medical procedure which involves a radioactivesource

accept radiotherapy

nuclear activity / radiation is insufficient

do not accept CT scans1

(iii) different number of / fewer protons

accept does not have 86 protons

accept only has 84 protonsordifferent atomic number

do not accept bottom number different

reference to mass number negates this mark1

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(b) 168

accept 169 if clear, correct method is shown

allow 1 mark for a correct dose ratio involving the spine

eg 2:140 etc

or ratio of days to dose is 1.2

or ratio of dose to days is 0.832

(c) (i)

Group A GroupB

J M O K L N

all correct

any order within each group1

(ii) similar (number) / same (number) / large (number)

accept the same specific number in each group eg three

reference to other factors such as age is neutral1

(iii) how many people in each group developed cancer

a clear comparison is required1

(iv) there are no marks for Yes or No the

mark is for the reason

Yesthe benefit of having the scan is greater than the riskorthe risk is (very) small (compared to the chance from natural causes)

accept the risk is much greater from natural causes

Nono additional risk is acceptable

1

[9]

(a) gamma will pass through the body

it refers to gammaoralpha will not pass through the body

answers must relate to the body

accept skin for body1

9

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gamma is only slightly ionising

accept gamma causes less damage to cells / tissueoralpha is heavily ionising

do not accept gamma causes no damage to cells

less harmful is insufficient1

(b) (i) (both graphs show an initial) increase in count-rate

accept both show an increase1

(ii) only the right kidney is working correctly1

any two from:

if incorrect box chosen maximum of 1 mark can be awarded

reference to named kidney can be inferred from the tick box

• count-rate / level / line for right kidney decreases (rapidly)

it decreases is insufficient

• count-rate / level / line for left kidney does not change

it does not change is insufficient

• radiation is being passed out / into urine - if referring to right kidney

• radiation is not being passed out - if referring to the left kidney2

(c) (i) time taken for number of nuclei to halveortime taken for the count-rate to halve

1

(ii) short half-life – the level of radiation (in the body) decreases rapidly

it refers to short life isotope1

to a safe / very small levelora long half-life – the radiation remains in the body / for a long time

level of radiation remains high

answers in terms of damage eg cancer are insufficient1

[9]

(a) (i) 2.5110

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(ii) The radiation dose from natural sources is much greaterthan from artificial sources.

1

(b) (i) other factors may be involved

accept a specific suggestion

eg they may be exposed to other types of radiation

accept cannot be sure (in many cases) that the cause of death isradon (poisoning)

1

(ii) any one from:

• different concentrations in different rooms

• to average out daily fluctuations

accept to find an average

accept to make the result (more) reliable / valid

do not accept to make more accurate on its own1

(iii) average level (much) higher (in C and D)

accept converse1

some homes have very high level (in C and D)

accept maximum level in A and B is lowormaximum level in some homes (in C and D) is very high

accept higher radiation levels (in C and D) for 1 mark1

[6]

(a) Nucleus splitting into two fragments and releasing two or three neutrons111

(at least one) fission neutron shown to be absorbed by additional large nucleus andcausing fission

1

two or three additional neutrons released from fission reaction1

This diagram would gain all 3 marks:

(b) lowering the control rods increases the number of neutrons absorbed

accept converse description1

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(so) energy released decreases1

allow changing the position of the control rods affects the number ofneutrons absorbed for 1 mark

(c) rate of increase between 240 and 276 (MW / min)2

allow 1 mark for attempt to calculate gradient of line at 10 minutes

[7]

(a) (i) 18112

(ii) the count rate for the source1

(iii) the alpha radiation would not cover such a distance1

(iv) plots correct to within ½ small square

allow 1 mark for 4 correct points plotted2

correct curve through points as judged by eye1

(v) two attempts at finding ‘half-distance’ using the table

20 to 10 cpm d = 0.4 m125 to 56 cpm d = 0.2 m31 to 14 cpm d = 0.4 m

allow 1 mark for one attempted comparison2

obeyed or not obeyed

dependent on previous two marks1

(b) (i) there is no effect on the count rate in experiment 1 because the field is parallelor beta particles are not deflected or there is no force

1

count rate is reduced in experiment 2 because field is perpendicular or betaparticles are deflected or there is a force

1

(ii) only background radiation (as beta do not travel as far)1

slightly different values show the random nature of radioactive decay1

[13]

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(a) (i) any one from:

• nuclear power (stations)

accept nuclear wasteaccept coal power stations

• nuclear weapons (testing)

accept nuclear bombs / fallout

• nuclear accidents

accept named accident, eg Chernobyl or Fukushima

accept named medical procedure which involves a radioactivesourceaccept radiotherapyaccept X-raysaccept specific industrial examples that involve a radioactive source

nuclear activity / radiation is insufficient

smoke detectors is insufficient1

13

(ii) (radioactive decay) is a random process

accept an answer in terms of background / radiation varies (fromone point in time to another)

1

(b) any one from:

• (maybe) other factors involved

accept a named ‘sensible’ factor, eg smoking

• evidence may not be valid

accept not enough data

• may not have (a complete) understanding of the process (involved)1

(c) (i) 21

21

(ii) 218

correct order only1

841

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(d) 3.8 (days)

allow 1 mark for showing correct method using the graph providedno subsequent steps

correct answers obtained using numbers other than 800 and 400gain 2 marks provided the method is shown

2

[9]

(a) cobalt-(60)114

gamma (radiation) will pass through food / packaging

this can score if technetium chosen1

long half-life so level of radiation (fairly) constant for (a number) of years

this can score if strontium / caesium is chosen

accept long half-life so source does not need frequent replacement

accept answers in terms of why alpha and beta cannot be used

gamma kills bacteria is insufficient1

(b) (i) people may link the use of radiation with illness / cancer

accept (they think) food becomes radioactive

accept (they think) it is harmful to them

‘it’ refers to irradiated food1

(ii) not biased / influenced (by government views)1

(iii) any two from:

• data refers only to (cooked) chicken

• data may not generalise to other foods

• the content of some vitamins increases when food / chicken is irradiated

• no vitamins are (completely) destroyed

• (only) two vitamins decrease (but not significantly)

accept irradiated chicken / food contains a higher level of vitamins

marks are for the explanation only2

(iv) so can choose to eat / not eat that (particular) food

accept irradiated food may cause health problems(for some people)

accept people may have ethical issues(over eating irradiated food)

1

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(c) (i) electronfrom nucleus / neutron

both parts required1

(ii) 90 years

allow 1 mark for showing 3 half-lives2

[11]

(a) (i) beta and gamma

both answers required

accept correct symbols1

15

(ii) alpha and beta

both answers required

accept correct symbols1

(iii) gamma

accept correct symbol1

(b) nothing (you do to a radioactive substance / source) changes thecount rate / activity / rate of decay / radiation (emitted)

accept it = radiation emitted

or (reducing) the temperature does not change the activity / count rate / rate of decay /radiation (emitted)

1

(c) (i) has one more neutron

correct answer only1

(ii) 14 days

no tolerance

allow 1 mark for showing a correct method on the graph2

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(iii) any two from:

• beta particles / radiation can be detected externally

• beta particles / radiation can pass out of / through the plant

• long half-life gives time for phosphorus to move throughthe plant / be detected / get results

• phosphorus-32 is chemically identical to phosphorus-31

• phosphorus-32 is used in the same way by a plantas phosphorus-31

2

[9]

(a) (i) 3 fewer neutrons

accept fewer neutrons

accept different number of neutronsdo not accept different number of electrons

1

16

(ii) electron from the nucleus

both points needed1

(iii) 32 (days)

allow 1 mark for clearly obtaining 4 half-lives2

(iv) has a much longer half-life

accept converse answers in terms of iodine-131

accept it has not reached one half-life yet1

little decay happened / still in the atmosphere

accept it is still decaying1

(b) any two from:

marks are for reasons

• some children developed TC before 1986

• some children (after 1986) that developed TC did not livein highly contaminated areas

• the (large) increase can (only) be explained by (a largeincrease in) radiation as caused by Chernobyl

• all areas would be contaminated (and raise the risk of TC)

• no evidence (of effect) of other variables2

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(c) People not exposed (to the radiation but who were otherwise similar)

accept people not affected (by the radiation)1

(d) any two from:

answers should be in terms of nuclear power and not why weshould not use other fuels

• produce no pollutant / harmful gases

accept named gas or greenhouse gasesdo not accept no pollution

• produces a lot of energy for a small mass (of fuel) oris a concentrated energy source

accept amount for mass

accept high energy density

• it is reliable orit can generate all of the time

• produces only a small volume of (solid) waste

accept amount for volume2

[11]

(a) (i) alpha1

(ii) damages them / changes DNA

accept kills them / destroys

accept causes cancer

accept causes cell mutations

do not accept they ionise cells on its own1

17

(b) count is (roughly) the same1

gamma is not affected by magnetic field

accept magnet for magnetic field1

or

alpha and beta are deflected by a magnetic field (1)count would go down significantly (1)

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(c) time taken for number of nuclei to halve

do not accept time for radioactivity to halve

or

time taken for count rate to fall to half(its initial value)

do not accept time for nuclei to halve1

(d) not enough time to take measurements / make observations1

before level of radiation became insignificant1

[7]

(a) (i) two protons and two neutrons or the nucleus of a helium atom1

(ii) different numbers of neutrons or one has (3) more or less neutronsthan the other

accept different mass (numbers)

if give a number as a difference it must be 31

18

(iii)

if polonium or hydrogen chosen gets 0 marks

technetium (99) or none1

any two from:

do not accept gamma rays are less dangerous

gamma rays less dangerous inside the body

gamma radiation less likely to be absorbed by cells or gamma raysdo not ionise cells

gamma rays can penetrate the body (to be detected externally)

first 3 points valid if either technetium or iridium or none is given2

short half-life so safe levels inside body soon reached

half-life long enough to obtain measurements

half-life short enough not to cause long term damage

last 3 points valid if either technetium or uranium or none is given

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(b) 2200 ± 200

allow 1 mark for attempted use of 70% on the graph2

[7]

(i) photographic film / paper

accept X-ray film1

(ii) (when developed) the film is darker

must have a comparison1

(iii) to prevent them receiving / being exposed to too much radiation orso they know how much radiation they have been exposed to

accept if he gets too much radiation there may be something wrongwith the plant

any statement making reference to a need for preventive orcorrective action gains 1 mark

an isolated statement of fact of the effect of radiation gains 0 marks1

[3]

19

(a) (i) an unstable nucleus or atom or isotope

accept nucleus has too much energy

an atom or nucleus or isotope which decays1

20

(ii) sodium – 24

if Mg-27 chosen can get third mark if explained

sufficiently long to allow circulation and take readings

short enough that levels of radiation in the body will become insignificantquickly

3

(iii) each axis is given a linear scale1

curve concave to axes drawn1

(curve) shows correct half-life of five years

must show two half lives check first two plotted points correct to

1 half square

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(b) any three points from the following:

• waste remains radioactive for a long time or waste has to be disposed of

• waste may leak from its storage point

• possibility of accident at power station or in transport of fuel

• contamination of the local environment

• people living close to a power station may have a greater risk ofdeveloping cancer or leukaemia

accept harmful to people

• high cost to decommission power station

do not accept expensive3

[10]

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p4 hazards and uses of name: emission and background · 2018-03-29 · (c) €€€€the table...

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