pacific region environmental strategy 2005-2009 - volume 1: strategy document

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PacificRegion

EnvironmentalStrategy2005–2009

Volume 1: Strategy Document

Asian Development Bank



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© Asian Development BankAll rights reserved

First published in January 2004 This publication was prepared by consultants of the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The findings, interpretations, andconclusions expressed here do not necessarily represent the views of ADB or those of its member governments. ADBdoes not guarantee accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for anyconsequences of their use.

Asian Development BankP.O. Box 789, 0980 Manila, PhilippinesWebsite: http:/ / www.adb.org

Photographers: Rollie del Rosario and Marcia Samson

Pacific Studies Series

The publication is part of a series published by ADB to provide the governments of its Pacific developing member coun-tries with analyses of economic and other issues. The studies are expected to shed light on the problems facing govern-ments and people in the Pacific islands, and to suggest development strategies that combine both political and technical

feasibility.

Moving Toward a Sector-Wide Approach: Papua New Guinea - The Health Sector Development Program Experience (August 2003)Information and Communication Technology for Development in the Pacific (2003)Cook Islands 2001 Economic Report: Policies for Progress (December 2002)

Tuvalu 2002 Economic and Public Sector Review (November 2002)Kiribati Monetization in an Atoll Society (Managing Economic and Social Change) (December 2002)Vanuatu: Policy Issues in the Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry Sectors (May 2002)Vanuatu: Economic Performance and Challenges Ahead (April 2002)

Tonga: Natural Resources Use and Sustainable Socioeconomic Development (April 2002) The Contribution of Fisheries to the Economies of Pacific Island Countries (December 2001)Financial Sector Development In Pacific Island Economies Vol. 2 (September 2001)Financial Sector Development In Pacific Island Economies Vol. 1 (September 2001)

Marshall Islands: Economic Report 2000 (June 2001)Vanuatu: Agriculture and Fisheries Sector Review 2000 (April 2001) Tuna: A Key Economic Resource in the Pacific Islands (March 2001)Samoa 2000 – Building on Recent Reforms (November 2000)Republic of the Fiji Islands: 1999 Economic Report (April 2000)Pursuing Economic Reform in the Pacific (October 1999)Reforms in the Pacific: An Assessment of the ADB’s Assistance for Reform Programs in the Pacific (October 1999)Solomon Islands: 1997 Economic Report (August 1998)Improving Growth Prospects in the Pacific (March 1998)Kiribati: 1997 Economic Report (March 1998)

Tuvalu: 1997 Economic Report (February 1998)A Different Kind of Voyage: Development and Dependence in the Pacific Islands (February 1998)Sociocultural Issues and Economic Development in the Pacific Islands – Vol. II (November 1997)Marshall Islands: 1996 Economic Report (June 1997)Vanuatu: Economic Performance, Policy and Reform Issues (May 1997)Pacific’s Tuna: The Challenge of Investing in Growth (April 1997)Federated States of Micronesia: 1996 Economic Report (March 1997)Fiji: Agriculture Sector Review: A Strategy for Growth and Diversification (July 1996)

Tonga: Economic Performance and Selected Development Issues (June 1996)Sociocultural Issues and Economic Development in the Pacific Islands (April 1996)Strategy for the Pacific: Policies and Programs for Sustainable Growth (March 1996)Cook Islands: Economic Performance, Issues, and Strategies (July 1995)Human Resource Development: Small Pacific Island Countries (March 1995)

Copies of these reports are available from the Office of External Relations, Asian Development Bank,P.O. Box 789, 0980 Manila, Philippines. E-mail:[email protected], Fax No. (632) 636-2648



PACIFIC REGION ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY 2005-2009

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CONTENTS

iv T T T T Tablesablesablesablesablesv FiguresFiguresFiguresFiguresFiguresv BoxesBoxesBoxesBoxesBoxesvii AbbreviationsAbbreviationsAbbreviationsAbbreviationsAbbreviations

ix Forewor Forewor Forewor Forewor Forewor d d d d d

1 Rationale and ObjectivesRationale and ObjectivesRationale and ObjectivesRationale and ObjectivesRationale and Objectives

3 Introduction3 The Pacific Environment3 ADB in the Pacific4 ADB Operations and Environment Policy4 Need for a Pacific Environmental Strategy5 Strategy Objectives and Approach

7 Current EnCurrent EnCurrent EnCurrent EnCurrent En vironmental I ssues and Challengesvironmental I ssues and Challengesvironmental I ssues and Challengesvironmental I ssues and Challengesvironmental I ssues and Challenges

9 The Pacific and Environmental Challenges9 Overview of the Pacific13 Defining Characteristics of Pacific Countries14 Key Development and Environmental Challenges

16 Pacific Environmental Issues16 Freshwater Resources19 Coastal and Marine Resources23 Forest Resources27 Waste Management and Urbanization32 Biodiversity38 Energy-Environment Linkages

41 Climate Change and Variability47 Environmental Governance

53 Emerging Response Strategies

57 Assessing ADB’Assessing ADB’Assessing ADB’Assessing ADB’Assessing ADB’ s Past Ens Past Ens Past Ens Past Ens Past En vironmental Assistance to the Pacificvironmental Assistance to the Pacificvironmental Assistance to the Pacificvironmental Assistance to the Pacificvironmental Assistance to the Pacific

59 ADB’s Environment-Related Assistance to PDMCs61 Lessons Learned from ADB’s Experience

69 Patterns of and Lessons from External EnPatterns of and Lessons from External EnPatterns of and Lessons from External EnPatterns of and Lessons from External EnPatterns of and Lessons from External En vironmentalvironmentalvironmentalvironmentalvironmentalAssistanceAssistanceAssistanceAssistanceAssistance

71 Environmental Assistance and Lessons Learned

71 Assistance from External Agencies other than ADB72 The Global Environment Facili ty78 South Pacific Regional Environment Programme

80 Accomplishments, Constraints, and Lessons Learned80 Learning from Areas of Progress81 Lessons from Constraints Encountered

83 Pacific Region EnPacific Region EnPacific Region EnPacific Region EnPacific Region En vironmental Strategyvironmental Strategyvironmental Strategyvironmental Strategyvironmental Strategy , 2005–2009, 2005–2009, 2005–2009, 2005–2009, 2005–2009

85 Vision for the Region85 Overview



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85 Issues at the Local or Country Level86 Issues Crossing Local/ Country and Regional Levels86 Issues Crossing Country, Regional, and Global Levels

87 ADB’s Role in Improving Pacific Environmental Management

87 Intervention Strategy87 Framework for ADB Environmental Assistance in the Region

88 Areas for Local/Project-Level Assistance89 Areas for Assistance at the Subnational Level91 Areas for Strategic Focus at the National and Sector Levels92 Areas for Complementary Regional Assistance

94 Implementation Issues and Measuring Progress94 Targets Set at the WSSD96 Millennium Development Goals96 Key Risks and Assumptions of the Strategy

97 ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences

101 AppendixesAppendixesAppendixesAppendixesAppendixes103 Pacific Regional Submission to the WSSD107 Summaries of Case Studies127 Human Development-Characteristics of PDMCs129 High Priority Areas for Action Relating to Forest and Tree Management131 ADB’s Environment-Related Assistance to PDMCs

T T T T TABLESABLESABLESABLESABLES

11 1. Geographic Features of PDMCs11 2. Main Economic Activities in PDMCs

12 3. Human Development and Poverty Indexes for Pacific Island Countries16 4. Summary of Freshwater Resources and Uses in PDMCs17 5. Profile of Pacific Populations with Access to Sanitation and Safe Water20 6. Estimated Annual Value of Fisheries Production for Pacific Island Countries21 7. Pacific Reefs at Risk22 8. Maximum Number of Hermatypic (Reef Forming) Coral Species in the Pacific24 9. Forest Statistics for Selected PDMCs28 10. Waste Awareness Baseline Survey29 11. Urban Population and Growth Rates in PDM Cs29 12. Generation of Waste in Selected PDMCs30 13. Contamination by POPs in Pacific Island Countries31 14. Waste Collection Charges in Tonga32 15. Waste Collection and Disposal Charges in Vanuatu33 16. Biodiversity Indicators in PDMCs and Related Land Use Statistics35 17. Protection Needs for Ecosystems and Organisms in the Pacific Region37 18. PDMC M embership in CBD and Compliance with CBD Obligations37 19. PDMC Membership in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna

and Flora43 20. PDMCs’ Participation in UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol45 21. Estimated Vulnerability to Natural Hazards in Selected PDMCs




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45 22. Dates of Submission of First National Communication under UNFCCC47 23. Pacific National Environmental Management Organizations52 24. Environmental Policy and Planning Exercises of Pacific Island Countries53 25. Pacific Country Participation in Multilateral Environmental Agreements59 26. Summary of ADB Environment-Related Assistance to PDMCs, 1992–200262 27. Environment-Related Technical Assistance, 1992–2002

64 28. Environment-Related Grants, 1992–200265 29. Regional Environment-Related Technical Assistance, 2002–200466 30. Environment-Related Lending, 1992–200172 31. Summary of Ongoing External Assistance73 32. Ongoing Environment-Oriented External Assistance (Country-Level)75 33. Ongoing Environment-Oriented External Assistance (Regional)79 34. Pacific Island Countries’ Access to the GEF, 1992–200279 35. SPREP Annual Expenditure on Project Implementation

FIGURESFIGURESFIGURESFIGURESFIGURES

10 1. Map of the Pacific50 2. Expenditures on Regional Environment Programs through South Pacific Regional Environment

Programme, 1991–200060 3. Country-Level TAs by Sector60 4. Value of Country-Level TAs by Sector60 5. Environment-Related RETAs by Sector61 6. Value of Environment-Related RETAs by Sector61 7. Environment-Related Loans by Sector61 8. Value of Environment-Related Loans by Sector72 9. Number of Country-Level External Assistance by Sector72 10. Value of Country-Level External Assistance by Sector

72 11. Number of Region-Level External Assistance by Sector72 12. Value of Region-Level External Assistance by Sector80 13. Major External Agency Contributions to SPREP for Environmental Programs in the Pacific Region

BOXESBOXESBOXESBOXESBOXES

25 1. Forestry Scenarios in Papua New Guinea34 2. Threats to Biodiversity and Biodiversity Conservation38 3. The Micronesia Conservation Trust39 4. The Rarotonga Declaration on Energy for the Sustainable Development of the Pacific Islands44 5. Vulnerability and Adaptation

48 6. National Environmental Management Strategy and Environmental Policy Formulation in Samoa49 7. Fiji Islands—Objectives for Environmental Mainstreaming51 8. Members of the Council of Regional Organizations in the Pacific76 9. Key Issues for Increased Pacific Access to the Global Environment Facility77 10. Pacific Islands Strategy for the Global Environment Facility (1995)78 11. South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme95 12. Millennium Development Goals and Targets



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ABBREVIATIONS

ADB Asian Development BankAusAid Australian Agency for International DevelopmentCBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Flora and FaunaCROP Council of Regional Organizations in the PacificEEZ exclusive economic zoneEIA environmental impact assessmentFAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of the United Nations)FFA Forum Fisheries AgencyFSM Federated States of MicronesiaGDP gross domestic productGEF Global Environment FacilityGHG greenhouse gasGTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for

Technical Cooperation)HIV/ AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus/ acquired immunodeficiency virusIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIWRM integrated water resource management

JICA Japan International Cooperation A gencyMAFFM Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry and Meteorology (Samoa)M DGs M illennium Development GoalsMEA multilateral environmental agreementNBSAP national biodiversity strategy and action planNEMS national environmental management strategyNGO nongovernment organization

NZAID New Zealand Agency for International DevelopmentPDMC Pacific developing member countryPET polyethylene therepthalatePEPP Pacific Energy Policy and PlanPICCAP Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance ProgramPIFS Pacific Islands Forum SecretariatPNG Papua New GuineaPOP persistent organic pollutantRETA regional technical assistanceSGP Small Grants Program (of GEF)SIDS small island developing states

SOPAC South Pacific Applied Geoscience CommissionSPBCP South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation ProgrammeSPC Secretariat of the Pacific CommunitySPREP South Pacific Regional Environment Programme

TA technical assistanceUNCCDD United Nations Convention to Combat Drought and DesertificationUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment Programme



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UN ESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUSP University of the South PacificWSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development

NOTE

In this report, “$ ” refers to US dollars.




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FOREWORD

With almost all Pacific economies and societies relying heavily on natural resources, good environmentalmanagement is critical for sustainable development. In recognition of this, and consistent with the AsianDevelopment Bank’s (ADB) broader environment policy, ADB has increasingly become an active partner in

fostering improved environmental management capacity and performance at the local, sector, national,and regional levels in the Pacific.

The Pacific Region Environmental Strategy (PRES) is the result of a regional technical assistance fundedby ADB and the Government of New Zealand. The study covers (i) a review of key environmental issues andmain response strategies in the Pacific, (ii) an assessment of past environment-related assistance providedby ADB and other development partners in the region to draw relevant lessons, and (iii) an identification of priority areas for intervention mapping out future directions for ADB’s environmental assistance to theregion.

This volume and an accompanying executive summary contain the main PRES findings and A DB’senvironmental assistance strategy for the Pacific. The PRES is part of a broader strategic planning exercisecovering ADB’s overall assistance to the region for the period 2005 to 2009. A second PRES volume documentscase studies carried out to provide important field level context under the theme “mainstreaming environmentin development planning and management”.

Consultants David McCauley, Gerald Miles, Lope Calanog, and Ricardo Barba prepared the PRES. Theteam was directed by Daniele Ponzi, Senior Economist (Environment), Pacific Department—who designedand coordinated the implementation of the regional technical assistance with overall guidance from PeterKing, Director, Area B, Pacific Department.

Regional consultation with Pacific stakeholders formed an integral part of the process for developingthe PRES. Extensive consultations were held with government officials, private sector and civil society

representatives, nongovernment and community-based organizations, and international and regionaldevelopment agencies engaged in managing the Pacific environment. Drafts of the PRES were discussed invarious fora including: a PRES consultation workshop in the Fiji Islands (21–22 March 2003), the SecondHigh Level Climate Change Adaptation Consultation and the 3 rd Round Table Meeting on Climate Change inthe Fiji Islands (8–10 May 2003), and the 2003 Pacific Forum Economic Ministers’ Meeting in the MarshallIslands (9–13 June 2003). We look forward to continued engagement with stakeholders in operationalizingand successfully implementing the PRES to provide better environmental management to Pacific countries.

Jeremy H. HovlandDirector General

Pacific DepartmentAsian Development Bank



RationaleandObjectives

CHAPTER1



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3

Introduction

The Pacific Environment

T T T T The economic and cultural patterns of Pacificcountries have evolved in a manner that places a

strong dependence upon the health of their natural envi-ronments. Most Pacific countries are characterized bysmall island land masses dispersed over the world's larg-est ocean. Many of their diverse landscapes and seascapesare unique, but due to geographic isolation and oftenextremely limited land and freshwater resources, they arealso naturally fragile and vulnerable to change. This isfurther complicated by the fact that the region is prone toa wide range of natural disasters, such as volcanic activ-ity and cyclones, and must face the potentially devastat-ing consequences of an increased frequency of extremeclimatic events coupled with sea-level rise resulting fromglobal climate change.

On top of these factors contributing to environmen-tal degradation and vulnerability, rapid population growthis leading to unsustainable resource use and increasinglevels of pollution in many Pacific countries. Nationalpolicies and programs to address environmental concernsvary widely across the region, although most Pacific coun-tries acknowledge similar environmental management

challenges, including threats to freshwater resources;degradation of marine and coastal environments; degra-dation of land and forest; increasing waste and problemsof urbanization; depletion of biological diversity; concernsabout energy use; adaptation to climate change, variabil-ity, and sea-level rise; and weaknesses in environmentalmanagement capacities and governance. Substantialexternal assistance, particularly for strengthening envi-ronment agencies, combined with government and civilsociety initiatives, have been insufficient to reduce pres-sures on the Pacific environment.

ADB in the Pacific

Over the past decade, the Asian Development Bank(ADB) has actively supported Pacific developing membercountries (PDMCs) in meeting their national developmentgoals and reducing the incidence of poverty. An impor-tant part of this support has included the provision of a

wide range of environment-related assistance. ADB'senvironmental activities in the Pacific have included 53country-level technical assistance (TA) projects, 4 grants,19 regional TAs (RETA) projects, and 15 investment projects,valued at $23.5 million, $11.7 million, $4.9 million, and$108.8 million, respectively. 1

Beyond obligatory compliance with ADB’s ownproject impact assessment requirements to ensure thatenvironmental considerations are fully incorporated intoproject design, ADB’s activities in the environment areahave largely focused on capacity building for environ-mental management; environmental or natural resourcesinterventions at the country level, such as coastal or for-est management; and crosscutting RETAs on themes suchas addressing sustainability issues in the live reef fishtrade or encouraging appreciation for traditional envi-ronmental management practices. ADB's environment-oriented investment projects have mainly dealt with watersupply and sanitation services provision, marine andcoastal management, solid waste management, andurban environmental quality improvement.

The ADB strategy for the region in 2001–2004, APacific Strategy for th e New M illenniu m , recognizes theimportance of environmental protection and advocatesthe incorporation of environmental considerationsthrough (i) addressing environmental concerns in eco-nomic and governance reform, (ii) strengthening the regu-

latory and management framework, and (iii) supportingcommunity awareness and environmental education.However, the strategy deals with environmental issuesonly briefly, and contains no specific guidance on thetypes of interventions and approaches to be employed.

Despite the amount of resources devoted to these objectives and the apparent attention given to the subject,ADB’s environmental programs in the Pacific have beencarried out in a rather ad hoc fashion, lacking any system-atic approach to identify the highest priority problems and

channel ADB’s resources into such areas. This new Pacific Region Environ m ental Strategy 2005 –2009 (PRES) is meantto fill this strategic and programming gap by providing anup-to-date review of environmental management priori-ties in the region and a specific set of actions to be takenby ADB as an active partner to the PDMCs.

1 Projects with at least one environmental component in their objec-tives were defined as environmentally related.



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ADB Operations andEnvironment Policy

In recent years, ADB has adjusted its strategies tobetter achieve its overarching objective of poverty reduc-tion in Asia and the Pacific. The transformation of ADB

from an institution primarily geared to project-based lend-ing to that of a “broad-based development organization”is ongoing, and the reform of policies, governance sys-tems, and institutional capacity building have emergedas key additional elements of ADB’s work. Since the re-organization in 2001, country-level emphasis is beingstrengthened, country ownership of development pro-grams is being increasingly emphasized, and sector-wideapproaches are being increasingly utilized. Amid thesechanges, the need to mainstream environmental consid-erations into all aspects of ADB’s operations has emergedas an important objective.

ADB’s current strategies such as the Poverty Redu c- tion Strategy , Long- Term Strategic Framework (2001-2015) ,and Medium -Term St ra tegy (2001-2005) (ADB 1999b,2001d, 2001g) call for renewed emphasis on sound envi-ronmental management in the development process.Environmental sustainability is identified as one of threemain crosscutting themes in ADB’s overall assistancestrategy and is recognized as a central pillar of any ADBcountry development strategy. Sustainable natural re-source management is also prominent in the ADB strat-

egy for regional assistance to the Pacific.

ADB previously had an implicit environment policy,but this approach has undergone considerable change.Starting from various environment-oriented in-houseguidelines dating from the mid-1990s that identified en-vironment-development linkages and tools for use inbetter supporting the sustainable development process,ADB then gave explicit coverage to environmental issuesin the Em ergin g Asia Review (ADB 1996a) and the Asian Environmental Outlook (ADB 2001a). As a result, ADB is

now paying stronger attention to the environmental di-mensions of all its assistance programs. A gradual tran-sition has taken place, from identifying and mitigatingpotentially adverse environmental impacts of projects,to determining and valuing environmental benefits andcosts and including these in the economic analysis of projects. Likewise, an earlier emphasis on regulatorycontrol over pollution and natural resource managementhas widened to include promotion of market-based en-vironmental policy tools, the use of voluntary approaches,

consumer-based systems such as ecolabeling and ISO14000 certification, and a move beyond government en-vironmental authorities as chief counterparts to engagemore actively with the financial community, private sec-tor, and civil society in environment policy developmentand implementation.

These shifts in focus culminated in the promulga-tion of ADB's Environment Policy (ADB 2002c), whichstresses the need to mainstream environmental consid-erations into development planning, policymaking, andinvestments. The concept of policy integration—placingenvironmental management concerns firmly withinmacro and sector plans and programs—has emerged asa crucial element of this new approach. The analyticalapproach of “strategic environmental assessment” hasbeen identified as a new and potentially important toolto assist this process, together with a new requirementthat ADB routinely prepare “country environmental analy-ses” (CEA) as an integral part of the country assistanceprogramming process.

Need for a PacificEnvironmental Strategy

Parallel to these developments in ADB’s Environ-ment Policy, the international community has moved to-ward operationalizing the lofty goals that emerged from

the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED) and Agenda 2 : Blueprint for the 21st Centu ry (United Nations 1992). The 2002 World Sum-mit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in

Johannesburg, renewed attention to the importance of understanding and acting on the linkages between envi-ronmental management and economic development. Inthe Pacific, as elsewhere, national and regional assess-ments were undertaken in preparation for WSSD. Allmajor international organizations with environmentalinterests, including ADB, provided scientific, analytical,

and programmatic inputs to the WSSD planning process.

The assessments for WSSD focused on (i) document-ing past achievements and progress over the decade sinceUNCED; (ii) deriving lessons from the experience in imple-menting Agenda 21; (iii) prioritizing strategic directionsbased on identified constraints to the effective implemen-tation of Agenda 21; and (iv) formulating specific pro-gram responses, partnerships, and resources to see themimplemented. The Millennium Development Goals




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(MDGs), agreed to by more than 170 nations, have es-tablished a performance-oriented approach to the pro-gramming of environmental management and develop-ment financing. ADB will remain engaged in this processas WSSD targets are merged with the progress indica-tors embodied in the MDGs.

From the pre-WSSD and other analyses, a broadconsensus now holds that the Pacific—as a subset of thesmall island developing states (SIDS)—presents very spe-cial environmental management and development chal-lenges requiring a fine-tuned set of responses. Togetherwith other SIDS, the Pacific achieved special consider-ation at WSSD in recognition of the unique challengesinherent in managing their environment (see Appendix1). In addition to geographic characteristics affecting Pa-cific economic and social structures, governance issuesrecently also have come to the fore. The political andeconomic problems encountered in the Fiji Islands andSolomon Islands are examples of how disruptions to awell-functioning national government can negatively af-fect the development process. As elsewhere in the de-veloping world, land disputes, ethnic tensions, erosionof cultural values, and infringement of indigenouspeoples’ rights all affect the prospects for sustainableeconomic and social development in the Pacific.

Strategy Objectivesand Approach

In keeping with these new approaches, ADB hasidentified the need to establish a strategic framework thatwill ensure that sound environmental management isbuilt into all of its assistance efforts in the Pacific. ThePRES framework identifies the major environmental chal-lenges facing the region, lays out strategic objectives, andenumerates expected outcomes of ADB’s assistance.From this framework is derived a clearly defined opera-

tional strategy and modalities to carry out proposedassistance projects to achieve the stated objectives.

Preparation of PRES involved a careful sequence of steps. A review was carried out to document the currentstate of the Pacific environment and to identify keyissues relating to environmental management andeconomic development of PDMCs. Also undertakenwas an assessment of recent experience with assis-tance programs meant to address the most significant

environmental challenges in the region. This included athorough review of ADB’s own assistance activities overthe past decade. This analysis is used to derive a realisticfuture vision, to be achieved by 2009, for improved envi-ronmental management in the region, with specific goalsfor addressing the PDMCs’ current environmental and

natural resource management problems. An associatedintervention strategy for ADB—in cooperation with otherstakeholders—was then derived to address the identifiedpriorities, taking into account the comparative advan-tage ADB brings to this effort. Finally, approaches wereidentified for monitoring and assessing progress inachieving the goals set through this process.

A participatory approach was utilized in formulat-ing the PRES. Consultations and contributions weresought from close to 100 diverse stakeholders, includ-ing (i) PDMC governments, (ii) international organiza-tions and multilateral and bilateral development part-ners, 2 (iii) regional organizations, 3 and (iv) internationaland national civil society representatives. 4 A PRESwebsite (http:/ / www.adb.org/ projects/ pres/ ) has pro-vided key stakeholders with information on the PRESexercise and content and a venue for sharing commentsand views on the draft strategy.

Complementary to the participatory approach, a se-ries of case studies was commissioned to provide impor-tant field-level context. These cases document and evalu-

ate promising approaches for mainstreaming environ-mental considerations into sector planning and program-ming, and support the strategic and operational analy-ses of the PRES exercise. The five case studies are pre-sented in the accompanying document entitled

Main streaming the Environm ent in Developm ent Planning and M anagement.Summaries of the cases are givenin Appendix 2.

2 Including Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID),Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Deutsche Gesellschaft für

Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ), United Nations Economicand Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (UN ESCAP), EuropeanUnion, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Japan Bankfor International Cooperation (JBIC), New Zealand Agency for Interna-tional Development (NZAID), United Nations Commission on Sustain-able Development (UNCSD), United Nations Development Programme(UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), World Bank,and World Health Organization (WHO).

3 Especially Council of Regional Organizations in the Pacific (CROP)members such as Forum Fisheries Agency, Pacific Islands Forum Sec-retariat, South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), Sec-retariat of the Pacific Community, South Pacific Regional EnvironmentProgramme, and University of the South Pacific.

4 Including nongovernment organizations, the private sector, and aca-deme.



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Within ADB, strategy preparation was carried outunder the initiative and overall coordination of thePacific Department with active collaboration from otherdepartments, especially the Regional and SustainableDevelopment Department. An ad hoc informal group with

membership from the departments concerned as well asthe NGO Center was formed to guide the strategy’s de-velopment. ADB’s Environment Network also reviewedan early draft of the PRES.



CurrentEnvironmentalIssues andChallenges

CHAPTER2



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The Pacific andEnvironmental Challenges

Overview of the Pacific

GGGGG eography and Subregional Groupingseography and Subregional Groupingseography and Subregional Groupingseography and Subregional Groupingseography and Subregional Groupings . Pacificcountries have custodianship of a large portion

of the earth’s surface (Figure 1. Map of the Pacific). Theirexclusive economic zones (EEZs) occupy 30 millionsquare kilometers (km 2)—an area more than 3 times largerthan the People’s Republic of China and 10 times the sizeof India—of which the land area constitutes only 1.8%.

The total land area of ADB’s 13 PDM Cs is only about543,467 km 2, with approximately 85% of that belongingto Papua New Guinea (PNG) alone, as shown in Table 1.

ADB’s Pac i f i c St ra t eg y fo r t h e New M i l l en n i u m ,covering the period 2001–2004, adopts a typology of threesubregional clusters of PDMCs: (i) the resource-rich butrelatively poor countries with high population growthrates (most western Pacific PDMCs); (ii) the moreeconomically advanced countries (Cook Islands, FijiIslands, Federated States of Micronesia [FSM], Samoa,and Tonga) with a high skill base, moderate resourcepotential, and relatively low poverty; and (iii) the islandatolls (Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Tuvalu) thatare severely disadvantaged by their smallness, isolation,and weak resource base.

The Pacific also comprises also three widely acceptedethnic and biogeographic groupings: Melanesia,Micronesia, and Polynesia. 5 Melanesian countries—suchas the Fiji Islands, PNG, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu—are primarily the exposed tops of undersea mountainranges. They consist of large, rugged, mainly volcanicislands, generally rich in natural resources, with relativelyfertile land and abundant minerals. All Melanesiancountries are richly endowed with both living and

nonliving marine resources within their EEZs. In contrast,Micronesia and Polynesia comprise mostly groups of small islands. Cook Islands, FSM, Samoa, and Tonga havesome volcanic islands with rich soils, but most are small

isolated atolls with little arable land. Among the countriesleast endowed with arable land or other terrestrialresources are Kiribati, Marshall Islands, and Tuvalu,where the highest elevation does not exceed 5 meters.

The seas of Polynesia and Micronesia are generally richin living resources, pelagic fisheries being the most

important from a commercial standpoint, and they arealso reported to have significant prospects for exploitablenonliving resources on their seabed. Apart from these,however, their natural resource base is severely limited.

Economic A ctivitiesEconomic A ctivitiesEconomic A ctivitiesEconomic A ctivitiesEconomic A ctivities . Agriculture and fishing remain themain economic activities in the Pacific, and for manycommunities and countries these sectors represent thesole source of income and exports. Cook Islands, Samoa,and Tonga export a wide range of agricultural products.Sugar is a major export of the Fiji Islands, while for PNG,coffee, cocoa, palm oil, and copra are importantagricultural exports. Elsewhere, copra and other coconutproducts are important agricultural exports, althoughrecent market conditions have forced large reductions inoutput and producers’ prices are often highly subsidized.

The other major sources of income are mineralresources, timber, and tourism. PNG has major gold andmineral resources; oil and gas deposits have also beendiscovered. Gold is an important export for the Fiji Islands,and gold deposits have also been discovered in SolomonIslands and Vanuatu. Timber production is a significant

export earner in Fiji Islands, PNG, and Solomon Islands. Tourism is an important and growing source of incomefor many Pacific countries such as Cook Islands, FijiIslands, Samoa, and Vanuatu. Table 2 contains, inapproximate order of their importance, the maineconomic activities of each PDMC.

The region’s economies are dominated by dualisticstructures in which subsistence and monetary economiesexist side by side. At present the subsistence economystill predominates in most locales, but all PDMCs aspire

to the benefits that flow from a larger formal economy.However, the ability of the subsistence economy tocontinue to provide basic necessities traditionallyobtained from forest, garden, and sea needs to besafeguarded, even as the PDMC economies expand andmonetize. Economies under stress, such as SolomonIslands, continue to fall back on the subsistenceproduction system as a social protection safety net.

5 The description of the Pacific’s ethnic biophysical characteristics drawsheavily on the Pacific island countries’ presentation to the UNConference on Environment and Development, The Pacific Way (SPC1992).



Figure 1:




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Table 1: Geographic Features of PDMCs

Land Mass Exclusive Economic ZoneCountry (km 2) Geographic Type (million km 2)

Cook Islands 236 High islands and atolls 1.8Fiji Islands 18,272 High islands—a few small atolls 1.3Kiribati 726 Predominantly atolls 3.5Marshall Islands 181 Atolls 2.1Micronesia, Fed. States of 702 High islands and atolls 3.0Nauru 21 Raised coral islands 0.3Papua New Guinea 462,840 High islands—a few small atolls 3.1Samoa 2,857 High islands 0.1Solomon Islands 29,785 High islands—a few atolls 0.6

Timor-Leste a 14,874 Part of a high island – Tonga 747 High islands—a few small atolls 0.7 Tuvalu 26 Atolls 0.7Vanuatu 12,200 High islands—a few small atolls 0.6Total 543,467 17.8

– =not available.a Statistics on Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor) are included when referring to PDMCs, since the country is administratively grouped with Pacificcountries within ADB. However, in many cases the geographic reference is fixed on the more traditional Pacific island states. A review of environmentaland natural resource management issues in Timor-Leste was recently completed under an ADB technical assistance activity (TA No. 3501-ETM:Environmental Assessment Capacity Improvement). The most significant Pacific islands outside ADB membership are those of French Polynesia, NewCaledonia, Guam, and the Hawaiian Islands. Palau is in the process of joining ADB.Sources : A DB 2001b, http:/ / www.ffa.int/ wuw/ index.cfm?itemID=4, and PIFS 2000.

Table 2: Main Economic Activities in PDMCs

Country Industry

Cook Islands Fruit-processing, Tourism, Finance, Copra, Citrus fruit, Clothing, Coffee, Fish, Pearls and pearlshells, Mining, Handicrafts

Fiji Islands Sugar, Tourism, Copra, Gold, Silver, Clothing, Timber, Fish processing, Cottage industries

Kiribati Fish processing, Seaweed, Copra, Craft items (shell, wood, pearls), Garments, Bananas, Construction

Marshall Islands Fish, Handicrafts, Copra

Micronesia, Fed. States of Copra, Fish, Tourism, Craft items (shell, wood, pearls), Offshore banking (embryonic), Coconut oil, Trochus shells

Nauru Phosphate mining, Offshore banking

Papua New Guinea Copra crushing, Palm oil processing, Plywood production, Wood chip production, Mining of gold,silver, and copper, Crude oil production, Construction, Tourism, Timber, Coffee, Cocoa, Seafood

Samoa Fishing, Tourism, Timber, Food processing, Coconut oil and cream, Copra, Beer

Solomon Islands Timber, Fish, Palm oil, Cocoa, Copra

Timor-Leste Coffee, Fish

Tuvalu Fish, Tourism, Copra, Stamps/coins

Vanuatu Fish, Offshore financial services, Tourism, Food and fish freezing, Wood processing, Meat canning,Coconuts, Cocoa, Coffee

Source : ADB Annual Reports, SPC 1998, and SOPAC 1999.




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A range of population and demographic issues hasbeen identified as critical to the region’s developmentcontext and prospects. At the Thirty-Third South PacificForum held in the Fiji Islands on 15–17 August 2002 (PIFS2002b), Pacific leaders concluded that population grow this likely to continue for at least the next 3 decades in

most countries, and that finding a balance betweenpopulation and resources is an “unprecedentedchallenge.” Demand for imported goods and for awidening range of services continues to rise, as thepolicies and programs of most governments in the regionemphasize growth in per capita income and livingstandards (SPC 2002a).

The capacity to educate growing populations in thePacific, while varying from country to country, is generallyweak and deteriorating. These shortcomings in basiceducation will lead to poor uptake of technical skills anddeficiencies in the knowledge base necessary for economicgrowth and basic environmental management. 6

Improvements in health care and reductions in infantmortality are now being more than balanced by theprevalence of “lifestyle” diseases, accidental deaths, theresurgence and emergence of infectious and vector-bornediseases, and sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS. The number of reported cases of HIV/ AIDS hasrisen steadily in the Pacific, with approximately 50% of all new infections among young people. Given the age

distribution in the region—40–60% of the population isunder 25 years of age—HIV/ AIDS prevention has becomea pressing concern (PIFS 2002a).

Structural weaknesses of health systems have becomeincreasingly evident at the very time when demand forcommunity and national health services is growing. ThePacific Hum an Developm ent Report (1999) of the UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP) notes thatcommon problems are declining funding, nonsupportivemacroeconomic policies, a growing burden of poverty, and

the emergence of new diseases and a resurgence of oldones. While environmental causes of disease (mostly fromwaterborne vectors) appear to be in relative decline,

significant localized problems are still attributable topollution, especially sewage discharges to water bodiesand contamination of groundwater. Expanding squattercommunities on the fringes of urban areas are particularlyvulnerable to diseases caused by pollution.

Defining Characteristics of Pacific Countries

In sum, the Pacific is characterized by small landmasses dispersed over part of the world’s largest ocean.

The region is diverse, although there are many commoncharacteristics. Those directly relating to management of the region’s environment can be summarized as follows:

Geographical IsolationGeographical IsolationGeographical IsolationGeographical IsolationGeographical Isolation . Though communications haveimproved over the last 10 years, the geographic positionof the PDMCs continues to present fundamental challengesto development, and has also contributed to the specializedcultures, ecosystems, species endemism, and vulnerabilityto invasive species that occur in the region.

Limited Land ResourcesLimited Land ResourcesLimited Land ResourcesLimited Land ResourcesLimited Land Resources . Fragility of ecosystems is oftencompounded by their small size. With the exception of PNG, limited land resources make many terrestrial andnearshore resources, including freshwater, vulnerable tooverexploitation and pollution from poorly planned wastedisposal. Limited land resources have become especially

troubling for low-lying atolls in view of the projectedrates of sea-level rise from global warming over the next50–100 years.

Rapid Population GrowthRapid Population GrowthRapid Population GrowthRapid Population GrowthRapid Population Growth . Rebounding from thedepopulating diseases of first contact with colonial powers,Pacific island countries’ populations have grown rapidlyover the past 100 years; such growth has been linked tothe degradation of forests and fisheries and to loss of species. These pressures are now easing, as populationgrowth rates are beginning to slow and are further offset

in some places by an upward trend of outmigration.

Dependence on Marine ResourcesDependence on Marine ResourcesDependence on Marine ResourcesDependence on Marine ResourcesDependence on Marine Resources . Except in some of the higher islands, many Pacific families remain stronglydependent on marine resources to meet their daily needs—providing foods, tools, transport, and waste disposal. Thismay be slowly weakening in certain areas with the increasein international trade, but it continues to represent afundamental characteristic of the smaller atoll-dominatedPDMCs such as Kiribati, Marshall Islands, and Tuvalu.

6 As noted in a recent review, the education shortcomings have wideramifications: “““““Perhaps the most urgent concern across the region ishow to better meet the needs and aspirations of the upcominggeneration. The UNDP notes that 20% of the region’s population isaged between 15 and 24 years—a total of 1.4 million, which is expectedto rise by a further 300,000 by the year 2010. Many school leaversfind they have inadequate or inappropriate skills for the few waged

jobs that are available, for agricultural w ork or for o ther types of livelihood. Most lack opportunities to upgrade their skills becausetoo few non formal training programs are available” (PIFS 2001).



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Fragile Island EnFragile Island EnFragile Island EnFragile Island EnFragile Island En vironmentsvironmentsvironmentsvironmentsvironments . Globally, islandenvironments have the highest rates of species extinction,and recent evidence of the negative impacts of oceantemperature rise on the health of coral reefs (through the“bleaching” effect) is indicative of the relative fragility of island ecosystems.

VVVVVulnerabilityulnerabilityulnerabilityulnerabilityulnerability . Exposure to natural disasters and toexternal and global perturbations (for instance, in climate,trade, and capital markets), and a heavy reliance on alimited range of economic sectors creates a high degreeof vulnerability to change (Thistlethwaite and Votaw1992). Moreover, the factors contributing to islandvulnerability appear to have strengthened in recent years.

The “baseline” of assets and lives at risk is also increasingas populations and infrastructure located in coastal areasexpand and Pacific island economies are opened to theglobal economy. This combination of increased risk andan increased population and asset base subject to thoserisks is a worrying trend.

Key Development and EnvironmentalChallenges

Development IssuesDevelopment IssuesDevelopment IssuesDevelopment IssuesDevelopment Issues . The ecological dependency of Pacific economies and societies is well recognized in theregion. 7 The isolation and dispersion of people—coupledwith a lack of basic infrastructure—mean that transport,

communication and servicing costs are disproportionatelyhigh for PDMCs compared to countries located in closerproximity to their export markets and sources of imports.

The economies and natural environments of many Pacificisland countries remain extremely fragile. Substantialtrade deficits are routine and can be sustained onlybecause of large continuing inflows of finance from

abroad. Particularly in Polynesia, remittances fromoverseas residents are a very important part of theeconomy. Other important sources of foreign exchangefor PDMCs are assistance from bilateral and multilateralaid agencies, export earnings from agricultural produce,tourism, artifacts, and license fees from foreign deepwater

fishing nations for fishing rights in EEZs.

Traditional knowledge and practices have enduringand major relevance for environmental protection in thePacific. In customary land tenure situations commonthroughout the region, a large degree of communalcontrol is retained over land use and the exploitation of natural resources. The custom of imposing specialprohibitions (“taboos”) against certain practices in a givenarea is also widespread. Where chiefly authority has beeneroded, such conservation practices are no longer fullyapplied or enforced. In some countries, negotiations onland use, such as the exploitation of a forest, are notundertaken through national or provincial governmentsbut directly between the proponents of the economicventure and customary landowners. In many cases, thedegree of on-site environmental control that governmentagencies have been able to exert has been quite restricted,and land disputes are common. The number and role of nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs) has increased steadilythroughout the region and they are now fulfillingimportant functions in helping local communities,

villages, and districts to address these and otherdevelopment and environmental managementchallenges.

In addition to these cultural norms, social andeconomic patterns and pressures also strongly affect thePDMCs’ prospects for achieving sustainable development,providing as they do an important context forenvironmental management efforts. Especially over thepast decades, the Pacific region has been confronted bysignificant economic and social change. This has included

the impacts, both positive and negative, of “globalization,deteriorating terms of trade, rising external debt andunsustainable development policies [as well as] moreshort-term developments such as the financial crisis inAsia” (PIFS 2002a). As a result, the people of the Pacifichave experienced increased unemployment, a risingincidence of poverty, reduced social cohesion, and awidening gap between rich and poor. This has affected, atleast in part, the security and stability of several Pacificisland countries.

7 The statement presented to the UN Commission on SustainableDevelopment on 19 September 2001, resulting from consensusreached at the Multistakeholder Consultation on SustainableDevelopment in the Pacific, Apia, 5–7 September 2001, eloquentlystates: “We, the countries of the Pacific region, share a common uniqueidentity, and have a responsibility for the stewardship of our islandsand resources. Our Ocean has supported generations of Pacificcommunities—as a medium for transport and as a source of food,tradition and culture. Our present, and future, well-being is dependentupon it. Our ecosystems contain high biological diversity that hassustained the lives of Pacific communities since first settlement. Theycontain the most extensive coral reefs in the world, unique landforms,globally important fisheries, significant mineral resources and highnumbers of endemic species. They may also contain many undiscoveredresources of potential use to humankind. To safeguard Pacificcommunities and maintain the health of our ecosystems, in perpetuity,it is imperative that we apply the precautionary approach as outlinedin the Rio Declaration, Principle 15. Overcoming the well recognizedvulnerability of islands to the effects of global climate change, naturaldisasters, environmental damage and global economic shocks will bean essential element of sustainable development in our region.”




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EnE nEnE nEn vironmental Issuesvironmental Issuesvironmental Issuesvironmental Issuesvironmental Issues . The state of the region’senvironment has been assessed several times over thepast decade: in preparation for the UNCED meeting in1992 (SPC 1992); and most recently in 1999 withpublication of the Pacific Environm ent Outlook (SPREP,UNEP, and EU 1999). A number of Pacific countries—Cook

Islands, Marshall Islands, Niue, Samoa, and Tonga—alsoproduced national environmental assessments inadvance of the 2002 WSSD meeting in Johannesburg.Summaries of environmental trends and conditions havealso been included in recent reports of the United NationsEconomic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(UN ESCAP) on the Asia-Pacific State of the Environm ent (Task Force for the Preparation of WSSD in Asia and thePacific 2001a, and 2001b) and in the United NationsEnvironment Programme's (UNEP) Global Environment Outlook (UNEP 2002).

While these recent reviews constitute importantcontributions to our knowledge of the region’senvironment, they have been based on national reportsand regionally synthesized data compiled as the resourcesand impetus became available. No systematic effort hasbeen made to update such analysis and informationroutinely or to invest in a Pacific-based capacity to do so.

Thus, the abil ity to effectively monitor environmentalchanges occurring in the region remains very weak.Reporting on the environment has also generally beencomplex and data-focused in its structure and geared

more to the audience of the global environmentalcommunity than to Pacific policymakers, developers, orenvironmental managers.

A review of these reports highlights the paucity of data from which environmental change may be monitoredand management decisions predicated. The limited dataavailable, in most cases, have not been routinely updatedor collected on a time series basis to facilitate theidentification of trends. Where information has beencollected over time, the units and measures are often not

comparable. Information about pressures considered toconstitute important root causes of environmental changeand degradation does exist, but little analysis is availableto connect cause-and-effect relationships.

Better statistical information regarding the region’seconomy is available, and it clearly shows that recentoverall economic performance has been disappointing(Duncan, Cuthbertson, and Bosworth 1999). Within thiscontext, Pacific countries have generally placed their

highest priority on achieving economic growth;environmental management has largely been perceivedas a concern that can be dealt with in the later stages of economic development. As a result, PDMCs have allocatedonly meager resources to environmental protection andnatural resource management, and have primarily looked

to inflows of aid to support this area of investment. Thepredominance of small- and medium-sized enterprises inthe private sector has also hampered government andindustry efforts to introduce environmental protectionmeasures or best practices.

A broad consensus has been reached over the pastdecade on the most significant environmental problemsfacing the Pacific region. 8 These priorities are alsoreflected in agreements reached in international forumsconcerning sustainable development of island nations(SPREP 1993b). The eight challenges that consistentlyemerge as of highest priority are (i) threats to freshwaterresources, (ii) degradation of the marine and coastalenvironment, (iii) degradation of the land and forest, (iv)issues of urbanization and waste management, (v)depletion of biological diversity, (vi) concerns aboutenergy use, (vii) adaptation to the consequences of climate change, and (viii) weaknesses in environmentalmanagement capacities and governance.

Priority ActionsPriority ActionsPriority ActionsPriority ActionsPriority Actions . In recent years, the importance of actively promoting a more sustainable economic

development process has become widely accepted in theregion. 9 At the global level, the latest expression of Pacificsustainable development priorities emerged from theSmall Island Developing States (SIDS) statementsprepared for the WSSD; the main elements of the PacificSubmission to the Summit (Appendix 1) were reflectedin the global SIDS Statement. The Pacific countries agreedon the need for the following urgent actions:

(i) establishing sustainable management practicesfor the region's fisheries, and taking efforts to

8 The sections that follow draw upon national and regional state of theenvironment reports (SPREP 1993a, 1993c, 1993d, 1993e, 1993f, 1993g,1993h, and 1993i); Strategic Action Programme for Internation al Waters of the Pacific Islands Region (SPREP 1998); and the Action Plan for Man aging th e Environ men t of the Pacific Region (1997–2000) (SPREP1997a).

9 This acceptance is increasingly reflected in the work of leading Pacificregional organizations, including the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariatand other members of the CROP. Among these, SPREP is the mostfocused on these issues, and its Action Plan contains a key resultarea focusing on sustainable economic development (SPREP 1997a).SOPAC has also produced a draft sustainable development strategyto help guide its own work (SOPAC 2002b).



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ensure that Pacific countries benefit from theirexploitation;

(ii) delimiting and managing coastal areas, exclusiveeconomic zones, and the continental shelf;

(ii i) conserving marine and coastal biologicaldiversity;

(iv) improving freshwater management; (v) reducing, preventing, and controlling waste andpollution and their health-related impacts;

(vi) developing community-based initiatives topromote sustainable tourism, includingecotourism;

(vii) developing comprehensive hazard and riskmanagement, disaster prevention, mitigation,and preparedness;

(viii) developing economic, social, and environmentalvulnerability indexes and related indicators asaids to policies to promote sustainabledevelopment;

(ix) adapting to the adverse effects of climate change,sea-level rise, and climate variability;

(x) building capacity to implement intellectualproperty regimes;

(xi) developing environmentally sound energyservices;

(xii) providing equitable access to health careand health systems to fight and controlcommunicable and noncommunicable diseases(in particular, HIV/ AIDS, tuberculosis, diabetes,

malaria, and dengue fever);

(xiii) maintaining and managing systems to deliverwater and sanitation services, in both rural andurban areas; and

(xiv) eradicating poverty and improving tradingconditions.

Environmental concerns are increasingly placedwithin a broader framework of sustainable developmentand the need to take account of the special characteristicsof SIDS. This forms the basis for examining the currentenvironmental situation and the eight key regionalchallenges as a foundation for defining the PRESapproach.

Pacific Environmental Issues

Freshwater Resources

Current StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent Status . The PDMCs’ water resource endowmentsvary widely, depending on climatic and geophysicalcharacteristics. Large islands have watersheds with riversand streams (often intermittent) as well as a range of groundwater resources. On many smaller islandsfreshwater is extremely scarce and rainfall harvestingsupplies most resources. Freshwater “lens” groundwaterresources are formed in a large number of Pacific islands,though these are increasingly subject to unsustainable

extraction and/ or contamination, especially on atolls. The

Table 4: Summary of Freshwater Resources and Uses in PDMCs

Country Freshwater Use Other Main Freshwater ResourceThan Water Supply

Cook Islands T SW, GW, RWFiji Islands T, H, I, E SW, GW, RW, D (tourist resort only)Kiribati GW, RW, D (limited)Marshall Islands RW (airport catchment and buildings), GW, D (emergency)

Micronesia, Fed. States of SW, GW, RWNauru GW, RW, DPapua New Guinea M SW, GW, RWSamoa T, H SW, GW, RWSolomon Islands SW, GW, RW

Tonga GW, RW, SW (limited) Tuvalu RW (primary), GW (limited), D (emergency)Vanuatu SW, GW, RW

SW =surface water, GW =groundwater, RW =rainwater, D =desalination, T =tourism, H =hydroelectricity, M =mining, I =irrigation, E =Export.Source : Falkland 2002.




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Table 5: Profile of Pacific Populations with Access to Sanitation and Safe Water

Country Percent of Percent of Percent of Percent of Population Population with Population with Populationwith Access Access to Sanitation Access to with Access to

to Sanitation (WB 2002) Safe Water an Improved(UNDP 1999) Urban Rural UNDP ADB Water Source

(1999) (2001) (WB 2002)

Cook Islands 98 – – 95 99 –Fiji Islands 85 75 12 77 77 47Kiribati 46 54 44 76 76 47Marshall Islands 77 – – 82 82 –FSM 51 – – 44 44 –Nauru 97 – – 100 100 –PNG 25 92 80 24 41 42Samoa 97 95 100 90 68 99Solomon Islands 16 98 18 64 64 71

Timor-Leste 16 – – – – – Tuvalu 49 – – 85 85 –Vanuatu 91 100 100 87 77 88

FSM =Federated States of Micronesia, PNG =Papua New Guinea, – =not available.Sources : ADB 2001b, SOPAC 2002b, UNDP 1999, and World Bank 2002.

range of freshwater resources and their current uses aresummarized in Table 4, and information concerningaccess to safe water in the region is given in Table 5.

Priority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority Issues . The protection and conservation of thesupply and quality of freshwater is becoming an

increasingly important issue in the Pacific, and it will takeon even greater significance if global climate changeresults in higher variability of rainfall in the region. Inmany PDMCs, management of those water resourcesalready in use represents a greater challenge thanexpanding supplies. Existing water management regimesare often hampered by weak supporting legislation,problems with cost recovery for services, insufficienttechnical capacity for w ater infrastructure management,and perennial challenges of landownership and waterrights. The threat to the quality and quantity of freshwater

resources posed by climate change, variability, andsea-level rise could be fundamental to the security anddevelopment of island states, particularly low- lying atolls.

Effective water management in the Pacific isfrequently constrained by three common problems:poorly planned urban development, (ii) damage to ordeterioration of water catchments, and (iii) inadequatewaste disposal. Lasting improvements in both theeconomics and engineering of water management will

require introduction of integrated water resourcemanagement (IWRM) approaches that will deal in acoordinated fashion with many sectors and users andemploy natural hydrological systems (both surface andgroundwater) as units for planning. Within an IWRMframework, appropriate measures can be planned and

taken to

(i) improve watershed management;(ii) reduce deforestation rates;

(iii) raise public awareness about wise water use andmanagement practices;

(iv) control inappropriate agricultural activities in keycatchment areas;

(v) assure that water withdrawals are consistentwith both available resources and the highest-valued uses of the resources;

(vi) have due consideration for meeting basic humanneeds for access to water supplies; and(vii) introduce improved methods for waste disposal,

especially sewage disposal facilities.

Regional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional Responses . A new strategy to deal with themost important sustainable water management issuesin the Pacific region was approved by participants at aweek-long meeting in Sigatoka, Fiji Islands, in July 2002.Ministers and other senior government representatives




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In the Fiji Islands, the Wai Bulabula Project hasintegrated watershed management with wastewatertreatment and coral ecosystem rehabilitation. Thecenterpiece of this pilot program, a first for the Fiji Islandsand perhaps the South Pacific, is a constructed wetlandstreatment system at Shangri-La’s Fijian Resort, located

on Yanuca Island in Sigatoka, that uses plants to removeadditional organic contaminants biologically after primarytreatment of wastewater by the resort’s sewage treatmentplant. Additional activities have included public educationon soil and water conservation efforts in the nearbycatchment area—where steep slopes are cultivated—andreforestation programs.

In Kiribati, potable water is derived from withdrawalsfrom the freshwater lens supplemented by rainwaterharvesting. Relative to population demands, availableresources are quite scarce, especially in dry years and inthe densely populated capital of South Tarawa. For thisreason, a range of new technical and institutionalapproaches has been applied to determine and maintainsustainable groundwater withdrawals and to protect thequality of this valuable resource. One of the mostinnovative measures taken has been the establishment inthe capital area of a water resources protection committeeto involve the community in decision making. Landownersselect members to the Committee to represent theirinterests and to canvas support for the voluntaryrelocation of people whose physical presence in sensitive

reserve areas is risking pollution of this vital communityasset. While it is proving a difficult task, this effortillustrates the importance of linking technical measuresto culturally based approaches in the Pacific context.

In the Cook Islands, the Government has beengrappling with how best to ensure sound water supplyand wastewater treatment policies and practices in thecontext of the country’s ongoing decentralization efforts.Attempts to encourage community participation in theprovision of municipal services, and to devolve governance

through the creation of elected vaka councils on Rarotongaand the Island Council of Aitutaki, have met with mixedsuccess. The need for sustained financing for water supplyhas encouraged movement toward an expanded role forthe private sector in providing infrastructure and services.

This has, in turn, required a more effective and independentgovernment regulatory and oversight framework. Similarprivatization efforts are being explored in the Fiji Islands,with ADB assistance, to improve water and wastewatermanagement services in the Suva-Nausori area.

In PNG, the Australian Government is working withremote villagers along the South Fly River in WesternProvince to provide a minimal level of drinkable water tosome of the villages along the Torres Strait. Steelapparatuses with 9,000-liter polypropylene water tanksattached to them have been erected to catch rainwater,

thus relieving villagers of the burden of walking for hoursto collect water. The Australian Government is alsosupporting Samoa in strengthening the financial andhuman resources and asset management systems of itsWater Authority, which is confronted with the problem of providing a safe, reliable, and cost-effective water supply.

Coastal and Marine Resources

Current StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent Status . Island cultures have evolved throughinteraction with the sea; in one way or another, theeconomies and lifestyles of all Pacific island nations aredependent upon their coastal and marine resources.Coastal and marine ecosystems directly underpin thetourism and fisheries sectors, but these are underincreasing pressure from human activities across theregion. This section reviews some of these threats andmeasures being taken to deal with them, giving specialattention to sustainable fisheries and the health of coralreefs as the most important of coastal ecosystems.

In terms of its oceanic fisheries, the Pacific region is

recognized “as the most important tuna fishing area of the world… contributing about a third of all tuna caught… and dwarf[ing the resources] of the other three majortuna fishing areas both in volume and in value” (Gillet etal. 2001). Catches have remained relatively stable overthe past 10 years—fluctuating around 1-1.2 million tonsper year—while annual catch values over the same periodhave ranged between $750 million and $1.9 billion. Thisis equivalent to an average of about 10% of the combinedgross domestic product (GDP) of all the countries in theregion, or about half of the value of all the region's exports

(Gillet et al. 2001).

Only a small portion of this income accrues to theregion, however. The pelagic tuna fisheries are primarilyexploited by distant fishing nations, which payapproximately 5% of the landed value to the Pacific statesin access fees, amounting to some $60 million in 2001.

This rather low economic rent to the Pacific countriesreflects the reality that most of the production costs—fuel, services, provisioning, etc.—are incurred outside the



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region, though most of the profits also flow outside theregion. Nevertheless, the oceanic tuna fishery employsapproximately 10,000 Pacific islanders, with a further11,000-21,000 persons working in tuna-related industriesand services. The five established tuna canneries provide

jobs for 5% of all formally employed women in the region.

The tuna industry clearly is playing an important role inthe economies of the region, and this role could be evengreater if PDMCs were able to capture more of theresource rent.

In recent years questions have been raised aboutthe sustainability of fishery resources under current ratesof exploitation. Skipjack tuna resources are consideredhealthy, with perhaps even some limited potential forincreased catch. However, the larger tunas are consideredto be fully exploited, and some species are showing signsof overexploitation. The importance of conservation andimproved management to ensure sustainability of harveststhus cannot be overemphasized. This is no easy matter,as it is very difficult to determine levels of sustainable catchfor this highly migratory fish stock. Measures are now beingtaken to address the threat of overharvesting. The adoptionof the Convention on the Conservation and Managementof Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and CentralPacific in September 2000 in Honolulu, Hawaii, paved theway for the establishment of the Commission for the

Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory FishStocks in the Central and Western Pacific Ocean. The maintask of the Commission is “to determine the total allowablecatch or total level of fishing effort within the ConventionArea for such highly migratory fish stocks as theCommission may decide and to adopt such other

conservation and management measures andrecommendations as may be necessary to ensure the long-term sustainability of such stocks.”

Pelagic fish stocks get much of the internationalattention, but inshore fisheries and mariculture also areof importance on a localized basis throughout the Pacific.

They form an especially important part of the subsistenceand local cash economies in many islands. The annualvalue of all fisheries is shown in Table 6.

Coral reefs, mangrove forests, sea grass beds, andother coastal/ marine ecosystems are crucial to the well-being of Pacific island countries and communities. Theyform the ecological foundation of Pacific fisheries andother elements of island economies, and they contributesignificantly to Pacific peoples’ income, health andnutrition, coastal protection, and road and buildingconstruction, as well as to the tourism industry. Reef systems, in particular, are highly biodiverse and yet areincreasingly at risk. Table 7 highlights the threats to reefs

Table 6: Estimated Annual Value of Fisheries Production for Pacific Island Countries(late 1990s, $'000)

Coastal Offshore OffshoreSubsistence Commercial Local Foreign

Country Fishing Fishing Fishing Fishing Total

Cook Islands 1,164 10,320 397 407 12,288Fiji Islands 24,675 15,232 25,640 555 66,102Kiribati 7,890 6,310 0 132,258 146,458Marshall Islands 3,836 973 0 50,000 54,809Micronesia, Fed. States of 10,000 14,500 12,495 144,000 180,995Nauru 332 1,118 250 36,774 38,474Palau 2,500 2,595 12,500 270 17,865Papua New Guinea 20,227 21,394 44,344 75,074 161,039Samoa 7,143 6,583 9,840 99 23,665Solomon Islands 8,061 1,902 69,242 827 80,032

Tonga 3,992 10,856 3,676 104 18,628 Tuvalu 931 284 0 38,000 39,215Vanuatu 3,975 682 0 253 4,910Total 94,893 92,800 178,384 478,625 844,702

Source : Gillet and Lightfoot 2001.




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in a selection of Pacific island states and Table 8 gives anindication of the rich diversity of coral reef ecosystems inthe region.

Priori ty IssuesPriori ty IssuesPriori ty IssuesPriori ty IssuesPriori ty Issues. The acknowledged threats to marine andcoastal resources stem primarily from

(i) discharges of nutrients derived from sewage, soilerosion, and agricultural fertilizers;

(ii) improper solid waste disposal;(iii) accelerated sediment discharge, for example

from building construction sites or road building;(iv) physical alterations through destruction of fringing

reefs, beaches, wetlands, and mangroves forcoastal development and from sand extraction;

(v) logging; and(vi) overexploitation of fisheries.

Many of these threats are directly related to the risingdensity of resource-dependent human populations incoastal areas. For example, in the FSM’s recently releasedNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, “reef andmarine degradation and the loss of biodiversity (especiallyamong food fishes) are attributed to various anthropogenic

sources within urban centers” (Government of FSM 2002). The consequences of global climate change—increasedextremes of weather and rising sea levels—and marineinvasive species also threaten marine/ coastal ecosystems.

The chief threats to coral reefs, in particular, include

(i) pollution from sewage, fertilizers, biocides, toxicwastes, oil spills, solid wastes, freshwater runoff,and other land-based pollutants;

(ii) siltation due to soil erosion from inappropriateland management practices (for example inagriculture, forestry, mining, road building, andsite clearance);

(iii) overexploitation, especially the taking of com-mercially valuable species such as beche-de-mer,giant clams, trochus, certain fish and shellfish;live coral harvesting for aquariums and the touristtrade; mining of coral heads for construction, andsubsistence fishing;

(iv) destructive fishing and collecting methods (forexample poisons, explosives);

(v) land reclamation (including mangrove and reef-

flat destruction), inappropriate coastal protectionworks, and unsound mariculture practices;

(vi) coastal and marine development projectsoccurring with inadequate or no environmentalimpact assessment (EIA);

(vii) channel blasting and dredging activities;(viii) mining of beach and reef materials;(ix) coastal erosion and accretion;(x) tourism activities and related developments;

(xi) military testing, training, and dumping (forexample nuclear testing, munitions disposal);

and(xii) catastrophic events (for example tropical cyclones,volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, coralbleaching, crown-of-thorns starfish infestations,severe El Niño Southern Oscillation events, andpossible climate change and sea-level rise) (SPREP1996b).

Regional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional Responses . Working closely with the ForumFisheries Agency (FFA), the South Pacific Regional

Statistics forSelected States

Table 7: Pacific Reefs at Risk

Reef Area (km 2) by MarineThreat Category Percentages Protected Area

Total Low Medium High Low Medium High No. Area (km 2)

Pacific Region 108,000 63,500 33,900 10,600 59 31 10 92 372,809

Fiji Islands 10,000 3,300 4,800 1,900 33 48 19 1 1French Polynesia 6,000 4,900 1,100 0 82 18 0 1 124Marshall Islands 6,000 5,800 200 0 97 3 0 2 163New Caledonia 6,000 5,000 800 200 83 13 3 5 530PNG 12,000 6,000 4,500 1,500 50 38 13 8 2,149Solomon Islands 6,000 3,000 2,500 500 50 42 8 – –

PNG =Papua New Guinea; – =not available.Source : Bryant et al. 1998.



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Environment Programme (SPREP), and other regionalorganizations, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community(SPC) generally has taken the lead in managing andregulating marine and coastal resources in the Pacificregion. This task is undertaken through its threeconstituent programs: the Oceanic Fisheries Program(OFP), the Coastal Fisheries Program (CFP), and theRegional Maritime Program (RMP). The OFP, a scientific

support and advisory service, provides Pacific membercountries with the information and advice necessary torationally manage the region’s tuna, billfish, and relatedspecies. The CFP, a regional support service, assists Pacificislanders in identifying the status, and optimizing thelong-term social and economic value, of small-scalefisheries and aquatic resources. The RMP aims to providefor safer shipping, cleaner seas, and improved social andeconomic well-being of seafaring communities bystrengthening the capacity of Pacific islanders to manage,administer, regulate, control, and gain employment in

the maritime transport sector in a socially responsiblemanner.

UNDP, with financing from the Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF), has supported the Strategic Action Programfor the International Waters of the Pacific Small IslandDeveloping States, aimed at conserving and sustainablymanaging the region's coastal and ocean resources. This5-year Program, which commenced in July 2000, has

components that address both coastal resources andpelagic fisheries, and is being executed by SPREP, togetherwith the SPC and FFA.

ADB provided assistance in the negotiation of the2000 international agreement on the conservation and

management of tuna resources in the Central and WesternPacific Ocean mentioned above, which now serves asthe basis for allocating fishery resources in this regionand has provided an understanding of the various optionsin managing the region’s fishery resources, particularlytuna. In 1999, ADB also provided technical assistance tohelp sort out difficult commercial and sustainability issuesrelating to the live reef fish trade.

In the area of reef conservation, the InternationalCoral Reef Initiative Pacific Region Strategy wasdeveloped for 1998–2002 as a partnership betweencountries and regional organizations and focused on fivepriority strategies: (i) coastal management, (ii) capacitybuilding, (iii) research and monitoring; (iv) coordinationand review, and (v) mechanisms for implementation(SPREP 1996a). Gradual progress is being made on all of these fronts at the local level.

In 2002, a joint project on sandfish (Holothuriascabra) management was implemented jointly by theInternational Center for Living Aquatic ResourcesManagement and SPC. The project, which will end in

2005, aims to determine the best strategies for releasingsandfish into the wild for purposes of restocking and stockenhancement of inshore fisheries for Pacific islanders.

Local ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal Responses . ADB has supported theimplementation of several PDMC projects on marine andcoastal resource management as part of broader effortsto reduce poverty and establish the basis for economicgrowth. In the Cook Islands, a TA and loan on lagoonecology monitoring and management carried out a studyon population dynamics and modeling of black-lipped

oysters in the Manihiki lagoon area. It also heightenedpearl farmers’ aw areness of the need to carefully managethe lagoons to ensure their long-term productivity. Arelated 13-month advisory project was likewise successfulin establishing government capacity to operate andmaintain a pearl farm research and hatchery facility, andundertaking lagoon monitoring and managementactivities. Black pearls now are an internationallyrecognized export industry in the Cook Islands.

Table 8. Maximum Number of Hermatypic(Reef Forming) Coral Speciesin the Pacific

Country No. of Species

Papua New Guinea 517

Solomon Island 398Fiji Islands 398Palau 384Vanuatu 379Kiribati 365New Caledonia 359Marshall Islands 340Guam 220Samoa 211Cook Islands 172French Polynesia 168Hawaiian Islands 49Pitcairn Islands 42

Source : Spalding et al. 2001.




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ADB assistance also has helped PDMCs to strengthentheir marine and coastal conservation institutions, suchas the Marshall Islands’ Marine Resource Authority, PNG’sDepartments of Fisheries and Marine Resources andEnvironment and Conservation, and Solomon Islands’Department of Fisheries. Complementary ADB TA has

centered on supporting the formulation of plans andpolicies in this sector, such as the FSM’s Model StateFisheries Law and Tuvalu’s Comprehensive FisheriesAction Plan.

Although no legislation in the Pacific is dedicatedto conserving coral reefs at either the country or regionallevel, some national regulations governing fisheryresources now include coral reef protection. Jurisdictionover coastal resource management is usually spreadamong several government departments, hamperingeffective responses. For example, in Kiribati more than16 important laws relate to the protection of marine andcoastal resources (Pulea and Farrier 1993). Traditionaltenure systems remain strong and effective in somePDMCs (e.g., Fiji Islands and Vanuatu); customarysystems are now being revived in others to complementstate legislation for better management of marineresources (e.g., Cook Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands,and Tuvalu).

The establishment of marine protected areas isincreasingly viewed as an important option for conserving

the ecosystems upon which coastal and marine lifeeconomic activity depends. For example, the FunafutiConservation Area (FCA) of Tuvalu was set up in 1996 tobetter manage the country’s principal atoll and lagoonsystem. This project was carried out with the support of the South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme(SPBCP) of UNDP/ GEF and administered by SPREP, inresponse to increases in fishing pressure and the threatof deteriorating environmental quality. The FCA isregarded by local residents as highly successful inimproving fish stocks in adjacent areas of the Funafuti

lagoon and preserving the island's biodiversity.11

With respect to the issue of increasing the regionalshare of income from pelagic fisheries, the SamoaFisheries Project, assisted by the Australian Agency forInternational Development (AusAID) has helped makethat country’s tuna industry its biggest export earner,

bringing in revenues of about $20 million a year. Apotential model for other PDMCs, this project has workedsince 1991 to ensure the sustainability of Samoa’s tunafishery by formulating a management plan and traininglocal fishermen in boat construction, safety, and properhandling and grading of tuna. The project also has helped

to develop and conserve the country’s village-basedfisheries, with positive effects on the nutritional intakeof the village people and reduced use of environmentallydamaging fishing practices.

Other community-based coastal and marineconservation and management activities are beingundertaken with New Zealand Agency for InternationalDevelopment (NZAID) assistance, such as the developmentof Avatiu Harbor in the Cook Islands. NZAID also supportsefforts to improve training activities in the Maritime Schoolof Kiribati’s Manukau Institute of Technology and reef channel development and operational upgrading of

Tuvalu’s Maritime Training Institute.

Locally-managed marine areas (or LMMAs) is onepromising approach in marine conservation. One of themost active countries applying LMMA is the Fiji Islands,and since its formation in 1999 the Fiji Locally-ManagedMarine Area (FLMMA) network has grown to includecommunities in six districts and 10% of the country’sinshore marine area. The benefits have been tangiblymeasured through increases in the number and size of

clams, crabs, and other species harvested adjacent totaboo areas. Household incomes also have increased by35% over the 3 years during which this approach has beenapplied, and economically important marine catches havetripled. Much of the success of the network can beattributed to its participatory and collaborative nature,which has put the local people at the center. The FijiIslands have already incorporated many LMMAapproaches into national policies, especially thosedesigned to protect coastal resources. Because of thiseffort, FLMMA was awarded an Equator Initiative Prize

at the World Summit on Sustainable Development.

Forest Resources

Current StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent Status . In the forested Pacific islands, the loss of forest cover and forest degradation resulting fromlogging and co nversion for agricultural production hasbecome a major environmental problem in recent years.Contributing to habitat destruction, soil loss, reduced

11 For a full description of the current status of this development-orientedconservation experiment, see the case study in the accompanyingvolume; a summary appears in Appendix 2.



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water quality and the sedimentation of lagoon areas,these trends directly affect the livelihoods of the ruralmajority (and the poorest segments of society). A steadyrate of deforestation is shown in Table 9 for Fiji Islands,PNG, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.

Forest cover varies greatly across the region, rangingfrom 40-85% of total land area in the high islands to 5-80% for lower islands and atolls. The economic value of these forests, in particular to Melanesian economies, ishigh and reasonably well documented (though data arenot current). For example, PNG’s forestry sector employedabout 4% of the total workforce in 1995 and earnedapproximately $312 million. In the same period, over 30%of the Solomon Islands workforce was employed by thissector, which contributed more than 50% of the country’stotal export earnings. Despite the recent decline in theSolomon Islands economy, logging proceeds at analarming pace, accounting for a large proportion of thenation’s meager revenues.

Along with the influence of increasing populations;breakdown of traditional management practices;introduction of new technologies; rising demand forfuelwood; and pressures from shifting agriculture,pastoral development and mining, logging continues to

be the leading cause of forest and tree cover decline. Oncelogging has occurred, many of these lands are convertedto agricultural uses. Because most of the newly loggedareas have steep slopes with thin soils, deforestation is amajor cause of land degradation in the region.

Despite ongoing deforestation, PNG (see Box 1) andthe Solomon Islands still have significant stands of high-value forests. The total value of forests—and the richbiological diversity and other environmental services theysupport—is immense (SPREP, 2000a). These resourcesremain crucial to sustaining the livelihoods of many inthe Pacific by providing timber, other building materials(posts, fences, thatch, etc.), fuelwood, food, medicines,traditional and cultural materials, soil and waterprotection, and shelter.

PPPPPriority I ssuesriority Issuesriority I ssuesriority Issuesriority I ssues . Work on improving forest and land usepolicy and legislation is progressing slowly in the region,and serious constraints retard the implementation andenforcement of existing regulations. In Melanesia,economic development strategies continue toemphasize extractive logging practices; only limitedattention is being given to improving managementsystems so that the resource can become sustainable. Insome cases, terrestrial biodiversity conservation efforts,

Table 9: Forest Statistics for Selected PDMCs

Annual Rateof Deforestation 2

Total Forest Area 1 Forest Area (Natural Forest)Country (ha) (%of total land area) (ha)

Cook Islands 15,580 66.86 –Fiji Islands 889,350 51.14 5,370Kiribati 101,250 12.50 –Micronesia, Fed. States of 3 48,259 68.84 –Nauru 1,743 83.88 –Papua New Guinea 39,300,000 85.02 80,000Samoa 184,067 62.71 –Solomon Islands 2,101,410 74.07 7,500

Tonga 4,000 5.35 – Tuvalu 688 22.93 –Vanuatu 487,319 39.70 1,600

Notes:1 = The total forest area covers all forest types including mangroves, dry and wet woodlands, and coconut and broadleaf forest areas.2 = Average rate of deforestation occurring through large-scale forest harvesting. Information on other land-use change through agriculture and

resettlement is not available.3 = Consolidated information for Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap.– = not availableSource : SPC 2000




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particularly those relating to the establishment of parksand protected areas, are having some indirect positiveinfluence on forest management. Even less attention isbeing paid to broader watershed management and/ orreforestation policies or programs for larger islands.Despite some limited efforts at improvement, land use

planning capacity remains very weak across the majorityof Pacific countries.

Efforts to manage forest resources sustainably haveconcentrated on the basic planning and legislative levels;instead, they need to address a number of underlyingroot causes of deforestation and conversion relating toland governance and community development.Institutional capacity for forest and land managementremains weak; overlapping mandates are frequent. InMelanesia, recent trends toward decentralization of

control over natural resources have not beenaccompanied by the strengthened capacity at theprovincial and district levels of government to handlecomplex forest management polices and practices.Without this capacity to govern effectively—and with onlylimited capacity to provide basic services and economicopportunities at the community level—landownerscontinue to be drawn to the financial opportunitiesoffered by commercial timber companies.

Area of ForestryOperationsin Papua New Guinea

3025201510 50

Availablein 1996

Million Hectares

Concessionsin 2000

Unallocatedas of 2000

Concessionsin 1996

Constraints No constraints

Box 1: Forestry Scenarios in Papua New GuineaForestry Scenarios in Papua New GuineaForestry Scenarios in Papua New GuineaForestry Scenarios in Papua New GuineaForestry Scenarios in Papua New Guinea

Of the 26.5 million hectares (Mha) of forest area in Papua New Guinea, 7.1Mha had been allocated to forestry operations by 1996. By the year 2000,this area had increased to 11.2 Mha. Although 14.8 Mha remained

unallocated as of 2000, only 11.5 Mha of the national forest area wereidentified as suitable for forestry operations. This means that much of the area currentlyin concessions is not suitable for industriallogging on the basis of sustainability orenvironmental protection, and a highproportion of the remaining forest areas isunsuitable for logging. With few exceptions,the vast majority of accessible and highvolume forest has already been logged. Theremainder, which forms the bulk of theunallocated estate, consists of remote,

inaccessible, and economically marginalforest.

Source : Shearman. 2001.

Regional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional Responses . Starting with the Tropical Forest Action Plan, which waslater replaced by initiatives of the 1992World Summit in Rio de Janeiro and the2002 United Nations Forum on ForestsInitiatives, the Pacific began to develop

techniques and instruments that wouldhelp improve management of its forests.Implementation has remained weak,however, due to lack of commitmentand resources—although, despite thevaried potential, economic, and socio-cultural conditions in the region,significant project-level progress hasbeen achieved under a regionalframework over the past decade.

Recent priorities for action havebeen well identified through meetingsof the heads of the forestry sector andconsultations at national and regionallevels and include (i) policy andlegislation, (ii) forest management, (iii)

forest product utilization, (iv) watershed management,(v) forest and trees in atoll ecosystems, and (vi) regionalfocal points and an information clearinghouse. 12 Detailsmay be found in Appendix 4.

The Regional Forestry Pro gram establ ished in

January 2000 and coordinated by SPC constitutes oneinitiative. The program provides a focal point forcollaboration, coordination and implementation of projects and related regional initiatives in the region.Its key objectives:

(i) Strengthen national capacity to formulate andimplement sound forest policies and practicesthat achieve sustainable forest management,improve utilization of timber and nontimberforest products, and conserve endangered

species and biodiversity;(ii) Promote the application and adoption of multipleland-use systems such as agroforestry andtraditional forest-related knowledge, includingnontimber forest products and appropriatetechnologies for rural-based communities;

12 The list of priority areas for action are taken from the Pacific RegionalSubmission to the 8th Session of the United Nations Commission onSustainable Development on Integrated Planning and Management of Land Resources (forestry sector attachment) (compiled in PIFS 2000a).



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(i ii ) Encourage community awareness andparticipation in the management, utilization, andprotection of remaining forest, water catchmentareas, and littoral forests; and

(iv) Provide a focal point for advocacy, collaboration,information dissemination, and resource

mobilization.

Two projects currently operating under the Programare (i) the AusAID-funded Forests and Trees Project, and(ii) the SPC/ Deutsche Gesellschaft für TechnischeZusammenarbeit (GTZ)-Pacific German Regional ForestryProject. In addition, the Program also works closely withother regional projects, initiatives, and organizations inpursuing its goals. It has formal memoranda of understanding with the South Pacific Regional Initiativeson Forest Genetic Resources and the Regional ForestsHealth Surveillance Project. Other collaborators includethe United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)Forest Service, Centre de Cooperation Internationale enRecherche Agronomique pour le Developpement-Foret,USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service, and theFood and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) SubregionalOffice for the Pacific Islands.

Numerous workshops have been held in the regionwith support from the European Union, AusAID, SPC, andGTZ to build capacity in sustainable forest managementand to raise awareness about the certification of timber

products. Fiji Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, andVanuatu have formed national w orking groups to developcriteria and indicators for improved forest managementand to open opportunities for industry to adoptcertification. In 2002, the AusAID Program on Forests(now with World Bank), Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat(PIFS), SPC, and GTZ supported a workshop to link thePacific to the initiatives of the United Nations Forum of Forests and to promote the development of national forestprograms in the region.

Local ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal Responses . With the vast majority of forests in thePacific legally owned and controlled by local communitiesbased around traditional clan structures, local responsesare of particular relevance. PNG, 95% of whose forestedland is under customary ownership, is a case in point. Inan attempt to address the challenges of communitydevelopment and strengthened local-level governance,the Almami Local-Level Government in the Bogia Districtof Madang Province has constructed an enforceable legalframework within which clans and communities can

prepare plans and agreements with one another for forestconservation. Through the legislative powers of Section44 of the Organic Law on Provincial Governments andLocal-Level Governments and the relevant sections of the Local-Level Governments Administration Act 1997,the Almami Local-Level Government aims to protect and

conserve the forest resources of the Adelbert Ranges, andalso to facilitate compatible economic growth in the area.By linking community agreements to national legislationin this way, it is helping to protect and make moreenduring the decisions taken by the clan members andlocal-level government.

From 1990 to 1994, the Fiji Islands ForestryDepartment, with assistance from the GermanGovernment, developed a sustainable natural forestmanagement regime, including verification indicators, ona pilot project basis. From 1994 to 2001, the SPC/ GTZ-Pacific German Regional Forestry Project developed thismodel further in selected Pacific countries, to prove itcould be adapted to the growth dynamics of variousnatural forest ecosytems in the region with only minormodifications. The project developed mechanisms thatallowed the active involvement of local resource ownersin forest management.

In 1994, the PIFS decided to facilitate the introductionof a logging code in the region. The Fiji Islands startedimplementing its National Logging Code in 1990 with

assistance from the International Labour Organisation.Australian aid supported the Solomon Islands, PNG, andVanuatu in developing their national codes. The LoggingCode in Samoa also was assisted through AusAID andSPC/ GTZ, while Niue developed its code just recently,facilitated by SPC/ GTZ. In most countries implementationfaces significant problems and continues to needappropriate external support.

With regard to the formulation of national legislation,Vanuatu drafted its own Forest Policy in 1996 with AusAID

assistance. This was later reviewed with support fromFAO. Vanuatu has expressed interest in developing aforestry sector plan under the SPC/ GTZ Project to furtherimprove its planning tools. SPC/ GTZ likewise has assistedin formulating a Forest and Agroforestry Policy for Niueand in drafting a Rural Land Use Policy for the Fiji Islands,which favors stronger land-use planning as an importanttool to ascertain the best use of the resources. TheForestry Department of the Fiji Islands is in the processof reviewing its current Forest Policy and Legislation.




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In the Cook Islands, the SPC/ GTZ Project will supportdevelopment of a management plan for its pineplantations as well as improved land-use planning. Theplanting of sandalwood trees as a future incomeopportunity also will be explored.

In Samoa, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries,Forestry and Meteorology (MAFFM) has historicallyoperated under a rather top-down management approach,with weak internal and external communications andstrategic focus. AusAID helped implement a project to helpMAFFM realign its organizational and managementsystems and procedures. The project’s goal is to increasethe ministry’s capacity to help people improve their foodand resource security, and to generate ecologicallysustainable income and employment opportunities withinthe agriculture, fisheries, and forestry sectors. Now thatMAFFM has completed a new 3-year corporate plan(2002–2005), Australia is considering further assistanceto strengthen its policy development capacity. Withsupport from FAO, Samoa will soon conduct a nationalinventory of its forest resources, with the goal of banningcommercial logging. Samoa intends its forestry policy tobecome more community-based in the future.

The first Pacific forest areas to be certified as beingsustainably managed (through the project activities of NGOs) are in Solomon Islands and PNG. There is growinginterest in certification, and such ecolabeling efforts could

be important in the future. PNG has developed criteriaand indicators appropriate at least to Melanesian forestsand has submitted them to the certifying body, the ForestStewardship Council, for endorsement. Another initiativein Solomon Islands, with AusAID support, is assisting theForestry Division of the Ministry of Forestry, Environmentand Conservation to strengthen its organizationaldevelopment and industry monitoring and improve theforest management infrastructure. In addition to theseongoing activities, future work will focus on policy andlegislative reform to improve ministry operations and

industry practices and to support community reforestation.So far, the Solomon Islands project has (i) increased logexport duties due to improved log shipment monitoring,(ii) constructed and refurbished operational infrastructurein four provinces, (iii) provided operational and logisticalsupport to office and field activities, and (iv) implementeda new customary reforestation scheme.

Solomon Islands has been implementing anecoforestry program since 1993 whose objective is to

strengthen the quality of village living through conservativeand sustainable utilization of the nation’s forest wealth.

The project, which is a joint initiative of the Solomon IslandsDevelopment Trust, Greenpeace Australia Pacific, and theImported Tropical Timber Group of New Zealand, hastrained 56 landowning groups across the country and has

provided ongoing extension support services andmonitoring to ecotimber producers. Aside from financialreturn, the greatest benefit of the project is the re-emergence of the traditional approach of villagers workingtogether that has resulted in better understanding and goodrelationships among community members.

Finally, in Tonga, NZAID since the 1970s hassupported the establishment of a forestry plantation on‘Eua to provide a viable and sustainable source of incomefor the people of ‘Eua and Tonga in general. In the nearfuture, the SPC/ GTZ project will also assist Tonga inreviewing its agroforestry master plan and policy.

Waste Management and Urbanization

Current StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent Status . Rising problems of urban pollutionmanagement and waste disposal are common to mostPDMCs. Growing urban and periurban populationscombined with the often limited land area available forwaste disposal—complicated by the physical structure of many islands—has led to growing health concerns and

increased negative impact on economic sectors such astourism.

The contamination of surface and groundw aterresources from sewage as well as animal waste andhousehold garbage is having a significant impact on thequality of often limited supplies of freshwater. Table 10shows that in Apia, Samoa, and Suva, Fiji Islands, over90% of respondents to a w aste awareness survey indicatedthat waste disposal was a problem. Approximately 69% of respondents in Tarawa, Kiribati, felt the same way; more

than one third of respondents there identified the sea asan acceptable place for disposal of solid waste.

The past decade has witnessed a significant increasein investments to deal with waste management. Acrossthe region, PDMCs—often with ADB assistance—haveimplemented projects to help governments andcommunities better handle sewage and solid waste.During this period, considerable expansion of watersupply systems has also taken place, partly in response



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to groundwater contamination. Policy and institutionalreforms to improve the efficiency with which wastemanagement services are financed and provided haveparalleled these environmental infrastructure investments.

These changes have ranged from the creation of new urbanplanning or wastewater treatment authorities to thecalculation and imposition of appropriate tariffs onbeneficiaries to cover the costs of providing these services.

Because of the unique place they hold in the region'shistory, nuclear wastes also remain of special concern.

The South Pacific was declared a nuclear-free zone by a1986 treaty, and strong sensitivities remain about theretained nuclear residues in such places as the BikiniAtoll.

With respect to other urban environmentalmanagement issues, urbanized populations are still smallin both their absolute size and in terms of the proportion

of Pacific populations they represent: on average, onlyone in four people lives in an urban environment.However, urban population growth is outstripping ruralby a wide margin in almost all PDMCs, and these areasare almost exclusively located along coasts. In somePacific countries, urban areas contain more than half of the population, resulting in severe environmentalmanagement problems. For example, in the MarshallIslands significant adverse environmental impacts areconcentrated in the urban center of Majuro, with sevenareas of the Majuro lagoon having been declared unsafefor swimming or fishing due to high fecal coliform counts.

The expanded area of built environments—and theassociated evolution of the nature of human settlementsin the Pacific—thus represents one of the most significanttrends and challenges facing the region over the nextdecade. This is particularly true for the largest cities of the region, where problems include (i) rising land pricesand conflicts over “traditional” versus “modern” land

tenure; (ii) falling standards of infrastructure in newlyurbanized areas; (iii) an increase in the number of squattersettlements and informal housing; and (iv) poverty,vulnerability, and environmental degradation.

Priority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority Issues . The major factors contributing to wastemanagement problems and the continuing degradationof urban areas are high population growth rates (Table

11) industrialization, urbanization, and consumerism.Rural populations seeking jobs and a better life are drawnto urban areas, often as a prelude to later relocationoutside the country. The degradation of natural systems(e.g., coastal ecosystems and forests) that form the basisof rural livelihoods also is pushing some to seek betteropportunities in the region’s cities. Urban manufacturing,power generation, the provision of services andinfrastructure, and other economic activities create wasteand pollution and encroach on beaches, wetlands, andforests. While air pollution is not yet a significant problem

in the region’s cities, a number of pockets have emergedwhere vehicular pollution is beginning to present airquality management issues.

Increased urbanization also creates demand for theexpansion of infrastructure, such as wastewatercollection and treatment, solid waste management,power supply, communications, and transportationservices. As already indicated, inadequate sewerage hassevere health and environmental implications, becauseit leads to degradation of surface, subsurface, and coastalwater quality, with adverse effects on human health aswell as recreational and commercial fishing activities,especially the safe harvesting of shellfish from the littoralzone. Increased demand for port facilities from wideningregional and global trade also directly affects coastalenvironments. Altered wave and coastal currentpatterns due to coastal development can haveunpredictable and costly consequences for beachdeposition and erosion.

Table 10: Waste Awareness Baseline Survey

Answers to: Is uncontrolled waste disposal becoming a problem in your city or town? (in %)

City Yes No No Answer Total

Suva, Fiji Islands 91.6 5.4 3.0 100Apia, Samoa 90.1 7.6 2.3 100

Tarawa, Kiribati 68.8 29.0 2.2 100Source : SPREP and European Union 2000.




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Table 11: Urban Population and Growth Ratesin PDMCs

UrbanUrban Population

Population Growth RateCountry (%) (%)

Cook Islands 59 0.6Fiji Islands 46 2.6Kiribati 37 2.2Marshall Islands 65 1.8Micronesia, Fed. States of 27 0.4Nauru 100 1.8Papua New Guinea 15 4.1Samoa 21 1.2Solomon Islands 13 6.2

Tonga 32 0.8 Tuvalu 42 4.8Vanuatu 21 4.3

Sources : SOPAC 2002b, SPC 2002a.

Table 12 shows that the PDMCs’ average rate of waste generation has been steadily increasing (with theexception of Tuvalu). A large portion of the waste streamis organic in nature, as much as 60% of total content.However, as traditional lifestyles change, a growingvolume of imported packaged goods requires disposal(or recycling), including plastics, paper, and metal (mostlycans). As these enter the waste stream (in the absence of

re-use options), they are harder for solid wastemanagement services to handle, and this is expected tobecome an increasingly critical environmental challengethroughout the region. In addition, large metallic itemssuch as old cars, trucks, and buses and disusedconstruction equipment are most difficult to dispose of in small landfills and are often abandoned or left to rustin open dumps.

Table 12: Generation of Waste inSelected PDMCs

Past Yearskg/person/day 2000

Country (year) kg/person/day

Fiji Islands not available 0.94Kiribati not available 0.33Solomon Islands 0.38 (1991) 0.62

Tuvalu 0.60 (1996) 0.43Vanuatu 0.60 (1996) 0.65Papua New Guinea 0.30 (1985) 0.41

Tonga 0.70 (1994) 0.82Samoa 0.52 (1993) 0.86

Source : SPREP 2000.

Groundwater and surface water contamination frompast disposal sites of persistent organic pollutants (POPs)also presents a challenge for PDMCs. In some areas,military equipment and vessels dumped in the ocean atthe end of World War II are now causing problems withoil leaks and unexploded ordnance. Table 13 identifies awide range of chemicals and the extent to which sitecontamination may be a problem in the region.

As indicated in the section on water resources above,improvement of wastewater management is essential tobettering health and living standards in the Pacific.

Wastewater is defined as any combination of discharge(liquor/ effluent, sludge/ biosolids) into the environment,with or without treatment, and includes humanexcrement, effluent, flushing water, industrial water, andstorm runoff. Positive socioeconomic benefits can beexpected from all wastewater management improvements,including increased economic productivity, children’shealth and school attendance, and reduced damage tocoastal fisheries and the coastal tourism industry frompollution.

Regional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional Responses . Unlike many other environmental

challenges in the Pacific, the problems of urbanizationhave not yet generated regional strategies or responses,except for wastewater management. A RegionalWastewater Management Meeting was held in 2001 inMajuro that brought together representatives from 15Pacific island countries and resulted in the formulationof the Pacific Wastewater Policy Statement and theassociated Pacific Wastewater Framework for Action. Theformer sets out a framework of guiding principles andpolicies to direct future development and cooperationamong Pacific nations, while the latter comprises a listof proposed actions to be undertaken at national andregional levels to achieve the goals laid out in the PolicyStatement. The Pacific Wastewater Policy Statement isguided by the following five principles:

(i) National w astewater man agement policies andregulations will be appropriate and acceptable tothe people and cu ltur es of the Pacific islands .Governments are required to place high priorityon wastewater and sanitation issues in order to



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direct sufficient attention and resources to theseareas in national development plans. Regional andnational policies should define responsibilities,leading to better cooperation between agenciesand increased recognition of the linkages betweengood sanitation, improved public health, economicdevelopment, and a cleaner environment. Anupdated and consistent regulatory framework,combined with effective enforcement, will resultin compliance with good practices, reducedpollution, equitable allocation of resources, andincreased investment.

(ii) Appropriate national i nstitutions, infrastructure, and inform ation w il l support sustainable wastewater

m anagem ent. Clearly defined respon sibilities for a l l s t a k e h o l d er o rg a n i z a t i o n s i n w a s t ew a t e r m a n a g e m e n t c a n p r e v en t f r a g m e n t ed a n d un coord ina ted p lans and ac t ions and impr ove l in kages to other sectors . A specific nationalagency responsible for wastewater managementcan be considered to enhance performance.Strengthened institutional capacities and thecollection and dissemination of data andinformation will support appropriate technologyselection, increase system performance, increase

the understanding of subsequent environmentaland public health impacts, and demonstrate theneed for water conservation and natural disasterpreparedness.

(iii) Better access to fun ding w ill im prove service delivery an d d ev e l o p t h e p r i v a t e sec t o r . Adequategovernment financial support, alternativefinancing mechanisms, and improved internalcost recovery are prerequisites to sustainmaintenance and attract external investment.

(iv) C o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i - p a t i o n i n w astewater m anage-m ent and sanitation w i l l en su re eq u i t ab l e b en e fi t s wi t h recognition of sociocultural sensitivities .Wastewater management and sani-tation issues should receive a higher

public profile. Public awareness by thecommunity of sociocultural, economic,environmental and public healthimpacts on wastewater managementwill ensure ownership.(v) Viable and susta in ab le leve ls o f skilled and kn ow ledgeable people within the wastew ater sector and com m un ities wil l im prove wastewater man agem ent .

Appropriately trained and experienced urban andrural wastewater professionals are needed todevelop projects and operate facilities, at both thetechnical, managerial, and community parti-cipation levels. Increased training enablescommunities and individuals to take responsibilityfor operating and maintaining their systems.

Several high-priority responses were identified inthe Framework for A ction, but all of them are anchoredand preconditioned on the achievement of conditionslisted above.

Local ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal Responses . Urban infrastructure is being upgraded

and expanded across the Pacific, and ADB is playing asignificant role in financing such investments. Many of these infrastructure improvements are directly related tobetter environmental management, including liquid andsolid waste management. Efforts are increasing tostrengthen the capacity of urban planning authorities (asin Samoa) to better link them with agencies andorganizations responsible for providing urban services,and to mainstream environmental management capacityinto these agencies. This is a tremendous institutionalchallenge in many PDMCs, but it is essential to the process

of rationalizing urban development and expanding theavailability of services.

A widening range of experience with urban wastemanagement is being gained from actions implementedby communities as well as state-sponsored efforts, andthey have in common the use of market-basedapproaches. In South Tarawa, Kiribati, discarded glassbottles are often reused to store red toddy (kamwaimwai) ,and some plastic items (such as ice cream containers) as

Table 13: Contamination by POPs in Pacific Island Countries(not including PNG, French, and US Territories)

Category Estimated Quantity

Agricultural Chemicals (including DDT) 130 tonsPotentially PCB-Contaminated Transformer Oil 220,000 litersPesticide-Contaminated Sites 21Bitumen-Contaminated Sites 8Oil- and Diesel-Contaminated Sites 29CCA-Contaminated Sites 7Potentially Contaminated Solid Waste Disposal Sites 20

PNG =Papua New Guinea, POPs =persistent organic pollutants, DDT =Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, PCB =Polychlorinated biphenyl, CCA =Chromated Copper Arsenic.Source : SPREP, UNEP, and European Union 1999.



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also among the world’s most fragile and threatened: anestimated 50% of it is at risk of being lost forever. 13

The diversity of ecosystems and species is greatestin Melanesia, and falls somewhat from west to east andfrom north to south away from the equator. But even

where diversity is relatively lower, species endemismand the threats of extinction often remain very high(Table 16).

These natural systems underpin both the formal andsubsistence economies of the region. Natural resource-based sectors, such as fisheries, forestry, and agriculture,rely on sound management of biological resources fortheir sustainability; the tourism sector is also largelydependent on local ecosystem integrity and diversity. Thelivelihoods of most Pacific islanders, therefore, are eitherdirectly or indirectly derived from the maintenance of biological and other natural resources, so that biodiversityconservation should be considered central to social andcultural development.

Unfortunately, this viewpoint is not widely sharedamong policymakers, or even those directly dependentupon natural systems for their livelihoods. Critical threatsto the region’s biological diversity continue to arise fromnatural resource-based economic activities that do nottake adequate account of their adverse impact on naturalsystems and place undue strain on their stability and

sustainability. These pressures are particularly evidentin the overharvesting of commercially valuable productsfrom natural systems. Marine pollution by land-basedsources (such as eroded soils, pesticides, heavy metals,nitrates, and chlorinated hydrocarbons) also constitutesa principal threat to marine biodiversity, along withhabitat destruction/ degradation (including fishing bydynamiting). Other notable sources of stress on bothterrestrial and marine biodiversity include invasivespecies and the effects of climate change and increasedclimatic variability—especially rising sea levels and the

greater frequency and intensity of cyclones. These threatswere summarized during the 7th Pacific IslandsConference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas,which evaluated the protection needs facing variousecosystems and organisms (Table 17 and Box 2) (Thaman2002).

13 Background paper distributed during the 7th Conference on NatureConservation and Protected Areas held 8–12 July 2002 in Rarotonga,Cook Islands.

Biodiversity

Current StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent Status . The natural heritage of the Pacific islandsregion is the richest and most diverse in the world. Thereare more rare, endangered, and threatened species percapita here than anywhere else on earth: up to 3,000species may be found on a single reef. Their marineenvironment constitutes an enormous and largelyunexplored resource, including the most extensive anddiverse coral reef systems found on the planet, the globe’slargest tuna fishery, the deepest oceanic trenches, and

the healthiest remaining populations of many globallythreatened marine species including whales, sea turtles,dugongs, and saltwater crocodiles. Its high islandssupport large blocks of intact rainforests, including manyspecies and communities of terrestrial plants and animalsfound nowhere else. This same biodiversity, however, is

Table 15. Waste Collection and DisposalCharges in Vanuatu

Waste Source Collection Fee per Year (Vatu)

Household 6,000

Commercial Waste 9,000Restaurant 60,000Big Shop 120,000Hotel 180,000Hotel Outside Municipal

Boundary 360,000Hire of Small Skip 2,500 per loadHire of Large Skip 3,500 per loadLong-Term Hire 15,000 per monthHire of Small Skip 5,000 per load

(outside municipal boundary)Hire of Large Skip 7,500 per load

(outside municipal boundary)

Size of Load Tipping Fee per Trip/Dump (Vatu)

Small vehicle 100Hilux 200

Truck 300Desludger 1,500

Source : SPREP and European Union 2000.




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Priori ty IssuesPriori ty IssuesPriori ty IssuesPriori ty IssuesPriori ty Issues . The Regional Action Strategy for NatureConservation (2003–2007) that emerged from thisConference identifies six important challenges toenvironmental management and biodiversity conser-vation in the region: (i) shortcomings in institutionalcapacity (especially at national levels), (ii) limited

infrastructure development, (iii) lack of coordination andintegration of environment and conservation activities,(iv) limited economic alternatives to unsustainableexploitation, (v) lack of political support and goodgovernance, and (vi) limited funding (Thaman, 2002).

Little progress will be made if biodiversityconservation continues to be viewed as an “environ-mental” issue unconnected to the economic well-beingof the region. Clearly, the future of Pacific economies andthe Pacific way of life is heavily dependent upon

sustaining the vital natural resource systems that serveas storehouses for biological diversity. Conservationefforts must begin from this premise and directlycontribute to the reduction of poverty, enhancing foodsecurity, and providing obvious links between theestablishment of sustainable livelihoods and theprotection of species and ecosystems. This isfundamental to the mainstreaming of environmentalconsiderations—including conservation—at the nationaland regional levels.

International willingness to contribute to Pacificenvironmental management and conservation workopens a range of new opportunities. Emphasis isincreasingly being placed on the identification andestablishment of local resource use patterns that supportsustainable local livelihoods, including the promotion of

market-based alternatives with environmentally friendlyor sustainable development business enterprises.

Regional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional Responses . According to an ADB-sponsoredsurvey, the proportion of countries reporting biodiversityloss as a serious problem rose from 67% in the 1970s to75% in the 1980s (though this could have been partlyattributable to rising awareness). During the 1990s,considerable effort went into addressing these concerns,with the main response being expansion of the systemof parks and protected areas in the region. Analysis and

conservation planning activities also accelerated.According to the Regional Action Strategy for NatureConservation, a significant increase has been seen inthe total area of natural systems brought underconservation management (SPREP 2002a). The areaunder protection is impressive, with 232 protected areascovering 25,500 km 2. Five countries have dedicated partof their EEZs to marine conservation, with a total areaof 10.9 million km 2 or one third of the total EEZs of allPacific islands, designated as whale sanctuaries. A

No. of ThreatenedAnimals

No. of ThreatenedPlants

Table 16: Biodiversity Indicators in PDMCs and Related Land Use Statistics

Country No. of Protected % Total Threatened Total ThreatenedProtected Land Land Known Mammal Known Bird

Areas Area Protected Mammal Species Bird Species(km 2) App I App II App I App II Species Species

Cook Islands 5 3.6 2.0 4 56 5

Fiji Islands 23 456.6 2.0 10 226 41 4 5 74 12Kiribati 12 587 86.0 2 132 0 4Marshall Islands 1 11.3 6.0 3 266 1 1FSM 16 106.3 15.0 9 116 31 6 5PNG 45 15,566 3.0 13 662 7 253 214 58 644 32Samoa 7 114.8 4.0 6 23 33 3 3 40 7Solomon Islands 12 119 1.0 11 188 1 113 53 21 163 23

Tonga 11 47.1 7.0 5 87 7 1 3 Tuvalu 1 8 32.0 2 73Vanuatu 8 34.7 .002 7 440 44 12 4 76 7

km 2 =square kilometer; FSM =Federated States of Micronesia; PDMC =Pacific developing member country; PNG =Papua New Guinea.App I = Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Species under this category are

the most endangered among CITES-listed animals and plants. These are threatened with extinction and CITES generally prohibits commercialinternational trade in specimens of these species.

App II =Appendix II of CITES. Species under this category are not necessarily threatened with extinction now but may become so unless trade isclosely controlled.

Source : CITES (http:/ / ww w.cites.org), SPREP 1999, and World Bank 2002.



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Box 2. Threats to Biodiversity and Biodiversity Conservation Threats to Biodiversity and Biodiversity Conservation Threats to Biodiversity and Biodiversity Conservation Threats to Biodiversity and Biodiversity Conservation Threats to Biodiversity and Biodiversity Conservation

DIRECT THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

1. High Frequency of Extreme Events/Natural Disasters2. Global Warming/Eustatic Sea-Level Rise

3. Stratospheric Ozone Depletion and Increasing Ultraviolet B Radiation4. Breakdown and Simplification of the Species Composition and Trophic Structure of Terrestrial, Freshwater, andMarine Ecosystems and Ecosystem Functions

5. Degradation of Uninhabited Islands6. Upland and Inland Deforestation and Forest Degradation7. Coastal and Mangrove Deforestation and Degradation8. Degradation of Freshwater Resources and Ecosystems9. Agricultural Simplification and Degradation, Agrodeforestation and the Loss of Biodiversity in

Agricultural Systems10. Overgrazing and Degradation of Biodiversity by Domestic Livestock11. Destruction due to Feral Animals12. Alien Invasive Plants and Animals

13. Pest and Disease Infestations and Epidemics14. Soil Degradation and Accelerated Soil Erosion15. Fire16. Destruction and Degradation of Productive Marine Ecosystems and Disruption or Change in the

Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems17. Overuse/Overexploitation/Unsustainable Use of Terrestrial Plant and Animal Resources18. Overfishing/Overexploitation/Unsustainable Use of Marine Resources19. Use of Destructive Fishing Technologies20. Illegal Fishing21. Pollution of Freshwater Resources22. Air Pollution23. Marine Pollution24. Indiscriminate and Increasing Use of Pesticides25. Hazardous/Toxic Waste Disposal26. Nuclear/Radioactive Pollution and Contamination

SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL, AND INFRASTRUCTURAL THREATS

1. Uncontrolled Population Growth2. Loss of Traditional and Contemporary Ethnobiological Knowledge3. Breakdown in Traditional Diversified Subsistence Economy4. Inadequate Modern Scientific Baseline Knowledge of the Nature and Status of Biodiversity5. Inadequate Systems of Marine and Terrestrial Conservation Areas6. Inadequate Capacity to Deal with Terrestrial, Freshwater, and Marine Invasive Species7. Inadequate Legislation/Legal Instruments

8. Inadequate Infrastructure/Capacity for Biodiversity Conservation9. Inappropriate Modern Education and Curricula10. Rapid and Uncontrolled Urbanization11. Unforeseen Large-Scale Developments12. Free Trade/Globalization and Increasing International Free Trade in Biodiversity13. Poverty and Economic Deterioration14. Gender Inequity in the Control, Use, and Management of Biodiversity15. Political Instability and Political Ignorance or Lack of Political Will to Commit to Conservation

Source : Thaman 2002.




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Table 17. Protection Needs for Ecosystems and Organisms in the Pacific Region

Category Melanesia Polynesia Micronesia

Ecosystems

Uninhabited islands ++ +++ +++ Coastal littoral and mangrove forests ++ +++ +++ Lowland forests ++ +++ +++ Montane/cloud forests ++ ++ ++ Rivers and lakes +++ +++ +++ Wetlands/swamps ++ +++ +++ Shifting agroforestry lands and agroforests ++ +++ +++ Semi-permanent/intensive agricultural areas ++ ++ +++ Houseyard and village gardens ++ ++ +++ Selected productive reefs +++ +++ +++ Intertidal zone and sea grass beds ++ +++ +++ Reef passages ++ +++ +++ Coral reefs +++ +++ +++

Terrestrial Organisms Native coastal and mangrove plants ++ +++ +++ Native inland trees and plants ++ +++ +++ Cultivated trees and plants ++ +++ +++ Plant cultivars/varieties ++ +++ +++ Native insects/arthropods ++ +++ +++ Land crabs ++ +++ +++ Native molluscs ++ +++ +++ Other native invertebrates ++ +++ +++ Native amphibians +++ NP + Native reptiles +++ ++ ++ Native birds +++ +++ +++ Native mammals +++ +++ +++ Humans (ethnobiological knowledge) +++ +++ +++

Freshwater Organisms Freshwater plants ++ +++ +++ Crustaceans ++ +++ +++ Shellfish ++ ++ ++ Insects +++ +++ +++ Finfish/eels ++ +++ +++ Amphibians ++ NP NP Reptiles +++ + +

Marine Organisms Seaweeds (marine macro-algae) ++ ++ ++ Sea grass +++ +++ +++ Stony reef-forming corals +++ +++ +++ Shellfish (giant clams, trochus, turban snail, +++ +++ +++ pearl oyster, triton) Bêche-de-mer/holothurians +++ +++ +++ Crabs, lobsters, mantis shrimp ++ +++ +++ Reef and lagoon fish ++ ++ ++ Eels (conger, moray) ++ ++ ++ Large demersal finfish (rockcods, wrasses, parrotfish) +++ +++ +++ Sharks and rays ++ +++ +++ Billfish +++ +++ +++ Turtles +++ +++ +++ Crocodiles +++ + Sea birds +++ +++ +++ Mammals (whales, dolphins, dugongs) +++ +++ +++

Legend: +++= of serious w idespread concern and in need of immediate protection; ++= of some widespread concern or of serious concern in specificareas; +=of limited or localized concern; NP =not present.Source : Thaman 2002.



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regional Wetlands Action Plan was adopted in 1999,while a regional Invasive Species Strategy was endorsedin 2000. An apparent shift has also occurred incommunity-based conservation schemes, which aremore appropriate and acceptable in the Pacific becauseof sociocultural norms.

Another important achievement was the launchingof the Pacific Islands Roundtable for Nature Conservationin 1998, in response to the call of the 6th South PacificConference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas.

The Roundtable serves as a venue to encourage moreeffective conservation action in the Pacific by (i) fosteringgreater coordination and collaboration among regionaland international organizations; (ii) providing feedbackon the effectiveness of conservation activities throughmonitoring and evaluation of the Regional ActionStrategy; (iii) identifying and addressing critical gaps inregional conservation activities; and (iv) recruiting newpartners for Pacific island conservation.

Local ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal Responses . All PDMCs are now parties to theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD), though theyare at different stages of fulfilling their obligations to theConvention (Table 18). Six countries have alreadycompleted their national biodiversity strategy and actionplans (NBSAPs), four are in progress, while two have

just submitted their proposals. In Samoa, the NBSAPCoordinating Committee is actively working acrosssectors to promote conservation and sustainabledevelopment. Seven countries have submitted both theirfirst and second national reports to the Convention, twohave prepared thematic reports on forest ecosystems(Samoa) and on protected areas (Tonga).

Unlike the widespread participation in activitiesunder CBD, only three Pacific countries are members of the Convention on International Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Fiji Islands, PNG,and Vanuatu. Details of their membership are in Tables18 and 19.

Table 18: PDMC Membership in CBD and Compliance with CBD Obligations(as of April 2003)

Membership ObligationsSigned Ratified National First Second Thematic

Biodiversity National National ReportStrategy and Report Report

Country Action PlanCook Islands 12/06/1992 20/04/1993

Fiji Islands 09/10/1992 25/02/1993

Kiribati 16/08/1994

Marshall Islands 12/06/1992 08/10/1992

Micronesia, Federated States of 12/06/1992 20/06/1994

Nauru 05/06/1992 11/11/1993Papua New Guinea 13/06/1992 16/03/1993Samoa 12/06/1992 09/02/1994

(ForestEcosystem)

Solomon Islands 13/06/1992 03/10/1995

Tonga Not Available 19/05/1998

(ProtectedAreas)

Tuvalu 08/06/1992 20/12/2002Vanuatu 09/06/1992 25/03/1993

CBD =Convention on Biological DiversitySource : CBD 2003.




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The expanded protection of natural heritage orbiologically rich areas using community-basedconservation approaches must be considered one of thegreatest recent successes. Established community-basedconservation areas range in size and scope from the 2–5hectare (ha) marine reserves in Samoa and Cook islands(raui) , to the 100,000-ha Baura Highlands ConservationArea in Solomon Islands, to the 900,000-ha Milne BayConservation Project in Papua New Guinea. In total,community-based conservation approaches are nowbeing applied to manage more than 3.5 million ha of rainforests, mangroves, reefs, coastal waters, and othervaluable island ecosystems throughout the Pacific.

Though impressive, these figures are low relative to theneed, and many areas remain unsurveyed and undefined.SPREP, through the International Waters Program (IWP),has prepared an inventory of Marine Protected Area (MPA)activities in IWP-participating countries that provides a

synopsis or overview of conservation initiativesundertaken by these MPAs (SPREP 2002).

PNG leads the region in conserving and protectingwetlands, as the only country that is party to theConvention on Wetlands. Signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971and also known as the Ramsar Convention, it is a globalintergovernmental treaty on wetlands conservationwhich recognizes wetlands as ecosystems that areextremely important for biodiversity conservation ingeneral and for the well-being of human communities.

Two of PNG’s important wetland sites are under theConvention’s management: the Tonda Wildlife Manage-ment Area and Lake Kutubu. Two more sites are nowbeing prepared for nomination under the Convention.Other countries like Fiji Islands, Solomon Islands, andSamoa have already signified their intention to accedeto the Convention, because they also have wetland areasneeding immediate conservation and protection.

The Fiji Islands has also taken positive steps in thearea of sustainable tourism and promotion of ecotourism.

This is perceived as a timely move toward attaining a moresustainable management of the country’s naturalresources. As early as 1972, various ecotourism-relatedinitiatives had been started; 14 based on a recent survey,about 22 ecotourism operators are now licensed. NZAIDhas been assisting the country in this effort since 1989,and was responsible for helping to establish two of thebest models of sustainable park management in the Pacific.

The Fiji Islands’ recent partnership with Green Globe Asia-Pacific to provide tourism-related companies and resortareas with “Green Globe 21” recognition and certification 15

is expected to attract even more support from externaldevelopment partners, particularly in the area of protectedarea management and biodiversity conservation.

As to biodiversity conservation financing, several

efforts to establish viable trust funds at the national andsubnational levels are worth noting. For example, Box 3gives an overview of FSM’s Micronesia Conservation

Trust. Other trusts include the Mama Graun Conservation Trust Fund in PNG and emerging community-based trustsfor the districts of Aliepata and Saafata in Samoa.

Table 19. PDMC Membership in Convention on International Trade in Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna and Flora

Country Order of Entry into Force Date of Accession Date of Entry into Force

Fiji Islands 143 30/09/1997 29/12/1997Papua New Guinea 21 12/12/1975 11/03/1976Vanuatu 101 17/07/1989 15/10/1989

Source : CITES 2003.

14 Some of these areas are Colo I Suva Forest Trail, Iguana Sanctuary onthe Island of Yadua Taba, Levuka Historic Town, Vaisali Forest Park,Waikatakata Forest Trail, Sagatoka Sand Dunes National Park, andthe Tavuni Hill Fort (Harrison, D. and J. Brand. 2002. Ecotourism inFiji. In: Harrison, D. (ed.), Pacific Islands Tou rism , Cognizant, New York).

15 Recently, a Best Practice Ecotourism and Green Globe Benchmarking Trai ning was con ducted and attended by some 97 touris mentrepreneurs.



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Energy-Environment Linkages

Current StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent Status . Energy is a fundamental input to mosteconomic and social activity, and adequate andaffordable energy supplies are vital in providing the basisfor sustainable development in the Pacific region (CROP

2002). They are also a prerequisite for expandingeducation, health services, and communications, and arestrongly tied to environmental management; energy-environment linkages within the Pacific sustainabledevelopment context involve many complex andinterdependent factors. Demographics vary widely amongPDMCs, but most feature small, isolated populationcenters. Markets are very thin, difficult to serve, andwithout significant economies of scale. About 70% of theregion’s population is without access to electricity, butthis varies widely from 10% to 100% at the national level.

The predominance of archipelagoes makes infrastructuredevelopment difficult and potential environmental impactssignificant. In addition, most Pacific island countries donot have indigenous petroleum resources. Only a few havehydropower potential; renewable energy, mostly in theform of mini-hydropower, contributes less than 10% of commercial generation. Nevertheless, all PDMCs havepotential for developing wind, solar, biofuel, geothermal,ocean thermal, and wave/ tidal energy, which may playcrucial roles in their sustainable development.

Priority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority IssuesPriority Issues . Pacific island countries and territories

have special concerns, arising from their unique situation,that affect their energy potential and policies (CROPEnergy Working Group 2002). The region is marked bylimited human and institutional capacity to respond toenergy challenges. Environmental damage, habitat loss,and pollution resulting from development and use of conventional energy sources have significantly andadversely affected fragile island ecosystems. Althoughlargely caused by developed countries’ energy use,environmental vulnerability to climate change and risingsea levels is very high, particularly for small islands and

low-lying atolls. Energy supply security is also at risk:most countries have only limited storage capacity for bulkpetroleum fuels, which are sourced over a long supplychain at relatively high prices. The scope for marketreforms is limited—considering the variation in size anddensity of markets—so appropriate energy alternativesvary greatly among countries. Of special note also is thefact that women are significant energy users but arepoorly represented in energy policy, planning, anddevelopment.

Box 3: The Micronesia Conservation T The Micronesia Conservation T The Micronesia Conservation T The Micronesia Conservation T The Micronesia Conservation T rustrustrustrustrust

The Micronesia Conservation Trust (MCT) was createdin 2002 to support biodiversity conservation and relatedsustainable development for the people of the FederatedStates of Micronesia (FSM). The MCT accomplishes thisby providing long-term, sustained funding through a grantprogram that encourages people to adopt sustainable andappropriate solutions to local environmental challenges.

The MCT is set up as a private corporation with agoverning board of nine members, including members fromnational, state, and municipal governments, NGOs,business, and academic institutions. The board membersrepresent the two major ecoregions of the FSM—the lowislands (coral atolls) and the high islands (volcanic islands).

The MCT is working to mobilize funding from a varietyof public and private sources to build an endowment of

$20 million to provide long-term support for sustainablebiodiversity resource management in the FSM.

In addition to providing financial support, the MCT isplacing special emphasis on building the capability of Micronesian organizations to design and manageconservation programs. It also provides a national forumto bring together people from government, privateenterprise, and community and nonprofit organizationsto collectively address the challenges of natural resourcemanagement in the FSM, enhance public-privatepartnerships, and share experiences and best practices.

The MCT will manage a program of grants to implementthe FSM’s National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan, whichwas completed in April 2002. The MCT will financeinnovative and effective projects that

o Build community awareness about biodiversityconservation and related environmental educationprograms;

o Support the conservation of priority naturalbiodiversity resource areas;

o Strengthen the ability of communities, community

organizations, government agencies, conservation anddevelopment NGOs, and other appropriate organiza-tions to conserve the FSM’s biodiversity and sustainablymanage its natural resources for the benefit of futuregenerations; and

o Support biodiversity conservation advocacy.

Source : MCT 2002.




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Development of renewable energyresources seems to offer promise in theregion, especially if linked to newfinancing vehicles such as the CleanDevelopment M echanism. However,renewable energy development has been

limited by technology, institutional, andmarket constraints. As noted, mostPDMCs are endowed with a renewableresource base that holds high potential forcontributing to sustainable develop-ment,but most still rely on fossil fuels. High up-front costs and the difficulties presentedby small markets in providing alternativesto fossil fuel-based energy supplies atreasonable cost have prevented widerpropagation of renewable energy in theregion. Significant savings are possible onthe demand side as well, for example, bypromotion of high-efficiency appliances,installation of more efficient dieselgenerators, and improvement of groundtransport efficiency. All of these measureshold potential for generating ancillaryreductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) andother harmful emissions.

Regional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional ResponsesRegional Responses . In response tothese challenges and concerns, the

Pacific Energy Policy and Plan (PEPP)has been developed as a means of coordinating the energy programs of theregional organizations and develop-ment partners (Box 4). It is also intendedto offer guidelines for adaptation to thespecial circumstances of Pacific islandcountries and territories.

The PEPP, developed by CROP, 16 hasbeen agreed upon as the common

framework for progress in planning andimplementing energy sector impro-vements the region. It is structuredaround 10 elements, with the followinggoals in each area:

Box 4: The Rarotonga Declaration on Energy for the The Rarotonga Declaration on Energy for the The Rarotonga Declaration on Energy for the The Rarotonga Declaration on Energy for the The Rarotonga Declaration on Energy for theSustainable Development of the Pacific IslandsSustainable Development of the Pacific IslandsSustainable Development of the Pacific IslandsSustainable Development of the Pacific IslandsSustainable Development of the Pacific Islands

Pacific Regional Energy Meeting Convenedin the Cook Islands, 15-19 July 2002

Reaffirming our region's commitment to the implementation of Agenda21 and the Rio Principles;Concerned about our heavy reliance on fossil fuels, energy supply security,its effects on our small and vulnerable economies, and the constraints thisplaces on our sustainable development;Concerned at the increased vulnerability of low-lying atolls in the Pacificregion, to climate change, climate variability and sea-level rise, significantlycontributed to by global emissions of greenhouse gases;Deeply concerned at the environmental and cultural damage, habitat lossand pollution resulting from development and use of conventional energysources on our fragile Island ecosystems and the need for effectiveinternational support and efforts at all levels;

Welcoming the progress made to finalize the Draft Implementation Planfor the World Summit on Sustainable Development, in particular, on theissue of promoting renewable energy and access to energy for the poor;Acknowledging the World Summit on Sustainable Development processesand the importance energy has to play in sustainable development asidentified in the WSSD Plan of Action; andRecognizing the vital role energy plays in achieving sustainable developmentin the Pacific region.

NOW THEREFORE, the Meeting:

Calls on all States to set effective targets and timetables within the WSSDImplementation Plan to achieve a significant increase in, and access to, theuse of renewable sources of energy and energy efficiency;Calls on the international community to support the ratification of theKyoto Protocol;Further Calls on all States to support Pacific island people in their effortsto develop and improve access to affordable, reliable, and environmentallysound energy for sustainable development for all Pacific islanders;Calls on the partners and stakeholders to energy initiatives in the Pacificregion to ensure the appropriate transfer of technology;Supports the Type II Initiative/Partnership on Energy for SustainableDevelopment in the Pacific, as a basis for further consultation andpartnership development;Urges the international community, and funding agencies to recognize thepriorities and activities contained in the Pacific Energy Policy and Plan andto assist the region in its implementation;Further urges the international community to respect the right of Pacificisland countries to determine what sources of energy are most appropriatefor their sustainable development.

Source: CROP 2002.

16 The CROP Energy Working Group comprises thePacific Islands Forum Secretariat, Pacific PowerAssociation, Secretariat of the PacificCommunity, South Pacific Applied GeoscienceCommission South Pacific Community,University of the South Pacific, and UNDP.



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(i) Reg i o n a l En e rg y Sec t o r Co o rd i n a t i o n : Acooperative approach to sector coordination thatmaximizes the impact of regional resources andcapabilities;

(ii) Policy and Plannin g : Open and consultative cross-sector policy development and integrated

planning to achieve sustainable supply and useof energy;(iii) Power : Reliable, safe, and affordable access to

efficient power for all Pacific islanders in bothrural and urban areas;

(iv) Transportation : Environmentally clean, energy-efficient, and cost-effective transportation w ithinthe region;

(v) Ren ew ab l e En e rg y : An increased share of renewable energy in the region’s energy supply;

(vi) Petroleum . Safe, reliable, and affordable suppliesof petroleum products to all areas of the Pacific,including rural and remote islands;

(vii) Rural and Rem ote Islands : Reliable, affordable, andsustainable energy supplies for the social andeconomic development of rural and remoteislands;

(viii) E n v i r o n m e n t : Environmentally sustainabledevelopment of energy sources and use of energywithin the region;

(ix) Efficiency an d Conservation : Optimized energyconsumption in all sectors of the regionaleconomy and society; and

(x) Hu m an an d In s t i tu t i o n a l Cap ac i ty : Adequatehuman and institutional capacity to plan,manage, and develop the Pacific energy sector.

Substantial technical and financial support has beenprovided to renewable energy and energy efficiencyprojects in the Pacific region. Aside from PEPP, the othermain program currently being implemented is the PacificIslands Renewable Energy Project (PIREP) supported byUNDP and GEF. PIREP 17 builds on work undertaken underthe Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance Program

(PICCAP)18

and aims at supporting regional and nationalinterventions that remove barriers to renewable energydevelopment and facilitate promotion, use, andcommercialization of renewable technologies through the

establishment of a suitable enabling environment. SOPACalso implements a number of energy and renewableenergy programs in (i) energy resource assessment (wind,biomass, ocean-based resources, and geothermal); (ii)energy conservation, efficiency, and demand-sidemanagement; and (iii) energy and environment education

through a new postgraduate course in wind energy atthe USP. Another ongoing program is the Pacific RuralRenewable Energy France-Australia Common Endeavour(PREFACE).19 Its goal is to increase utilization of renewableenergy sources, in particular solar photovoltaic and windenergy, through the development of country-levelsustainable financial and management arrangements.

Since 2001, ADB, with co-financing from theGovernment of the Netherlands, is implementing in theAsia and Pacific region a TA for promoting renewableenergy, energy efficiency, and GHG abatement projects(PREGA) (ADB 2001c). 20 The TA supports renewableenergy and energy efficiency development through,among others, removal of policy and institutional barriers;preparation of renewable energy and energy-efficientcountry strategies, programs, and work plans; generationof a pipeline of investment projects for consideration forfinancing; and development of financial schemes.Recently, another ADB TA, Renewable Energy and EnergyEfficiency Program for the Pacific (REEP), 21 was approvedand funded under the Danish Cooperation Fund forRenewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in Rural Areas.

The REEP aims to (i) dissemin ate in formation onrenewable energy sources and improved energyefficiency, especially on the demand side; (ii) develop 5–6 demonstration programs (including maintenanceplans); and (iii) design financing schemes andimplementation mechanisms in the low-incomePacific island countries and Timor-Leste to assistpromotion of renewable energy resources in a reliableand sustained manner, as well as increase the efficiencyof energy use.

17 PIREP covers 14 countries and has a duration of 18 months with abudget of $840,000. Implementation started in August 2002.

18 The PICCAP project is funded by GEF/ UNDP/ United Nations Institutefor Training and Research and implemented by SPREP in 10 PacificIsland countries. Its task, among others, is to establish the technicaland scientific background prior to developing policies on climatechange and variability by undertaking activities like GHG inventories,mitigation options, and vulnerability and adaptation assessments.

18 The PICCAP project is funded by GEF/ UNDP/ United Nations Institutefor Training and Research and implemented by SPREP in 10 Pacificisland countries. Its task, among others, is to establish the technicaland scientific background prior to developing policies on climatechange and variability by undertaking activities like GHG inventories,mitigation options, and vulnerability and adaptation assessments.

19 PREFACE, a program implemented by SPC and started in 2000, is jointlyfunded by France and Australia, and has a 3-year duration and a budgetof A$3 million.

20 Samoa is the only PDMC participating in the PREGA project.21 This ADB TA was approved on 28 April 2003 with funding of $750,000;

$600,000 is to be financed on a grant basis from the DanishCooperation Fund for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in RuralAreas, while the remaining $150,000 will be provided by twoparticipating PDMCs as counterpart funds.




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Local ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal Responses . In various ways, regional projectsfunded through multilateral and bilateral assistance guidethe implementation of local projects and initiatives onenergy conservation, renewable energy, and energyefficiency. Practically all PDMCs have devoted efforts tobuilding their local capacities; strengthening concerned

institutions; and formulating energy policies, plans andprograms. For example, the Fiji Islands, drawing lessonsfrom its GEF-funded project, 22 highlights the need for aninstitutional framework, relevant policies, and an updatedenergy database to carry out a more effective andcoordinated approach for sustainable utilization of itsenergy resources; its Department of Energy is weak inundertaking resource monitoring activities simplybecause it lacks the necessary equipment to perform thetask. Samoa shares the same concern: despite itsinvolvement in the PREGA project, it lacks the humanresources and institutional capacity in its energy office,and this is a major constraint in carrying out its activitiesand commitment. Kiribati raises a similar need for itsEnergy Planning Unit; meanwhile, it has alreadyformulated a 5-year manpower training program for itsgovernment-owned Kiribati Oil Company to augment itstechnical capability. Solomon Islands, through theassistance of the Japanese Government, has adopted anEnergy Master Plan, while Tuvalu is implementing arestructuring of its Solar Electricity Cooperative Society.

With regard to other energy-related projects,

negotiations are underway in Samoa for theimplementation of the Sili River Basin hydroelectric powergeneration project. It is now encountering delays,however, because of local communities’ demand forpayment for the use of the area’s resources. Samoa isalso looking into the feasibility of installing a state-of-the-art and environment-friendly generator from Swedento address some of the country’s energy needs. In Kiribati,a new Public Utilities Board (PUB) powerhouse has beenconstructed through JICA funding, while installation of 1,500 solar home systems and construction of a new fuel

tank in Christmas Island were made possible throughassistance from the European Union. In Solomon Islands,the Solomon Islands Village Electrification Council,through funding support from Taipei,China, Australia(Australian Greenhouse Partnership Office) andAppropriate Technology for community Environment,Inc., installed a 29.3 kW electric micro hydro system inRaeao Village. The People’s Republic of China has

provided assistance to PNG for the installation of a smallwind-solar hybrid system; AusAID has funded anelectrification project in Ha’ano and ‘Uiha in Tonga. Theinstallation of solar home systems on the island of Niulakita in Tuvalu has just been completed. Finally, inVanuatu, a subsidiary company has been established to

oversee and manage its rural electrification activities. Ithas also expanded its Sarakata hydro station from 600kW to 1,200 kW, and has developed mini/ micro hydropower stations in some of its rural communities.

Climate Change and Variability

Current StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent StatusCurrent Status . No Pacific environmental issue has socaptured worldwide attention as the prospect of risingsea levels, resulting from global climate change,threatening the very existence of many low-lying islands,including entire countries (such as Tuvalu or Kiribati). 23

Pacific island countries are among the most vulnerableon the planet to the impacts of climate and sea-levelchange. Most populated areas, socioeconomic activities,and infrastructure are located along or near coasts. Evenon large high islands, the inhabitable land tends to be inthe coastal fringe. In addition to the risk of sea-level rise,climate change, due to increasing quantities of GHGs inthe atmosphere, could result in an altered pattern of stormfrequency and intensity (the extreme events of tropicalcyclones are of particular concern in the Pacific) and lead

to increased variability of precipitation and a heightenedrisk of droughts and/ or flooding. More intense stormsurges could well increase beach erosion, displacesettlements, and damage infrastructure.

The biophysical and socioeconomic environmentsof PDMCs already are sensitive to variability inatmospheric and oceanic conditions. Their vulnerabilitycan be partly offset by the intrinsic resilience of naturalsystems and by the active management of these systemsto increase their ability to withstand the adverse effects

of climatic and oceanic conditions.

High-level political support for climate-relatedinitiatives in the Pacific has continued, along with agrowing belief that the impacts of a changing climate arealready being experienced through the occurrence of

22 Promoting Sustainability of Renewable Energy Technologies andRural Renewable Energy Service Companies.

23 Global climate change refers to a significant long- term change in theearth’s climate system, whereas climate variability refers to short- tomedium-term fluctuations in the climate system, and usually includesextreme weather events such as cyclones, floods, droughts, and otherrelated disasters caused by weather phenomena.



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increased climatic extremes, such as unusually intenseand/ or un-seasonal cyclones, flooding, droughts, andother natural phenomena. Recent scientific evidenceindicating that global warming could increase thefrequency and/ or intensity of some extreme events inthe decades ahead is thus coming to be more widely

understood and appreciated. Vulnerability and harm areenhanced by increased human pressure on naturalsystems. Given existing sensitivities, there can be littledoubt of the potentially devastating consequences for thePacific should it be proven that adverse changes alreadyare occurring, with more to come in the future. Therepercussions would threaten the life-supporting capacityof the Pacific’s natural systems and the sustainability of many human habitats.

For these reasons, the adverse impacts of climaticchanges—including increased variability—are gettingincreasingly urgent attention among PDMCs. This isreflected in the numerous South Pacific Forum Leaders’communiqués imploring developed countries to reducetheir GHG emissions, and the almost unanimousparticipation of PDMCs in the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 24 and the KyotoProtocol 25 negotiations, as shown in Table 20.

This situation is also gaining an increasing degreeof international attention. Small island states have beenrecognized by the United Nations Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as highly vulnerable toclimate change. In its Third Assessment Report (2001),the IPCC reconfirmed the threat to small island developingcountries from rising air and sea temperatures as well asof sea levels, and indicated that these are of specialconcern to low-lying atoll countries and coastlines (IPCC2001). The IPCC also has identified coral reefs, atolls andmangroves as among the natural systems mostvulnerable to (and under threat of irreversible damagefrom) climate change. The IPCC also has noted that mostof these countries have limited capabilities for adaptation.

In 2001, SPREP commissioned a report by regional expertsthat restated the IPCC conclusions specifically relevantto Pacific island countries, including the following:

(i) A growing body of observations gives a collectivepicture of a warming world and other changesin the climate system. The global average surfacetemperature has increased over the 20th centuryby about 0.6°C. Sea levels in the tropical Pacifichave risen by approximately 2 mm/ year, but

trends in short sea-level records in the tropicalPacific are complicated by El Niño and La Niñaevents.

(ii) Global average temperature and sea level areprojected to rise under all IPCC scenarios: globalmean temperatures are expected to rise between1.4°C and 5.8°C and global mean sea-levelchanges are expected to be between 9 cm and88 cm over the next 100 years. Changes areexpected in some extreme weather and climateevents, including higher maximum temperaturesand more hot days, more intense (heavy) rainfallevents, and (over some areas) an increase in peakwind intensities and mean and peak rainfallintensities in tropical cyclones. Currentprojections show little change or a small increasein amplitude for El Niño events over the next 100years. However, even with little or no change inEl Niño amplitude, global warming is likely tolead to greater extremes of drying and heavyrainfall, and to increase the risk of droughts andfloods that occur with El Niño events in different

regions, including small Pacific island states.

(iii) The best current projections of future climatechange for the Pacific islands indicates the regionis likely to warm at a slightly slower rate thanthe global average, but at a rate that is stillsubstantial and likely to have significant impacts.Confidence in rainfall changes is lower becauseof the strong difficulty of simulating these withlow-resolution models. However, the coupledmodels suggest increased precipitation along the

equatorial belt from the dateline eastward, anda likelihood of decreases in the southwestPacific.

(iv) Human-induced climate change will persist formany centuries. Of long-term concern to Pacificisland states is the potential for large-scale andpossibly irreversible impacts from ice-sheetchanges, which pose risks that have yet to bereliably quantified. For example, a local warming

24 UNFCCC calls for participation of all countries for the stabilization of GHG emissions that contribute to global warming, which mayadversely affect natural ecosystems and human w elfare.

25 The Kyoto Protocol was developed in December 1997 as a bindingagreement to the UNFCCC to seek commitments from industrializedcountries through specific targets for emissions reduction of GHGsinto the atmosphere.




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of 5.5°C, if sustained for 1,000 years, would belikely to result in a contribution to global sea-level rise from ice-sheet melting over Greenlandof about 3 meters (m), and current modelssuggest the West Antarctic ice sheet could alsocontribute as much as 3 m to sea-level rise overthe next 1,000 years (Salinger et al. 2001)

While the costs of disaster management and theaftermath of disaster events are generally quantifiable,the identification of adaptation costs (those that may beincurred because of climate change) is recognized as adifficult task. Given the increasing trend towardintegration of environmental and development planning,disaster management in the Pacific may increasingly beblended into a holistic risk reduction approach that placesadaptation to climate change within a broader set of activities designed to cope with a range of existing natural

threats to sustainable development.

An initial evaluation of the economic and socialimplications of climate change and variability for thePacific has concluded that vulnerability will continue torise as population increases and infrastructure developsin coastal areas (World Bank 2000). This has been animportant insight and has helped to impress upon Pacificregion finance ministries the value of sound adaptationstrategies and investments. For example, in the absence

of adaptation, it has been estimated that a high islandsuch as Viti Levu in the Fiji Islands could experiencedamages of $23–$52 million per year by 2050, equivalentto 2–4% of the country’s current gross domestic product(GDP). A group of low islands such as the Tarawa atoll inKiribati could face average annual damages of more than$8–$16 million a year, equivalent to 17–34% of Kiribati’s

current GDP (World Bank 2002).

The key questions, therefore, are how the impactswill manifest themselves, and what the most appropriateresponses are for avoiding, minimizing, and adapting tothese impacts. Since PDMCs naturally experiencesignificant interannual variations in climatic and oceanicconditions, some of their natural systems already are welladapted to such stresses. However, many PDMCs nowhave recognized the need to (i) reduce their vulnerabilityto these increasing risks through adaptation processes;

and (ii) strengthen the human and institutional capacitiesto assess, plan, and respond to these challenges (Box 5)(World Bank 2002).

It is understandable that Pacific societies are moreconcerned about extreme events that will be experiencedin the short term than those that may occur in the nextdecade or even the next century. However, the increasingscientific and world opinion that a warmer world is likelyto be similar, except for more frequent and intense

Table 20: PDMCs' Participation in the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol(as of April 2003)

UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol

Ratification Entry RatificationCountry Signature or Accession into Force Signature or Accession

Cook Islands 12/06/92 20/04/93 (R) 21/03/94 16/09/98 27/08/01 (R)Fiji Islands 9/10/92 25/02/93 (R) 21/03/94 17/09/98 17/09/98 (R)Kiribati 13/06/92 07/02/95 (R) 08/05/95 – 07/09/00 (A)Marshall Islands 12/06/92 08/10/92 (R) 21/03/94 17/03/98 –FSM 12/06/92 18/11/93 (R) 21/03/94 17/03/98 21/06/99 (R)Nauru 08/06/92 11/11/93 (R) 21/03/94 – 16/08/01 (R)PNG 13/06/92 16/03/93 (R) 21/03/94 02/03/99 28/03/02 (R)Samoa 12/06/92 29/11/94 (R) 27/02/95 16/03/98 27/11/00 (R)Solomon Islands 13/06/92 28/12/94 (R) 28/03/95 29/09/98 13/03/03 (A)

Tonga – 20/07/98 (A) 18/10/98 – – Tuvalu 08/06/92 26/10/93 (R) 21/03/94 16/11/98 16/11/98 (R)Vanuatu09/06/92 25/03/93 (R) 21/03/94 – 17/07/01 (A)

FSM = Federated States of Micronesia, PNG =Papua New Guinea, NA = not available, R =Ratification, A = Accession, UNFCCC =United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change, – =not available.Source : http:/ / unfccc.intl



44 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

extreme events, means that much canbe learned from present-day responsesto climatic and hydrological disasters.

The summary of vuln erabi liti es toextremes shown in Table 21 highlightsthe risks already facing PDMCs;

the hazards that are hydrological innature give an indication of futurevulnerabilities to climate change andvariability.

Regional ResponseRegional ResponseRegional ResponseRegional ResponseRegional Response . As noted, since theearly 1990s climate change issues havebeen identified as a key element by theSouth Pacific Forum Leaders in theirannual Forum Communiqué. Concernreached its peak in October 2000, whenthe Forum’s leaders endorsed thePacific Islands Framework for Action onClimate Change, Climate Variabilityand Sea-level Rise (PIFS 2000b). ThisFramework serves as an agreed basis foreffectively addressing climate changeand variability through a cooperativeprocess among all relevant stakeholders.

The mechanism for cooperation is theClimate Round-Table, a forum whereinterested stakeholders can cooperateand collaborate on climate-related

activities to avoid duplication andachieve complemen-tarity of effort.

The Framework for Action outlinesa wide range of national needs andmeans for addressing them at both thecountry and regional levels, and it isendorsed as the principal guidance forregional policy on climate activities.Despite this high-level attention to theissue, however, active support continues

to be lacking within key ministriesconcerned with social and economicdevelopment, such as finance andplanning. This seems to be basedprimarily on a persistent perception thatclimate is an environmental rather thana developmental issue.

Initiatives in response to the threatof climate change and variability

Box 5: VVVVVulnerability and Adaptationulnerability and Adaptationulnerability and Adaptationulnerability and Adaptationulnerability and Adaptation

Understanding Pacific responses to climate change requires strongattention to two poorly understood concepts: vulnerability and adaptation.

Vulnerability. The vulnerability concept has been broken down into itseconomic, environmental, and social dimensions: e c o n o m i c vulnerability —risk faced by an economy from exogenous shocks to itssystems of production, distribution (including and especially markets), andconsumption; environmental vulnerability —risk of damage to a country’snatural ecosystems, such as its coral reefs, wetlands, freshwater, coastalareas and marine resources, forests, and soils; and social vulnerabilit y —risk of increased growth in criminal activities, HIV/AIDS infection, childrendropping out of school, declining age of prison population, declining publichealth, rotting public infrastructure, and migration of skilled professionals.

In the context of climate change, vulnerability centers on the degree towhich a system is susceptible, or unable to cope with, climate change andvariability, including extremes (such as tropical cyclones). In assessing thevulnerability of a country, the biophysical, social, cultural, and economiccharacteristics are measured, and future climate projections of changeare then compared to that baseline. These effects or impacts provide thebasis for developing ways of responding (or adaptation options) to minimizethe effects on society and the environment.

Studies undertaken in the Pacific over the past 10 years emphasize thehigh vulnerability of these small island states, and especially low-lying atolls.

The economic implications of these studies have only just begun to bequantified. The use of indexes or other measures of vulnerability willcontinue to be developed. Investment in monitoring and assessmentprograms to obtain additional basic information will be critical in furtherassessing vulnerability and managing risk at the national level.

Adaptation is the process through which people reduce the adverseeffects of climate on their health and well-being, and take advantage of opportunities that their climatic environment provides. It involvesadjustments to enhance the viability of social and economic activities andreduce vulnerability to climate change. This includes current variabilityand extreme events, as well as longer-term climate change.

Adaptation was a cornerstone of both the Pacific Islands Climate ChangeProgram and the Regional Framework for Action on Climate Change,Variability and Sea Level Rise that evolved out of that project. A further

step was taken in May 2002 when it was recognized that investing inadaptation at the national level was an integral part of policies, plans andprograms to achieve the sustainable development of Pacific countries. AHigh-level Consultation on Investing in Adaptation involved senior planningand finance officials in recognizing that, since the impacts of climate changeare inevitable for the region, adaptation to climate change should be fullyincorporated into national development strategies.

Source: PIFS 2000b, SOPAC 2002.




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undertaken in the early 1990s were carried out in a ratherad hoc fashion with various sources of support andassistance. From 1997 to 2001, PICCAP provided amechanism that focused activities into a morecomprehensive program. PICCAP used a country-teamapproach, with government-appointed nationalcoordinators, and concentrated on building in-countrycapacity to undertake improved technical analysis of vulnerabilities and responses and to interpret thesefindings for the purposes of climate policy development.

With support from UNDP/ GEF, PICCAP w asspecifically designed to strengthen the capacities of

participating Pacific countries through training,institutional strengthening, and enhanced planning tomeet reporting commitments under the UNFCCC. Tencountries participated in the program, which wascoordinated and executed by SPREP: Cook Islands, FSM,Fiji Islands, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Samoa,Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. The goal was toaddress the common and collective needs of thesecountries cost-effectively as they prepared their nationalcommunications under the UNFCCC. The cooperativeendeavor built on the experience and expertise developed

under other climate-related activities such as the USCountry Studies Program (in which four of the PICCAPcountries had participated). Three other countries (Niue,Palau, and Tonga) were ineligible for GEF funding at thetime of PICCAP's implementation but were subsequentlyfunded separately, while PNG had begun its ow n enablingactivities prior to PICCAP. Information, experience, andplanning of regional efforts as well as training efforts were

shared across the Pacific during PICCAP implementation,but these have waned somewhat since the program’sconclusion (the Climate Round-Table remaining as theprincipal vehicle for regional coordination).

The capacity-building efforts of PICCAP led to thefollowing outputs: (i) an inventory of GHG sources andsinks, (ii) an evaluation of emissions mitigation options,(iii) national vulnerability assessments, (iv) an evaluationof adaptation options, (v) national climate changeimplementation plans, and (vi) the first nationalcommunication under the UNFCCC (Table 22).

Table 22:Dates of Submission of First NationalCommunication under UNFCCC

Date of Submission of Country First National Communication

Cook Islands 30/10/99Kiribati 30/10/99Marshall Islands 24/11/00FSM 04/12/97; 30/10/99 (addendum)Nauru 30/10/99Papua New Guinea 27/02/02Samoa 30/10/99

Tuvalu 30/10/99Vanuatu 30/10/99Niue 02/10/01Palau 18/06/03

Source : UNFCCC 2003.

Table 21: Estimated Vulnerability to Natural Hazards in Selected PDMCs

Cyclone CoastalCountry Flood Flood River Drought Earthquake Landslide Tsunami Volcano

Fiji Islands H H H M M H LMicronesia, Federated States of M H L H L L HKiribati L H H L L HMarshall Islands M H H L L HSolomon Islands H H H L H H H H

Tonga H H M H H L H H Tuvalu L H M L L HVanuatu H H H L H H H H

H =High, M =Medium, L =Low, blank cells =does not apply. Source : United Nations Deparment of Humanitarian Affairs 1994.



46 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

The strong participation of PDMCs in internationalefforts to achieve reductions in the concentration of GHGsin the atmosphere has been coordinated at the globallevel through the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS),a grouping of small island countries. Pacific islandcountries can be expected to continue to work within

AOSIS as well as the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocolprocesses to push for global and regional reductions innet GHG emissions. However, even if global efforts toaddress the causes of climate change are successful, arange of additional actions will be required to stimulateclimate-related investments in the Pacific as well as tolessen short-term impacts of climate change andvariation. These include (i) removing barriers to the useof renewable energy and promoting energy efficiencymeasures that will further advance the reduction of GHGemissions; (ii) mobilizing resources for adaptation andconsidering all implications for adaptation needs, options,and requirements; and (iii) mainstreaming climate changeadaptation concerns within government (especiallyfinance and economic) planning and programmingprocesses.

In connection with adaptation mainstreaming, ADB,with financial support from the Government of Canada,has initiated a RETA activity, the Climate ChangeAdaptation Program in the Pacific (CLIMAP); it will beimplemented in two phases and will target policy andprogram reforms in both PDMCs and ADB itself. The first

phase will consist of a stock-taking of past and ongoingadaptation assistance in the Pacific region meant toprovide an improved understanding of past climateadaptation activities and to identify those that couldfacilitate and promote the mainstreaming of climateadaptation both in PDMCs and within ADB’s ownoperations. The emphasis will be on strategic andoperational planning, policy review, and pilot projectimplementation. The second CLIMAP phase will initiateadaptation mainstreaming activities within ADB and intwo selected PDMCs, the Cook Islands and the FSM.

Another significant Pacific regional climate changeadaptation activity, Capacity Building for the Developmentof Adaptation Measures in Pacific Island Countries, is alsobeing implemented, with assistance from theCanadian International Development Agency, throughSPREP. The overall goal of this project is to assist SouthPacific island countries in reducing their vulnerabilityto climate change. With this goal, the project is

strengthening national capacity (in four participatingcountries) to adapt continuously to the effects of climatechange and to implement selected pilot adaptationmeasures at the community level.

Local ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal ResponsesLocal Responses . PDMCs increasingly recognize that

climate change, sea-level rise and greater climaticvariability can significantly affect their economic,environment, social, cultural, and traditional sectors.Many cultural practices of the region are inextricablyinterwoven with management of the environment andnatural systems. Attention now is turning to the potentialapplication of traditional knowledge systems andpractices to development of culturally and environmentallyappropriate strategies for climate change adaptation.

As noted, national and, increasingly, local attentionis being given to vulnerability and adaptation and thedevelopment of appropriate local management strategies.An important element has been improved informationmanagement through development and dissemination of simple climate forecasts building on initiatives alreadyunderway, such as (i) the Pacific El Niño-SouthernOscillation Applications Center climate forecasts for US-affiliated Pacific islands; (ii) the Australian Bureau of Meteorology collation and dissemination of seasonal andlong-range climate forecasts for the South Pacific; (iii)the New Zealand National Institute of Water andAtmospheric Research monthly climate bulletin for the

tropical South Pacific islands; and (iv) the FijiMeteorological Service seasonal rainfall predictionscheme, which has the potential for adaptation to otherPacific island countries.

The promotion of renewable energy technologiesand energy efficiency is also increasingly visible at thelocal level in the climate context. While the region’s GHGemissions are tiny (about 0.01% globally), efforts to reducenational emissions continue (in part to lend greatercredibility to Pacific pleas for global action under the

UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol). Because a large portion of the region’s energy needs are provided by combustion of fossil fuels, adaptation gains can be added to theenvironmental, financial, and emission reduction benefitsof switching to other energy sources. Some larger PDMCssuch as Fiji Islands, PNG, and Vanuatu are also beginningpreliminary efforts to take advantage of carbonsequestration activities as a further means for reducingnet Pacific GHG emissions.




49 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

reflects national efforts to create stronger links betweenenvironmental information, management, and systemsof national planning (Box 7 provides an example of suchpolicy initiatives in the Fiji Islands). It is gaining theattention of economic and financial planners, andintegration of economic, social, and environmental

dimensions w as adopted as the theme of the 2003 ForumEconomic Ministers’ Meeting (PIFS 2003). It wasrecognized that making environmental issues an integralpart of economic development decision-making was anecessity and essential in policy integration andformulation. The key issues agreed upon at the meetingincluded the following:

(i) the need to ensure that international treatiesand agreements signed by PDMCs arecompatible with national capacities and policies;

(ii) the need to remove perverse subsidies thatprevent adoption of environmentally soundinnovations;

(iii) the need to consider taxing environmentallydestructive activities;

(iv) the need to create stronger environmentalregulatory regimes; the need to strengtheninstitutions capable of economic, social, andenvironmental policies and plans; and

(v) the need to integrate the Forum EconomicAction Plan into a sustainable developmentframework.

In addition, pressure has been increasing acrossthe region in recent years for greater accountability andimproved participation by and with a wide range of stakeholders in the formulation and conduct of government policies and programs. These includeinteractions among government bodies, localcommunities, NGOs, the private sector, academia, themedia, and external assistance agencies. In response,government reforms have attempted to improvetransparency and accountability associated with the

development of national economic policy. Perhapsbecause of the direct impacts of environmentalmismanagement on people’s health and livelihoods—and taking into account that environmental NGOs areamong the most vocal stakeholders demandingtransparency in government decision making—considerable pressure has been placed on governmentsto reform their environment policy and planningprocesses so that they are more participatory andcollaborative.

T T T T Traditional Enraditional Enraditional Enraditional Enraditional En vironmental Management Systemsvironmental Management Systemsvironmental Management Systemsvironmental Management Systemsvironmental Management Systems . Thefragile ecosystems and limited resource base of PDMCshistorically have caused their peoples to share a strong

affinity with, and dependence on, land and oceanresources for their livelihoods and economic activity. Thetraditional way of life was largely an ecologicallysustainable one; care for the environment was essentialto allow future generations to benefit from naturalresource endowments. However, new technologies forresource exploitation—and a breakdown of traditionalmanagement systems for keeping resource extractionwithin sustainable levels—has led to increasing pressureon natural resources and, in some areas, environmentaldegradation.

The negative effects of development on naturalsystems are thus becoming more visible in the Pacific.As noted, rapidly changing lifestyles are generatingnonbiodegradable wastes such as aluminum cans,plastics, and abandoned vehicles. While many reef ecosystems remain relatively undisturbed, others arethreatened by coral harvesting and destructive fishingmethods used to supply the aquarium fish and foodmarkets. These problems are now worsening and may

Box 7: Fiji Islands—Objectives forBox 7: Fiji Islands—Objectives forBox 7: Fiji Islands—Objectives forBox 7: Fiji Islands—Objectives forBox 7: Fiji Islands—Objectives forEnEnEnEnEnvironmental Mainstreamingvironmental Mainstreamingvironmental Mainstreamingvironmental Mainstreamingvironmental Mainstreaming

The national policy objectives for managing the FijiIslands’ environment are stated in A Strategic Plan

for the New Century (National Planning Office 1999)and are as follows:

o Develop and include environmental policies innational economic planning through adoptionof environmental impact assessments, creationof a National Council of Sustainable Develop-ment, and adoption of natural resources ac-counting in the national accounts;

o Strengthen the institutional capacity for soundenvironmental management;

o Consolidate and update environmental and re-source management legislation under a singleenabling and enforceable legal framework (Sus-tainable Development Bill); and

o Encourage traditional methods of resource andenvironmental management.

Source: Government of Fiji Islands 2002.



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affect prospects for maintaining the pace of economicdevelopment in the entire Pacific region. They areoccurring partly because of the declining role of traditionalleaders in decision-making processes governing naturalresource management. In addition, while livelihood skills,agriculture, and other practical subjects are still taught

in Pacific education systems, they are increasingly basedon externally developed technologies with inadequateemphasis on the use or blending of traditional,appropriate, and ecologically sustainable techniques andmanagement practices.

Knowledge and understanding of traditional practicespassed down through the generations are now being lostdue to sociocultural changes and modern influences.Hence, it is necessary to promote understanding andappreciation of traditional environmental managementpractices where they still represent viable approaches toresource management, by encouraging the blending of such practices with newer thinking and technologies.Examples of successful efforts in this regard may be foundthroughout the region. In the Fiji Islands, an innovativeapproach to the development and strengthening of locallymanaged marine areas is bringing together traditionalpractices and local commitment to conservation with theskills and expertise of NGOs and USP. The Fiji LocallyManaged Marine Areas Network was recently awardedan Equator Initiative Prize at the World Summit onSustainable Development. Further illustrations of

attempts to better integrate traditional and modernenvironmental management practices may be found inthe case studies that are detailed inthe accompanying volume andsummarized in Appendix 2.

RegionalRegionalRegionalRegionalRegional . A solid institutionalframework now exists at the regionallevel to facilitate Pacific-wide dialogueon common environmental manage-ment problems and shared natural

resources. These organizations werecreated with at least three justifi-cations in mind. First, they are meantto achieve economies of scale ingathering expertise and making itavailable to Pacific countries, so thateach country does not need toduplicate this capacity. Second, theyallow countries to better addresscommon problems and those that are

transboundary in nature. Third, they facilitate regionaldialogue and increase the strength of the Pacific “voice” inregional and global forums. When it comes to programinterventions, however, these organizations are mosteffective at regional rather than country levels. Theintergovernmental organizations that form CROP—the core

capacity to provide such services—are shown in Box 8.

As the leading CROP member dealing withenvironmental matters, SPREP has played a prominentrole in encouraging regional attention and responses tothe environmental challenges of the Pacific. SPREP’sAction Plan and Work Program are governed by its 26member countries, and it provides an intergovernmentalforum for achieving the region’s environmentalobjectives. Two Pacific-wide environmental agreementspromulgated in 1990 form a potentially useful foundationon which further regional cooperation can be built: (i)the Convention on Conservation of Nature in the SouthPacific (Apia Convention) and (ii) the Convention for theProtection of the Natural Resources and Environmentof the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention). Theformer provides the basic structure for regionalcooperation on environmental matters, while the latterdeals with the structure of SPREP. SPREP’s funding hasbeen growing in recent years (Figure 2), andapproximately 40% of its resources have been derivedfrom the GEF through one or another implementingagency (mostly UNDP). The focus has been primarily on

capacity building in biodiversity conservation, thoughthere is now an increasing emphasis on water, coastal

management, waste management, andclimate change, as well as broaderenvironmental management/ sustain-able development. Though SPREP hasbeen given the lead responsibility for theenvironment field among regionalorganizations, virtually all CROPmembers have some type of environ-mental management activity among

their programs.

In addition to these officiallyrecognized regional organizations, agrowing number of regional NGOs in thePacific focus their attention onenvironmental issues. These include theWorld Wide Fund for Nature SouthPacific Program, the Foundation for thePeoples of the South Pacific, the Pacific

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 Year

Source : SPREP Annual Reports 1991-2000.

USD millions

Figure 2: Expenditures onRegional Environment Programs

through South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Programme

(1991–2000)



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Barbados Program of Action for Small Island DevelopingStates, and WSSD. Councils, committees, commissions,and other bodies have been formed at the national levelto coordinate PDMC obligations under these manytreaties and MEAs.

The PDM Cs have made considerable efforts torespond to MEA requirements, and this has influenceddomestic policy by generating a baseline of related plansand commitments to action (Tables 24 and 25). Thoughthese are currently stand-alone exercises and

Table 24: Environmental Policy and Planning Exercises of Pacific Island Countries

UNCED UNFCCC CBD WSSD UNCCDDCountry National National National Country

Country NEMS Report Communication SAP Assessment Reports

Cook Islands

Fiji Islands

Kiribati

Marshall Islands

Micronesia, Fed. States of

Nauru

Palau

Papua New Guinea

Samoa

Solomon Islands

Tonga

Tuvalu

Vanuatu

CBD =Convention on Biological Diversity, NEMS =National Environment Management Strategy, SAP =Strategic Action Plan, UNCED = United NationsConference on Environment and Development, UNFCCC =United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNCCDD =United NationsConvention to Combat Drought and Desertification, WSSD =World Summit on Sustainable Development.Sources : SPC 1992; http:/ / unfccc.int/ resource/ netcom/ index.html; http:/ / www.biodiv.org/ world/ reports.aspx?type=nbsap; http:/ / www sprep.org.ws/publication/ pub_list.asp; http:/ / www.unccd.int/ convention/ ratif/ doeif.php

documents, several PDMCs have discussedconsolidating them at the national level under nationalsustainable development strategies (NSDS), tocoordinate with their national development strategies(WSSD 2002). At WSSD, the international communityurged that all countries should complete their NSDS by

2005. PDMC participation in these global efforts hasyielded considerable external support. However, asnoted above, it sometimes has come at the expense of diverting attention away from pressing domesticenvironmental issues.




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Emerging ResponseStrategies

Institutional Capacity and Legal FrameworksInstitutional Capacity and Legal FrameworksInstitutional Capacity and Legal FrameworksInstitutional Capacity and Legal FrameworksInstitutional Capacity and Legal Frameworks .Concerted action to strengthen national capacity forenvironmental management is relatively recent amongPDMCs. Although environmental issues have beendiscussed regionally since the mid-1970s, the mostsignificant investments have been undertaken only over

the last 10–12 years. Any achievements and failures needto be considered in this context.

The effort to strengthen national capacity to managethe Pacific environment has taken place within a complexmix of legacies from often relatively recent colonialadministrations overlying strong social and culturalvalues and mores (UNEP 1999). Governments vary fromWestminster-based parliamentary systems to federations.

Regardless of their particular form, Pacific governancesystems share a strong common tradition of publicconsultation when deciding local, national, or regionalaffairs. Customary forms of decision making and justice—including those associated with certain environmentalmanagement systems—still hold considerable influenceamid the modern mix of government and civil societyinstitutions.

In the early 1990s, no real legal framework or

institutional capacity for environmental managementexisted among PDMCs. While some progress has beenmade from the low base over the past decade, theenvironment subject typically has remained a junior ornoncabinet portfolio, although the number of exceptionsto this rule is growing. For example, in Samoa,environment and lands have been placed within the sameministry and entrusted to a senior cabinet minister since1995.

Cook Islands ® ® ® ® ® S A ® ® ® SFiji Islands ® A ® A A ® ® ® ® A ® ® ® ® SKiribati ® ® A A A ® A ® S A S ® ® SMarshall Islands ® ® ® A A A A ® ® A A A ® ® SFSM ® ® A A A ® ® ® ® S ® ® SNauru ® A A A ® ® ® A A ® ® ®Papua New Guinea ® ® ® A ® A A A ® ® ® A S ® ® ®Samoa ® ® A A A A ® ® ® ® A ® ® ® ® SSolomon Islands ® ® A A ® A ® A ® ® ®

Tonga ® ® A A A ® A S ® Tuvalu ® ® A A ® ® ® A A ® SVanuatu ® ® A ® A A ® A ® ® S ® ® S

® = Ratified; S =Signed; A = Acceded. CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; MARPO L =International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships; SPREP = South Pacific Regional Environment Programme; UNCLOS = UnitedNations Convention on the Law of the Sea.Sources : SPC 1992, http:/ / www.sprep.org.ws/ publication/ pub_list.asp

R a m s a r

C o n v e n t i o n

W o r l d

H e r i t a g e

C o n v e n t i o n

M A R P O L

C I T E S

C o n v e n t i o n o f M

i g r a t o r y S p e c i e s

U N C L O S

O z o n e

L a y e r ( V i e n n a ) C o n v e n t i o n

M o n t r e a l

P r o t o c o l

B a s e l C o n v e n t i o n

R o t t e r d a m C o n v e n t i o n

C o n v e n t i o n o n

C l i m a t e

C h a n g e

K y o t o P r o t o c o l

C o n v e n t i o n o n

B i o l o g i c a l D i v e r s i t y

C a r t a g e n a

B i o s a f e t y P r o t o c o l

C o n v e n t i o n

t o C o m

b a t D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n

P O P s C o n v e n t i o n

( S t o c k h o l m )

W a i g a n i

C o n v e n t i o n

S P R E P C o n v e n t i o n

R e g u l a t i o n o f W

h a l i n g T r e a t y

A p i a

C o n v e n t i o n

P a c i f i c T u n a C o n v e n t i o n

Table 25: Pacific Country Participation in Multilateral Environmental Agreements

PacificDevelopingMemberCountry Global Agreement/Convention

Regional Agreement/Convention



54 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

The nature of their “smallness”—and their increasingvulnerability—poses special challenges for PDMCs. This isrecognized as part of the “special case” that has beenincreasingly made for extraordinary modes of internationalassistance for SIDS (SOPAC 2001, World Bank 2000). Asdiscussed in Chapter 1, the common characteristics of SIDS

include their remoteness and isolation, open markets,susceptibility to natural disasters and environmentalchange, limited economic diversification, poverty, limitedinstitutional capacity, income volatility, and weak accessto external capital.

In 1990, many PDMCs had only a handful of staff (often only one or two) dealing with environmentalmatters. As countries worked to strengthen this capacity,one of the earliest interventions centered on preparationof NEMS (ADB 1990) or their equivalents. As previouslymentioned, these strategies were designed to bringtogether a wide range of stakeholders at the national levelto review the state of the environment and to conduct anumber of sector-based reviews to determine how bestto promote sound environmental practice. In most cases,these strategies included a list of project profiles thatprovided the direction for high-priority investments orpolicy development/ reform. No systematic analysis hasbeen conducted to examine how much of this agendaactually was implemented, but the proportion is probablyfairly low.

The NEM S paved the way for further national andregional environmental projects and programs designedto (i) strengthen environmental institutions at nationaland regional levels; (ii) support or develop environmentallegislation and policy; (iii) enable countries to implementregional and global agreements; (iv) promote Pacificpriorities at the international level; (v) raise environmentalawareness in government and civil society at large; and(vi) build individual skills and capacity of environmentalmanagers and communities.

In most PDMCs, a significant gap remains betweenthe increasingly pro-environment government rhetoricand the capability to deliver environmental benefits atthe national and local levels. At least on paper, capacitynow has increased to the point where countries aredemanding further international environmentalassistance to support significant increases in nationalprograms. While this is a logical progression, thisrelatively thin institutional baseline has been, andremains, a central constraint to the implementation of a

wide range of environmental projects and programs inthe PDMCs.

For small island countries and economies dominatedby the public sector, an added challenge has beenpresented by parallel institutional or public sector reforms

throughout the 1990s. For several countries, institutionalcontinuity also has been disrupted by civil conflict. Therole played by environment ministries and departments—especially vis-à-vis the establishment of strongerenvironmental capacity in line ministries and otherbranches of government—will need to be carefullyconsidered as public sector reforms progress.

In the early 1990s, the environment was seen as asupplemental "special concern" or even a distractionrepresenting a "constraint to development." UNCED in1992 went some way toward promoting the idea thatconcern for and action to support both the environmentand development can and must co-exist and can evenbe mutually supporting. Although this concept was notimmediately translated into activities on the ground,an increase in public and political support forsustainable development in the Pacific occurred(SPREP 1996b, PIFS 1994).

Today, reinforced by preparations for and decisionsat the follow-up 2002 WSSD Earth Summit in

Johannesburg, attention to sound envi ro nmental

management is seen as one of the three pillars of sustainable development, to be considered alongsideeconomic and social goals. These relatively rapid changesin how environmental management is perceived and,ultimately, how assistance agencies and PDMCgovernments define their objectives in relation to aidprograms are an important factor when considering theoverall effectiveness of past environmental assistance inthe PDMCs and mapping a strategy for the future.

For most PDMCs, these shifts in emphasis have led

to a certain degree of frustration, as the conditions fordevelopment and/ or environmental financing have hadto be adjusted to match the latest criteria orenvironmental priorities. In many cases, shapingassistance to fit funding agency parameters has led toenvironmental management projects in which objectivesdo not match local needs, where expectations of fundingagencies and recipients differ and outputs becomecompromised. Pacific countries are constantly playing“catch-up” as development fashions change over time




55 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

and local needs and opportunities are matched withresources made available by the international community.

For example, the WSSD discussions resulted in a newemphasis on links between efforts to reduce poverty andthose to improve environmental management. ADB

sponsored a study on this subject in the Pacific (ADB2000c), and some limited environmental economicvaluation studies have attempted to show the market andnonmarket benefits to households, communities, and thenational economy from environmental services.However, much more analysis will be needed to clearlyunderstand poverty-environment linkages in the regionand their programming implications.

Pacific Responses to Global InitiativesPacific Responses to Global InitiativesPacific Responses to Global InitiativesPacific Responses to Global InitiativesPacific Responses to Global Initiatives . The 2002 WSSDmeeting produced a modest Plan of Implementation anda Declaration that, nonetheless, are important as theycontinue to strengthen broad international support forsustainable development. The Pacific region was wellrepresented at WSSD by delegations from 13 Pacific islandcountries, 27 plus Australia, France, New Zealand, andthe United States as well as six Pacific regionalorganizations 28 and a number of NGOs. Pacificdelegations participated in the Partnership Plenaries,statements by non-state entities, addresses by heads of state and government and other senior officials, four high-level round tables on the theme “Making It Happen,” anda multistakeholder event.

In Johannesburg, the Pacific heads of governmentalso announced a number of initiatives/ partnerships.

These concepts bring together a wide selection of partnersthat have decided to make a coordinated effort in aparticular area and to increase the efficiency andeffectiveness of deliverables to the local level. They are

not projects in themselves but rather partnerships thataim to supplement and leverage resources for projectconcepts or current projects in a given area. They havebeen developed on the basis of the Pacific RegionalSubmission to WSSD (Appendix 1) as well as needsreflected in national environmental assessments preparedfor WSSD, and were further discussed and refined at theWSSD Implementation and Barbados Program of ActionStakeholders Consultations organized by PIFS and heldin Nadi, Fiji Islands, on 24–25 March 2003. The currentlist of proposed umbrella initiatives covers the following14 topics:

• Capacity building and distance education• Energy• Adaptation• Land resources• Governance• Tourism• Vulnerability and disaster management• Health care• Information and communication technology• Water

• Conservation mainstreaming• Oceans• Planning and community development• Waste management

27 Cook Islands, FSM, Fiji Islands, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Niue, Palau,PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.

28 PIFS, SPREP, SOPAC, South Pacific Tourism Organization, USP,and SPC.



AssessingADB’sEnvironmentalAssistanceto the Pacific

CHAPTER3



58




59

ADB’s Environment-Related Assistance to PDMCs

OOOOO ver the past decade, ADB has been an activepartner in national and regional efforts to improve

environmental management capacity and performancein the Pacific. It has supported a large amount of technicalassistance (TA) 29 and many grant and loan projects tohelp address environmental challenges facing PDMCs.From 1992 to 2002, ADB supported 53 country-level TAs,4 grants, 19 regional TAs (RETA) and 15 loans, equivalentto $23.5 million in country-level TA resources, $11.7million in grants, $4.9 million in RETAs, and $108.8 millionin loans (Table 26). These values represent 16.96%,19.20%, 7.55%, and 13.37%, respectively, of the totalexternal assistance to PDMCs under the different

assistance categories.

population, waste management, and environ-mental education;

(iii) agricultural, marine, and other natural resourcessuch as sustainable fisheries, coastal and marineprotection, forestry, watershed management, andbiodiversity conservation;

(iv) energy, climate change, and variability; and(v) others, including tourism and related develop-ment undertakings.

Activities in the PDMCs have been justified to achievethe five broad strategic objectives embodied in the 2001–2004 ADB strategy for the region (ADB, 2000a). Thesesupport

(i) economic management, governance, and publicsector reform;

(ii) private sector development in the region;

29 ADB divides its TA into advisory TAs and project preparatory TAs. Its TAs, including regional TAs, are grant-financed.

Table 26: Summary of ADB Environment-Related Assistance to PDMCs, 1992–2002

ADB Number Institutional Social Agriculture, Energy, Others d

Assistance ($ Amount) Strengthening/ Infras- Marine, and ClimateCapability tructure b other Natural Change, andBuilding a Resources c Variability

Country-Level 53 6 22 19 4 2 TAs (23,530,200) (1,880,000) (11,213,200) (8,782,000) (1,100,000) (555,000)

Country-Level 4 0 3 1 0 0

Grants (11,740,000) (10,740,000) (1,000,000)RETAs 19 7 2 5 4 1

(4,897,000) (929,000) (900,000) (996,000) (1,672,000) (400,000)Loans 15 0 8 5 1 1

(108,801,000) (80,935,000) (25,066,000) (2,000,000) (800,000)

a Refers to the strengthening of governments’ environment offices (and other environment-related departments) in the Pacific.b Includes subsectors on water supply and sanitation, urban development, health and population, waste management, and environmental education.c Includes subsectors on sustainable fisheries, coastal and marine protection, forestry, watershed management, and biodiversity conservation.d Includes subsectors on tourism and other development undertakings.RETA =regional technical assistance.

These activi ties can be grouped into five majorcategories or sectors of support:

(i ) inst itut ional s trengthening and capabi l i tybuilding;

(ii) social infrastructure, including water supply andsanitation, urban development, health care and

(iii) a more active role for women in the social,economic, and political spheres;

(iv) sustainable environmental management; and(v) poverty reduction as a unifying theme.

All environment-related assistance also should helpmeet the overarching goal of reducing poverty in the PDMCs.

30 1992 was used as the baseline year because of the Earth Summit(UNCED) held that year in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.




61

marine, and other natural resourcessector. These correspond to areas thathave commanded higher levels of loan-financed investment in theregion. Of a total of 15 loan projectsclassified as environment-related, only

two are not under these two sectors(Figure 7). It can be noted, however,that the total value of lending isrelatively small—amounting to only$108.8 million over a 10-year period.No loans were provided specifically forbiodiversity conservation, capacitybuilding, tourism, or climate change,which could be a reflection of PDMCgovernments’ reluctance to borrowfor projects with low rates of financialreturn (Figure 8). Environment-oriented loan projects for PDMCs arelisted in Table 30.

In addition to these absolutefigures for the 10-year period of analysis, some trends in ADB’sassistance patterns can also bedetected. The first phase of ADB’senvironmental assistance in the early1990s focused on helping PDMCsprepare NEMS as frameworks for

further action. This was accomplishedthrough a combination of country-level TAs and RETAs. The emphasisthen shifted to more specific sectorwork, notably relating to forestry,biodiversity, environmental aspects of energy, fisheries, and, more recently,water management. Current assis-tance centers on mainstreamingenvironmental considerations into keydevelopment sectors, and in future years stand-alone

environmental assistance may no longer be apparent.Moreover, a significant planning effort is building onprevious energy sector work to identify market-provenrenewable energy sources and to help PDMCs adapt toclimate change and variability. These trends are reflectedin specific country experiences that are documented inAppendix 4.

Lessons Learnedfrom ADB’sExperience

A number of lessons can bedrawn from the experience with ADB’senvironment-oriented assistance.Insights relate to the design, organi-zation, implementation, and perfor-mance measurement of environmen-tal interventions. 31

Conflict Between State and LocalConflict Between State and LocalConflict Between State and LocalConflict Between State and LocalConflict Between State and LocalNormsNormsNormsNormsNorms ..... In many cases, differenceshave been encountered betweennational environmental authoritiesand local groups in implementingstate-imposed regulations such asEIAs. In PNG, for example, technicalassistance was provided to theDepartment of Environment andConservation for preparing, reviewing,and administering EIAs (ADB 1993a),but the newly trained officials ran intodifficulties enforcing the regulationswhen they confronted establishedtenure norms, customs, and

traditions. They also did not considerthe limited capacities of understaffedenvironmental agencies. This andsimilar experiences illustrate the needto fully consider such local norms andto engage with those who representor understand these perspectiveswhen preparing new regulations.

EnEnEnEnEn vironmental Legislationvironmental Legislationvironmental Legislationvironmental Legislationvironmental Legislation ..... SeveralADB efforts have been designed to help along the process

of establishing effective national environmentallegislation. A loan and TA in Kiribati were instrumental

Figure 7: Environment-RelatedLoans by Sector*

I

O

ecor

* IS =Institutional Strengthening, S =Social Infrastructure,R =Resources, E =Energy, and O =Others.

Figure 6: Value of Environment-RelatedRETAs by Sector*

S 8

O 18

R 20

IS 19E 35

* I S=Institutional Strengthening, S =Social Infrastructure,R =Resources, E =Energy, and O =Others.

Figure 8: Value of Environment-RelatedLoans by Sector*

E 2

S 18

1

R 2

* R =Resources, E =Energy, S =Social Infrastructure, and O =Others.

31 These lessons are specifically drawn from ADB’s experience. Asummary of further lessons based on the experience of others andalso drawing, in part, from ADB’s experience is presented at the endof the next section.



62

continued next page

Table 27: Environment-Related Technical Assistance, 1992–2002

Approved Amount ($)

TA Date and SourceNo. Project Approved of Funding Type

Cook Islands2070 Integrated Urban Infrastructure 1994 455,000 JSF S2144 Lagoon Ecology Monitoring and Management 1994 552,000 JSF R2264 Outer Islands Power Development Study 1994 250,000 JSF E2322 Outer Islands Marine Resources Management Training 1995 300,000 TASF R3085 Urban Infrastructure 1998 750,000 JSF S

Subtotal (5 TAs) 2,307,000

East Timor (now Timor-Leste)3501 Environmental Assessment Capacity Improvement 2000 250,000 TASF IS3748 Power Sector Development Plan (Phase I) 2001 400,000 JSF E3986 Integrated Water Resources Management 2002 600,000 TASF S


Fiji Islands1848 Institutional Strengthening of the Forestry Economics Unit 1993 263,000 JSF R2034 Management Information System for the Ministry of Agriculture,

Fisheries and Forestry 1993 570,000 JSF R2180 Environmental Awareness, Legislation and Database 1994 450,000 TASF IS3055 Suva-Nausori Water Supply and Sewerage 1998 800,000 JSF S3243 Urban Sector Strategy Study 1999 670,000 TASF S3424 Capacity Building of the Native Land Trust Board in

Preparing Land Maps and Establishing Land Boundaries 2000 140,000 TASF ISSubtotal (6 TAs) 2,893,000

Kiribati2199 Institutional Strengthening of the Environment Unit 1994 440,000 TASF IS2497 Sanitation and Public Health 1995 577,000 JSF S2641 Environmental Improvement for Sanitation and Public Health 1996 72,500 TASF S3108 Management and Financial Advisory Services for the Public

Utilities Board 1998 1,200,000 TASF S3109 Community Development and Participation Initiatives 1998 300,000 TASF S3838 Community Development and Sustainable Participation 2002 420,700 TASF S


Marshall Islands1826 Institutional Strengthening of the Environmental Protection Authority 1992 300,000 JSF IS1946 Institutional Strengthening of the Majuro Water and Sewer Company 1993 250,000 TASF S2065 Nonformal Environmental Education 1994 300,000 TASF IS2349 National Fisheries Development Plan 1995 600,000 TASF R

2483 Tourism Development 1995 405,000 JSF O2483 Tourism Development (Supplementary) 1997 150,000 TASF O2854 Fisheries Management 1997 598,000 JSF R3522 Community-Based Coastal Marine Resources Development 2000 298,000 TASF R


Federated States of Micronesia1925 Watershed Management and Environment 1993 585,000 JSF R1965 Marine Resources Management and Conservation 1993 520,000 TASF R2137 Water Supply and Sewerage 1994 250,000 JSF S




63

2646 Capacity Building for Management and Operation of Water Supply and Sanitation Systems 1996 587,000 TASF S

2832 Fisheries Management and Development 1997 934,000 JSF RSubtotal (5 TAs) 2,876,000

Papua New Guinea1990 Environmentally Sustainable Management of Coastal and

Marine Resources 1993 599,000 JSF R2022 Institutional Strengthening of Department of Fisheries and

Marine Resources 1993 883,000 JSF R2258 Fisheries Management 1994 460,000 TASF R2258 Fisheries Management Study (Supplementary) 1996 140,000 TASF R3173 Provincial Towns Water Supply and Sanitation 1999 908,000 TASF S3604 Coastal Fisheries Management and Development 2000 340,000 JSF R


Samoa2480 Integrated Urban Development 1995 552,000 JSF S3044 Evaluation of Sewage Treatment Options 1998 115,000 TASF S3566 Capacity Building for Urban Planning and Management 2000 500,000 JSF S3808 Strengthening Energy Loss Reduction and Maintenance

Management Capacity of the Electric Power Corporation 2001 150,000 TASF E3860 Implementation of the Urban Planning and Management Strategy 2002 400,000 TASF S3985 Savai’I Renewable Energy 2002 300,000 JSF E


Solomon Islands3237 Fisheries Management and Development 1999 290,000 TASF R3277 Marine Biodiversity Conservation 1999 150,000 GEF R

Sub-total (2 TAs) 440,000

Tonga2467 Capacity Strengthening of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 1995 600,000 JSF R

Subtotal (1 TA) 600,000

Tuvalu1992 Fisheries Sector Study 1993 100,000 TASF R2319 Urban Planning and Environment Management 1995 310,000 JSF S

Subtotal (2 TAs) 410,000

Vanuatu1952 Urban Infrastructure 1993 536,000 JSF S2596 Urban Growth Management Strategy for Port Vila 1996 600,000 TASF S2597 Sanitation Master Plan for Port Vila 1996 360,000 JSF S

Subtotal (3 TAs) 1,496,000Total (53 TAs) 23,530,200

IS =institutional strengthening and capability building; S =social infrastructure (including water supply and sanitation, urban development, health andpopulation, waste management, and environmental education); R =agricultural, marine, and other natural resources (including sustainable fisheries,coastal and marine protection, forestry, watershed management, and biodiversity conservation); E = energy, climate change, and variability; andO-others (including tourism and related development undertakings).

JSF =Japan Special Fund; TASF =Technical Assistance Special Fund; GEF =Global Environment Facility; TA =Technical Assistance.

Table 27: Environment-Related Technical Assistance, 1992–2002 (continued)

Approved Amount ($)

TA Date and SourceNo. Project Approved of Funding Type

Federated States of Micronesia (cont’d)




65

Table 29: Regional Environment-Related Technical Assistance, 1992–2002

Approved Amount ($)

RETA Date and SourceNo. Project Approved of Funding Type

5491 Regional Study of Financing Mechanisms for DMCEnvironmental Programs and Projects 1992 100,000 Study/IS

5542 Regional Study of Environmental Indicators and Indexes 1993 137,000 Study/IS5555 Institutional Strengthening and Collection of Environment

Statistics in Selected DMCs 1993 165,000 Training/IS5557 Regional Conference for Biodiversity Conservation 1993 40,000 Conference/R5585 Ministerial Level Conference on the Environment and Development

and Preparation of the State of Environment Report 1994 90,000 Conference/IS5591 Study of Status of Forestry and Forest Industries in the Asian

and Pacific Region 1994 39,000 Study/R5591 Study of Status of Forestry and Forest Industries in the Asian 1997 4,000 Study/R

and Pacific Region (Supplementary) Finland5627 Regional Workshop on Solar Power Generation using

Photovoltaic Technology 1995 88,000 Conference/E5658 Capacity Building for Environmental Law Training in the Asia 1995 120,000 Training/ISand Pacific Region JSF

5815 Development of an International Fisheries Agreement on theConservation and Management of Tuna in Western and Central Pacific 1998 698,000 R

5816 Mayors’ Asia-Pacific Environmental Summit 1998 17,000 Conference/IS5883 Performance Benchmarking for Pacific Power and Water Utilities 1999 250,000 E5896 Strengthening the Live Reef Fish Trade Management in the PDMCs 1999 215,000 Study/R5913 Capacity Building to Promote Traditional Environmental 2000 300,000 Study/IS

Management in the PDMCs JSF5939 Strategies for Poverty Reduction through Urban Environmental 2000 100,000 Study/S

Improvement JSF5972 Promotion of Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency, and Greenhouse 2001 334,000

Gas Abatement Projects Netherlands($4.5 million) E

6031 Promoting Effective Water Management Policies and Practices 2002 800,000CooperationFund for the

Waters Sector S6039 Formulation of the Pacific Region Environmental Strategy 2004–2008 2002 400,000

New Zealand Study/O6064 Climate Change Adaptation Program for the Pacific 2002 1,000,000

Canada Study/ETotal 4,897,000

IS =institutional strengthening and capability building; S =social infrastructure (including water supply and sanitation, urban development, health andpopulation, waste management, and environmental education); R =agricultural, marine, and other natural resources (including sustainable fisheries,coastal and marine protection, forestry, watershed management, and biodiversity conservation); E = energy, climate change, and variability; andO =others (including tourism and related development undertakings). DMC =developing member country; PDMC =Pacific developing member country.



66

Table 30: Environment-Related Lending, 1992–2001

Loan Date ApprovedNo. Project Approved Amount ($) Type

Cook Islands1309 Pearl Industry Development 1994 817,000 R1588 Cyclone Emergency Rehabilitation Project 2001 800,000 O1832 Waste Management 2,200,000 S

Kiribati1648 Sanitation, Public Health, and Environment Improvement 1998 10,240,000 S

Marshall Islands1389 Majuro Water Supply and Sanitation 1995 9,200,000 S1694 Ebeye Health and Infrastructure 1999 9,250,000 S

Federated States of Micronesia1257 Fisheries Development 1993 6,500,000 R1459 Water Supply and Sanitation 1996 10,600,000 S

Papua New Guinea1211 Third Urban Water Supply 1992 11,300,000 S1656 Fisheries Development 1998 6,514,000 R1812 Provincial Towns Water Supply and Sanitation 2000 15,345,000 S1652 Smallholder Support Services Pilot Project 1998 7,600,000 R

Samoa1228 Afulilo Hydroelectric Power (Supplementary) 1993 2,000,000 E

Tonga1412 Outer Islands Agriculture Development 1995 3,635,000 R

Vanuatu1448 Urban Infrastructure 1996 12,800,000 S

Total 108,801,000

S = social infrastructure (including w ater supply and sanitation, urban development, health and population, waste management, and environmentaleducation); R =agricultural, marine, and other natural resources (including sustainable fisheries, coastal and marine protection, forestry, watershedmanagement, and biodiversity conservation); E =energy, climate change, and variability; and O =others (including tourism and related developmentundertakings).

is sustained when external assistance is withdrawn. Suchstimulation requires capable project implementers andstrong awareness campaigns. Otherwise, as noted from

a RETA supporting the expanded use of photovoltaicenergy (ADB 1995b), poor understanding of theimportance of a development technology by local people(assuming it is sound) results in low levels of adoption.

Consensus ManagementConsensus ManagementConsensus ManagementConsensus ManagementConsensus Management ..... In Samoa, an advisory TA wasable to achieve consensus on an urban managementinstitutional approach that reflects the cultural andinstitutional needs of the country (ADB 2000b). Throughthe implementation of a new, integrated urban planning

and management system, the Planning and UrbanManagement Agency was established with a high-levelmanagement board responsible for policymaking and

implementation of urban development projects. Theexperience underlines the importance of the consultativeprocess to achieve stakeholder participation andcommitment. Moreover, not only institutional but alsocultural needs must be met in order for a project tosucceed.

Monitoring SystemsMonitoring SystemsMonitoring SystemsMonitoring SystemsMonitoring Systems ..... A blend of TA and lending in theCook Islands associated with development of the blackpearl culture industry successfully designed and




67

implemented field monitoring norms for coastal andmarine resources, especially of lagoons, to measure long-term productivity (ADB 1994b). The experience suggeststhat implementation of sustainable monitoring schemesis possible in such circumstances, especially where thedirect costs of ecological failure are very high.

Institutions for Resource ManagementInstitutions for Resource ManagementInstitutions for Resource ManagementInstitutions for Resource ManagementInstitutions for Resource Management. On the otherhand, the institutional aspects of the pearl farmingassistance in the Cook Islands suffered from a number of problems. A management structure was imposed fromthe top, rather than based on consensus, and the ensuingdifficulties indicate that a good balance must be struckbetween top-down and bottom-up management systemsfor the organization of resource-based production andmarketing.

A TA implemented in Marshall Islands wassuccessful in transforming a typical governmentinstitution, the Marshall Islands Marine ResourceAuthority, into a self-funding agency (ADB 1995d). Thisexperience holds promise for replication in other PDMCs.As a result of strengthening the Marshall Islands VisitorsAuthority in business planning, a Business Plan developedunder a TA was instrumental in the approval of a new

Tourism Amendment Act and related bylaws (ADB 1995a).

Market FeasibilityMarket FeasibilityMarket FeasibilityMarket FeasibilityMarket Feasibility ..... The realities of market forces mustbe considered in full during project conceptualization and

design. A TA in the Marshall Islands on small-scale marineresource-based activities, for example, was terminatedafter market research concluded that there were noeconomically viable opportunities (ADB 2000f). Manytechnically oriented projects are based on modelsdeveloped outside the Pacific and/ or lack sufficientgrounding in the realities of market forces, and it is notsurprising that they prove to be unsustainable. On theother hand, experience in Tonga with a TA promotingagricultural diversification showed that small farmerswere economically motivated and showed positive

response to commercial opportunities provided by a TApromoting agricultural divercification, as long as themarket for agricultural products was available (ADB 1995c).

Private Sector Participation and PrivatizationPrivate Sector Participation and PrivatizationPrivate Sector Participation and PrivatizationPrivate Sector Participation and PrivatizationPrivate Sector Participation and Privatization ..... Strongprivate sector participation—alongside all elements of civil society—is essential in the preparation of newpolicies and programs for environmental and naturalresource management. However, a careful balance mustbe struck between the temptation to privatize for

provision of environmental and other services to achievecost recovery and the need to meet basic human needs(such as water supply for the poorest communities).Replacing public with private monopolies rarely resultsin better or more equitable services. Experience in theMarshall Islands with a TA for institutional reform and

strengthening in the Majuro Water and Sewer Companyreconfirms that these activities are crucial to any movesto strengthen private sector participation in the provisionof environmental services (ADB 1993f).

An advisory TA (ADB 1993d) to the Fiji Islands aimedat activating and strengthening the Forestry EconomicUnit of the Forest Department. Due to the political conflict,personnel turnover has been constant, disrupting projectactivities. The experience suggests that for projectcontinuity, management and staffing should involveindependent private sector parties. The private sector canthen continue management and even implementation.

Human Resources CapacityHuman Resources CapacityHuman Resources CapacityHuman Resources CapacityHuman Resources Capacity ..... Many of ADB’senvironment-related activities in the region havesuffered from an overestimation of counterpart staff ski ll s at the coun try level. Constant turnover of personnel is another common and closely relatedproblem. This suggests that special attention must begiven to capacity building in all projects, while alsoensuring the availability of key counterpart staff for theimplementation of specific projects. Continuing training

programs are needed to train replacement staff wheneverthere is a high staff turnover rate. For example, a TA inKiribati to strengthen the capability of the EnvironmentUnit in undertaking EIA and environmental datamanagement encountered serious difficulties due to alack of counterpart staff and a cohesive consulting team(ADB 1994c).

As a newly established country, Timor-Leste haslimited technical capacity in enforcing environmentallaws and regulations. In order to address this deficiency,

ADB in April 2001 implemented an advisory TA tostrengthen the capability of the environment agency toreview, evaluate, and monitor the enforcement andimplementation of environmental management laws,regulations, and standards appropriate to Timor-Leste(ADB 2000a). The TA was completed in October 2002and successfully attained its objective of developing andsupporting the capacity of the national Division of Environment, particularly in carrying out EIA, monitoring,and promoting sustainable development. This was



68

achieved through (i) training staff in environmentalmanagement; (ii) developing a plan for implementing anenvironmental management institution; (iii) reviewing theenvironmental and natural resources managementregulations currently applied in Timor-Leste andrecommending appropriate amendments; (iv) preparing

environmental profiles; and (v) identifying procedures forthe development and use of environmental indicators inenvironmental reporting. This was no small accom-plishment, as the country is li terally starting from scratchwith such institutions.

Regional CooperationRegional CooperationRegional CooperationRegional CooperationRegional Cooperation ..... Many environmental problemsand issues in the Pacific are either transboundary innature or are common to a large number of countriesand hence deserve attention at a regional level. Thisargues for strong regional institutions that can address

these problems and also for good coordination andinformation dissemination mechanisms to avoidduplication and enhance the Pacific-wide benefits of knowledge gained through regional cooperation inenvironmental management. An example of a workableregional approach is ADB’s RETA for Institutional

Strengthening and Collection of Environment Statisticsin Selected DMCs (ADB 1993b).

The dilemma posed by this approach is that PDMCsmay resent significant portions of external assistancebeing channeled through regional organizations. It couldalso be argued that regional organizations haveincreasingly used such assistance to build up their owncapacities, rather than delivering full services to PDMCsor devoting sufficient attention to the strengthening of indigenous counterpart institutions.



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Environmental Assistanceand Lessons Learned

In addition to the lessons that can be drawn fromADB’s own experience with environment-oriented

assistance to PDMCs, insights may also be drawn fromthe activities of other international agencies. This sectionreviews the patterns of environment-related assistanceto Pacific island countries from major external fundingagencies, based on the results of a survey and fromsecondary sources. Special attention is also given toprojects financed by GEF and to those implementedthrough SPREP because of their significance in the region.Lessons are derived based on the combined experienceassessed.

Assistance from External Agenciesother than ADB

A number of external assistance agencies activelysupport efforts to improve environmental managementin the Pacific. Among bilateral donors, Australia, Canada,France, Germany, Japan, New Zealand, and the US aremost notable. Attempts to determine the extent of environmental aid from publicly available documents onprojects supported by external agencies were frustratedby the general lack of identification of which projects areenvironment-oriented. As part of formulating the PRES,therefore, survey questionnaires were distributed toexternal agencies concerning their main objectives andactivities relating to improving environmental managementin the region. Replies were obtained from 10 externalassistance organizations; 32 additional information wasgleaned from secondary sources. Supplemental informationwas taken from the list of “Climate Roundtable: Matrix of Projects” 33 specifically funded by Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency, the United States NationalOceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, andNZAID, as well as other aid providers. 34

While the information obtained from this exercisecannot be considered exhaustive of environment-

oriented external assistance in the Pacific region, it doesgive a strong indication of the thrust of ongoing (through2002) environmental external assistance projects, whichis an important consideration in developing ADB’senvironmental strategy for the Pacific region.

Based on the survey and supplemental information,projects were classified into two broad groups—country-level and multiple-country (regional) projects. Accordingto these categories, 64 ongoing country-level projectswere identified, with a total value of $110.7 million, and51 regional projects, valued at $96.8 million. This bringsthe total level of ongoing external assistance activities inthe Pacific to $207.5 million in 115 projects. Followingthe same pattern of analysis as employed in the previousanalyses of ADB’s environmental assistance to the region,these projects have been grouped into five majorcategories or sectors of support:

(i) institutional strengthening and capacity building;(ii) social infrastructure including water supply and

sanitation, urban development, health andpopulation, waste management, andenvironmental education;

(iii) agricultural, marine, and other natural resourcessuch as sustainable fisheries, coastal and marineprotection, forestry, watershed management, andbiodiversity conservation;

(iv) energy, climate change, and variability; and

(v) o thers, inc luding tourism and rela teddevelopment undertakings (Table 31).

Country-level projects are listed in Table 32, whichprovides information as to time frame, amount of funding,financing source, and type of project (according to thesame five categories of activity).

Country-level projects when grouped by categoryfollow a pattern similar to that of the environmentalassistance provided by ADB. In terms of their number

(Figure 9), most projects (75%) fall into the two categoriesof either agricultural, marine, and other naturalresources or social infrastructure. The remainingprojects fell under energy, climate change, and variability(11%), institutional strengthening and capacity building(9%), and others (5%). The trend is the same in terms of their value (Figure 10), though the amounts are moreskewed toward agricultural, marine, and other naturalresources (50%) and social infrastructure (40%). Thesesectors not only comprise the largest number of projects

32 AusAID, FAO–Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands, GTZ, JICA,SPC, UNDP, UNEP, United Nations Development Fund for Women,United States Agency for International Development East Asia andPacific Environmental Initiative, and the World Bank.

33 This matrix was compiled by A DB in connection with its newlyimplemented RETA (No. 6064), Climate Change Adaptation Programfor the Pacific.

34 NZAID’s website provided most of the information used.



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and largest average values, but they alsoget the most resources—with socialinfrastructure projects averaging $3million per project, and agricultural,

marine and other natural resources projects $1.7 million.Energy, climate change and variability, institutionalstrengthening and capacity building, and others hadaverage values of $1.3 million, $0.4 million, and $0.1million, respectively.

Regional external assistance also mostly fell into thetwo categories: agricultural, marine, and other naturalresources orinstitutionalstrengtheningand capacitybuilding, witha 45% and 36%share, respec-tively, in termsof total valueof assistance.

Table 31: Summary of Ongoing External Assistance

Country-Level Regional OverallAmount ($) No. Amount ($) No. Amount ($) No.

Resources a 54,734,443 33 43,472,863 20 98,207,306 53Institutional Strengthening b 2,224,320 6 34,443,360 15 36,667,680 21Social Infrastructure c 44,332,179 15 5,076,077 3 49,408,256 18Energy d 8,996,180 7 13,714,710 11 22,710,890 18 =Others e 417,093 3 85,000 2 502,093 5Total 110,704,215 64 96,792,010 51 207,496,225 115

a includes agricultural, marine and other natural resources (sustainable fisheries, coastal and marine protection, forestry, watershed management, andbiodiversity conservation); b includes capacity building; c includes water supply and sanitation, urban development, health and population, wastemanagement, and environmental education; d includes climate change and variability; and d includes tourism and related development undertakings.

Figure 12: Value of Region-LevelExternal Assistance by Sector*

S 5

R 45

E 14IS 36

* R =Resources, IS =Institutional Strengthening,S =Social Infrastructure, E =Energy, and O =Others.

Figure 11: Number of Region-Level Assistance by Sector*

ISR

SEO

Sector 0 5 10 15 20


Figure 10: Value of Country-LevelExternal Assistance by Sector*

E IS 0

R 50

O 2

4


These are depicted in Figures 11and 12.

Ongoing regional environ-ment-related external assistance issummarized in Table 33. The aver-age size of the 51 regional projectswas about $2 million, though therewere three rather large projects thatskewed this number upwards.

The GlobalEnvironment Facility

Although the GEF is not an assistance agency, theuse of its financial resources by its three implementingagencies (the World Bank, UNDP, and UNEP) has played

a very significantrole in shapingenvironmenta lmanagement inPDMCs over thepast decade. Es-tablished as the

financing mecha-nism for keyglobal environ-mental conven-tions, the GEF hasbeen a major, if

Figure 9: Number of Country-LevelExternal Assistance by Sector*

IR

EO

ec or1 1 2 2





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Table 32: Ongoing Environment-Oriented External Assistance (Country-Level)

TimeProject Frame Fund ($) Donor Type

Cook Islands 1,328,943Marine Industry Master Plan 2003 483,252 NZAID RHospitality and Tourism Training Centre 2003 86,295 NZAID OOuter Islands Infrastructure 2003 759,396 NZAID S

Fiji Islands 21,873,820Renewable Energy Service Companies for Rural Electrification

in Fiji 2000–2003 1,410,000 UNDP* EInstitutional Strengthening 1994–2004 166,820 UNEP IS

Training of Extension Staff in Post-Harvest Handling andMarketing of Fresh Horticultural Produce Ongoing 205,000 FAO-SAPA R

Enhancement of Customary Marine Fishery Tenure Ongoing 60,000 FAO-SAPA RSmallholder Forage Based Dairy Production Ongoing 368,000 FAO-SAPA R

Towards a Conservation Strategy for the Tropical Forests of Fiji 2002–2004 400,000 USAID RNadi-Lautoka Water Supply Improvement Project 1997–2003 19,200,000 Japan/ JICA SRural School Water Supply Project 2003 64,000 Japan/ JICA S

Kiribati 4,809,776Kiribati Adaptation Project 2003-2008 4,395,580 WB* EManagement of Rats in Coconut Plantations Ongoing 279,000 FAO-SAPA RMarine Training Centre 2003 135,196 NZAID R

Marshall Islands 412,000Seaweed Cultivation in Marshall Islands Ongoing 156,000 FAO-SAPA RAssistance to Small-Scale Atoll Farmers Cultivating Sigatoka

Disease-Free Bananas for Food Security in the Marshall Islands Ongoing 256,000 FAO-SAPA R

Micronesia, Federated States of None

Nauru 135,000Strengthening Integrated Pest Management of Coconut Hispid

Beetle ( Brontispa longissima Gestro ) in Nauru Ongoing 135,000 FAO-SAPA R

Papua New Guinea 59,271,552GEF- Small Grants Programme on Conservation and Restoration

of Natural Resources and Enhancement of Well-being andLivelihood Opportunities 1999–2002 350,000 UNDP R, IS

Application of GIS to Land Use Management inPapua New Guinea: Remote Sensing Land Use Initiative 2002–2004 1,296,500 UNDP* IS

Climate Change Enabling Activity Project 1998–2002 345,600 UNDP ECapacity Building for Improved Agricultural Marketing and

Farm Management Ongoing 260,000 FAO-SAPA RSmall-Scale Rice Farming Promotion Project 2003–2007 — Japan/JICA RLae City Water Supply Project 2000–2004 13,447,200 AusAID SMama Graun Conservation Trust Fund 1991–2006 4,620,000 AusAID* RForestry Human Resource Development 1995–2003 12,000,000 AusAID RNational Fisheries College 1997–2003 4,500,000 AusAID RRenewable Resource Program Development 1994–2004 720,000 AusAID EACIAR Research and Development Trust Fund 1998–2003 5,100,000 AusAID RRural Development and Planning 2001–2004 900,000 AusAID RAustralian Contribution to a National Agriculture

Research System 1995–2003 9,180,000 AusAID RBougainville Cocoa and Copra Drier Rehabilitation 1998–2003 2,700,000 AusAID RBougainville Cocoa Rehabilitation Project 1999–2003 1,719,000 AusAID* RSouth Fly Community Development Program 200–2004 1,650,000 AusAID SHealth Sector Improvement Programme 2003 287,650 NZAID SAgricultural Institutional Strengthening Project 2003 195,602 NZAID R

continued next page



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Samoa 11,221,568Coastal Infrastructure Management component of Samoa

Infrastructure Asset Management Project 1999–2009 4,900,000 WB* RSamoa Marine Biodiversity and Management Project 1999–2004 899,978 WB* RInitial Assistance to Samoa to meet its obligations under the

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2001–2003 372,000 UNDP R, SInstitutional Strengthening 1994–2004 70,000 UNEP ISRe-establishing Samoa’s Traditional Staple Food “Taro” through

Rapid Propagation of Leaf Blight Tolerant Varieties Ongoing 182,000 FAO-SAPAStrengthening the Institutional Capacity of the Samoa Forestry

Division to Effectively Plan and Manage Forest Resources Ongoing 234,000 FAO-SAPA IS, RImprovement of Waste Management in the Pacific 2000–2006 — Japan/JICA S

Tafa’igata Dumpsite Improvement Project 2003 191,000 Japan/JICA SSolid Waste Management Regional Workshops 2000–2004 — Japan/JICA SSamoa-Quarantine Support 2001–2004 2,100,000 AusAID SWater Authority Project 1998–2004 2,100,000 AusAID S

Tourism Support Fund 2003 172,590 NZAID O

Solomon Islands 3,700,000Forestry Management in Solomon Islands 1999–2004 3,700,000 AusAID R

Tonga 6,968,388 Tonga Cyclone Emergency Recovery and Risk

Management Project 2002–2005 1,800,000 WB EClimate Change Enabling Activity Project 2001–2003 325,000 UNDP EAgricultural Census and Statistics Ongoing 161,000 FAO-SAPA RDevelopment for Seaweed Farming Ongoing 143,000 FAO-SAPA RCapacity Building in Farm Management, Marketing and

Agribusiness for Young Farmer Groups Ongoing 236,000 FAO-SAPA IS, RMarine Parks and Reserve Management Project 2001–2005 — Japan/JICA RSolid Waste Management in Tonga 2003–2007 3,800,000 AusAID S‘Eua and Vava’u Nature Tourism 2003 158,208 NZAID OForest Plantation Development in Eua 2003 230,120 NZAID RSupport for Comprehensive Upgrading of Reticulated Water

Supplies in Rural Areas 2003 115,060 NZAID S

Tuvalu 86,295Reef Channel Development 2003 86,295 NZAID R

Vanuatu 886,873Capacity Building for Farming System Development in Support of

the Special Programme for Food Security andIncrease Food Production Ongoing 221,000 FAO-SAPA IS, R

Integrated Management of Fruit Piercing Moth on Fruits and Vegetables in VanuatuOngoing 175,000 FAO-SAPA R

Forage Based Smallholder Dairy Production Ongoing 255,000 FAO-SAPA R

Vanuatu Water Resources Project 2003 235,873 NZAID SRural Electrification Project 2003 — Japan/JICA ETotal 110,694,215

* with reported donor partners.Note: Projects listed with a time frame before 2003 have gone beyond the anticipated time and remain ongoing.IS = institutional strengthening and capacity building; S = social infrastructure (including water supply and sanitation, urban development, health andpopulation, waste management, and environmental education); R = agricultural, marine and other natural resources (including sustainable fisheries,coastal and marine protection, forestry, watershed management, and biodiversity conservation); E =energy, climate change and variability; and O=others(including tourism and related development undertakings); — =not available. ACIAR =Australian Center for International Agricultural Research; AusAID=Australian Agency for International Development; FAO-SAPA =Food and Agriculture Organisation—Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands; GEF =Global Environment Facility; GIS = geographic information systems; JICA = Japan International Cooperation A gency; NZAID = New Zealand Agency forInternational Development; UNDP =United Nations Development Programme; UNEP = United Nations Environment Programme; WB =World Bank.

Table 32: Ongoing Environment-Oriented External Assistance (Country-Level) (continued)

TimeProject Frame Fund ($) Donor Type




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Table 33: Ongoing Environment-Oriented External Assistance (Regional)

TimeProject Frame Fund($) Donor Type

Pacific Islands Renewable Energy Projects 2003–2004 811,000 UNDP EImpact of Climate Variability and Change on Human Health in Three Island Countries 2001–2003 416,000 NOAA ESouth Pacific Sea-level and Climate Monitoring–Phase III 2000–2005 5,400,000 AusAID ENational Adaptation Programme of Action Formulation 2002–2005 1,100,000 UNDP ERural Electrification 2003 — Japan/JICA EPacific Adaptation Program 2000-onward 615,000 WB EVulnerability and Adaptation Initiative 2002–2009 2,400,000 AusAID EDisaster Management Unit 2001–2003 750,000 AusAID EMeteorology-Enhanced Climate Reduction 2002–2004 750,000 AusAID EEnhanced Application of Climate Predictions in Pacific Island Countries 2003–2006 1,300,000 AusAID EDisaster Management (thru SOPAC) 2003 172,710 NZAID ECapacity Building to Develop Adaptation Measure in PICs 2002–2004 1,300,000 CIDA ISEnvironmental Awareness ongoing — Japan/JICA ISNational Capacity Self Assessment 2002–2004 2,800,000 UNDP ISSIDSNET Regional Component for Pacific 2002–2005 150,000 UNDP ISAssistance to SPREP 2003–2005 2,500,000 AusAID ISAssistance to SOPAC 2003–2005 3,200,000 AusAID ISAssistance to SPC 2003–2005 14,600,000 AusAID ISAssistance to Forum Secretariat 2003–2005 3,400,000 AusAID ISPacific Initiative for the Environment 2003-onward 1,150,600 NZAID IS

Assistance to the Forum Secretariat 2003 1,495,780 NZAID ISAssistance to SPC (including project on Plant Genetic Resources Network:Conservation, Access, and Utilization) 2003 2,186,140 NZAID IS

Assistance to Forum Fisheries Agencies 2003 517,770 NZAID ISAssistance to SOPAC 2003 546,535 NZAID ISAssistance to SPREP 2003 546,535 NZAID ISEnvironmental Education and Training 2003–2004 50,000 UNEP ISGender and Environmental Impact Assessment of Tourism 2002–2003 85,000 UNIFEM O

Tourism Development 2000–2004 — Japan/JICA OPlant Genetic Resources Conservation Technology Support for

the Pacific Plant Genetic Resources Network 2002–2005 300,000 AusAID REast Asia-Pacific Coral Reef Conservation Initiative and the Indo-Pacific Destructive

Fishing Reform Initiative 1999-2004 1,881,500 USAID R Taro Genetic Resources Conservation and Utilization 1998–2003 3,000,000 AusSAID RSouth Pacific Regional Forest Genetic Resources 2001–2005 2,500,000 AusAID RCoastal Fisheries Management 2003 — Japan/JICA RProtecting and Managing Reef Fish Spawning Aggregations in the Pacific 1999–2004 685,000 USAID RAquaculture and Stock Enhancement ongoing — Japan/JICA RSouth Pacific Strategic Action Plan 1999–2004 20,118,363 UNDP RRegional Training Meat Processing Technology Ongoing 379,000 FAO-SAPA RStrengthening Food Analytical Capabilities in the Pacific Region Ongoing 351,000 FAO-SAPA RNational HACCP-based Fish Inspection Systems in the South Pacific Ongoing 323,000 FAO-SAPA RRegional Programme for Food Security–Formulation Assistance Ongoing 242,000 FAO-SAPA RCapacity Building in Codex, Food Regulation and International Food

Standards Harmonization Ongoing 321,000 FAO-SAPA RA Study to Evaluate the Benefits and Costs of WTO Membership for the Food,

Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry Sectors of Small Island Countries in the Pacific Ongoing 122,000 FAO-SAPA RSupport for Improvement of Statistics on Coastal and Sub-Fisheries and Aquaculture Ongoing 250,000 FAO-SAPA R

Training on Sustainable Use of Mangrove Resources 2000–2004 — Japan/JICA RCoastal Resources Management Training Course for Pacific Island Countries 2002–2006 — Japan/JICA R

Training Course on Preservation of Coral Reef and Sustainable Development 2000–2004 — Japan/JICA RRegional Forestry Project South Pacific 1994–2006 13,000,000 GTZ RBiological Pest Control ongoing — GTZ R

Persistent Organic Pollutants–Phase 2 2003–2007 3,500,000 AusAID SOzone Depleting Substances 2002–2005 788,000 UNEP SPacific Regional Strategy for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol 2003–2005 788,077 UNEP STotal: 51 96,792,010

Projects listed with a time frame before 2003 have gone beyond the anticipated time and remain ongoing.IS =institutional strengthening and capacity building; S =social infrastructure (including water supply and sanitation, urban development, health and population,waste management, and environmental education); R =agricultural, marine and other natural resources (including sustainable fisheries, coastal and marine protection,forestry, watershed management, and biodiversity conservation); E =energy, climate change and variability; and O =others (including tourism and related developmentundertakings); — =not available; and TBD =to be determined. AusAI D Australian Agency for International Developement; CIDA =Canadian International DevelopmentAgency; FAO-SA PA Food and Agriculture Organisation—Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands; GTZ =Deutche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit(German Agency for Technical Cooperatio ); HACCP =Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point; JICA =Japan International Cooperation Agency; NOAA =(UnitedStates) National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration; NZAID =New Zealand Agency for International Development; PIC =Pacific island country; SIDSNET =South Pacific Regional Environment Programme; UNDP =United Nations Development Programme; UNIFEM =United Nations Development Fund for Women; UNEP=United Nations Environment Programme; USAID =United States Agency for International Development; WB =World Bank; WTO = World Trade Organization.



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somewhat underutilized, source of financial resourcesfor environmental management activities in the Pacific.Since its inception over a decade ago, the GEF has in-creased its four focal areas—climate change, biodiversity,international waters, and ozone depletion—to includenew responses to land degradation 35 and POPs, 36 and

specific subprograms such as the GEF’s Capacity Devel-opment Initiative. SIDS, particularly Pacific island coun-tries, have been quite successful in getting the GEF toacknowledge their special circumstances. Special pro-cedures expedite SIDS’ access to GEF funding windows,including the International Waters focal area, 37 new en-abling activities for implementation of the StockholmConvention, and the Capacity Development Initiative. In2002, ADB (already a GEF Executing Agency) was recog-nized by the GEF Council as a de facto implementingagency, and was given direct access to GEF financing.

This has opened possibilities for additional GEF co-financ-ing of ADB loans.

During the last decade, approximately 40% of thepotential maximum amount of GEF-eligible funding forPacific regional programs has been utilized. GEF’s fourprincipal implementation modes are (i) full-sized projects,(ii) medium-sized projects, (iii) small grants, and (iv)“enabling activities” to support basic plans andinstitutional capacity building. The GEF now increasinglyemphasizes its financing’s serving a catalytic role, i.e., itis insisting on strong co-financing for all full-sized or

medium-sized projects. UNDP has been the implementingagency for most of the GEF-financed activities in thePacific, while UNEP has led nationally executed enablingactivities in the biodiversity and climate change focalareas. ADB has yet to use GEF co-financing in the Pacificregion.

The implementing agencies have faced a number of constraints in organizing and carrying out GEF-financedactivities in the region (Box 9). In the mid-1990s, thePacific island countries recognized the potential for weak

coordination and outright competition over GEFresources, and a conference was held to develop acommon approach. In 1995, government andnongovernment organizations adopted a Pacific IslandStrategy for GEF as a framework for action (Box 10).

35 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (http:/ /www.unccd.org.main.php).

36 Covered by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants(http:/ / www.pops.int).

37 Reflecting the Barbados Programme of Action (United Nations, 1994).

Box 9: K K K K K ey Issues for Increasedey Issues for Increasedey Issues for Increasedey Issues for Increasedey Issues for IncreasedPacific Access to thePacific Access to thePacific Access to thePacific Access to thePacific Access to the

Global EnGlobal EnGlobal EnGlobal EnGlobal En vironment Facilityvironment Facilityvironment Facilityvironment Facilityvironment Facility

o The national capacity to develop and execute

projects must be in place;o Co-financing from the Asian Development Bank,the World Bank, and/or others will become in-creasingly important;

o Adoption of programmatic and long-termfinancing strategies will be necessary to ensurecoordination and secure local ownership andsustainability of project impacts; and

o Use of a regional approach to catalyze/facilitateand backstop projects is preferred.

Source : SPREP 1995

Though informal in nature, the Strategy has served itspurpose by establishing loosely agreed priorities for theregion in the GEF focal areas. In addition to the pilotSPBCP, the strategy calls for regional projects on climatechange and international waters, and an emphasis onbiodiversity conservation at the national level. The SPBCPand Project PICCAP have been completed (Box 11), andthe International Waters Strategic Action Plan isunderway. NBSAPs, as required under the CBD, are being

prepared in 13 countries, with five already completed:Cook Islands, Marshall Islands, Niue, Samoa, and Tonga.Discussion is continuing in the region about repeatingthe 1995 GEF strategic planning exercise to take stock of progress, update thinking, and include the new focalareas.

One element of the GEF strategy that has notprogressed well is access to the Small Grants Program(SGP) for Pacific countries. A request to the GEF for sucha program has been advanced through Pacific NGOs in

collaboration with UNDP, and planning for a Pacific SGPis underway with funding eligibility expected to be in placeby 2004.

An overview of GEF assistance to the region overthe past decade is shown in Table 34. More than $60million has been accessed from the GEF by Pacificcountries, mostly through regional organizations, tosupport implementation of global environmentagreements. A large part of these resources ($27 million)




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Box 10: Pacific Islands Strategy for the Global En Pacific Islands Strategy for the Global En Pacific Islands Strategy for the Global En Pacific Islands Strategy for the Global En Pacific Islands Strategy for the Global En vironment Facility (1995)vironment Facility (1995)vironment Facility (1995)vironment Facility (1995)vironment Facility (1995)

The Pacific Islands Strategy for the Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF), adopted by the region in 1995 followinga series of multi-stakeholder consultations, committed

governments to a number of principles and outlinedsome key priorities for accessing GEF resources. Theprinciples included (i) involvement of local communitiesand organizations and responsiveness to culturalrequirements and characteristics; (ii) wide participatoryand consultative processes; (iii) time frames to allowfor adequate participation and consultation; (iv)sustainability of benefits for, and capacity building of,Pacific island people; (v) integration of environmentalmanagement and conservation activities with otherpriorities; and (vi) activities based on a sound scientificframework.

The Strategy recommended to the GEF Council thatflexibility within the GEF be sufficient to recognize thatthe Pacific island states have special conditions and needsin line with the Barbados Programme of Action for theSustainable Development of Small Island DevelopingStates; that the oceanic nature of the Pacific region isglobally unique and must be taken into account; that anurgent need exists for targeted research; and thatcapacity building and awareness raising are essential inthe Pacific region and of particular importance to“enabling activities.” The regional representatives alsoexpressed interest in participating in the Small Grants

Program.

The priorities underlined in the Strategy included thefollowing:

Biodiversity

(i) marine and terrestrial conservation includingcapacity building for targeted conservation, theestablishment and management of marine andterrestrial conservation areas linked tosustainable utilization of resources, speciesconservation, and related information andtechnology transfer;

(ii) appropriate funding mechanisms forcompensation and sustaining programs for theprotection and sustainable use of highlysignificant and threatened components of biological diversity in the Pacific region.

International Waters

(iii) integrated management and conservation of living and nonliving marine resources , including enhancedcoordination and cooperation amongstakeholders, enhanced observer programs,improved communications, and thedevelopment of a comprehensive policy andlegal framework;

(iv) pollution pr evention and waste minimizat ion including strengthening local, national, andregional institutions, links with integrated coastalmanagement and water development, and thedemonstration of innovative approaches topollution prevention and waste management inthe region;

(v) training/capacity building for the management of coastal and freshwater resources, including thedevelopment of appropriate curricula anddelivery of training, in particular by extension;

(vi) coastal stabilizat ion to include effective coastalprotection and adaptation methods that addressvulnerability to climate change and degradationdue to inappropriate management practices;

Climat e Change

(vii) climat e change enabling activities includingsubstantial country participation to meetnational communication obligations under theUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change, enhanced capacity andinstitution building at national and regional levels,and exchange of data and information toimprove cooperation among stakeholders; and

(viii) energy efficiency/conservation and renewable energy activities at the local, national, and regional levelto help introduce and catalyze the sustainableuse of renewable energy resources, and to assistin institutional strengthening, technologytransfer, and commercialization of these options.

While the principles remain valid, these priorities willneed to be revisited given the expansion of GEFoperational programs and the assistance received by theregion in the last 7 years.

Source : SPREP 1995.



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has been expended through threeregional programs and a further $28million has supported full-sizedprojects in Papua New Guinea. Thebalance of $7 million has been usedprimarily for nationally executed

enabling activities and medium-sizedprojects in Fiji Islands, FSM, andSamoa. The Capacity DevelopmentInitiative and the land degradationwindow have not been utilized byPacific countries.

Weaknesses in nationalcapability to plan and execute GEF-funded activities are constrainingaccess to GEF resources—principallyfor medium-sized and full-sizedprojects. PDMCs have requestedsupport from the GEF to increase theircapacity, primarily so that they canproduce better project designs. Toaddress this need, UNDP has providedin-country training in GEF procedures,and a regional country dialogueworkshop involving GEF operationalfocal points from Pacific islandcountries has also been tried. Thisconstraint is not unique to the Pacific

among developing countries, and therecent independent operationalperformance review of the GEFidentified a significant gap betweenGEF objectives and national prioritiesand capabilities.

South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Programme

Because it serves as the lead

regional organization (CROP member)for environmental activities in thePacific, it is useful also to review themain activities of SPREP. SPREP’smajor donors over the past decadehave been Australia, Canada, People’sRepublic of China, CommonwealthSecretariat, Denmark, France, GEF/UNDP, UNEP, New Zealand, and US(Figure 13). Table 35 shows SPREP’s

Box 11: South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme

From a detailed evaluation of the decade-long Global Environment Facility(GEF)-funded South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme (SPBCP),many lessons have been learned. The most significant contributions of the

SPBCP have been too help governments engage communities and resource users in con-

servation;o provide seed finance, training, and technical assistance to demonstrate

practical methods of community-based conservation; ando build the capacity of conservation area support officers (CASOs) as a

critical resource for community-based conservation in the Pacific.

A number of problems were identified:

o Numerous culture and resource tenure variations and the distances be-tween countries and communities made regional delivery difficult;

o Regional overheads for implementation are high;o When CASOs move on, they leave a capacity vacuum behind in conser-

vation areas and lead agencies; ando The reporting and planning requirements called for an administratively

cumbersome framework.

At the end of the day, community-based conservation is seen as a highlyvaluable means to achieve both community development/poverty reductionand conservation objectives. However, the delivery of activities from a regionalbase is fraught with problems. In order to achieve lasting benefits, investmentin community-based conservation needs to be more flexible, rapidly adaptive,and non-time-bound.

Improving Program Delivery. The evaluation of SPBCP produced anumber of recommendations to improve program delivery, including thefollowing:

o Locally driven and home-grown solutions introduced through flexibleprocedures/processes;

o Longer, lower-cost projects rather than rapid-fire, high-cost programs;o Resource commitment to core functions to govern natural resources,

conserve biodiversity, and protect the environment;o More time and care in project/program preparation and design;o “Proper” participation and ownership by stakeholders in the design

process;o Staged implementation through a process of action and learning, with

built-in monitoring;o Capacity building as the most important project objective;o Knowledge management as an integral part of any design; ando Partnership and collaboration with other organizations and stakehold-

ers as a performance measure for project/program success.

Source: Hunnam 2002, Baines et al. 2002.




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Table 34: Pacific Island Countries’ Access to the GEF, 1992–2002

Focal Area Activity

Climate change National – Enabling activities (Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, $1.376 million)Medium-sized projects (Fiji Islands $754,000)

Regional – Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance Program* ($4.3 million)

Pacific Islands Renewable Energy Program ($700,000)

Biodiversity National –Biodiversity-enabling activities ($3.7 million)Medium-sized projects (Federated States of Micronesia $748,000; Samoa $1million)Full-sized projects (Papua New Guinea (3) $25.8 million;)

Regional – South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Program*(Global Environment Facility pilot phase ($10 million)

International waters Regional – Preparation of Strategic Action Program for International Waters($296,000)Implementation of Strategic Action Program ($12 million)

Ozone Nil

POPs National – Enabling activities (Fiji Islands, Samoa $757,000)

Land degradation Nil

Capacity Development Initiative Nil

Small Grants Program Papua New Guinea

Total $60 million

*completed.POPs =persistent organic pollutants.Source : http:/ / www.gefweb/ Projects/ projects-Projects/ projects-projects.html.

Table 35: SPREP Annual Expenditure on Project Implementation

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

$’000 2,294 3,014 2,946 3,507 4,443 5,034 4,632 5,485 5,118 5,736

Source : SPREP Annual Reports (1992–2002).

project budgets (1992–2001), and Figure 14 indicates the

significance of GEF resources (42%, through UNDP) toSPREP’s overall budget.

Although SPREP is the CROP body with leadresponsibility for supporting improved environmentalmanagement in the region, virtually all other CROPmember organizations also carry out environment-

related activities with funding from an equally diverse

range of sources. For example, support for naturalresource management programs is provided throughthe SPC, SOPAC, and USP. Though these are notsummarized here, they form an important part of theinstitutional mosaic serving to strengthenenvironmental and natural resource management inthe Pacific region.



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Accomplishments,Constraints, and LessonsLearned

Valuable lessons can be drawn from the externalagencies’ experience in implementing environmentalassistance programs in the Pacific. Merging both ADB’sexperience and that of other funding agencies andimplementers, several patterns emerge that can help to

inform and influence future environmental programming. The summary presented below attempts to capture whathas worked and what has not, with lessons drawn fromsuccesses and failures in equal measure.

Learning from Areas of Progress

Building on National EnBuilding on National EnBuilding on National EnBuilding on National EnBuilding on National En vironmental Managementvironmental Managementvironmental Managementvironmental Managementvironmental ManagementStrategiesStrategiesStrategiesStrategiesStrategies . The PDMCs got off to a very good start in theearly 1990s with preparation of NEMS or similar plans(ADB and SPREP 1992). In many cases, these represented

the first attempt at the national level to take stock of natural resources and the relationship betweenenvironmental management and economic development.

Too of ten , ho w ever, the latter co nn ecti on w asinadequately emphasized. This marginalized the NEMSexercise so that those in economic planning and financeor even the key sector agencies did not consider itrelevant. While gathering important initial baselineinformation and raising the public profile of

environmental concerns, the NEMS in many respectswere preaching to the converted. They identified a widerange of environmental and natural resourcemanagement concerns, but failed to set priorities basedon links to economically- and/ or socially-based criteriain a benefit-cost framework. As a result, many of the

recommended responses lacked credibility, affordability,and implementability. National sustainable developmentstrategies will suffer the same fate if they are not led byfinance or economic planning agencies and do notinvolve all stakeholders, including critics, in the process.

Utilization of the Council of Regional OrganizationsUtilization of the Council of Regional OrganizationsUtilization of the Council of Regional OrganizationsUtilization of the Council of Regional OrganizationsUtilization of the Council of Regional Organizationsin the Pacificin the Pacificin the Pacificin the Pacificin the Pacific ..... The rationalization of regionalorganizations’ efforts through the creation of CROP wasa promising initiative. Especially high hopes were placedin SPREP, which was given the mandate to work inpartnership with Pacific countries, funding agencies,NGOs, and others “to strengthen the capacity of itsPacific members to plan and manage their own nationalenvironmental programs, and to enhance regionalcooperation to deal more effectively with issues that aretransboundary in nature or w hich require interventionsat the global level” (SPC 2002b). Some notableachievements have occurred in regional environmentalawareness raising and capacity development,particularly for global issues such as biodiversityconservation and climate change. However, the CROPnetwork has not yet reached its full potential in

managing and disseminating information on Pacificresources and best practices utilized at the national andregional levels. In some sense, their view has beenoutward toward the global stage, rather than directedto national issues and concerns. Cooperation amongCROP members and their internal managementstructures could be improved. Until their work becomesmore directly relevant to helping solve national-levelconcerns, even their regional efforts will suffer.

Pacific Engagement on Global EnPacific Engagement on Global EnPacific Engagement on Global EnPacific Engagement on Global EnPacific Engagement on Global En vironmental Issuesvironmental Issuesvironmental Issuesvironmental Issuesvironmental Issues .....

As evidenced by the special attention afforded SIDS atWSSD, Pacific countries and regional organizations haveexcelled at getting their voices heard—disproportionatelyto their economic or geopolitical clout—in internationalforums on global environmental issues. Despite humanresource and other capacity constraints, they have gainedan impressive degree of access to global financialmechanisms (especially the GEF) made available toaddress environmental concerns. However, the work of

Source: SPREP 2002.

Figure 13: Major External Agency Contributionsto SPREP for EnvironmentalPrograms in the Pacific Region

7%

16%

8%New Zealand

42%GEF/UNDP

9%Austria

10%Pacific Members2%

Denmark 3%

PRC

3%US

Canada/CIDA

UNEP/United Nations

Foundation

CIDA =Canadian International DevelopmentAgency; GEF =Global EnvironmentFacility; PRC =People's Republic of China; SPREP =South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Programme; UNDP =United Nations Development Programme;UNEP =United Nations Environment Programme; US =United States.




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the regional organizations in promoting such engagementhas largely failed to bring the benefits home to thegrassroots level. It has not demonstrated the relevanceto domestic economic development of adaptation toclimate change and variability, water and coastal resourcemanagement, or biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity

conservation may represent an exception, if the 223protected areas are any measure of country-level action.Even in this case, enforcement capacity is extremelyweak, and stronger community benefits and engagement,public-private partnerships, and sustained internationalassistance will be needed if the integrity of the protectedareas network is to be maintained.

The other major problem raised by the heavy Pacificinvolvement in fulfilling obligations under the MEAs isthe added burden this has placed on already overtaxednational capacity. A recent study of several Pacificcountries concluded “the MEA processes proved to beplacing substantial demands on the capacity of a broadrange of government agencies … [and] actually competedfor limited resources against domestic policyimplementation” (Mougeot, Piest, and Dodds 2002).Reporting requirements and attendance at internationaland regional events account for a large part of the annualbudget of environment agencies.

Replicating Local SuccessesReplicating Local SuccessesReplicating Local SuccessesReplicating Local SuccessesReplicating Local Successes ..... Local communityenvironmental management initiatives, contemporary

applications of traditional environmental practices,public-private partnerships for environmental manage-ment, and even small-scale government environmentalor resource management programs can be foundscattered across the Pacific at the pilot demonstrationlevel. Many of these are highly successful, but few havefostered any meaningful connection to or influence overnational or regional environmental policy and programdevelopment. Furthermore, they are often not designedwith replication in mind, so that their impacts remainhighly localized. A more systematic approach needs to

be taken, both to the design of new demonstrationactivities and to gathering the existing experience andtransferring it where applicable. ADB-sponsoredefforts in the Pacific water sector—in partnership withSOPAC and others—provide a good starting point.Some 15 case studies on local initiatives and otherdocumentation of best practices have been preparedand are being disseminated through conferences andother activities (ADB and SOPAC 2002).

Lessons from Constraints Encountered

Lagging Legal FrameworksLagging Legal FrameworksLagging Legal FrameworksLagging Legal FrameworksLagging Legal Frameworks ..... Despite some progress inestablishing a national agenda for environmentalmanagement capacity and norms, most PDMCs still lacklegal frameworks covering the major aspects of

environmental protection and natural resourcemanagement at the local level. In many countries theproblems encountered in establishing a national legalframework appear to stem from conflicts between Pacifictraditions of local management authority and attemptsto impose top-down management structures. Many of the issues could probably be resolved through a moreconcerted consultation effort with all stakeholders,backed by a willingness to compromise on the part of allparties involved. Executive agencies also need to workmore closely with the legislative and judicial arms of government in this process.

EnEnEnEnEn vironmental Mainstreamingvironmental Mainstreamingvironmental Mainstreamingvironmental Mainstreamingvironmental Mainstreaming ..... The absence of a legalframework also means that there has been very little realprogress in mainstreaming environmental considerationsinto the way policies, plans, and programs are developedfor key sectors, such as transportation, energy, industry,and tourism. Most resources and effort have beenabsorbed in trying to build apex environmental bodies atthe national level; only recently has attention turned tointegrating environmental thinking into the processes andoperations of finance or economic planning authorities.

The current effort spearheaded by SPREP and the PacificForum Secretariat is commendable, and it is hoped thatthe 2003 Forum Economic Ministers’ Meeting in Majurowill mark a turning point in regional understanding aboutthe direct links between sound environmentalmanagement and the long-term economic developmentprospects of PDMCs.

Regional versus National or Local InterventionsRegional versus National or Local InterventionsRegional versus National or Local InterventionsRegional versus National or Local InterventionsRegional versus National or Local Interventions ..... Muchcloser attention also needs to be given to the question of the appropriate level at which interventions are organized

and implemented in the environment sphere. Thetendency, among external funding agencies especially,has been to favor regional-level programs for ease of organization, economies of scale, and cost savings. To acertain extent, this has been encouraged by the regionalorganizations that have served as implementing bodiesfor these programs. But it is almost axiomatic thatenvironmental problems begin locally and are ultimatelysolved locally, even those with regional and global



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dimensions. This argues strongly for organizingenvironmental interventions at the subnational or evenlocal level (King 2001a). Note, however, the previousconcerns over scalability and replicability of localinterventions; special care is needed when interventionsare taken at the local level to ensure that positive results

can be more widely disseminated and/ or replicated.Experience in the Pacific indicates that—except whenaddressing transboundary problems—regional approachesshould be taken only when (i) a clear role exists for one(or preferably more) of the established regionalorganizations, (ii) obvious economies of scale can beachieved in administering and/ or delivering the program,and/ or (iii) impacts are likely to be more sustainable orreplicable because of the program’s regional reach.

Consultation, Participation, and AConsultation, Participation, and AConsultation, Participation, and AConsultation, Participation, and AConsultation, Participation, and A warenesswarenesswarenesswarenesswareness ..... Civil societyshould be much more fully engaged in the developmentof environmental policies, plans, and programs. Thisshould go hand in hand with other public outreach andawareness-raising efforts to expand the base of those whoare well-informed on the environmental subjects that affect

them. Building partnerships among government,community groups, NGOs, and the private sector is anefficient and sustainable approach to making use of scarceresources, sharing burdens, and developing local expertiseand ownership. In their statement to the WSSD (PIFS2002b), the PDMCs, committed themselves to developenvironmental partnerships, a good step in the directionof a more open and collaborative approach to solving themost important environmental problems facing PDMCs.



PacificRegionEnvironmentalStrategy,2005–2009

CHAPTER5



84




85

Vision for the Region

Overview

This chapter formulates a new strategy for ADB’senvironmental assistance to PDMCs as part of a

broader strategic planning exercise covering ADB’soverall assistance to the region for the period 2005–2009.Before describing the main directions for ADB’senvironmental assistance during this time frame, it is usefulto review the principal areas of concern in the region andto map out a future vision for improved environmentalmanagement by the end of this planning period.

For the eight environmental management problemareas identified in Chapter II, a picture can be painted of improved conditions that seems realistically achievableby 2009. The eight areas are divided into three groups: (i)those that can be dealt with primarily at the local orcountry levels; (ii) those that require action at both thecountry/ local and regional levels; and (iii) those requiringaction at the local, country, regional, and global levels.

Issues at the Local or Country Level

Freshwater Resource M anagementFreshwater Resource M anagementFreshwater Resource M anagementFreshwater Resource M anagementFreshwater Resource M anagement ..... The results of the2002 Pacific Regional Consultation held in Sigatoka, FijiIslands, on the region’s water management challenges

show that the Pacific island countries’ precious freshwaterresources are under increasing threat. While goodstatistics on these trends are sorely lacking, thewidespread consensus is that immediate attention isneeded to solve water management problems, placingstress on the economic and social well-being of Pacificpeoples. The goal will be to achieve measurable increasesin the affordability and availability of clean water suppliesand sanitation services for both rural and urbanpopulations as well as overall improvements in the healthof aquatic ecosystems. The MDGs also include targets

for the provision of water supply and sanitation, and thesewill be used as a guide.

LLLLLand and Forest Managementand and Forest Managementand and Forest Managementand and Forest Managementand and Forest Management ..... Land degradation due toerosion, deforestation, and the poorly planned expansionof human settlements is a widening problem in PDMCs.Most have produced national action programs to meet theircommitments under the United Nations Convention toCombat Drought and Desentification (UNCCDD) to addressland degradation issues. These plans should form the core

of responses to land degradation problems at the countrylevel. Forest ecosystems are also under pressure fromlogging, fuelwood extraction, conversion for agriculture,and encroachment of invasive species. Forest loss is havinga negative impact on the Pacific’s terrestrial biodiversity—and indirectly, through increased sedimentation, on the

diversity of coastal ecosystems. The use of remote sensingdata and geographic information system methods couldgreatly improve understanding of these trends. TheUNCCDD national action plans provide a future vision formost PDMCs that can be used to determine what may beexpected regarding improved land management by 2009.While no similar targets have been set for improving forestmanagement in the region, the vision for 2009 should beto have a stable or growing net forest area in each PDMC.

Urbanization and WUrbanization and WUrbanization and WUrbanization and WUrbanization and W aste Managementaste Managementaste Managementaste Managementaste Management ..... Rapid populationgrowth and expanding economies in most PDMCs havecombined to produce a Pacific brand of uncontrolled urbanexpansion and increasing waste streams from municipal,tourism, and light industrial sources. Governments areunder new pressures to improve land-use planning, andthey are struggling to provide adequate environmentalservices such as wastewater collection and treatment aswell as solid waste management. The problems of urbanization and waste management are considered tobe manageable, especially if country-level action is takenquickly to better analyze options and move forward withboth institutional reforms and necessary infrastructure

investments. The vision for 2009 is for each PDMC tohave arrested the trend of unplanned urban expansion,and to have achieved a state of no net increase inuntreated solid or liquid wastes disposed of. It is to behoped that these gains will also be accompanied byaesthetic improvements through reduced litter, lesspollution of waterways, and generally cleaner urbanenvironments.

Energy-Related EnEnergy-Related EnEnergy-Related EnEnergy-Related EnEnergy-Related En vironmental Concernsvironmental Concernsvironmental Concernsvironmental Concernsvironmental Concerns ..... The provisionof convenient and affordable energy across Pacific

archipelagos—for households, businesses, publicservices, and transportation—is one of the greatestchallenges for the economic development and improvedwelfare of PDMCs. Energy issues are intertwined withthose of environmental management primarily throughthe pollution by-products associated with the use of fossilfuels—with both local and global impacts. The vision for2009 entails significant improvements on both thedemand and supply sides of the energy equation, and anincrease (from the current level of only 30%) in the



86

region’s population that has access to electricity. Thesupply side vision also includes provision of an increasedpercentage of energy through market-oriented nonfossilfuel sources. On the demand side, improvements inenergy efficiency should be recorded.

Issues Crossing Local/ Countryand Regional Levels

Management of Coastal and Marine EnManagement of Coastal and Marine EnManagement of Coastal and Marine EnManagement of Coastal and Marine EnManagement of Coastal and Marine En vironmentsvironmentsvironmentsvironmentsvironments ..... Thespecific characteristics of each PDMC are defined in manykey respects by the interactions between their terrestrialand marine environments. This interface occurs alongtheir coastlines. The health and productivity of PDMCcoastal and marine ecosystems are under threat from bothland-based and marine pollution, as well as fromdestructive and unsustainable exploitation patterns,particularly fisheries. Though many of these challengesmust be met at the country level, some—such as thoserelating to the management of pelagic fisheries—willrequire regional cooperation. The vision for coastal andmarine management in 2009 is a stabilization of thehealth of coastal ecosystems and an assurance—basedon both better analysis and improved practices—that bothnearshore and migratory fisheries are being harvestedsustainably.

EnEnEnEnEnvironmental Govironmental Govironmental Govironmental Govironmental Go vernancevernancevernancevernancevernance ..... ADB is committed tohelping PDMCs improve the quality of their governance

through better public administration and financialmanagement, improved legal and regulatory frameworks,strengthened judicial systems, and a widening role forother elements of civil society in economic, social, andcultural affairs (ADB 2003a). Improved environmentalpolicies and institutions are urgently needed as part of this overall effort, and much better collection andanalysis of environmental information must supportimproved decision-making systems. To date, theappropriate roles and capabilities of central governmentenvironmental authorities have been well-established

only in a few PDMCs. These government agencies shouldbe backed by realistic laws and regulations that have thepublic’s support. Attention must also be given tomainstreaming environmental thinking into bothmacroeconomic and sector planning. Pacific traditionsof sound natural resource management should be builtupon wherever feasible, and a generally stronger role forcivil society should be encouraged, both for monitoringenvironmental quality and actively engaging inenvironmental management efforts.

Pacific environmental governance challenges alsoextend to the regional level. Economies of scale are thereto be achieved—whether through regional cooperationin tackling transboundary issues such as pelagic fisheriesmanagement, or by efficiently addressing environmentalproblems common to most PDMCs. To this end, the CROP

network deserves further strengthening, especially so asto ensure better monitoring of Pacific environmentalconditions and trends. The vision for 2009 at both thenational and regional levels is to have well-functioningnational environment agencies backed by soundlegislation, and supported by increased attention toenvironmental considerations in macroeconomic andsector planning and programming. In the future, regionalorganizations should play a more effective role in helpingtheir Pacific members cope with key environmentalmanagement problems at both the country and regionallevels.

Issues Crossing Country, Regional,and Global Levels

Biological Diversity ConservationBiological Diversity ConservationBiological Diversity ConservationBiological Diversity ConservationBiological Diversity Conservation ..... The natural wealthof the PDMCs’ unique environment underpins both theirformal and subsistence economies. In addition, thebiodiversity of the region is recognized to be of globalsignificance. Yet the threats to its conservation are amongthe highest anywhere in the world. It is vital to the well-being of the Pacific people that their biological

resources—supporting agriculture, fisheries, forestry, andtourism—be sustainably managed. The vision for 2009 isa marked improvement in the management of ecosystemswith high biodiversity. This might be indicated bynoticeable improvements in the management of the 232protected areas already designated in the Pacific, as wellas a reduction in the number of species that areinternationally recognized as threatened.

Adaptation to Climate Change and VAdaptation to Climate Change and VAdaptation to Climate Change and VAdaptation to Climate Change and VAdaptation to Climate Change and V ariabilityariabilityariabilityariabilityariability ..... Noenvironmental challenge facing PDMCs is more “global”

and potentially more severe in nature than the adverseconsequences of climate change. It is generally acceptedthat climatic events will increase in incidence and severity,especially droughts and cyclones, and that sea levels wil lgradually rise. The PDMCs need to begin prudent andserious measures to adapt to these threats. The visionfor 2009 is that all PDMCs will have fully incorporatedthe need for adaptive planning and actions into theirnational development policies—at the very least throughthe adoption of a “no regrets” adaptation policy. If PDM Cs




87

are to have credibility in the international community onclimate change matters, they will also need to meet theirdeadlines (2008–2010) under the Kyoto Protocol to theUNFCCC regarding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

ADB’s Role in ImprovingPacific EnvironmentalManagement

The overall objective of ADB is poverty reduction.Activities to promote economic growth, develop humanresources, improve the status of women, and protect theenvironment are meant to serve the poverty reductionagenda. Among ADB’s other key development objectivesare law and policy reform and improved regionalcooperation, which also are expected to contributesignificantly to achieving its main goal of fighting poverty.

Strong links exist between the health of the naturalenvironment in the Pacific and the economic well-beingof the poor. ADB’s efforts to help improve environmentalmanagement, therefore, will fully support its overallobjective of reducing the incidence of poverty withinPDMCs.

Around the Asia and Pacific region, ADB also is

playing an increasingly important role in supportingregional and national policy dialogue, institutionalstrengthening, and reform. This is taking ADB well beyondits traditional strengths as a multilateral lending institutioninto an active policy and program engagement withinternational organizations, governments, and a widerange of stakeholders. The effort to improve environmentalmanagement offers important opportunities for ADB toleverage its resources, build national and regional capacity,and achieve greater local ownership of initiatives throughthe systematic development of strategic partnerships withappropriate national and regional organizations, as wellas NGOs.

Intervention Strategy

The analysis presented shows clearly the importanceof dealing with environmental and natural resourcemanagement techniques in the Pacific region, because

overexploitation of resources and environmentaldegradation directly affect the economic and social well-being of PDMC populations. ADB has been an activepartner in past efforts to help improve policies,institutions, and practices to better manage and protectthe region’s natural systems, and the new PRES will build

upon this work and further enhance ADB opportunitiesto contribute positively.

The PRES will serve as an important touchstone andsource of guidance for ADB in its efforts to help improvethe basis for sustainable development in the region. It isorganized into three parts. The first is a framework forassistance in the region and the organization of ADB itself that presents the rationale for intervening at variouslevels—local, subnational, national/ sector and regional—and briefly discuses opportunities to form strategicpartnerships for building local capacity and ownershipand leveraging ADB’s resources. The second sectionsummarizes the main activities ADB anticipatesundertaking during 2005–2009, organized according tothe intervention point. The final section deals withperformance measurement and the key assumptions thatunderpin the PRES.

Framework for ADB EnvironmentalAssistance in the Region

At the project level, ADB will continue to implement

its environmental safeguard policies fully, to ensure thatpotentially adverse impacts of projects and programsare reviewed, and when necessary, prevention,abatement, and mitigation measures are incorporatedinto project design. ADB also circulates for stakeholderreview environmental impact assessments (EIAs) and/or summary EIAs—encouraging all parties concernedto participate fully in implementing environmentalmanagement plans according to EIA recommendations.Mitigation measures will be built into project design andthe results carefully monitored during implementation.

At the grassroots level, ADB will work throughcommunity-based organizations and NGOs to design andimplement local-scale interventions with potentialreplicability. Community-based natural resourcemanagement—especially acknowledging and buildingupon traditional environmental management customs,knowledge and practices—will be a key strategicapproach for ADB operations at this level.



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ADB believes that the subnational level is the mostcrucial point of intervention in the Pacific region—watersheds, islands, urban areas and their hinterlands,provinces, or states are the planning units of choice. Atthis level, strong community ownership is in evidence,ecosystems can be understood, the scale is appropriate

to funding agency and government resource constraintsand successful interventions, and the likelihood of successful replication is high. Where possible, ADB willprioritize the geographic scale of its sector interventionsin agriculture, forestry, energy supply, etc. to focus onsubnational ecosystems, rather than attempting to coverentire countries with a single project.

ADB is continuing to improve the process of “mainstreaming” environmental considerations into itscountry operational strategy studies, sector policies, TA,and loans. Consistent with its new Environment Policy, itis making more intensive efforts to take stock of lessonslearned from environment-related assistance in eachPDMC, and to consider all opportunities to incorporateappropriate actions—at the policy, institution, project andprogram levels—into ADB’s country operations. Thisexercise has already begun for country programming inCook Islands, Fiji Islands, PNG, and Samoa. It will beextended to all PDMCs over the next 2 years.

A balance must be struck between efforts at theregional and country levels. For some subject areas, it

will be necessary to complement country-levelinterventions with activities implemented throughregional TAs (RETAs) covering some or all PDMCs.However, these situations will be infrequent. ADB’soperations are fundamentally conducted at the countrylevel through its direct assistance to PDMCs. Regionalwork is undertaken, when needed, to support andcomplement these country-level efforts (both lending and

TA assistance).

ADB cannot address every type of environmental

management problem currently occurring in PDMCs.Strategic focus must be applied to choose those areas of intervention that best draw upon ADB’s strengths, achievecomplementarity with other ADB assistance, and takeadvantage of opportunities both to leverage resourcesand to form strong strategic partnerships. In general,stand-alone environmental assistance will not be pursuedunless there is strong government commitment tomainstream environment issues into economicdevelopment planning and management. Though specific

interventions seldom fall neatly within geographic orinstitutional bounds, the proposed areas of strategicfocus—to be organized at the local, subnational, national,and regional levels—are described below. The mainproblem to be addressed is briefly described and anassociated intervention is provided. Expected

accomplishments are also summarized, and wherepossible expressed in quantitative terms and linked toMDG targets and/ or WSSD.

Areas for Local/ Project-Level Assistance

ImproImproImproImproImpro ved Proved Proved Proved Proved Pro vision of Envision of Envision of Envision of Envision of En vironmental Servicesvironmental Servicesvironmental Servicesvironmental Servicesvironmental Services ..... Themajority of ADB’s environment-related assistance to itsPDMCs is expected to continues to be associated withinvestment in environmental infrastructure. This includesprojects for improved water supply, sanitation, and solidwaste management. Such investments can be moreefficiently designed and utilized if they are placed in abroader context of environmental management at theisland-w ide or water catchment level, especially for watermanagement infrastructure. ADB is well placed to providesuch analysis, as it is a leading source of investmentfinancing for environmental infrastructure in the Pacific.

ADB will also support broader urban and land-useplanning activities, stronger efforts to integrate waterquality and quantity management, and back-to-basicsoutreach programs—on everything from water

conservation to litter prevention—to engage keyenvironmental service consumers. A combination of TAsand the incorporation of such efforts into project lendingfor water supply, sanitation, and solid waste managementwill enhance the effectiveness of all such environmentalinfrastructure investments.

Assessing progress in this area will require improvedenvironmental information baselines and monitoring,especially to record the number of people with access toenvironmental services. With specific regard to improved

provision of water and sanitation services, measuredprogress will help Pacific governments meet severalglobal targets agreed to at the WSSD, especially thecommitment to halve the proportion of people withoutsustainable access to safe drinking water. Such actionswould also directly relate to the achievement by 2015,the target year, of MDG No. 10 for the expanded provisionof safe drinking water (Box 12). Likewise, improvementsin sanitation service provision will help governmentsmeet global targets agreed to at the WSSD, including



90

complement ADB’s infrastructure investments. This isexpected to include watershed management componentsof upland agricultural development activities, as well aslowland surface water and groundwater management.When warranted, ADB’s support will be extended—through grant-financed TAs and elements of loan-

financed investments—to the development of broad-based national water management policies andinstitutional structures. These will serve as mechanismsfor coordination and facilitation of investments in thisimportant sector, cover both surface and groundwatermanagement, and integrate water quantity and qualityconcerns. Special attention will be given to finding aproper balance between the roles of government entities,the private sector, and water users in the managementof water systems. The special social, cultural, and religioussensitivities regarding water rights and allocationmechanisms will also be taken fully into account.

Indicators for the measurement of progress in waterresource management have been discussed above. TheSigatoka Agreement offers some concrete suggestionsfor the standardized monitoring of water resourcesystems under Pacific conditions, as well as a preliminaryframework for regional cooperation. If warranted, limitedsupport for regional dissemination of promising watermanagement approaches may be provided through aregional TA mechanism.

Sustainable TSustainable TSustainable TSustainable TSustainable T ourism and Biodiversity Conservationourism and Biodiversity Conservationourism and Biodiversity Conservationourism and Biodiversity Conservationourism and Biodiversity Conservation ..... The tourism industry has much further potential fordevelopment in most PDMCs as an environmentallybenign and sustainable source of jobs and income. Thisis true for both the main islands and outer islands inarchipelagic countries. However, concern is increasingthat current patterns of tourism expansion mayundermine the beauty and functions of the uniquelandscapes and cultural manifestations that are the veryreasons visitors are drawn to PDMCs. Although tourismdevelopment must be driven by the private sector, ADB

can play an important role in helping to establish theenabling conditions for private investment and forsustaining the environmental and cultural foundationsof the industry.

ADB will support the market-based expansion of ecotourism in selected PDMCs through a combination of

TA and loan-funded investments—especially when this canattract public sector co-financing derived from global fundsfor biodiversity conservation. This will be closely

coordinated with efforts to develop loan-fundedinvestments to provide needed infrastructure in outerisland settings. Related actions planned at the local levelalready have been described. If warranted, considerationwill also be given to expanding attention to this topic atthe regional level, through RETA support for the

development of appropriate ecotourism models and theirdissemination.

Success can be measured by increases inconservation area covered by such schemes and byassociated levels of investment. With improvements ininformation collection on the characteristics and healthof Pacific ecosystems, some comparative analysis of theefficacy of such conservation approaches versus otherstrategies for protected areas management may also bepossible.

Renewable and Efficient Energy Production and UseRenewable and Efficient Energy Production and UseRenewable and Efficient Energy Production and UseRenewable and Efficient Energy Production and UseRenewable and Efficient Energy Production and Use .....As shown by the impending expansion of hydropowerdevelopment in several PDMCs, attention is turning toopportunities for broadening the production of energyfrom renewable sources. As regional understanding andappreciation of such investments—including wind,biomass, and solar power as well as hydropower—increases, ADB’s TA support and lending at thesubnational level can provide key technical and financialinputs to help realize this potential. Energy saving,through a wide range of conservation efforts and

demand-side management activities, also deservesspecial attention. ADB is well placed to serve as a catalystfor increased attention to and investment in suchopportunities.

ADB will provide TA resources and loan-fundedinvestments to support the wider use of renewable energysources, especially on outer islands and in rural areas,wherever these can be shown to be commercially viable.It will also provide TA to help create the enabling marketconditions for the expanded use of alternative and

renewable energy production and use, and will seekopportunities to improve the efficiency of energy use basedon both improved public awareness and market incentives.

This TA support will expand the marketing of carbon creditsfor renewable energy sources as a form of co-financing.

Progress in this area can be measured by the increasednumber of megawatts provided by renewable andalternative energy sources, and/ or by the energy savedthrough conservation efforts or other efficiency




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improvements. These measurements can be converted todollar terms as well, based on market energy prices.Measures of the number of people benefiting fromalternative or renewable energy sources, dollars spent onsuch investments, and/ or GHG emissions averted also maybe useful.

Management of Marine and Coastal ResourcesManagement of Marine and Coastal ResourcesManagement of Marine and Coastal ResourcesManagement of Marine and Coastal ResourcesManagement of Marine and Coastal Resources ..... Coralreefs, mangrove forests, sea grass beds, beaches, andoffshore marine ecosystems must be protected tosafeguard the well-being of communities that depend onthem to provide their livelihoods and to sustain the veryexistence of their island homes. These ecosystems formthe ecological foundation of PDMC economies andsupport jobs, health, nutrition, coastal protection, andtourism. Reef systems, in particular, are progressivelymore at risk, especially from improper waste disposal byincreasingly dense coastal populations, from globalthreats of climate change and variability, and frominvasive species. ADB can encourage improvedawareness and responses to these threats through bothits investments and its policy dialogue.

ADB’s assistance to protect these vital naturalresources will include direct loan-funded interventionsto solve specific coastal or marine resource managementproblems, often in conjunction with infrastructureinvestments, and TA activities to support improvedawareness, community-based management approaches,

and better environmental monitoring. These activities willcomplement and be coordinated with those relating towater management, regional fisheries, and adaptationto climate change and variability.

Reliable and consistent information concerning thecurrent conditions of coastal and marine resources—letalone trends in their productivity and diversity—is sorelylacking. The systematic collection of such informationmust be built into any interventions in this field. In time,this can be used to establish baselines for performance

measurement and improved decision making regardingthe efficacy of alternative management approaches.

Areas for Strategic Focus at theNational and Sector Levels

EnEnEnEnEnvironmental Govironmental Govironmental Govironmental Govironmental Go vernance.vernance.vernance.vernance.vernance. Important gaps remain inthe policy and legal frameworks for environmentalmanagement in most PDMCs that need to be filled if thereis to be a firm foundation for further progress. The two

most relevant lessons from experience indicate that (i)overly comprehensive and complex legal measures areless likely to be accepted and implemented than simplerand better-focused mechanisms; and (ii) it is essential thatall important stakeholders be engaged in the consultativeprocess leading to new regulatory or policy measures. The

wider application of traditional environmentalmanagement practices in development programs andprojects should also be encouraged and incorporated intonational legislation wherever possible. Lessons about thedifficulties of passing and implementing national legislationhave come from ADB’s early support for such efforts.Because of ADB’s relationship with PDMC governmentsand engagement in key natural resource andenvironmental management sectors, it remains in a strongposition to promote the development of soundenvironmental governance structures.

ADB will provide policy dialogue and TA support tocountry-level efforts aimed at drafting and passingenvironmental protection and management legislationand regulations. This will particularly include thedevelopment of the capacity to meet the basic EIArequirements to screen potentially damaging developmentprojects. Strong EIA capabilities are necessary tocomplement ADB’s own safeguard policies and to ensurethat ADB projects do no harm to local environments. TAassistance will be accompanied by complementary supportto policy dialogue in the consultative processes leading to

these policy and regulatory reforms.

Performance measurement in the area of environmental governance is problematic and the subjectof considerable international debate at the moment. Closeattention should be paid to the outcomes of internationaldiscussions on the most appropriate indicators in thisfield, with associated measures adapted for use in Pacific.

EnEnEnEnEn vironmental Mainstreaming at the Sector Levelvironmental Mainstreaming at the Sector Levelvironmental Mainstreaming at the Sector Levelvironmental Mainstreaming at the Sector Levelvironmental Mainstreaming at the Sector Level .....Stand-alone environmental assistance will be only weakly

sustainable without strong PDMC commitment toweaving environmental considerations into the veryfabric of sector development planning and management.Public works projects to provide sewage treatment andwater supply are something of a special case, butconcerted efforts are needed to build environmentalcapacity and understanding into planning and investmentin other key sectors such as transport, power,communications, mining, and agriculture. Whetherrelating to water management, tourism expansion, energy



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development, coastal resource management, or othersector (or subnational) interventions, it is essential thatthe capacity for understanding and acting uponenvironmental concerns be established and maintained.ADB’s ongoing policy dialogue with PDMCs in many of these sectors provides an important platform from which

to further this agenda.

ADB will thus assist with this capacity building bothas part of its lending, policy, and programming dialogueand, where warranted, through directly targeted TAactivities. ADB is committed to working with all PDMCsin this effort, especially to help strengthen the capacityof key line ministries so they can appreciate and respondappropriately to the environmental dimensions of theirsector in the development process.

As noted, quantitative assessment of progress in thearea of governance is particularly difficult. The MDGsinclude the desire to “integrate principles of sustainabledevelopment into country policies and programs and toreverse loss of environmental resources” (Goal 7, Target9), but work continues internationally on a consensusset of specific performance measures.

Mainstreaming EnMainstreaming EnMainstreaming EnMainstreaming EnMainstreaming En vironmental Considerations intovironmental Considerations intovironmental Considerations intovironmental Considerations intovironmental Considerations intoDevelopment PlanningDevelopment PlanningDevelopment PlanningDevelopment PlanningDevelopment Planning ..... Beyond support for theestablishment of broad-based legal and regulatoryframeworks for natural resources and environmentalmanagement and sector mainstreaming, a strong need

remains for better incorporation of environmentalconsiderations into national development policies andprograms. Public investment programs should considertheir environmental dimensions from the earliest stage,and the economic costs associated with environmentalmismanagement should be part of national debate ondevelopment priorities and approaches. ADB is activelyengaged with national development planners andpolicymakers and can use this position to encouragethe mainstreaming of the environment into all aspectsof social and economic development—even as it does

the same for its own operations.

Through its ongoing policy dialogue wi th PDM Cgovernments, ADB will work with national economicplanning authorities and other relevant bodies to helpbuild environmental considerations into the mainstreamof their routine processes. Much of this will comethrough ADB’s own country programming. In thiscontext, ADB will conduct analyses of environmentalissues affecting its operations at the country level, as

required by its Environment Policy, and will use thisinformation to shape the direction of its countryprogramming and recommendations for PDMCs aboutassociated policy and capacity building needs. Thisprocess has already begun in several PDMCs. Buildingon the PRES analysis, more in-depth studies will be

made on key relationships between environmentalmanagement and development at the country levelaffecting ADB operations in all PDMCs.

Once again, performance measurement in this areais problematic and will require special attention. Sincethis is tied, in part, to the achievement of MDG Goal 7(Target 9), an internationally recognized set of indicatorsshould emerge soon, and these should be adopted fortracking progress.

Areas for ComplementaryRegional Assistance

Importance of Regional CooperationImportance of Regional CooperationImportance of Regional CooperationImportance of Regional CooperationImportance of Regional Cooperation ..... Promotingregional cooperation is a central theme of ADB’s workacross the Asia and Pacific region. Regional economicintegration as well as environmental cooperation oncommon problems can benefit all PDMCs. 38 ADB can playan important leadership role by encouraging continuedand more effective regional cooperation on topics relatedto environmental management including (i)improvements in the gathering and management of

information on environmental trends and conditions sothat progress can be better assessed; (ii) strengtheningthe productive and appropriate roles of CROPorganizations in environmental management; and (iii)helping PDMCs learn from international experience withenvironmental management of island states, includingfollow-up to the Barbados Programme of Action. ADB’sPRES will be coordinated with the SOPAC SustainableDevelopment Strategy and the impending update of theSPREP Workplan (2003–2006), as well as SPC’s 2003–2006Strategic Plan, among others, to help ensure common

directions and good collaboration. The development of strategic partnerships between ADB and otherorganizations active in this area—including NGOs—willbe encouraged to leverage resources and heighten Pacificownership of environmental management initiatives. Forexample, ADB has proposed a multi-development partner

38 An overview of ADB’s strategy and planned regional assistanceprogram is contained in Regional Coop eration Strategy and Program for th e Pacific: 200 4–200 6 (ADB 2003c). While regional performanceindicators are not specifically discussed here, they are addressed inthe regional cooperation strategy.



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international sources of expertise and financing—particularly for activities that reduce GHG emissions—puts it in a strong position to take a leadership role inthis field.

ADB’s regional TA resources will address the

constraints to expanded commercial provision of energyfrom renewable sources to determine whether it can playa wider role in creating markets for these energy servicesand associated institutions. Opportunities forcollaborating with SPREP’s GEF-funded Pacific IslandsRenewable Energy Project and co-financing based onglobal benefits from GHG reductions will be examinedalong with ADB’s potential assistance in brokering suchfinancing.

Adaptation to Climate Change and VAdaptation to Climate Change and VAdaptation to Climate Change and VAdaptation to Climate Change and VAdaptation to Climate Change and V ariabilityariabilityariabilityariabilityariability ..... A lthoughinvestments needed to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and variability must be organized andimplemented at the country level, this is clearly aPacific-wide challenge. ADB’s position in the region andamong global players in this field means that it can playan important role by assisting at both the country andregional levels with the analysis of and response to threatsderived from climate change and variability, including theconsequences of sea-level rise and the increasedfrequency and/ or intensity of extreme hydrological eventssuch as cyclones and droughts.

ADB will adopt a programmatic approach to dealingwith these threats on a regional basis, through a regional

TA to coordinate such efforts. The goal will be to assistPDMCs as they work toward integrating climate changeand variability adaptation measures into theirdevelopment programs and projects through a “riskreduction” approach. Pilot activities at the country level—funded with grant and/ or loan funds, depending on thenature of the required investments—will complement andfollow from regional TA analysis. Given the global rootsof the problem, ADB will also help PDMCs gain access to

international assistance through such mechanisms as theGEF, with an overall goal of lowering the economic andsocial costs of climate change and variability in the Pacificand especially of reducing the risk of a resulting increasedincidence of poverty. ADB also will work within its ownprogramming processes to incorporate adaptation toclimate change and variability into selected aspects of its Pacific operations.

Implementation Issues andMeasuring Progress

Targets Set at the WSSD

Approaches to measuring progress and associatedchallenges have been mentioned throughout this strategy,and the targets agreed on at the WSSD constitute animportant advance in efforts to standardize and improveperformance assessment. The WSSD had three mainoutcomes: (i) the Johannesburg Declaration onSustainable Development by the Heads of State, (ii) the

Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, and (iii) Type IIPartnership Initiatives (WSSD 2002). The Plan of Implementation lays out targets and timetables forimprovements meant to further global sustainabledevelopment, and where possible these are correlatedwith the previously established MDGs (Box 12). Thesetargets are divided into eight areas covering the followinggeneral topics:

(i) poverty eradication,(ii) changing unsustainable patterns of consumption

and production,(iii) protecting and managing the natural resource

base of economic and social development,(iv) sustainable development in a globalizing world,(v) health and sustainable development,

(vi) sus ta inable development of small islanddeveloping states,

(vii) sustainable development for Africa, and(viii) other regional initiatives.

It is notable that, aside from the special attentiongiven to the very poor nations of Africa, small islanddeveloping states (SIDS) were the only other countriessingled out as deserving exceptional treatment in theirefforts to cope with issues of environment anddevelopment. The special SIDS agenda also relates to a

Program of Action for SIDS previously agreed on duringthe 22 nd Special Session of the UN General Assembly andcorrelates closely with the Barbados Programme of Action(United Nations 1994).

The WSSD targets represent important commitmentsfrom the international community as well as the PDMCsto create the enabling conditions for achievement of



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sustainable development—globally, nationally, andlocally. To the extent possible, all ADB activities in thePacific region—and not just those described as“environment-related” in the PRES—should help toaccomplish these agreed-upon targets and theirassociated goals.

Millennium Development Goals

As noted, many of the WSSD targets correlate closelywith the previously agreed M DGs. These goals have beenrecognized as representing the best available minimumset of targets to use in measuring progress towardattaining the conditions needed to achieve sustainabledevelopment. At the Monterrey Conference in March2002, ADB joined other multilateral development banksin agreeing to relate its Long-Term Strategic Frameworkfor 2001–2015 to the MDGs and to examine how the MDGscould be reflected in country strategies and programs.With this commitment in mind, ADB has completed areview of PDMC progress in meeting these targets (ADB2003b), including Targets 9 through 11 under Goal 7:Ensure environmental sustainability. Among PDMCs,a mixed record is indicated to date in their progresstoward meeting the MDGs, and significant room forimprovement is indicated with respect to fulfilling Goal7. This further underscores the need for specific attentionto improving environmental information collection andmanagement in the region, as called for in the PRES.

Key Risks and Assumptions of theStrategy

The viability of the PRES approach over the period2005–2009 is dependent upon several key risks andassumptions. ADB must be in a position to work with

each PDMC based on domestic political stability and thefulfillment of other basic conditions of this relationship(for example, ADB operations are currently suspendedin Nauru and Solomon Islands, and were recentlydisrupted in the Fiji Islands, due to security issues). It isalso assumed that an adequate minimum degree of absorptive capacity exists in national and regionalpartner organizations, though institutional strengtheningis an important dimension of all recommended actions.

The development of strategic partnerships—especiallyworking with a select group of regional organizationsand NGOs over a multi-year period—represents adeparture from the normal procedures for organizingADB-supported technical assistance, so care will have tobe taken to ensure that this is handled appropriatelywithin ADB policies and procedures. The PRES also takesa longer-term and more programmatic perspective thanis typical for ADB operations, so it remains to be seenhow ADB’s programming and assistance systems willadjust to this mode of work. Finally, several of the regionalinitiatives envisioned in the PRES will be dependent uponthe availability of grant co-financing from sources outsideADB, including the GEF and certain bilateral donor funds

channeled through ADB.




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APPENDIXES



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Appendix 1

PACIFIC REGIONAL SUBMISSION TO WSSD(7 September 2001)

Vision

Achieving measurable sustainable development in thePacific region towards improving the quality life for all.

Mission

Reinvigoration of the implementation of Agenda 21to achieve priority outcomes, including from the WSSD,that reflect and respond to the people, oceans and islanddimensions of sustainable development in the Pacificregion.

Objectives

(a) To ensure that the sustainable developmentpriorities of the Pacific region are fullyacknowledged and integrated in the WorldSummit on Sustainable Development process.

(b) To secure and strengthen political support fromthe international community for programmes andinitiatives that are essential to sustainable

development of this region’s people, theirenvironment and natural resources.

(c) To promote new and existing partnershipsbeneficial to sustainable development of theregion.

(d) To secure and mobilise resources to buildcapacity for sustainable development.

General Statement

We, the Countries of the Pacific region, share a

common unique identity, and have a responsibility forthe stewardship of our islands and resources.

Our Ocean has supported generations of Pacificcommunities—as a medium for transport and as a sourceof food, tradition and culture. Our present, and future,well-being is dependent upon it.

Our ecosystems contain high biological diversity thathas sustained the lives of Pacific communities since first

settlement. They contain the most extensive coral reefsin the world, unique landforms, globally importantfisheries, significant mineral resources and high numbersof endemic species. They may also contain manyundiscovered resources of potential use to humankind.

To safeguard Pacific communities and maintain thehealth of our ecosystems, in perpetuity, it is imperativethat we apply the precautionary approach as outlined inthe Rio Declaration, Principle 15.

Overcoming the well recognized vulnerability of islands to the effects of global climate change, naturaldisasters, environmental damage and global economicshocks will be an essential element of sustainabledevelopment in our region.

Initiatives

OceansOceansOceansOceansOceans

We are seeking

1. A renewed interna tiona l commitmen t tosustainable management of oceans.

2. More effective, prioritized and targetedcooperation and coordination among regional andinternational organizations with responsibilitiesfor marine and oceans protection andmanagement, and relevant national agencies.

3. To develop and implement regional and national

oceans policies so as to enhance the sustainablemanagement of the Pacific Ocean and itsresources.

4. Promote total ecosystem marine resourcesmanagement through capacity building andpollution control measures and through furtherdevelopment of policy and program options toassist countries to sustainably manage their ow nmarine and ocean jurisdictions.



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5. Improved access to survey and monitoringtechnologies and the resulting products in orderto ensure responsible and sustainable use of ocean resources and the completion of maritimeboundaries delimitation.

6. The implementation of the United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea and relatedconventions in an integrated manner, andsupport for the development of related nationalpolicies and legislation.

Natural ResourcesNatural ResourcesNatural ResourcesNatural ResourcesNatural Resources

To advance sustainable natural resource developmentand management, we are seeking

1. To further develop and implement legislation andpolicies at domestic, regional and internationallevels that promote sustainable management of natural assets, including enforcement, datacollection, and ongoing assessment, evaluationand economic valuation.

2. Recognition of ownership and protection of indigenous practices and knowledge.

3. Access to appropriate technology, data mana-gement systems and research and educational

capabilities.

4. A global initiative on freshwater to improve thequantity and quality of freshwater supply to allcommunities through better water resourcecatchment and watershed management, andimproved and affordable technologies fordesalination.

5. To sign, ratify and comply with existing naturalresource conventions, such as those relating to

biodiversity and land degradation.

Climate Change and VClimate Change and VClimate Change and VClimate Change and VClimate Change and V ariability and Sea Level Riseariability and Sea Level Riseariability and Sea Level Riseariability and Sea Level Riseariability and Sea Level Rise

1. To encourage all Parties to ratify the UNFCCCKyoto Protocol so that it comes into force,preferably in 2002. Its implementation is asignificant first step towards achieving real andmeasurable reductions in greenhouse gasemissions.

2. To increase international and domestic actionin addressing adaptation to climate change,climate variability, sea level rise and otherclimate change impacts.

3. Further commitments to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions in the future.

4. To develop and promote adaptation strategies.

5. To mobilise resources for adaptation.

6. Consideration of all the implications of alladaptation needs, options and requirements.

Islands VIslands VIslands VIslands VIslands V ulnerabilityulnerabilityulnerabilityulnerabilityulnerability

In the pursuit of sustainable development for islandcommunities we seek

1. The promotion of mutually supportive social,cultural, trade, investment, economic andenvironmental policies and goals in Pacificcountries and the broader global community.

2. Effective measures to address the vulnerabilityof island communities and their ability to adaptto the consequences of climate change, sealevel rise and human-induced and natural

hazards.

3. Further research and development on theenvironmental vulnerability index and itsimplications by the tenth anniversary of theBarbados Programme of Action.

EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy

We seek to promote sustainable energy developmentthrough

1. Promotion of the development and use of renewable energy sources by removingdistortions in energy markets.

2. Mainstreaming and commercialising the use of alternative renewable energy, which is moresustainable, to reduce its cost.

3. Encouraging energy efficiency.




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The People The People The People The People The People

The peo pl e remain at the hea rt of susta inabledevelopment in the region. Recognising social equity forall, including gender, we seek the following initiativesthat are essential for their well-being:

HealthHealthHealthHealthHealth

1. Prevention, control and eradication of threats tohealth such as dengue, malaria and non-communicable diseases in an environmentallysafe way by 2020.

2. Effective reduction, prevention and control of waste and pollution and their significant healthrelated impacts.

GoGoGoGoGovernancevernancevernancevernancevernance

To advance good governance in the pursuit of sustainabledevelopment, we seek the following initiatives:

1. Promote good domestic governance throughappropriate levels of transparency and accoun-tability and strengthening policies that areproactive and responsive.

2. Improve partnerships at all levels, especially with

the private sector and civil society.

Capacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity Building

Develop and implement a capacity building frameworkthat is responsive to Pacific countries: an integrated andparticipatory approach that nurtures the well-being of individuals, families, communities and society and

encourages and empowers people to take ownership of processes that affect them. This framework would includethe following critical elements:

• Raising public awareness• Strengthening technical capacity• Ful l par tic ipatory approach involving a l l

stakeholders• Strengthening of existing institutions where

weaknesses have been identified• Evaluate and mobilize human resources• HRD initiatives to alleviate poverty and promote

gender equity;• Implement the Forum Basic Education Action Plan;• Upgrade and extend infrastructural services such

as transport and communication networks tofacilitate sustainable development.

We seek the convening of a ten-year reviewconference on the Global Programme of Action for theSustainable Development of Small Island DevelopingStates adopted in Barbados in 1994.

Financial ResourcesFinancial ResourcesFinancial ResourcesFinancial ResourcesFinancial Resources

Financial resources are imperative for thesustainable development of the region and in thatconnection we fully support the International Conferenceon Financing for Development as a key stepping stone tomobilize resources for sustainable development.



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CASE 1CASE 1CASE 1CASE 1CASE 1. The Funafuti Conservation Area,Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu: Drawing Lessons forFuture Marine Conservation Planning andManagement

Background

Marine protected areas (MPAs) have gained wideacceptance among coastal planners, managers,researchers, and scientists as an effective tool that canbe utilized to protect threatened marine and coastalecosystems. MPAs allow depleted breeding stocks of important food fish and invertebrate species to regenerateand become reestablished, providing a foundation forsustainable fisheries. Typically, the MPA model comprisesa core “no-take” conservation area, within which harvestof fish and other consumable resources is strictlyprohibited, and a surrounding “buffer zone” in whichnonintensive fishing practices are permitted. The fullcommitment and participation of the local community inplanning, design, and implementation can ensure thelong-term viability of such projects.

An MPA project, the Funafuti Conservation Area(FCA), was initiated at Funafuti, the main atoll and lagoonsystem of Tuvalu, in 1996. The FCA w as established withthe support of the South Pacific Biodiversity ConservationProgramme (SPBCP), and administered by the SouthPacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), inresponse to reported increases in fishing pressure andthe threat of deteriorating environmental quality inFunafuti lagoon. The FCA has been regarded as highlysuccessful by local residents, but information about theproject has not been widely disseminated outside Tuvalu.As part of the Asian Development Bank’s (ADB) PacificRegion Environmental Strategy (PRES), a case study wasprepared to evaluate the performance of the FCA project.One of the primary objectives of the case study, and of the PRES, was to gather lessons learned that could beapplied in other contexts, and to determine ways in whichenvironmental management could be effectivelymainstreamed into government policymaking andeconomic planning.

Appendix 2

SUMMARIES OF CASE STUDIES

Information obtained through review of secondaryliterature sources provided the initial foundation for thecase study. Intensive consultative activities were alsocarried out in Tuvalu, and included (i) interviews withkey informants who were involved in establishing,monitoring, or managing the FCA; (ii) round-tablediscussions with key stakeholders from the community;and (iii) questionnaires that were distributed to determinesentiment and level of awareness within the communityabout the FCA and general conservation issues. Inaddition, direct observations of biophysical conditions inthe FCA were made during a series of SCUBA andsnorkeling surveys. These field surveys were useful inproviding an overview of relative resource abundance,biodiversity, and ecosystem health, and in drawingcomparisons between prevailing conditions at sites withinand outside the conservation area.

Findings

Based on the observations made and informationgathered during the study, specific findings regarding theperformance of the FCA project are as follows:

• Community members are generally supportive of the FCA. While acknowledging that there arecertain weaknesses, they feel that it is producingbeneficial results, and that it should be maintainedas a no-take zone in which breeding populationsof fishes and other organisms can be protected tosustain fisheries resources.

• Most respondents believe that fish populationshave increased within the lagoon as a result of the establishment of the conservation area.

Also, during field surveys, high biomass andbiodiversity were observed at two of the threesites (Tefala and Fuafatu) visited within the FCA.Significant at these sites was the observation of large-sized individual fishes of highly prizedtarget food species, such as groupers andsnappers. The presence of so many large fish of desirable target food species appears to indicatethat there is very low fishing pressure at thesesites.



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• While observations of high biodiversity andbiomass were impressive at the FCA sites, theseparameters also appeared to be roughlycomparable at other sites outside theconservation area (South Fongafale and Tepuka).However, the sites within the FCA still appeared

to have larger-sized individual fishes among thekey target food species than at the sites outsidethe FCA.

• Two possible explanations for the fact that fishstocks at sites within and outside the FCA arealmost the same in terms of abundance anddiversity are: (i) the FCA is already functioningeffectively as a source of biomass, and isexporting “spillover” biomass to other parts of the lagoon; and (ii) fishing pressure is relativelylow (i.e., below maximum sustainable yield)throughout the lagoon, even outside the FCA.

• During FCA project implementation, intensiveawareness-building activities were conducted,and were considered generally effective inimproving local knowledge about conservationissues. However, these activities have all butceased since the project ended in 2001.

• Monitoring and survey activities conducted aspart of the conservation project were helpful in

establishing baseline data about speciescomposition and diversity within the FCA. Theseactivities also helped to develop skills amongtechnical staff in the Funafuti Conservation Officeand Fisheries Department. However, in thefuture, other parameters need to be included, andmethodologies need to be improved, in order tostrengthen the monitoring process to enabledetection of changes brought about through themanagement of the FCA.

• The FCA project provided an impetus for thepassage of the Tuvalu Conservation Area Act of 1998 and of the Funafuti Town Council’s bylawsdated 16 December 1999. The national Actestablishes a legal framework for declaringconservation areas nationwide, including possible

future conservation sites on the outer islands. Thebylaws establish the regulations and proceduresthat govern the use of resources specifically withinthe FCA. While these are significant steps towardinstitutionalizing the FCA, an obvious deficiencyis the lack of an integrated, community-based FCA

management plan.

• While respondents and interviewees indicatedthat the planning of the FCA was carried out withthe involvement of the community, they alsopointed out that greater community participationwill be needed to manage the area effectivelyover the long term. Presently, two conservationofficers are handling practically all responsibilitiesfor the management of the area, with very littleassistance from the community at large.

• Voluntary compliance with restrictions on fishingwithin the FCA no-take area has been at a highlevel, but because enforcement efforts are weak,some violations continue to occur. Organizedenforcement efforts are hampered by a lack of trained staff, inadequate funding, and anomaliesin the legal and judicial system that make itdifficult to prosecute violators. Recent incidentsof “permitted catches” within the no-take areaalso undermine conservation efforts.

• No pract ical mechanisms for sus ta inablefinancing were put into place as part of theproject. As a result, conservation efforts were cutback severely once project funding from SPREPceased, resulting in a feeling of frustration anddisappointment among stakeholders.

• For conservation activities to be sustainable, itis essential that government policymakersunderstand fully the significance of theresources being protected, and move toward

mainstreaming conservation efforts into thenational development and economic agenda. The Government’s commitment and support forsuch efforts can help in protecting resources of national importance for present and futuregenerations.




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Lessons Learned

Based on the findings of the FCA case study, anumber of key lessons emerged. These are consistentwith lessons learned from evaluating past MPA projectsfrom other countries. The most significant are as follows:

• An MPA such as the FCA, if successfully managed,can produce important tangible benefits. Amongthese are (i) increased awareness within thecommunity about environmental and conser-vation issues, (ii) preservation of biodiversity, and(iii) actual increases in fish biomass, resulting inincreased sustainable fishery yields.

• Traditional systems of fisheries managementcan form the basis for developing an effectivemanagement framework. However, each situationis unique and needs to be evaluated individuallyto determine how best to integrate traditional andnontraditional methods into a system that is mostappropriate within any specific biophysical,socioeconomic, and cultural setting.

• Community participation is key to ensuring thelong-term sustainability of any marine conser-vation program. Community participation isespecially crucial in the planning and designstages. It is also critical in various aspects of

implementation, especially in monitoring andenforcement.

• Monitoring methods should be developed thatcan produce the most useful data for measuringchanges over time, especially those changes thatmight be due to improved management andconservation within an MPA. Biomass and fishsize distribution are two parameters that areespecially important in this regard.

• A no-take zone cannot be managed in isolation.No-take zones are simply the “core” zones of MPAs. It is important to coordinate the manage-ment of these zones with the management of activities occurring in surrounding areas. Anecosystem approach should be used to definethe management area (whether it be a lagoon,a small island ecosystem, a watershed, orother readily identifiable ecological unit). Acomprehensive, integrated community-based

management plan should be developed to guideactivities within the management area.

• Selecting an area that is not under intensivepressure, either from heavy fishing activity or dueto serious environmental impacts (e.g., from

pollution or land transformation), increases thechances of successfully maintaining healthymarine biodiversity resources and breedingstocks for fisheries within an MPA. Propermanagement under these conditions can help toprotect biodiversity for future generations.

• Sources for sustainable financing need to beidentified early in the planning process, andmechanisms put in place to capture revenues thatcan support management efforts over the longterm. Failure to secure sustainable financing canlead to frustration and disappointment, and canultimately undermine the conservation effort.

• I t is essential tha t the na tional and localgovernment give full institutional support forconservation initiatives such as the FCA project,through “mainstreaming,” which requiresinclusion of conservation objectives within overallnational and local policymaking and economicplanning. Specifically, this entails promulgation of appropriate laws and regulations, establishment

of institutional structures that may be required foreffective management, development of effectiveand comprehensive management plans, andidentification of fund sources and allocation of funds where needed.

A rough calculation of expected costs and benefitsfor improved management of the FCA was undertaken.Capital costs and recurrent costs for improvedmanagement over a 5-year timeframe were estimated.

The value of benefits was derived from past studies of

similar conservation projects. Values such asincreased fisheries productivity, the coastal protectionfunction provided by healthy coral reefs, and improvedopportunities for ecotourism, ocean recreation, andsimilar revenue-generating activities, were taken intoaccount. The calculation showed an estimated neteconomic benefit of A$163,120/ year to be realiz edthrough more effective management of the FCA. The netbenefits to the country could be further multiplied byincreasing the size of the management area, or by



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replicating the conservation project at other sites on otheratolls around the country.

Based on the case study findings, a series of recommendations is made for strengthening themanagement of the FCA. These include improving the

monitoring methodology; increasing public awareness;developing an integrated management plan for all of Funafuti lagoon; improving enforcement; buildingcapacity, both within government departments andthrough strengthening of nongovernmental organizationsand other community-based groups; and developingmechanisms for sustainable financing, especially throughpromotion of ecotourism and ocean recreation.

It is also recommended that possibilities forreplicating conservation areas on the other atolls of

Tuvalu be explored. On several other atol ls wheretraditional management systems have been established,residents represented through their town councils havecalled for assistance in setting up formal conservationareas. In designing any such management systems,consideration should be given to determining how bestto combine traditional and nontraditional managementelements. A similar approach should be taken if replication of the FCA model is considered for other Pacificisland nations. Possibilities for establishing a regionalnetwork, which could link conservation areas in variouscountries, should also be investigated.

The importance of mainstreaming conservationefforts, so that they are fully integrated into overallnational development planning, policymaking, andeconomic budgeting, cannot be overemphasized. Asdemonstrated in the cost-benefit analysis, improvedprotection of fish breeding stocks and related naturalresources in MPAs such as the FCA can result in significantnet economic benefits for the nation. Working in closecollaboration with community stakeholders, theGovernment must commit itself, in the form of legal,

institutional, and financial support, to ensure thateffective management is provided on an ongoing basis.

Cross-sector linkages provide opportunities tostrengthen conservation efforts. In Tuvalu, conservationactivities within MPAs can be linked to other activities of the Fisheries Department (for example, using these sitesas restocking areas for giant clam and other maricultureproducts, and for research), to ecotourism development,and to outer islands development (among others).

At present the Government of Tuvalu does not havethe capacity to fully execute and implement all theactivities that are required for optimizing a nationalmarine conservation program. For this reason, it isrecommended that a team of specialists provide therequired technical assistance to help prepare the

community, train assigned personnel, and help coordinatea range of community-based planning, design, andmanagement functions.

In summary, the FCA project has been relativelysuccessful, and can provide a useful model for similarmarine conservation projects at other sites within thecountry, around the region, and beyond. It should be notedthat the generally low fishing pressure within Funafutilagoon as a whole is probably a significant contributingfactor to the successful results observed within the FCA.

This is in sharp contrast to the case in more populousnations, such as the Philippines or Indonesia, where suchresults are much more difficult to achieve. The successof the FCA project in Tuvalu points precisely to the urgentneed, in nations where fishing pressure is presentlybeyond sustainable limits, to consider all reasonablemeans to bring these pressures under control. Only if thisis done soon will there be any hope of achievingsustainability of the fisheries resources that are so vitalto providing the people of these nations with their basicsustenance.

CASE 2CASE 2CASE 2CASE 2CASE 2. Strategic Environment Assessmentof Fiji Islands’ National Tourism Plan

Background

The Asian Development Bank (ADB), in cooperationwith the Government of New Zealand is formulating thePacific Region Environmental Strategy for 2005-2009. Thiswill review major environmental challenges in the regionand put forward strategic objectives and activities for ADBassistance.

To help in achieving this, case studies are beingconducted to develop and test—in cooperation withpartners in the Pacific—various kinds of tools andapproaches and methodologies for policy integration.

These case studi es are in tended to guide ADB onappropriate strategies for mainstreaming environmental




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dimensions into its economic and social developmentinterventions.

The World Wide Fund for Nature–South Paci ficProgramme (WWF-SPP) and ADB formed a partnershipagreement to carry out a “Strategic Environmental

Assessment of the Fiji Islands’ Tourism DevelopmentPlan.” This case study was chosen because tourism isthe fastest-growing industry in the Fiji Islands and ishaving potentially significant impacts on its natural andsocial environment. In addition, the project coincides witha mid-term review of the Fiji Islands’ TourismDevelopment Plan (TDP) planned for 2003.

The Case Study

The basic objectives of the study were to

• Inform the 2003 mid-term review of the TDP byassessing the environmental and sustainabledevelopment impacts of the current Plan inorder to help the Ministry of Tourism and itspartners make future plans as sustainable aspossible; and

• Test the usefulness of Strategic EnvironmentalAssessment (SEA) as a tool for improving thesustainabili ty of strategies and plans in the Asia-Pacific region, with a view to using it more

widely.

WWF-SPP formed a project team, which carried outthe assessment in March and April 2003. A consultationstrategy was devised to ensure full stakeholderparticipation. As a first step a Memorandum of Under-standing was drawn up between WWF-SPP and theMinistry of Tourism. The two parties agreed that the SEAwould provide the environmental and social elements of the midterm review. An Advisory Group, made up of keyplayers within the tourism sector in the Fiji Islands, was

formed to help guide the process.

Fiji Islands’ Tourism Development Plan

The TDP calls for “step change” growth in tourism. The strategy argues that the Fiji Islands must move awayfrom “bumbling along” much as before, with a modestincrease in the accommodation stock, to a large-scalegrowth in its tourist industry. This growth is viewed ascritical to compensate for foreign-exchange losses in

the ailing sugar industry. The plan suggests a number of policies to assist the Fiji Islands in achieving this change.

The Strategic EnvironmentalAssessment Process

A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) wascarried out to understand the likely environmental andsocial impacts of the plan. This was achieved bycomparing the current environmental, social, andeconomic baseline and likely trends under the TDPagainst sustainability objectives. This allows anassessment to be made of whether or not the TDP issustainable.

The Main Findings from the SEA The Main Findings from the SEA The Main Findings from the SEA The Main Findings from the SEA The Main Findings from the SEA

• At the aggregate level, the environmentalimpacts of tourism have not been all thatsignificant. However, there are particular areaswhere it is causing serious environmentaldegradation. Here the situation is extremelyprecarious. Many environmental pressures, forexample on coral reefs, are close to levels atwhich irreversible damage could occur. Furtherpressures could tip the balance, resulting in long-term environment damage.

• Tourism is currently providing considerable

economic benefits to the Fiji Islands. However,these economic benefits are far smaller thanthose the gross tourist spending figures suggest:some estimates indicate that more than 60% of the money coming in leaks back out of thecountry. Moreover, the loss of earnings fromother sectors, especially the sugar industry, leavesthe Fiji Islands’ economy highly dependent onthe tourism sector.

• The kinds of “step-change” large-scale, high-

investment tourism advocated in the TDP wouldtip the balance. This type of development ishighly demanding of the natural environmentin terms of resources used and pollutiongenerated. In fact, seeking “step change” intourism development is likely to cause problemsaffecting a number of sustainability objectives;in particular it is likely to lead to growingtensions between tourist developers,landowners, and local communities.



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• Whi le a lot of tour ism developmen ts arefollowing good practice, the Fiji Islands lacksthe frameworks to enforce it. Much of the policy,legislation, and regulation needed to ensuresuch enforcement already exists, on paper.However, much of the necessary legislation has

not been enacted; or if enacted, it has not beenimplemented or applied.

Conclusions and Recommendations

In the Fiji Islands, a cautionary approach to futuretourism development is required: that is, weight shouldbe given to safeguarding the benefits and advantages thecountry currently has, given the resources and constraintsit possesses, and any actions that could cause seriousenvironmental harm or create further social tensionshould be avoided.

The Recommended Direction for T The Recommended Direction for T The Recommended Direction for T The Recommended Direction for T The Recommended Direction for T ourismourismourismourismourismin the Fiji Islandsin the Fiji Islandsin the Fiji Islandsin the Fiji Islandsin the Fiji Islands

• Set growth objectives and targets for tourism interms of benefits to the Fiji Islands rather thanas gross volume of traded activity, and treat (andevaluate) expansion in tourism activity as ameans to increase the benefits for the Fiji Islands,rather than as an end in itself.

• Concentrate support on those kinds of tourismthat put more into local economies and havelower leakage, such as ecotourism, community-based tourism, and non-“packaged” travelers.

• Establish effective “bottom-up” planning of tourism at the province and t ik ina level, andpermit only tourism developments that areapproved through such a process. A prerequisitefor this is to build the capacity of localcommunities to understand the options available

to them and make informed decisions.

• Design and successfully implement programs tosubstantially reduce economic leakage fromresort-based tourism. A prerequisite for thiswould be a rigorous study establishing the realeconomic leakage from different kinds of tourismactivities in the Fiji Islands.

Recommended StepsRecommended StepsRecommended StepsRecommended StepsRecommended Steps

• The Governmen t o f the F ij i I sl ands mustimplement and enforce the environmental policy,assessment, and management framework thatalready largely exists on paper. In particular, the

Sustainable Development Bill (SDB) should beenacted as soon as possible and fullyimplemented, including the necessary budgetsand resource allocations. This will provide muchof the machinery required.

• Many of the detailed policies and proposals inthe TDP should also be fully implemented.

• All tourism development should be required tomeet minimum impact standards unless aproperly specified environmental impactassessment identifies any “headroom” for impacts.

• An environmental fund should be establishedfrom user fees charged to visitors.

These directions may appear inconsistent with the TDP’s policy of “step change.’’ In fact, many of the detailedpolicies in the TDP would further the kinds of activitiesthat would help promote sustainable tourism. However,much of this has not been enacted; or if enacted, has notbeen implemented or applied.

By following the above guidelines the Fiji Islands wil lbe able to develop tourism at a pace and scale that ismore in line with the resources and constraints that existwithin the country and that will bring long-lasting benefitsto the country.

Lessons Learned

The SEA process provided a robust and logicalstructure to assess the environmental and social impacts

of the TDP. The project raised important points aboutemphasis and use, which should be reflected in futureSEA applications in the South Pacific, as well as anyguidance produced:

• The assessment benefited considerably fromthe existence of a number of related studiescarried out in the region, and a large numberof local experts who were able to advise and




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guide the project. However, where informationwas lacking, the assessors where able to make

judgments based on the bes t avai labl einformation. Important issues should not bediscounted because of data unavailability.

• The assessment shows the importance of lookingat social and economic issues together withenvironmental issues. This proved vital forgaining a good understanding of the situation andformulating practicable and achievablerecommendations.

• SEA guidance assumes that once a strategy orpolicy is duly adopted, or laws or regulationsenacted, that they will be enforced. In the FijiIslands, however, much of the policy is notimplemented. Therefore, the assessment of current policies must ask both what is “officially”stated and what is really happening on theground. Assessments must avoid makingrecommendations for which implementationcapacity does not exist.

• A critical component of the SEA process is theconsultation strategy. In the assessment, a highlyable and effective group of people representinga range of stakeholder interests took an activepart in the advisory group meetings. Without their

participation and full support, any recom-mendations from the report would be unlikelyto be taken forward. Sufficient time must be setaside to communicate and work with keystakeholders. If there are sceptical stakeholders,a concerted effort should be made to work withthem and find common ground.

• In terms of SEA management, having a locallybased project champion once the consultantsdepart is a critical element. Members of the

advisory group must be expected to championthe work and help push through therecommendations.

• It is important that the role of the consultant beconstructive, build local knowledge andexpertise, and give local organizations andpeople ownership and capacity. The short timescale of the project meant that more of a top-down approach was adopted—the consultants

producing and then trying to “sell” a package of recommendations—than was desired. It alsomeant that the project hardly achieved anytransfer of skills or capacity to local people. Suchcapacity building needs to be built into the projectbefore its inception.

• Working through an NGO proved effective, as itcan act as an arbiter between groups that havedivergent viewpoints.

• How ADB (and other potential aid agencies)respond to the recommendations of the reportwill make a big difference to its effectiveness.

• ADB should consider commissioning guidanceon applying SEA in the specific circumstances of the Pacific. The experience of the Fiji Islandstourism pilot provides a valuable starting point,but any guidance derived should be tested on arange of plans and countries to determine itsbreadth of applicability.

• Provided the lessons are taken on board, ADBshould promote SEA as a valuable tool forsustainable policy development in the Asia-Pacific region.

CASE 3CASE 3CASE 3CASE 3CASE 3. Integration of Traditional and ModernSystems of Environmental Management andUse of Public-Private Partnerships in NaturalResource Management and Tourism Develop-ment in the State of Yap, Federated States of Micronesia

Objective

As part of the preparation of the Pacific RegionEnvironmental Strategy (PRES) the Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB) has funded a field study in Yap State,Federated States of Micronesia, of traditional approachesto the management of natural resources and theirrelationship to modern resource management and to thedevelopment of tourism. It is intended that this studycontribute to PRES guidelines for environmentalsustainability and be of general use to other Pacific islandmembers of ADB.



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The objectives of the study are to evaluate (i) howtraditional systems have played a role in natural resourcemanagement and in development, (ii) how traditionalsystems could be productively integrated with contem-porary approaches to resource management, and (iii) howpublic-private partnerships have been employed in the

development of tourist destinations in a Pacific islandnation and could be employed in future development.

The study examines, through interviews of locallyinvolved person, the decision-making processes employedfor the development of four resorts. Two are small locallyowned facilities using traditional island design and twoare larger, more complex and internationally or expatriate-owned and -operated facilities. Through the sameinterview process, the study examines the traditionalmethods of natural resource management, how thetraditional and modern state approaches have conflictedwith or complimented each other, and how they can bebetter integrated in the future for more sustainableenvironmental management.

Background

Go Go Go Go Go v e rn men t v e rn men t v e rn men t v e rn men t v e rn men t

Yap is one of four states in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). Within the federation, Yap State is aconstitutional democracy with great independence to set

its own policies and operations.

Respect for tradition is incorporated into theconstitution of Yap State, into the legal code, and into thevery structure of the government where, in addition to thenormal executive, legislative, and judicial branches, afourth branch comprises two councils of traditionalleaders.

T T T T T r r r r r adi t ion al Leadership adit ion al Leadership adit ion al Leadership adit ion al Leadership adit ion al Leadership

Respect for the traditional culture and for thetraditional leaders in Yap is still strong, though theobservance of traditional practices and rights isweakening as Yap progressively enters the cash economyand adopts modern technology.

The traditiona l method of na tura l resourcemanagement in Yap is based on very complex systemsof both traditional leadership and land tenure. In thetraditional culture of Yap, a geographic area does not

normally have just a single leader or “chief.” Any singlevillage and its lands are governed by complex hierarchiesof village and family structure, and by multiple leaders of different rank, each with specific cultural and operationalresponsibilities and authority. One of the leaders, notnecessarily the most senior, has responsibility for the

stewardship of the land, and another has responsibilityfor stewardship of the water or marine resources.

As part of the system of multiple and specializedleadership roles, decisions are normally takenconsensually, through community discussion from whichthe responsible leader gauges the consensus andannounces it as the decision of the community. The

Yapese culture is very nonconfrontational, and it is oftendifficult for individuals to speak their opinion.

Decisions are taken for the overall welfare of thecommunity, whether at the village or regional level. Asmuch of the work in the past was done communally (e.g.,fishing and building fish traps, building boats or houses,and repairing the stone paths that connectedcommunities), members of the community were able todiscuss issues with deliberation, and usually a consensusemerged without confrontation.

Land T Land T Land T Land T Land T en en en en en u r e u re u r e u re u re

Land tenure is extremely complex and has significant

implications for future development and management of natural resources. Some land or water may be heldcommunally, but for most the right to use the resource isowned by individuals and is inherited in an equallycomplex hybrid matrilineal/ patrilineal system. While the“owner” enjoys the exclusive use of the resource, thenature of that use is subject to the guidance or limitationof the traditional leader who has responsibility forstewardship of the resource. The owner has the right totake resources from the area for the welfare of his ownfamily, but more extensive use, such as fishing by net or

agriculture for sale, is subject to the decision of theappropriate traditional leader.

Because of its importance, land has been dividedthrough inheritance until most of it is in small parcels.Less than 10% of land in Yap has been surveyed and titled.Many disputes over boundaries occur, and becauseseveral persons may be named as owner it is often difficultto title the land. Tourism facilities have thus far been builton small footprints of land owned by the entrepreneur or




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on land in Colonia that is or was owned by the state. Anyfuture development of tourism, especially dispersedecotourism outside Colonia, will face significant barriersin acquiring clear title or access to land that will beacceptable to investors. Foreigners and foreigncompanies are not allowed to own land in Yap.

Findings

Natur Natur Natur Natur Natur al Resou r al Resou r al Resou r al Resou r al Resou r ce Management ce Management ce Management ce Management ce Management

The traditi ona l sys tem s of na tura l reso urcemanagement are extensions of the very complexsystems of traditional leadership, communitycohesiveness, and land ownership. The objective in thetraditional system of stewardship of the naturalresources was to assure sufficient food and sheltermaterials. Achieving that objective of course requiredsustained yield and productivity from the naturalsystems, but the system contained no distinct conceptof the sustainable use of natural resources. Theconsensual manner in which decisions were made andthe ownership and authority patterns over the land andmarine areas served to limit who could use the resourcesand how they could be used to meet a complex set of community needs and obligations. The availabletechnology (e.g., stone fish traps and heavy hand-madenets) was such that its use within the ownership systemcould not easily exhaust the resources, and marine

populations and land fertility remained stable. It wasnot necessary to plan for the management of naturalresources, and such planning was not part of thetraditional culture.

These traditio nal systems of natural reso urcemanagement have been increasingly unable to regulatethe use of either marine or terrestrial resources in thesustainable manner that they once did. Weakenedtraditional authority and loss of community cohesionmake it difficult to stop widespread poaching in violation

of individual fishing rights, and technological changesallow an individual or small group to overfish an areawhere previously the entire community fishing togetherand limiting the entry of other communities did notdeplete the stocks. Certain fish species have almostdisappeared, and it is widely recognized that marineresources are endangered.

The greatest single impact on the marine resourceshas been the introduction of the small-mesh

monofilament nylon net that has made lagoon fishing soeasy that fish stocks inside the reef are being decimated.

The traditional leaders recognize that this is a problem,but the traditional system of stewardship seemsunprepared to deal with the issues and unable to stopthe process.

Increasing variability in weather conditions hasproduced more extreme storm conditions, causingsubstantially increased erosion and saltwater intrusioninto coastal agricultural lands. The loss to saltwaterintrusion of important taro-producing land at the coastalfringes has caused interior land to be cleared for gardenpatches, with resulting steady increase in loss of alreadydiminished forest cover. Traditional methods for themultiple use of agricultural land for higher productivity andsustainable yield have been largely lost, and the weakenedtraditional authority and community cohesion apparentlyprelude either reintroducing traditional agriculturalmethods or stemming the continual clearing of more land.

The state government has organizational units toplan and manage both agriculture and marine resources,but these units lack sufficient trained staff and funding toundertake effective outreach programs. The statemanagement units meet resistance from the traditionalsystem that sees state government as intruding ontraditional usage rights, while the traditional system isitself unable or unwilling to confront and deal with the

steadily deteriorating resource base.

Very little integration of traditional and modernsystems of natural resource management has taken place.

Traditional systems prevail by default, even in theirweakened form, because the government is reluctant toconfront traditional land and water use rights.Communications between the state government and thetraditional leaders and communities are weak, sometimesclouded in mutual suspicion; the latter generally assumethat the state is focused on economic growth, balance of

payments, foreign investment, tourism promotion andother such “modern economy” issues and not concernedwith the problems or opinions of the traditional leadersand communities.

The two councils of traditional leaders, establishedconstitutionally among other purposes to avoid such acommunications gap, have in most cases been unable todo so effectively, becoming more involved in the moderneconomy issues of the government. Lack of effective



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channels of communication has made it difficult for stateagencies to reach understanding with leaders andcommunities on the common objectives and interests fortraditional and modern approaches to management andhow they can be beneficially integrated.

T T T T T ouri sm ouri sm ouri sm ouri sm ouri sm

Tourism in Yap is of limited scale relative to itsneighbors, Palau and Guam. On the main island of Yapare seven relatively small hotel facilities, ranging in sizefrom 4 to 24 units and totaling 100 rooms and on theoutlying island of Ulithi, one hotel of 10 units. Tourism isvery important to the Yap economy. The Yap VisitorsBureau estimates that tourists spend US$3 millionannually in Yap, a significant amount relative to Yap’sannual gross domestic product of about US$40 million.It is believed that more than 80% of tourism revenue isconnected to diving, which is in turn heavily dependenton the famous manta rays that can be seen year-round.

All but two of the tourism facilities are in Colonia, thecapital of Yap, which has a population of about 1,000persons. All facilities in Colonia are on small areas of land,are connected to the municipal waste treatment system,and have thus far had little impact on the environment orthe natural resource base. Little growth in tourism hastaken place since the 1997 Asian financial crisis.

The people of Yap are aware of the social andenvironmental problems that large-scale tourism hasbrought to some of their neighboring islands and they wanta different future for Yap. They recognize, however, that

Yap has very limited resources to export or by which toattract foreign investment, and they therefore assume thattheir future is tied to the development of tourism. Whilethey have fragments of a vision of future tourism, no planor strategy has emerged as to how they will expand theircurrent level of tourist arrivals and capture new markets.

Public-Private P Public-Private P Public-Private P Public-Private P Public-Private P ar tnersh ips a r tnersh ips a r tnersh ips a r tnersh ips a r tnersh ips

None of the four tourist facilities studied involvedany significant form of public-private partnership. Of thetwo larger facilities, one was built on land created by fill,owned by the state, and sold to the developer and presentowner and operator. The other is built on land leasedfrom the state and through former colonial powers longago alienated from any traditional ownership.

Of the two smaller facilities studied, one is built onland in Colonia purchased through traditional means (e.g.,stone money and other obligations) by the Yapese familythat owns and operates it. The other is outside Coloniaand is built on land owned traditionally by the developerand operator. In both cases, the facilities are built on land

still within the traditional system of ownership; traditionalobligations still connect to the land.

Two attempts at public- private partnerships intourism have been made in which private capital partnersallied with a village or community. A large developmentwas being negotiated between a municipality and adeveloper when investors withdrew during the Asianfinancial crisis. Another smaller venture was started in apartnership between a village and an American investor,but the facility was destroyed by a typhoon in 2001 whenonly two units had been built and it was barelyoperational. Though the concept seems acceptable, noreal test of it in practice has occurred.

Recommendations

Four strategic recommendations have been derivedfrom the study as programmatic guidelines that willenhance environmental sustainability of the use andmanagement of natural resources, including for thedevelopment of the tourism industry. These recom-mendations reflect the comments and the recom-

mendations of the people of Yap who were interviewedand are made with reference to conditions and issues in

Yap. How ever, they are based on problems that arepervasive among the Pacific island countries. Specificactions to implement each must be tailored to theparticular conditions in the location concerned.

Identify Shared Goals and Plan Str Identify Shared Goals and Plan Str Identify Shared Goals and Plan Str Identify Shared Goals and Plan Str Identify Shared Goals and Plan Str ategical ly ategical ly ategical ly ategical ly ategical ly

When asked what they want for Yap, most Yapeseanswer with a number of common elements, including

respect for traditional values, controlled progress into themodern economy, better education and health care,development of high-end ecotourism, preservation of theenvironment, better infrastructure, etc. But these issueshave not been openly discussed in any forum, and nogenerally accepted statement of a vision for Yap, or of how the commonly held values and objectives will beachieved, has evolved.



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exchange for the guarantee of access to land andresources and over time would take an increasingly activerole in the actual management of the facility.Development programs should build the institutionalcapability—the business and community advisory andlegal services—to initiate and develop such partnerships.

CASE 4CASE 4CASE 4CASE 4CASE 4. Application of Traditional Environ-mental Management Practices, Knowledgeand Values to Solid Waste Management onMajuro A toll, Republic of Marshall Islands

Background

The Republi c of the Marshall Islands (RM I) iscomposed of 29 atolls and 5 low-elevation islands in arelatively remote part of the north-central Pacific Ocean.A fragile ecosystem and a limited resource base (a totalland area of just under 110 square kilometers) havecaused the Marshallese to share a strong affinity with,and dependence on, land and ocean resources for theirlivelihood and economic development.

The traditional way of life has been, of necessity, anecologically sustainable one; care of the environment isessential in order that future generations may benefit from

the resources. However, the introduction of a casheconomy and the need to satisfy increasing financialdemands have led to growing pressures on naturalresources. Environmental degradation is now becomingmore visible in the urbanized areas, where resource useand rapidly changing lifestyles are generatingnonbiological wastes such as aluminum cans, plastics,and abandoned vehicles. Solid waste accumulation is aproblem in the population centers of Majuro and Ebeye.

While life skills, agriculture, and other more practicalsubjects are taught in schools, they are generally based onthe latest technological findings, with inadequate emphasison the use of traditional, ecologically sustainable techniques.Indeed, due to recent sociocultural changes and moderninfluences, awareness and understanding of the importanceof traditional practices that have been important to pastgenerations are now disappearing. To restore a sustainableecology in the RMI, it is deemed necessary to promotetraditional environmental management (TEM) byencouraging the incorporation of environmentally

sustainable traditional practices with nontraditionalpractices. For the purposes of this case study, the termtraditional refers to “knowledge, practices, and values thatare accepted as legitimate today because they have afoundation in the recent or ancient past.”

The concepts of promoti ng TEM practices andempowering traditional leaders to enhance theenvironment have been discussed at various Pacificforums for over 20 years. Some very successful modelsof TEM (e.g., soil conservation on steep hillslopes in PapuaNew Guinea) have already been established in the Pacific,including the RMI (e.g., the Canoes of the Marshall Islandsproject, building wind-powered craft from locallyavailable materials).

Natural Resources and EnvironmentalManagement Issues

With a mean height above sea level of just 2 meters,the low lying atolls of the RMI are particularly vulnerableto climate change and sea-level rise, which under a worstcase scenario could render much of the RMI uninha-bitable. Increased storminess combined with a higher sealevel would increase both the rate and extent of coastalerosion. Higher sea levels would also reduce the availableland area, the extent of arable land, and the volume of the freshwater lenses.

Of all the islands of the RMI, only one (Mejit) has afresh-to-brackish-water lake. All the other islands relyon either rainwater capture or, on the larger islets,exploitation of shallow groundwater lenses. Thesefreshwater (Ghyben-Herzberg) lenses are particularlyvulnerable to overextraction (which tenders them saline)and are easily contaminated. Indiscriminate wastedisposal on the land has led to the contamination of mostof the RMI’s shallow groundwater resources. The soilson the islands of the RMI are, for the most part, highlypermeable and very low in nutrients and exhibit high

surface salinity, making them generally unsuitable foragriculture.

High birth rates and inward migration from the outerislands have resulted in extremely high rates of populationgrowth on Majuro and Ebeye, resulting in severeovercrowding in poorly constructed houses packedtogether without adequate sanitation and solid wastedisposal, and some of the highest population densities inthe world (over 2,500 per square kilometer in Majuro).




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The lagoon and near-shore reefs have traditionallybeen a major source of food and protein for theMarshallese. Destruction of the coral reefs has beenoccurring as a result of mining for aggregate (sand andgravel), dredging, channel blasting, and boat anchoring.Coral death has also resulted from rapid algal growth

arising from high nutrient loadings associated withdomestic waste disposal.

Solid Waste Management Issues

Traditionally, disposal of solid waste has been toground. In the past, with low population densities andwith most waste consisting of locally sourcedbiodegradable products, such disposal presented fewecological problems. Now however, with high populationdensities and each household producing significantquantities of both biodegradable and nonbiodegradablesolid waste, such materials are accumulating on both thelimited areas of land and the marine waters at ecologicallydamaging levels. Organic materials account for some 50%of solid waste on Majuro.

The tradi tional land tenure system has of tenconstrained government-led initiatives to improve theurban environment and conserve biological diversity.

The issue of in tegrati ng customary landow nershippractices with government-enforced regulations hasbeen one that the country has grappled with for some

time. As all land in the RMI is in traditional forms of private ownership, the Government has no effectivepower to impose land use controls. Landowners haveoften been reluctant to accept regulation of solid w astedisposal or other measures that may affect their rightsto do what they want on their land. This has presentedsignificant problems for government-led initiatives insolid waste management (SWM).

At present there are very few constraints on whatcan be imported into the RMI, and what forms of

packaging it arrives in. Once on the islands, moreover,few incentives exist for its eventual removal once it hasserved its intended or useful purpose. Accordingly, largequantities of abandoned solid waste items areaccumulating on the islands, particularly Majuro, whichneed to be disposed of.

Many of the wastes disposed of in Majuro have ahigh potential for recycling. From recent investigationsundertaken by the Government, two different types of

recycling programs appear to be feasible: commodityrecycling, which includes food and beverage containers,and organic waste recycling, which includes food wasteand wood waste. Paper and cardboard, which constitutevery high relative percentages of the waste because of the need for packaging for imported consumer and food

products, can be recycled either as commodities or asorganics.

The Government study also concluded that 50% ormore of the waste stream is compostable (including thecardboard and paper) and that aluminum cans and plasticpolyethylene terepthalate bottles form a very large partof the solid waste. The high percentage of plastic waterbottles is considered to be a reflection of the poor waterquality on Majuro.

To date, recycling efforts have been minimal andfocused on sporadic aluminum can collection at a handfulof locations and a brief effort by the RMI EnvironmentalProtection Agency. Some small-scale organic wasterecycling has been undertaken at the Taiwaneseexperimental farm in Laura and, in the past, someresearch on trench composting was done at the Collegeof the Marshall Islands Laura campus.

Applications of TEM to SWM in Majuro

With the very high percentage of organic material

currently being disposed of to the landfill, the TEMpractice of mulching or composting organic material, bothto increase the fertility and to assist with water retentionof the sandy soils, clearly has an application for SWM onMajuro. First, however, the organic material needs to beseparated from the waste stream so that this can betreated using traditional methods of disposal such asmulch and/ or compost. Before this can be undertaken, itis necessary to make people aware of the differencebetween biodegradable and nonbiodegradable materials,and what materials can be recycled.

Because of the land tenure system and the traditionalleadership structure, the support of the traditional leaders(alaps ) is essential for the successful implementation of any SWM initiative. Accordingly, by resurrecting thetraditional values espoused in the Jabon kan naan , or “wisesayings,” traditional support might be found for the ideathat the community, under the leadership of the alaps,should take collective responsibility for dealing with theproblems of solid waste accumulation on Majuro.



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RMI TEM Project

The TEM project in the RMI sought to apply TEMknow ledge, practices and values to addressing the SWMissues on Majuro Atoll, and the most densely populatedvillages (Delap, Uliga and Darrit, or D.U.D.), where the

SWM problem was most severe. The TEM practice to bepromoted was the separation of organic w aste for use asvegetation mulches, to enhance the fertility and waterretention capability of the soils, and reduce the quantityof waste requiring disposal in the landfill.

The TEM value to be promoted was ji m or w od ji pel ra eo bunw oj , “spirit of coming together for a commoncause that is the responsibility of all,” a “wise saying”that encourages unity of the people for the sake of thecommon good. It is particularly relevant to the TEMproject because it reinforces the fact that the protectionof the environment and the responsibility for themanagement of the natural resources of the RMI is theresponsibility of everyone.

To carry thi s ou t, in fo rmati on on tradi tionalknowledge, practices, and values was compiled from bothprimary sources (an alaps workshop and follow-up bythe alaps to identify other traditional knowledge holdersin their wetos [parcel of land]) and secondary sources,through the assistance of the Alele Museum and theHistorical Preservation Organization, which collected,

compiled and published Jabonk ann aan , which expresscertain values and wisdom that bind the Marshalleseculture together. Also identified through the alaps’meetings were traditional conservation practices calledm o , the setting aside by a traditional leader of a land ormarine area as “taboo.”

Public awareness about the project and about TEMapplications to SWM was raised through videos, an activitybooklet, school presentations by the EnvironmentalEducation Officer, radio spots, computer presentations,

community meetings, and workshops, among others.

Mainstreaming TEM

The TEM project appears to have been highlysuccessful in terms of raising the profile of traditionalleaders of Majuro. It has clearly improved their status andmorale, and the knowledge of both the leaders and the

community has been enhanced as a result of themeetings, workshops, and computer PowerPointpresentations undertaken by a strengthened EPA. Theproject has also initiated discussions on how the role of traditional leaders may be integrated into currentdecision-making systems with respect to SWM on Majuro.

TEM -related aspects have also been incorporated intomany of the strategies to achieve several key objectivesrelating to SWM in the latest 15-year RMI NationalStrategic Plan, Vision 2018 (2003–2018).

This TEM project has enabled the establishment of a “legitimate” platform for discussions on the issue, usingSWM as an example. As the land managers, the alapshave been recognized as having a critical role to play inSWM on Majuro, where indiscriminate disposal of solidwaste to land and sea has been occurring for decades;the alaps have now prepared their own SWM action planand are looking to form an association to better promotetheir role in environmental management overall.

The TEM project represents only a very small, albeitvital, step in solving the solid waste problems on Majuro.

Traditional knowledge must be maintained, in programssuch as the Canoes of the Marshalls, if the importation of alternative products is to be minimized. Traditionalpractices, such as the mulching and composting of organic materials, must be encouraged in order to reducethe amount of waste requiring disposal to landfill and toenhance the fertility of the soils. This will in turn allowthe growing of fruit and vegetables locally. Traditionalvalues must also be revived to ensure that a collaborativeapproach to solving the many SWM issues is adopted.

TEM will not, on its own, solve the problems of solidwaste on Majuro. However, any solution will only comeabout with the active cooperation and leadership of thetraditional leaders. Many SWM issues TEM cannotaddress. Linkages with other SWM projects are thereforeessential if progress in SWM is to be maintained.




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CASE 5CASE 5CASE 5CASE 5CASE 5. Mainstreaming Environmental Con-siderations and Traditional Knowledge andPractices into Policies and Programs for theMele Catchment Area in Vanuatu

Background

As part of its preparation of a Pacific RegionEnvironmental Strategy for 2005-2009, the AsianDevelopment Bank commissioned a case study whoseobjective was to describe efforts in Vanuatu tomainstream environmental awareness, legislation,international undertakings, and traditional knowledgeand practices into overall economic and developmentplanning and policies. It attempts to achieve theseobjectives through a situation analysis of the Tagabe RiverCatchment Area on Efate Island, Vanuatu, identifyingparticular constraints and opportunities for integrateddecision making and community development.

Current Status of Planning andResource Use Management in Vanuatu

The study analyzes the various acts, institutions andpolicymaking bodies at the national, provincial, and locallevel that affect development planning and resource usemanagement in Vanuatu. These include the following

T T T T Traditional Goraditional Goraditional Goraditional Goraditional Go vernancevernancevernancevernancevernance ..... Customary practices shapesocial, cultural and political life in Vanuatu, mostimportantly those practices relating to land and its uses.A National Council of Chiefs, consisting of customarychiefs elected by their peers, advises on all mattersrelating to custom and tradition.

National Institutional and Legislative Regulation of theNational Institutional and Legislative Regulation of theNational Institutional and Legislative Regulation of theNational Institutional and Legislative Regulation of theNational Institutional and Legislative Regulation of theEnEnEnEnEnvironmentvironmentvironmentvironmentvironment ..... The single most important piece of legislation on environmental regulation is theEnvironmental Management and Conservation (EMC)Act, which entered into force in March 2003. Its majorprovisions create a Department of the Environment (DoE),stipulate that all projects or development activities thatmay impact on the environment must comply with thisAct, and empower the Director of the DoE to intervenein the development process whether a project has beenreferred to the DoE or not and to call for an environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) for any project deemed likely to

impact the environment. The EMC also calls fordevelopment of national policies and priorities tosafeguard the natural resources of Vanuatu, heretoforelacking. The Act lacks some legislative and enforcementpowers, however.

The Comprehensive Reform Programme (CRP) of 1997 guides national policy development and coverspublic sector, economic, and equity/ social developmentreforms. While some improvements have occurred as aresult of the CRP, the process has not produced tangibleresults for most people and support is dwindling.

Since 1996, a Medium-Term Development Frame-work has guided sector policy development. It gathers inputfrom all sectors through consultations and the NationalSummit, then feeds it into the CRP Matrix to reflect prioritiesand provide a logical framework for determining policiesand strategies. The CRP Matrix formalizes policies thatencourage the mainstreaming of traditional knowledgeinto the government decision-making process and thepolicy framework.

All land in Vanuatu belongs to the indigenouscustomary owners and their descendants. As much as80% of rural land is held under customary ownership.

The rules of custom govern all decisions about tenureand ownership. Land cannot be sold, only leased for upto 75 years. The formal leasing process is effective and

standard agricultural leases require the preservation,protection, and nonpollution of the land.

Nonetheless landownership disputes are considereda major barrier to economic development, because vasttracts of land remain undeveloped while court casesattempt to settle disputes. The Customary Land Tribunal(CLT) Act of 2001 awards jurisdiction over landow nershipdisputes to a tribunal of customary chiefs applying customand traditional practice to adjudicate local land matters.While the CLT is regarded as an important instance of

mainstreaming customs and traditions, no decisions bysuch a tribunal have yet been reported and in fact, mostCLTs have yet to be set up.

The land in citi es like Port Vila, the capi tal, isconsidered public land; it can been leased for commercialor residential development, usually for 50 years.Uncertainty over ownership rights also deters long-termleasing of urban land.



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A Water Resources Management Act has been passedbut has not yet come into force. It will provide for thecreation of water protection zones to conserve and protectsignificant water resources, especially in the Port Vila area.

Vanuatu signed and ratified the Convention on

Biological Diversity and has carried out a NationalBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) project(1997–1999) to produce a national biodiversity conser-vation strategy. Among its objectives is participation of local communities in the management of biodiversity. Theobjectives and priorities were to be integrated into theplanning and development process through the CRP,which provides the policy platform, and the EMC Act,which guides the development. Following on the NBSAP,a national scientific research council, one of its priorities,was being created. Information was being gathered foran environmental registry, which will include communityconservation areas. These will form part of a databaseused to fulfill reporting requirements for the CBD and fordevelopment of national environmental strategies andplans as required by the EMC Act. The level of commitment Vanuatu has shown to implementing theCBD is commendable.

ProProProProPro vincial and Local Govincial and Local Govincial and Local Govincial and Local Govincial and Local Go vernmentvernmentvernmentvernmentvernment ..... At present Vanuatuis divided into six provinces, which were to developregional growth centers and develop rural areas. Localgovernment councils (LGCs), which are highly

autonomous entities, comprise elected and appointedmembers and can set out development policies and drawup regulations governing protection zones, such asnatural parks and preserves. The Shefa LGC has

jurisdiction over part of the Tagabe River catchment area.

Rural economic development initiatives (REDIs) forthe six provinces of Vanuatu are designed to promoterural development, by providing key stakeholders withsupport for business development, protecting andpromoting cultural practices and traditions, and focusing

government and external assistance funds on ruraldevelopment. Reflecting Vanuatu’s great cultural diversity,however, they allow each province to take its own pathand are formulated through a strong “bottom-up”community consultation process. Their administration isexpected to improve linkages between communities andprovincial and national governments.

Under the Physical Planning Act of 1986, physicalplanning units (PPUs) within the Department of Provincial

Affairs provide planning guidance and advice to province-based planners, LGCs, and municipal councils. Physicalplanning areas establish planning control boundaries.While establishment of policy for PPUs was provided forin the Act, none has so far been prepared, and noregulatory power ensures that provincial or municipal

authorities comply with the PPU’s advice.

Planning activities within Shefa province, which arecarried out by a Planning Office and Committee and aPhysical Planning Officer, have not so far includedcreation of a PPA for the province. While the committeeis empowered to draw on all available technical advicefrom the PPU and any other relevant governmentdepartment, such as the DoE, the committee has usuallycalled for only minimal technical input, thus severelyconstraining the decision-making process. Shefa’srevenue generation base is skewed heavily toward fundsfrom development-oriented permits, thus the PhysicalPlanning Committee has a strong inclination to approvedevelopment proposals in order to maintain or increasethe revenue base. The advent of the EMC will stronglyaffect Shefa’s development planning and approvalprocess, as it requires EIAs for many kinds of projectsthat may have environmental impacts.

The municipal planning process is similar to thatof the provinces. The EMC Act and its EIA mandate willrequire the Municipal Council to assess any future

development proposals more rigorously for environ-mental impacts. An extensive EIA awareness andeducation campaign will be required to upgrade thecapacity of both municipal and provincial councils.

Port Vila is running out of available land. The closeproximity of the airport, the presence of Water ProtectionZones (WPZs) to the north and east, and prime agriculturallands to the north are physical constraints. The city hasno development management strategy or policy in place,but the importance of establishing an integrated growth

management strategy cannot be overemphasized,especially to address the critical issue of pollution of PortVila harbor and lagoon by unmanaged domestic andcommercial sanitation systems.

Power and CommunicationsPower and CommunicationsPower and CommunicationsPower and CommunicationsPower and Communications ..... Effective policy andplanning processes that aim to mainstream environ-mental and traditional know ledge require up-to-date andaccurate data to work with. The Vanuatu ResourceInformation System is the most extensive information




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system providing natural resource data coming fromvarious departments including Forestry, Lands, Geologyand Mines, Fisheries, Statistics, Environment Unit,Vanuatu Cultural Centre (VCC), and Public Works. Butcollection of natural resource data and its disseminationwithin the Government is highly fractured and does not

appear to have a high priority with in many departmentsand agencies.

Electric power in Port Vila, managed by UNELCO,uses a diesel-pow ered generator and a diesel-fired powerstation. Electricity charges, which are US$.22/ kWh, resultlargely from the cost of imported diesel fuel. There is littlealternative.

Vanuatu’s telecommunications system is a landbased domestic and analogue mobile phone andmicrow ave link to some rural areas, and an internationalsatellite link. Television coverage is restricted to Efate.

The service provider has a monopoly on Internet servicesand charges US$88 per month for 40 hours’ access plustelephone charges at US$5.80 per hour. The high cost of power and telecommunications constrains disseminationof information throughout Vanuatu and restricts muchenvironmental information (and all other kinds) due tolimited communications budgets within government andlimited funds at the community level.

Cultural FrameworksCultural FrameworksCultural FrameworksCultural FrameworksCultural Frameworks ..... The VCC is the principal national

institution responsible for “the preservation, protection anddevelopment of various aspects of the rich cultural heritageof Vanuatu.” The Vanuatu Cultural and Historical SitesSurvey (VCHSS) handles much traditional environmentalmanagement (TEM) research and documentation. The VCCprovides cultural research reports to the relevant ministriesand government departments. It provides an ideal verticallinkage between TEM and policymaking, but no formalpolicy linkages have been set up between the VCC andthe Department of Economic and Social Development(DESD), which is responsible for development planning,

and no direct policy or administrative linkages connectthe VCC and the CRP process.

Tagabe River Catchment Area:Prospects and Problems

Physical DescriptionPhysical DescriptionPhysical DescriptionPhysical DescriptionPhysical Description ..... The Tagabe River catchment areais a 25-km 2 subcatchment located about 15 km west of Port Vila city. It has relatively thick soils along the coastlinethat grade to deeper alluvial soils farther from the coast

and in the upper reaches, consists of silty clays and raisedlimestone and volcanic deposits. The catchment areaconsists mainly of rural land; a small portion is in thePort Vila municipal area. Its administration is dividedbetween the city and Shefa province.

Land useLand useLand useLand useLand use ..... Land use in the catchment is highly diversified.At the lower end near Mele Bay a high-density squatterarea sits amid agricultural land. Two kilometers inland,industrial use predominates: a paint factory, a brewery,and a power plant are located amid smaller factories andworkshops. Further up the catchment are the BauerfieldInternational Airport, small agricultural holdings, andanother squatter settlement. The middle reaches aredominated by pasture grazing, with some subsistenceagriculture and forest, while the upper reaches arepredominantly forest.

Land use has been changing rapidly recently, as thelower and middle reaches have been absorbed by theurban population of Port Vila. The rural reaches are undertraditional customary ownership and is mostly leased forgrazing by the granting of occupational rights without alease agreement.

While Vanuatu’s population growth rate is declining,growth is likely to continue for another 20 years. This,combined with the pressures of migration from outerislands, places great stress on urban housing. Immigrants

have squatted mainly within the Tagabe River area, payinga nominal rent to the customary landowners but gettingno essential services, such as water, sanitation, or wastemanagement, in return.

Port Vila’s lack of planning is shown in lack of setbacks from the high water mark or propertyboundaries, the poorly designed sanitation and drainagesystem, and the lack of green spaces and parks. The city’sinfrastructure is inadequate to the present population;any expansion into surrounding lands will lead to

increased environmental and health problems.

Port Vila’s Urban Growth Management Strategy(UGMS) includes an option for expansion into the TagabeRiver catchment area. This would mean displacing farmsfrom prime agricultural land close to Port Vila market;landowners are loath to see their land turned into urbanhousing. Moreover, small-scale agriculture is needed tofeed Port Vila’s growing population.



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Agriculture and tourism have been identified as themain economic drivers for Shefa: food production for PortVila (the area’s agriculture is dominated by cattle raisingby large [predominantly foreign] plantation holders) andproximity to the international airport are considerations.In addition, Shefa’s REDI recommends reforestation in parts

of the Tagabe River area. Tourism outside Port Vila is limitedby the absence of the necessary infrastructure, i.e., roadsand tourist facilities. The challenges for Shefa’s planningprocess will be to manage the pressures so as to reflect theaspirations of all stakeholders, incorporate environmentalconsiderations at all stages, and to make use to the extentpossible of TEM and customs the stakeholders represent.

Port VPort VPort VPort VPort V ila Wila Wila Wila Wila Water Supplyater Supplyater Supplyater Supplyater Supply ..... Squatters’ informal gardens haveencroached on the water extraction zone, and the easingof land in the zone has raised the issue of fertilizer andchemical use. River users report occasional visiblecontamination. Enforcement is all but nonexistent.

The in creasi ng numbers and size of squattersettlements subject the zone to potential contamination.Water quality monitoring has detected no bacteriologicalcontamination, but water samples taken during the 1997drought, when levels were low, showed fecal coliformcounts that indicated bacterial input from adjacent surfaceareas.

Residents of Port Vila’s suburban squatter colonies

come from various islands of the Vanuatu archipelago. They don’t own or even legally lease the land they liveon. Identifying TEM practice in such areas is difficult. Landrights disputes complicate ownership and water accessissues. TEM can be described as common sensecompounded with current circumstances.

All the industries present in the commercial andindustrial zone of the Tagabe River catchment aresupplied by the Port Vila municipal system. Wastewaterfrom production is typically treated before disposal but

come companies have complained about poor drainagein the area and inadequate water treatment by the localbrewery, which creates unpleasant odors.

Three water protection zones (WPZs) have beenproposed for the Tagabe River catchment area, covering26.85 km 2. They allow for increasingly restricted userelative to their distance from the municipal area.

Water resource protection is a key issue for the Tagabe River catchment area. The biggest problem ispresent and future squatter contamination. Managing theinformal population in the area has failed, due to politicalinfluence, poor enforcement, and ignorance due to failedcommunications about what the possible outcomes are

of inappropriate urban development in a water resourcearea. The Tagabe River Catchment Management Initiative(TRCMI) aims to bring key stakeholders together to bettermanage the Tagabe River area. This is a key componentof TRCMI.

WWWWWaste Managementaste Managementaste Managementaste Managementaste Management ..... Responsibility for waste managementin the catchment area is divided between the Port Vilatownship and the Shefa provincial government. Within themunicipality, waste collection and deposit in a landfill isprovided by the municipal council for a fee. In the provincialarea, Shefa provides no service, so residents can dispose of their waste at the landfill for a fee, or compost, burn, orbury it closer by. These methods are not managing thevolume of waste, so the municipal council provides periodicbulk collection. Even so, the inappropriate disposal threatensthe quality of surface and groundwater in the WPZs.

Sociocultural PressuresSociocultural PressuresSociocultural PressuresSociocultural PressuresSociocultural Pressures ..... The presence of so manysquatters from different customary areas of Vanuatu, onland under traditional management practice by peoplenot their kin or neighbors, has meant little identificationwith the land or development of any sense of community

or stake in what happens there. This has led to continuedexpansion of unmanaged land use and increased threatsto the resources they are compromising.

Cultural Heritage Sites in the TCultural Heritage Sites in the TCultural Heritage Sites in the TCultural Heritage Sites in the TCultural Heritage Sites in the T agabe River Areaagabe River Areaagabe River Areaagabe River Areaagabe River Area ..... InVanuatu, taboo sites play an important role in resourceconservation, as they typically restrict access or use. TheVCHSS has identified two sites in one of the Tagabe Riverarea WPZs; the other two WPZs have yet to be surveyed.An additional site is claimed by all surrounding villages.Because of the diversity of the Tagabe area residents’

cultural groupings, consultation processes on culturalaspects will have to be more extensive to reach both tradi-tional landowners and whatever community groups existin the squatter area and to ensure that all are heard from.

The T The T The T The T The T agabe River Catchment Management Initiativeagabe River Catchment Management Initiativeagabe River Catchment Management Initiativeagabe River Catchment Management Initiativeagabe River Catchment Management Initiative .....As concern mounted among those providing water supplyand service for Port Vila about the possible compromise




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of the water bores in the Tagabe River catchment area, amultisector study group was set up by the DoE to assesswater problems. When a wider range of issues wasrevealed in meetings, the TRCMI was established to outlineexisting issues, take them to the communities in the area,and review actions to take. By engaging the community in

partnership with the private and public sector, the TRCMIprovides opportunities for stakeholders within thecatchment, especially those previously unfranchised, toraise concerns and propose solutions for the coordinationand management of the water resource.

The TRCMI replaces the provincial and municipalmanagement agencies, whose inputs were localized andselective, with a multistakeholder group to plan formanagement and use of the catchment area and integrateenvironment and community inputs into the process. A

Tagabe River Catchment Management Plan is now inpreparation, will involve local communities, utilizeprocesses and outcomes of the Shefa provincial REDI,highlight social and economic interactions with theenvironment, and eventually serve as a model for othersuch management plans. Initial actions by the TRCMIinclude identification of existing land leases andestablishment of a consultation process with communitiesthat adjoin the WPZs.

Frameworks for Integrating andImplementing Environmental and

Community Planning

New Principles, Aims and ObjectivesNew Principles, Aims and ObjectivesNew Principles, Aims and ObjectivesNew Principles, Aims and ObjectivesNew Principles, Aims and Objectives . The EMC Act hasset Vanuatu in a new direction in environmental planningand management: by establishing the TRCMI the Doe hasrecognized that catchment or watershed managementhas the potential to deliver the environmentalmanagement and economic development outcomes thatVanuatu needs to achieve its stated goals. Since localcommunities hold natural resources in customaryownership, any management model must involve local

communities. The TRCMI model highlights communityparticipation in the decision-making process and acollaborative management approach.

The catchment management process creates aframework for addressing resource management issuesand developing community-based economic outputs andbenefits. Since the Tagabe River area falls partly in Shefaprovince, the provincial REDI will be instrumental inproviding development guidelines for the area, which will

have to be in accord with the aims of the WPZs, such asan ecopark or reforestation area.

Integrating EnIntegrating EnIntegrating EnIntegrating EnIntegrating En vironmental Planning and Managementvironmental Planning and Managementvironmental Planning and Managementvironmental Planning and Managementvironmental Planning and ManagementLaLaLaLaLawwwww..... The EMC has commenced a process that will improveenvironmental planning outcomes for Vanuatu. Specifically,

it calls for EIA as a component of the development approvalprocess and will require local/ municipal governments toassess environmental and social impacts of development.Gaining compliance with the Act’s requirements will takeextensive awareness and education for all governmentdepartments and local councils. Meanwhile, it is a first steptoward integrating community development andenvironmental management into the planning anddevelopment process. The National Policies and Plansprovided for under the EMC Act will focus on integratedplanning and strategies and structures that support it underthe CRP and Physical Planning Act, or other new regulations.

Linking Cross-Sector PolicyLinking Cross-Sector PolicyLinking Cross-Sector PolicyLinking Cross-Sector PolicyLinking Cross-Sector Policy , Plans, and Actions, Plans, and Actions, Plans, and Actions, Plans, and Actions, Plans, and Actions ..... TheCRP has embarked on a forward-thinking process of publicsector reform that incorporates aspects of environmentalmanagement and traditional and customary knowledgeinto the economic reform and decision-making processand aims to streamline decision making, promotetransparency within government, and encourageeconomic growth. As outlined in the CRP Matrix, thenationally based CRP consultation process has developedan overarching policy framework that provides for

environmental conservation within an economic growthframework and promotes the incorporation of communityinput into the decision-making process.

Instituting Participation throughout the DevelopmentInstituting Participation throughout the DevelopmentInstituting Participation throughout the DevelopmentInstituting Participation throughout the DevelopmentInstituting Participation throughout the DevelopmentProcessProcessProcessProcessProcess ..... An important component of EIA is theestablishment of a public participation process thatspecifies the preparation and publication of a public noticeby the development proponent allowing for publicsubmissions. The inclusion of a public submission processwithin EIA allows for broader community input into the

decision-making process and ensures that the concernsof the community can be formally presented for reviewand consideration.

Capacity Building for Integrated EnCapacity Building for Integrated EnCapacity Building for Integrated EnCapacity Building for Integrated EnCapacity Building for Integrated En vironmental andvironmental andvironmental andvironmental andvironmental andCommunity PlanningCommunity PlanningCommunity PlanningCommunity PlanningCommunity Planning ..... Extensive capacity building isrequired at the national and provincial level to create andstrengthen administrative and legislative measures thatwill see the incorporation of environmental andtraditional practices into the decision-making process.



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Recommendations

• Policy Development.Policy Development.Policy Development.Policy Development.Pol icy Development. Efforts should be made toopen up conduits for community appraisal andthe early injection of traditional environmentalmanagement and knowledge to each level of

governance/ decision making.

• Strategic Economic Planning.Strategic Economic Planning.Strategic Economic Planning.Strategic Economic Planning.Strategic Economic Planning. In order to ensurethat environmental considerations are includedat this level of planning, and that community andtraditional knowledge inputs are included indecisions and review process, DESD shouldreceive capacity building in the assessment of environmental and social impacts of development proposals and in mechanisms forincluding community involvement.

• Physical Planning.Physical Planning.Physical Planning.Physical Planning.Physical Planning. The regulatory relationshipbetween the national and provincial/ municipalplanning and environment offices should bestrengthened through the development of an

integrated strategic planning structure thatspecifically allows for inputs of community andtraditional knowledge at all levels of decisionmaking. A road map should be provided for thedevelopment of an integrated strategic physicaland economic planning process for the longer

term, including an integrative legislativeframework, administrative process, and policylinkages involving community partnership. ThePort Vila UGMS and Sanitation Master Plan (bothof which depend on the successful institution of an integrated strategic planning structure),should be implemented.

• T T T T Tagabe River Catchment Managementagabe River Catchment Managementagabe River Catchment Managementagabe River Catchment Managementagabe River Catchment ManagementInitiative.Initiative.Initiative.Initiative.Initiative. The Government and communityshould, over time, incorporate the successfulprocess and products from the TRCMI, itsCoordinating Committee, and its CatchmentManagement Plan, within an integratedenvironmental planning system.




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Appendix 4

Table A4.1: High Priority Areas for Action Relating to Forest and Tree Management

Subject Priority Area Regional Importance

Policy and Legislation National forest (and land use) policies and legislation High(formulation, implementation, and monitoring)

Forest Management Sustainable forest/tree; land use and management practices, e.g., codes Very highfor harvesting, “best practices,” etc.Forest regeneration (natural and artificial) and silviculture systems HighMore active involvement of and equitable distribution of benefits to Very highall stakeholdersForest certification systems MediumQuantification and “mainstreaming” (i.e. user-pays) of vital services Highprovided by forests and trees [e.g. soil, and water protection, carbonsequestration, essential nontimber forest products (NTFPs)]Capacity building and technical and other support Very high

Forest/Tree Products Improved utilization (reduced wastage) and downstream processing Very highUtilization of timber and NTFPs (e.g., nuts, fruits, medicinal plants, sandalwood,

rattan, bamboo, Morinda citrifolia ), especially of lesser-used speciesImproved marketing and markets for timber and NTFPs (including Very highlesser-used species)Appropriate/new technology [e.g., mobile sawmills, wood ovens/stoves, Highimproved uses of (renewable) wood energy]Capacity building and technical and other support High

Forest/Tree Development Natural regeneration of timber and NTFPs Very highArtificial regeneration systems for timber and NTFPs (plantations, Highenrichment plantings)

Appropriate/new technology (e.g., vegetative propagation, tissue culture) HighCapacity building and technical and other support Very high

Watershed Management Proper and coordinated land use practices in watersheds Very highCommunity awareness and involvement Very highCapacity building and technical and other support High

Forests and Trees in Quantification of role and impacts of forests and trees and improved HighAtoll Ecosystems awareness and community involvement

Improved use and management of existing forest and tree resources Very high(e.g., mangroves, coastal protection, home)Development of improved/new forests and tree resources High(e.g., multi-purpose trees, bamboo)Capacity building and technical and other support High

Regional Focal Point and Coordination and/or increased availability and use of national and Very highInformation Clearinghouse aid provider resources for Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PIC/Ts)

Provision of information clearinghouse on forest/trees to PICs/Ts Highand others

Source: Pacific Island Forum Secretariat. 2000. Pacific Regional Subm ission to the 8 th Session of the Un ited Nations Comm ission on Sustainable Developm ent on In tegrated Planning and M anagement of Land Resources. Suva: Pacific Island Forum Secretariat. Available: http:/ / www.forumsec.fj/ Home.htm.



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Cook IslandsSince 1992, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) has

implemented five environment-related technical assis-tance projects (TA) and three loans for Cook Islands.

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . In the first half of the 1990s, ADBwas active in the area of integrated urban infrastructurein Rarotonga (PPTA 2070-COO). Because of the economicand financial crisis faced by the Government in 1996, ADBdeferred implementation of infrastructure investments,and assistance was focused instead on economic andfiscal reforms. In 1998, a project preparatory TA (PPTA)on urban infrastructure was approved and implemented(PPTA 3085-COO). This project aimed at assisting theGovernment in preparing to commercialize andencourage the private sector to invest in urban serviceslike water supply, solid waste management, andconstruction of sewerage a system. A significant outputof this TA was a set of feasibility studies for solid wastemanagement and water supply and sewerage projects.

These two TAs identified deficiencies in urban water

supply and waste management as threats to the healthof Cook Islanders as well as to its growing tourismindustry. Subsequently, a loan of $2.2 million on wastemanagement was approved in 2001 (Loan 1832-COO) andis now being implemented. So far, this project hassuccessfully established a recycling center in Rarotongaand has drafted a waste management strategy for theIsland of Aitutaki. A standby loan on Water Supply andSewerage is being considered for 2005 implementation.

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and o ther Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources . Two

TAs were focused on coastal and marine resourcesmanagement. In particular, ADB has been closelyassociated with helping establish the country’s black pearlindustry, but this necessitated careful attention toenvironmental controls. The advisory TA (AOTA) onlagoon ecology monitoring and management (AOTA 2144-COO) satisfactorily achieved its outputs of (i) undertakinga population dynamics and modeling study of black-lipped oysters in the lagoon area; (ii) measuring andrecording water column parameters, regular plankton

sampling, examination, and identification of species; (iii)identifying and promoting environmentally sound pearlfarming practices; (iv) establishing cooperation andliaison with other research agencies; (v) conducting on-the-job training of counterpart staff; and (vi) coordinatingof lagoon ecological management activities, both by thegovernment and the private sector. This TA has heightenedpearl farmers’ awareness of the need to manage thelagoons to ensure their long-term productivity. It alsoenhanced the farmers’ knowledge of lagoon ecology andimplications for protection of these fragile natural systems,although they are still tempted to push the carrying capacityof the Manihiki lagoon to the limit.

The TA on lagoon eco lo gy moni toring andmanagement was associated with a loan intended todevelop a sustainable pearl industry in the country (Loan1309-COO). Approved in 1994, the loan was implementedover a 4-year period and helped the Government establishthe Cook Island Pearl Authority (CIPA). This body’s functionwas to improve the efficiency and ecological stability of the pearl culture industry as well as to support privatesector development by strengthening farmer associations,

improving support services, and facilitating marketing.Unfortunately, not all of these targets were realized dueto management problems. CIPA did not sufficiently gainthe confidence of key private sector stakeholders in thepearl industry. In 1997, it was replaced by the PearlFederation of Cook Islands as the main oversight agency,but problems remained, with competition preferred tocooperation. However, the project was able to bringinternational recognition to the black pearl industrybecause of the promotional activities, and this hassignificantly benefited the country’s black pearl industry.

A related advisory TA (AOTA 2322-COO) imple-mented in 1996 was successful in establishing an in-house capability in operating and maintaining the pearlfarm research and hatchery facilities, as well as inundertaking lagoon monitoring and managementactivities. The project also built the capacities of concerned government staff in designing pearl farmresearch trials, doing extension activities, and impartingenvironmental awareness to island communities.

Appendix 5

ADB’S ENVIRONMENT-RELATED ASSISTANCE TO PACIFIC DEVELOPING MEMBER COUNTRIES



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EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy , Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change , and V, and V, and V, and V, and V ariabilityariabilityariabilityariabilityariability . A study onouter islands power development (PPTA 2264-COO) wasundertaken in 1995 and investigated an electrification,power system rehabilitation, and expansion program.

Two major recommendations were developed: (i) toprepare a project to provide an additional generating plant

for Rarotonga, and (ii) to develop necessary technicalelectricity improvements in all islands. Unfortunately,none of these recommendations have yet progressed intoa loan. Some elements may be tackled under a proposedouter islands development project.

Disaster ResponseDisaster ResponseDisaster ResponseDisaster ResponseDisaster Response . After the onslaught of CycloneMartin, ADB provided an emergency rehabilitation project(Loan 1588-COO) in 1997. The project was able to restoreeconomic activity in the country and put up key socialand physical infrastructure services in the NorthernIslands. The project also enabled the pearl industry toresume normal operations without much economicdislocation.

Future ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture Activities . In addition to these completed andongoing TAs and lending activities, ADB has alsoscheduled the approval of the following advisory technicalassistance projects for Cook Islands:

i. AOTA 33375-01-COO: Capacity Building inEnvironmental Monitoring, Regulations andCommunity Participation, $350,000; and

ii. AOTA 35159-01-COO: Capacity Building in IslandCouncils, $300,000.

Timor-Leste

By way of supporting the United Nations TransitionalAdministration in East Timor, ADB has authorized theimplementation of six grants from the Trust Fund for East

Timor (TFET). Three of these grants address associatedenvironmental issues. In addition to these grants, Timor-Leste is also the recipient of three environment-related

TA projects.

Institutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Building .Being a newly established country, Timor-Leste haslimited technical capacity in enforcing environmentallaws and regulations. In order to address this deficiency,ADB implemented an advisory project (AOTA 3501-ETM)in April 2001 to strengthen the capability of theGovernment’s environmental agency to review, evaluate,and monitor the enforcement and implementation of

environmental management laws, regulations, andstandards appropriate to East Timor. The TA wascompleted in October 2002 and has successfully attainedits objective of developing and support the capacity of the Division of Environment national staff, particularlyin carrying out environmental impact assessment,

monitoring, and promoting sustainable development. This was achieved through training of local staff inenvironmental management, developing a plan forimplementing an environmental management institution,reviewing the environmental and natural resourcemanagement regulations currently applied in Timor-Lesteand recommending appropriate amendments, preparingan environmental profile, and identifying procedures forthe development and use of environmental indicators instate-of-the-environment reporting.

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . To hasten infrastructuredevelopment, ADB approved two grants on w ater supplyand sanitation (Phases I and II) under TFET: the first(Grant 8185-ETM), for $4.5 million, was approved on 31

July 2000, and the second (Grant 8189-ETM), of the sameamount and nature, was approved on 31 December 2001.

The objective of the Phase I project (Grant No. 8185-ETM) was to provide the Timor-Leste people withsustainable water supply and sanitation (WS&S) servicesusing appropriate technology and management. Itrestored damaged WS&S infrastructure and built the

country’s institutional capacity to manage and operatethe system. A Project Management Unit was successfullyestablished in September 2000 and the ProgramImplementation Document and Sector Management andInvestment Framework w ere prepared and completed inDecember 2000. These are now being used as guidelinesin implementing the overall rehabilitation activities beingpursued in Phase II activities of the project.

The project also identified and implemented prioritycapacity and institutional development activities and laid

the necessary groundwork for the physical rehabilitationand development assistance to the beneficiaries. Thegrant was closed in December 2001.

The Phase II project (Grant 8189-ETM) is basically acontinuation of the activities outlined above. Its maintargets are to (i) improve the capacity of water supplyand sanitation services and (ii) assist in theimplementation of priority projects in Dili districts,subdistricts, and villages in cooperation with other aid




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provider countries. The project is now in full swing andis expected to be completed in April 2003.

The development of integrated water resourcesmanagement (IWRM) was also deemed urgent to propeleconomic growth in East Timor. A fact-finding mission was

sent to the country and resulted in the approval of another TA (AOTA 3986-ETM) on 15 November 2002. This TA aimsto create a national water policy that will lead to theadoption and progressive implementation of IWRM in East

Timor. This TA was to be implemented in early 2003.

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources . On17 October 2001, ADB approved a grant worth $1 millionto finance the rehabilitation of the Hera Port fisheriesfacilities (Grant 8190-ETM ) to contribute toward sustainedfood security for the East Timorese. A parallel goal wasto achieve responsible fisheries management bypromoting offshore pelagic fisheries, thus putting lesspressure on inshore fisheries. So far, designs andconstruction work plans have been prepared and actualrehabilitation works are now in progress.

EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy , Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change , and V, and V, and V, and V, and V ariabilityariabilityariabilityariabilityariability . Formulationof a long-term domestic energy sector development planfor Timor- Leste, to support sustainable economic growthand reduce poverty, was also deemed urgent. To addressthis, ADB also approved an advisory project (AOTA 3748-ETM ) in October 2001 and tasked the project (Phase I) to

(i) prepare a detailed and comprehensive technical surveyof the energy sector in the country; (ii) determine a least-cost development strategy for the power sector; (iii)prepare a 20-year master plan for the sector based on ademand growth model; and (iv) prepare a technical andeconomic feasibility study for prioritized investmentrequirements. The TA is ongoing.

Future ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture Activities . In addition to the above projects, ADBhas also scheduled the approval of a preparatory projecton Strengthening Infrastructure Development in East

Timor (PPTA No. 35450-01-ETM) worth $520,000.

Fiji Islands

Except for one TA for project preparation, all otherenvironment-related TAs to the Fiji Islands over the past10 years have been advisory in nature.

IIIIInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Buildingnstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Buildingnstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Buildingnstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Buildingnstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Building . InApril 1993, the Government of the Fiji Islands adopted the

National Environmental Strategy (NES)—a broad-basedprogram of action aimed to place the Fiji Islands firmly ona path to sustainable development. More specifically, theNES, which was prepared with ADB’s assistance, 1 calledfor enhancing environmental awareness and educationand informing the public of the benefits of environmental

management and conservation. It also targeted elevatingthe capacity of the country’s institutions mandated withenvironmental management and strengthening environ-mental legislation. Environmental management in the FijiIslands has been highly sectoralized: line ministries areresponsible for environmental management in theirrespective sectors. This has led to duplication of activitiesand inconsistent environmental policies across sectors.

The need to consolidate authority for environ-mentalmanagement and policy-making was recognized with theestablishment of the Department of Environment (DOE)under the Ministry of Housing, Urban Development andEnvironment in 1993. However, despite the establish-mentof this institutional framework, it soon became apparentthat the newly founded Department of Environment wouldrequire significant institutional strengthening assistanceto fill its legislated mandate. ADB responded with anotheradvisory TA (AOTA 2180-FIJ) with the objectives of strengthening the institutional capability of the Departmentof Environment, helping prepare comprehensiveenvironmental legislation, and developing anenvironmental information system.

The TA was successful in enhancing environmentalawareness in the Fiji Islands, through its environmentalawareness component as well as through the publicconsultations that emanated from the preparation of adraft sustainable development bill. It was also successfulin strengthening the DOE and in establishing a nationalenvironmental database. However, given the technicallimitations of DOE staff in managing the computerizeddatabase, the department is not able to operate the systemwithout continuing external assistance.

ADB also has assisted the government to speed upthe mapping procedure employed by the Native Land Trust Board (NLTB). Through implementation of a related TA (AOTA 3424-FIJ), a marked improvement has takenplace in surveying and mapping capacity at NLTB. Thishas contributed to greater certainty in leasing land in theprivate sector.

1 ADB. 1990. Technical Assistance for the Strenghtening of Environmental Management Capabilities in PDMCs Manila.



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Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . Aside from institutionalstrengthening, ADB also assisted the Fiji Islands toimprove the water supply and sewerage system for theSuva-Nausori area of Viti Levu Island. A TA project (PPTA3055-FIJ) was implemented to prepare a master plan forthe development of water supply and sewerage services,

as well as to formulate an investment project for ADBfinancing. As a result, a further advisory TA on CapacityBuilding in Water and Sewerage Services and anaccompanying loan for the Suva-Nausori Water Supplyand Sewerage Project were being prepared, for expectedapproval and implementation in 2003.

An advisory Urban Sector Strategy Study TA (AOTA3243-FIJ) suffered major delays in implementationbecause of political unrest and the change in government.Officials of the new administration requested a changein the TA scope, which ADB approved as follows:

i. To consolidate the previously planned separateoutputs of a national urban policy action plan,i.e., finance plan, low-income settlement plan,and proposals for improving selected actions of local governments, into a single integratedoutput: a national urban policy action plan.

ii. To introduce two new outputs, comprisingpreparation of (a) a structure plan for Suva-Nausori-Navua and (b) a district plan for theSuva-Nausori-Navua foreshore.

iii. To initiate work on a low-income settlement planthrough preparation of the structure plan for theSuva-Nausori-Navua region, where the problemsof low-income settlements are most severe.

iv. To limit work on local government strengtheningunder this TA to an identification of urgent actionneeds, particularly those relevant to the Suva-Nausori-Navua region, with further work to occurunder a second TA.

v. To limit the work on local government andphysical planning legislation to identification of

the need for change, with further work to occurunder other sources of funding.

It is worth noting that no explicit attention appearsto have been given to environmental issues, per se , inthe TA. While aspects of urban environmental servicesprovision are covered, there is little emphasis given tounderstanding and establishing the basis for overallimprovements in the urban environmental quality andhealth.

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources. Theforestry and agriculture sectors are of high priority. Apartfrom current work in restructuring the sugar industry,ADB previously has provided support to the forestrysector. In particular, AOTA 1848-FIJ was implementedto activate and strengthen the Forestry Economics Unit

(FEU) of the Forestry Department to enable it to conducthigh priority studies on the proper utilization of thecountry’s forest resources. This TA was generallysuccessful, but strong organization and logistical supportat the FEU are yet to fully materialize. Forestry issuesrelated to mahogany plantations have become highlypolitically charged.

Future ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture Activities . To further assist the Fiji IslandsGovernment in its social infrastructure and other urbandevelopment projects, ADB has identified several TAsand loans that are scheduled for approval and, hopefully,implementation in 2003–2005. It must be noted thatsome of these TAs/ loans have already been mentionedabove:

i. PPTA 33478-01-FIJ: Community-Based TourismDevelopment, $500,000;

ii. AOTA 32200-02-FIJ: Capacity Building in Waterand Sewerage Services (piggybacked to Loan32200-01), $652,000;

iii. Loan 32200-01: Suva-Nausori Water Supply andSewerage Project, $35.5 million;

iv. PPTA 36164-01-FIJ: Outer Island Small Infras-tructure Development, $600,000, schedule of approval still to be arranged;

v. Loan 35487-01-FIJ: Rural Electrification Develop-ment, $10.0 million;

vi. Loan 33478-01-FIJ: Community-Based TourismDevelopment, $10.0 million; and

vii. Loan 36164-01-FIJ: Outer Island Small Infras-tructure Development, $30 million.

Kiriba t i

Six TAs and one loan were identified as environ-ment-related in Kiribati.

Institutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Building . Thefragile nature of Kiribati’s ecosystem has beenincreasingly threatened by the encroachment of a casheconomy, rapid pollution growth, and uneven concen-tration of development in urban centers. With ADBassistance, Kiribati prepared a National Environment




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Management Strategy (NEMS) 2 , which identified anumber of priority areas and formulated an actionprogram to stop the unsustainable use of naturalresources, rehabilitate the environment, and improve thequality of life of the local people. Four major issues relatedto environmental management were identified in the

NEMS, namely (i) weak institutional capacity; (ii) disregardthe of negative environmental impact of newdevelopments; (iii) unmanaged solid waste disposal; and(iv) destructive coastal erosion, sedimentation, anddepletion of mangroves in coastal zones.

In response to this, an advisory TA (AOTA 2199-KIR)was carried out principally to strengthen the capabilityof the Environment Unit in undertaking environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) and environmental datamanagement. The TA has provided a compre-hensiveassessment of the state of Kiribati’s environment, givingparticular attention to the country’s economicdevelopment and its impact on the environment;population growth and declining health conditions; thephysical, and biological condition of the coastal areas;existing solid waste management practices; and currentEIA practices. From this assessment, action programswere recommended and some investment needs wereidentified. Overall, the TA was only partly successfulbecause of the serious difficulties encountered in fieldinga cohesive consulting team and dealing with a lack of back-up support and the lack of available counterpart

staff from the government agency that were supposed toreceive the necessary training programs.

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . Population increases in South Tarawa have posed a serious health hazard, particularlyin the heavily populated urban centers of Bairiki, Betio,and Bikennibeu. This led to the implementation of apreparatory TA (PPTA 2497-KIR) on Sanitation and PublicHealth aimed at establishing a prioritized program of improvements in water supply, sewage disposal, and solidwaste management. The major output of the PPTA was a

15-year master plan that served as the springboard forthe development and subsequent implementation in 1999of a loan (Loan 1648-KIR) on Sanitation, Public Healthand Environment Improvement worth $10.2 million. Priorto the actual implementation of various developmentactivities proposed in PPTA 2497-KIR, an initialenvironmental examination was undertaken from October

to December 1996 under AOTA 2641-KIR (EnvironmentalImprovement for Sanitation and Public Health). Measureswere recommended to mitigate possible environmentalimpacts of these development activities.

Two advisory TAs were piggybacked to Loan 1648-

KIR. The first (AOTA 3108-KIR) was designed tostrengthen the Public Utilities Board (PUB), which issupposed to be the institutional base responsible forsustainable development of water sanitation and servicesin the country. The second (AOTA 3109-KIR) aimed tostrengthen the participation, awareness, and unders-tanding of the local community in order to promote waterconservation. These advisory TAs and the loan weresimultaneously approved in 8 December 1998 and theycommenced implementation in May 1999.

As a result of the implementation of the aboveprojects, restructuring of the PUB and strengthening of its management staff was recommended, together withthe promotion of community participation. The PUB Actand its scheduled amendments were approved. Likewise,an Environment Act was passed in 1999. Other physicalactivities like civil works, protection of water reserves,procurement of supplies and materials, land acquisition/reservation, recycling, a public health education andpublic awareness campaign, and installation of a newpower generating station, are now ongoing.

As a follow-up to an earlier TA on communitydevelopment and participation initiatives (AOTA 3109-KIR), another advisory TA (AOTA 3838-KIR) was approvedin March 2002. This TA aims to improve the well-being,health, and environment of the people of South Tarawa.

The TA also intends to introduce safer water and wastehandling practices for the majority of communities of South Tarawa through self-help initiatives established ingovernment agencies, schools, NGOs, and the privatesector. Relevant activities to achieve the above objectivesare now underway, such as (i) training of local

communities, teachers, students, and staff of concernedagencies; (ii) development and testing of appropriatetechnologies for rainwater storage and water purification;(iii) solid waste management; and (iv) provision of necessary institutional mechanisms.

Future ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture Activities . In summary, ADB’s future technicalassistance for Kiribati is listed below:

i. AOTA 32567-03-KIR: Outer Islands Development2 ADB. 1990. Regional Technical Assistance for the Strengthening of

Environmental Management Capabilities in PDMCS. Manila.



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Program Implementation (to be piggybacked toLoan 32567-01), $300,000;

ii. AOTA 35491-01-KIR: Mariculture DevelopmentStrategy, $250,000;

iii. Loan 32567-01-KIR: Outer Islands DevelopmentProgram, $8.0 million;

iv. AOTA 35065-01-KIR: National Water ResourcesAssessment, $400,000; andv. AOTA 33295-01-KIR: S trengthen ing O&M

Capacity of PUB, $350,000.

Republic of the Marshall Islands

ADB has provided eight TAs and three loans to theRepublic of the Marshall Islands (RMI).

Institutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Building . TheRMI Environmental Protection Authority (RMIEPA) wascreated in 1994 and mandated to preserve and improvethe quality of the environment in the country. Despite itsachievements as a regulatory agency, it was neverthelessconfronted by several problems that required thestrengthening of its staff capability. In 1992, the MarshallIslands requested ADB’s assistance to address these needsand as a result, an advisory TA (AOTA 1826-RMI) wasapproved in December. This TA focused on five areas: (i)strengthening the RMIEPA’s education unit, (ii) expandingthe Water Quality Monitoring Program, (iii) establishinga coastal zone management program, (iv) developing

standard EIA procedures, and (v) strengthening capabilitiesof environ-mental institutions in management andenforcement of regulatory measures. The TA has providedsubstantial training to EPA staff, particularly on collectingwater samples, doing water quality measurement, andmonitoring the shorelines. It has developed manuals forlongterm monitoring of coral reefs, lagoons, and thebeach environment and has provided recommendationsto effectively manage the coastal areas of the MarshallIslands. Complementary to this, another advisory TA(AOTA 2065-RMI) was approved on 23 February 1994,

which aimed to strengthen RMIEPA capability indelivering nonformal education and extension programsto target groups not covered by formal education. The

TA included training in producing nonformal environ-mental education materials and the subsequent conductof awareness and advocacy workshops in the MarshallIslands’ major island groups.

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . Following the severe drought thathit the country in December 1991 and in April 1992, the

supply of freshwater in Majuro was almost depleted. Aloan program (Loan 1389-RMI) was approved in 1995 andassisted the Government in preparing detailed engineeringdesigns to improve water supply facilities for the entireMajuro atoll. The loan was instrumental in the installationof new pumps with required water pressure; reduction

of sewage overflows and leakage that enhanced waterconservation; and prevention of pilferage of water facilities. This loan was piggybacked by an advisory TA (AOTA 1946-RMI) purposely to strengthen the Majuro Water SewerCompany (MWSC). The strengthening process sufferedsome setbacks however, because of constant changes inthe management structure of the company. MWSC hasneglected the package of policy and institutional reformsthat is an essential component of the project. The TA cameup with several recommendations to improve the financialand management aspects of MWSC.

An ongoing loan (Loan 1694-RMI) on health andinfrastructure in Ebeye is moving quite well. It hascompleted the construction of the target hospital and evenprovided it with necessary equipment. It has alsocompleted the rehabilitation of the sewerage system andupgrading of the sewer facilities, where sludge pumpsare already fully operational. Additionally, it has providedan adequate supply of potable water and improved theoverall access to it. The power distribution system hasalso been completed under the project, thus improvingthe overall capacity, efficiency, and reliability of power

generation and distribution.

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources . Anadvisory TA (AOTA 2349-RM I) that prepared the NationalFisheries Development Plan (NFDP) was generallysuccessful and resulted in the submission of useful reportson the required process of transforming a typicalgovernment institution, the Marshall Islands MarineResource Authority (MIMRA), into a self-funding agency.

The plan contained recommendations on policy anddevelopment initiatives affecting the coastal fishery, the

oceanic fishery, and institutional arrangements. Some of these recommendations were implemented prior tocompletion of the TA. In view of the results achieved, theGovernment asked ADB for another assistance toimplement the remaining recommendations. An advisory

TA on fisheries management (AOTA No. 2854-RMI) wasthus approved and implemented to continue theimplementation as laid down in the NFDP. This TA was asuccess in meeting its objective of building the capabilityof MIMRA. But the sustainability of the changes




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introduced, particularly on environmental policies andin the MIMRA itself, remained a question.

Meantime, a related advisory TA (AOTA 3522-RMI) oncommunity-based coastal marine resources developmentwhose objective was to facilitate the establishment of

appropriate mechanisms and imple-menting guidelines fora revolving trust fund, and subsequent development of small-scale marine resources management projects forouter island communities, was terminated after a marketresearch concluded that no economically viable small-scalemarine resource-based activities exist in the Marshall Islandsthat could be funded under the trust fund.

EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy , Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change, Climate Change , and V, and V, and V, and V, and V ariabilityariabilityariabilityariabilityariability . A reliablepower supply was necessary for RMI to spur its economicdevelopment. In Ebeye Island, in particular, the KwajelainAtoll Joint Utility Resources (KAJUR) needed assistanceto prepare a feasibility study for an investment project toexpand its power generation capacity and distributionsystem, rehabilitate the existing generating plant anddistribution system, and help in reconditioning its waterdesalination plant. In 1995, a power development study(PPTA 2415-RMI) was implemented to address this need.

Although this TA made feasible recommendationson the financial, accounting and collection aspects of KA JUR’s operations, its impact was limited because mostof the recommendations were never put in place. KAJUR

remained unable to collect its bills and constrained byfinancial limitations even to undertake regular main-tenance of its facilities. The TA also recommended thatKAJUR maintain good relationships with its clientele, yetdespite this, limited efforts were exerted, thus resultingin limited public support and political commitment.

Other SectorsOther SectorsOther SectorsOther SectorsOther Sectors . With the main goal of developing thetourism industry in the country, an advisory TA (AOTA2483-RMI) was implemented to provide assistance to theMarshall Islands Visitors Authority (MIVA) to become the

focal point for local and overseas tourism marketingefforts. The main activities of the TA focused on (i) institu-tional strengthening of MIVA as the country’s nationaltourism organization, including the establishment of procedures for handling inquiries from tour operators andvisitors and preparation of a business plan; (ii) conductingmarket research to identify key tourist generating marketsand networks with tour operators and travel agents; and(iii) outlining the main components of a preliminarytourism development strategy for RMI. The TA

successfully established an independent statutory bodyout of MIVA, but this still requires some assistance todevelop its capacity fully. Meanwhile, the Business Plan(1997–1998) produced for MIVA as well as the marketpotential study on tourism, were all helpful in providingdirection to MIVA’s operation.

Future ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture Activities

i. PPTA 34212-RMI: Outer Island Basic SocialServices, $400,000;

ii. Loan 34212-RMI: Outer Island Basic SocialServices, $6.0 million; and

iii. AOTA 36366-01-RMI: Support for Tourism II,$250,000.

Federated States of Micronesia

ADB has provided five TAs and two loans to theFederated States of Micronesia (FSM).

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . Improvement of the water supplyand sewerage system was identified as a priorityundertaking in four States, namely: Pohnpei, Chuuk, Yap,and Kosrae. Related master plans were prepared for thepurpose through a UNDP assistance project, but it wasstill deemed essential to undertake another project thatwould review the master plans and determine whatspecific rehabilitation, refurbishment, and expansion of

supply were necessary to bring the systems to anacceptable level of service. In August 1994, ADB approveda preparatory TA (PPTA 2137-FSM) for this purpose andcommissioned a consulting firm to undertake the study.

The TA was successful in designing a water supply systemfor each State that included an implementation plan anddisbursement schedules. The TA also recommendedaction programs to strengthen the capacity of theinstitutions that were to handle the water distributionsystem in the four States.

As a result, a project (Loan 1459-FSM) undertook theinstallation of distribution pipelines, drilling of water wells,refurbishment of water treatment plants, construction of new pumping stations and water tanks, and procurementof vehicles, tools, and equipment.

This loan was piggy-backed by an advisory TA (AOTA2646-FSM), which provided assistance to the UtilityCorporations in the four States in developing their expertisein operations and maintenance of water supply and



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sewerage systems. The TA also improved the managementinformation, billing, and accounting systems of the utilitycorporations, as well as in undertaking public educationand participation programs.

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources . As

early as 1992, the National Environmental Strategy, whichwas framed with ADB assistance, indicated that thespread of settlements and expansion of agriculturalactivity into forested areas were causing significantenvironmental problems in the watersheds of Pohnpei.

This has a negative impact on plant and animal habitats,water conservation, land erosion, sediment levels in riversand streams, and pollution of coastal waters. While aWatershed Forest Reserve and Mangrove Protection Actwas passed in 1987, it did not adequately address publicinterest in the land, hence, an advisory TA (AOTA 1925-FSM) was formulated to catalyze public consultation andparticipation. The principal objective of the TA was toassist the Pohnpei State Government in improving thewatershed environment through a participatory approach.

A community participatory approach was foundeffective, particularly when handled by competentpractitioners. However, such an apporoach must bebalanced by stimulation of political leaders andGovernment planners to instill in them an equal sense of project “ownership,” and to ensure that the impetus tofoster a community participatory approach is sustained

when external assistance is withdrawn.

The Marine Resources Management and Conser-vation TA (AOTA 1965-FSM, piggybacked to Loan 1257-FSM), which aimed to assist the Government and theprivate sector in developing a national commercial fishingindustry, was not that successful. The TA, however, wasinstrumental in drafting the Model State Fisheries Lawthat will serve as the cornerstone upon which any futuremanagement of the exploitation of the inshore marineresources will be based.

In late 1996, the Government requested ADB’sassistance (AOTA No. 2832-FSM) to further capacitate andreform the policy in the fisheries sector, particularly theMicronesian Fisheries Authority (formerly MicronesianMaritime Authority). This TA served as a logical follow -up to the Fisheries Summit, where a recommendation toencourage private sector investment in fisheries andconsolidating commercial fisheries management underone authority was made.

Future ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture Activities . ADB has no environment-related TAsor loans scheduled for FSM for 2003–2005.

Papua New Guinea

Among the different developing member countries

(DMCs) in the Pacific, Papua New Guinea had the largestnumber of TAs and loans from ADB.

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . As early as 1992, Papua NewGuinea was granted a loan (Loan 1211-PNG) to improveits urban water supply. The project’s main objective wasto improve the living conditions of communities inMadang, Rabaul, Kokopo, and Takubar by providing themwith safe drinking water. Despite delays encountered inthe initial stage of implementation, the necessary physicalactivities related to the installation of water supplyfacilities were successfully carried out.

A preparatory TA (PPTA 3173-PNG) on Provincial Towns Water Supply and Sanitation implemented in 1999paved the way for an ongoing loan (Loan 1812-PNG)whose objectives are to (i) increase the coverage andimprove the quality of delivery of water supply andsanitation services, and (ii) build further the capacity of the Papua New Guinea Waterboard. Target activities of the project are still to be implemented, such as (1) theconstruction/ upgrading of the surface and groundwaterintakes and treatment facilities, (2) installation of new

sewerage networks and a wastewater treatment andeffluent disposal system, (3) implementation of recommended policy and institutional changes, and (4)building the capacity of the Waterboard. This loan hasan add-on grant of $1.7 million from the Japan Fund forPoverty Reduction to implement a Low-Cost Sanitation,Community Awareness, and Health Education program.Except for the preparatory workshops held in two sites,major components of the projects have yet to beimplemented.

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and o ther Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources . Twoadvisory TAs (AOTA1990-PNG and AOTA 2022-PNG), bothapproved in 1993, were able to strengthen the capabilityof two government agencies in Papua New Guinea, i.e.,the Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC)and the Department of Fisheries and Marine Resources(DFMR), in fulfilling their respective roles in theGovernment’s fisheries development plan.




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AOTA 1990-PNG in particular provided the DEC withskills and technical knowledge in preparing, reviewing,and administering initial environmental examinationsand EIAs for investment projects, and in monitoring keyenvironmental parameters that are significant for theconservation and protection of marine and coastal

resources. The public information component of the TA,including a video (“Look After Our Future”) proved to bean excellent tool in putting across the environmentalmessage to its target clientele. The TA outlined the legalbasis for Coastal Zone Management (CZM) in Papua NewGuinea and should be established using the ConservationAreas Act. Amending legislation to the EnvironmentalPlanning Act was likewise suggested. Through this legalbasis, the TA also provided strategy for achieving CZM,whose essential feature is to establish coastal zones asplanning areas corresponding to the coastal provincialboundaries. The strategy should be directed towardsmultiple sustainable use of the resources and only inexceptional cases to create protected areas. The TA alsosuggested various institution-building measures insupport of CZM, i.e., in training, administration, and publicawareness.

With regard to AOTA 2022-PNG, InstitutionalStrengthening of the Department of Fisheries and MarineResources, the TA concentrated on two main aspects:(i) building into the organization a capacity to facilitateviable and sustainable fisheries development through

the development of skills in project preparation andappraisal; and (ii) provision of assistance in visionsetting, planning, and the development of structures andprocesses for achieving the institutional and industrygoals and targets. The TA made significant gains on allthe three critical elements of institution-building, i.e.,(i) setting the objectives, targets, goals, etc.; (ii) devisingstrategies and plans; and (iii) developing a core of motivated and skilled people at DFMR to make the plansand strategies happen. One lesson learned from the TAwas that community-based fisheries projects should not

be supported or implemented if the institutional settingis weak, as social dimensions normally make it difficultto formulate successful projects.

A fisheries management preparatory TA (PPTA 2258-PNG) approved in 1994 (and later supplemented in 1996)developed a loan proposal whose main objective was toincrease the economic contribution by the fisheriesindustry to the PNG economy on a sustainable basis. Theproposed project had two broad programs, Commercial

Fisheries Production and Fisheries Management Capacity-Building. This project (Loan 1656-PNG) progressed quitewell, particularly the policy development component.Some delays were experienced in the implementation of the action plan and infrastructure components, however.For instance, construction of wharf in Port Moresby was

dropped and was to be transferred to Lombrum in M anus.Meanwhile, the wharf planned for Madang was relocatedto Kavieng. The project was able to complete all its targetactivities and on 9 August 2002, the loan was formallyclosed.

The need to prepare a project for the sustainablemanagement and development of the coastal fisheriessector was still seen as a priority. Thus, anotherpreparatory TA (PPTA No. 3604-PNG) was implementedto address this need and at the same time to promoteopportunities for small-scale coastal fishers and dwellersto engage in income-generating activities. The TA cameup with a project proposal with two main components:(i) capacity building, which would involve strengtheningthe capabilities of provincial fisheries departments,improving the organization of fishery stakeholders, andpromoting co-management of marine resources; and (ii)Infrastructure, where infrastructure needed to promotedevelopment and investment by the private sector wouldbe provided in order also to improve the efficiency andeffectiveness of small-scale fishing operations.

In the agriculture sector, Papua New Guinea availeditself of a Smallholder Agricultural Support Services PilotProject (Loan 1652-PNG). The project aimed to increaseproduction, productivity, and income of smallholderhouseholds in the Eastern Highlands and Morobeprovinces in a sustainable manner and to enhance thestatus of women in agriculture. So far, the results of theproject have been highly encouraging. Good evidenceshowed that focused, output-based funding mechanismsdeveloped under the project provided significant impactand benefits to smallholder farmers.

Future ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture Activities . ADB has put in the pipeline thefollowing projects for Papua New Guinea:

i. Loan 34121-01-PNG: Community Water TransportProject, $18.3 million;

ii. PPTA 34130-01: Rural Water and Sanitation,$300,000;

iii. PPTA 36371-01-PNG: Coastal Area Management,$600,000;




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AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and o ther Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources . TheGovernment of Solomon Islands asked ADB for a TA(PPTA 3237-SOL) to prepare a fisheries management anddevelopment loan. The TA was able to deliver a projectproposal with an overall goal of ensuring that the fisheriessector contributes to sustainable economic growth in the

country, with equitable distribution of benefits. Theproject’s main focus was to be on the commercial tunafishery, particularly the development of further investmentin shore processing. This project is intended to lead tofurther foreign investment through the provision of essential infrastructure and a more supportive policyenvironment. The project will have four components:policy development and institutional strengthening of theDivision of Fisheries, construction of a fisheries wharf and bulk fuel storage facility as part of a major portdevelopment proposed for Bina harbor; construction of a research hatchery for black pearl culture, anddevelopment of community resource management andconservation at selected sites through GEF support.

Another preparatory TA (PPTA 3277-SOL) on marinebiodiversity conservation, aimed at (i) strengtheningconservation of coral reef ecosystems and discouragingdestructive fishing practices, particularly those associatedwith the live reef fish trade; and (ii) establish marineprotected areas, was likewise implemented.

Future ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture ActivitiesFuture Activities . It is important to note that Solomon

Islands has acquired no environment-related loans fromADB. ADB has scheduled a loan for the country that hopesto propel rural improvement (Loan 32544-01: RuralInfrastructure and Services) worth $8.0 million.

Tonga

As regards environmentally-related assistance, Tongahas been the recipient of only one TA and one loan:

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources . The

Outer Islands Agricultural Development Project (Loan1412-TON) was prepared to assist the Government of Tonga in its efforts to achieve sustainable economicgrowth with a more equitable distribution of income, asset out in its Sixth Development Plan, 1991–1995. TheGovernment had accorded high priority to thedevelopment of the agriculture sector and to thedevelopment on the outer islands. The islands selectedfor the project area were ‘Eua, a small island close to thecapital Nuku’alofa, and the islands of Niuatoputapu and

Niuafo’ou (the Niuas) which are small, isolated islands atthe extreme north of Tonga’s territory.

The Pro ject has four components: (i) capaci tystrengthening in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry(MAF) to provide extension services to the outer islands,

(ii) farming systems improvement through research anddevelopment with the aim of increasing productivity andsustainability, (iii) market support and developmentthrough marketing facilities and services, and (iv)infrastructure improvements including the constructionof agricultural roads, telecommunications on the Niuas,tanks and piping for domestic water supplies, andquarantine facilities.

The strong response of the beneficiaries to theopportunities created by the project indicates that Tonganfarmers, regardless of location, are economicallymotivated and will respond to attractive commercialopportunities. Moreover, the fact that the beneficiaries’choice of enterprises was altered in response to changedmarket conditions indicates that they are market drivenand, given the necessary information, will respondrationally. The design of the project was aimed atimproving the commercial and technical environment inwhich farmers operate rather than promoting aprescriptive mix of enterprises, which allowed them torespond to changes within the project framework. Thestrengthening of MAF, undertaken through AOTA 2467-

TON, has resulted in a more effective organization, betterable to serve the farmers of Tonga. However, therestructuring took much longer than anticipated, evenwith liberal provision of foreign technical assistance.


i. PPTA 33096-01-TON: Agricul ture SectorDevelopment, $500,000;

ii. Loan 33096-01-TON: Agriculture Sector Develop-ment Loan, $5.0 million; and

iii. AOTA 32200-02-FIJ: Capacity Building in Waterand Sewerage Services (piggybacked to Loan32200-01), $652,000.

Tuvalu

Tuvalu has only two environment-related advisory TAs.

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . Land scarcity and increasingpopulation density have caused serious problems in



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Funafuti, especially in land management, housing andwater supply, sanitation and waste management, andpollution control. Living standards have seriouslydeteriorated, and the urban planning functions arefragmented among ministries and departments. To easepopulation pressure on Funafuti, some government

departments and functions are being moved to the largerisland of Vaitupu, 130 km north of the capital. A land-useplan for both atolls was needed to address problems of unplanned and uncontrolled development andenvironmental deterioration. An advisory TA (AOTA 2319-

TUV) on urban planning and environment managementwas implemented.

This TA was instrumental in the preparation of urbanplans for Funafuti and Vaitupu, the definition of environmental infrastructure improvement projects, andrecommendations for improvements to the land adminis-tration and valuation system, along with complimentaryinstitutional development and implementation proposals.A potential ADB project was also defined.

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources, and other Natural Resources . Tuvalu’s greatest hope for economic devel opmentdepends on its ability to exploit its ocean resources. Inparticular, there is a need to develop commercial fishingin the country. Under an ADB TA (AOTA 1992-TUV), astudy was undertaken in 1994 to evaluate existingconstraints to, opportunities for, and further development

of fisheries activities in Tuvalu, especially commercial,export-oriented enterprises. As a result, the TA was ableto formulate project options that were favorably receivedby both the Government and the local communityrepresentatives. In brief, the proposed projects will focuson (i) a tuna purse seine operation, with an estimatedcost of $10 million and an annual operating margin of $3million and (ii) a seamount fishing operation forproduction of snapper and other high-valued bottomfishspecies, with an estimated cost of $1.125 million and anannual operating margin of about $350,000.


ADB has programmed an advisory TA on energy for Tuvalu (AOTA 36526-01-TUV: Future Electricity Supplyfor Funafuti) worth $100,000.

Vanuatu

Vanuatu has had three environment-related TAsfrom ADB:

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . The high population growth, rapid

urbanization, escalating demand for urban services andincreasing levels of population and environmentaldegradation indicated the need for urgent and concertedaction to prepare and implement urban developmentstrategies for Port Vila and Luganville. The strategiesshould enable the Government to plan for and manageurban growth, improve the quality and quantity of servicedelivery, and protect the environment, particularly thegroundwater resources and the coastal marine waters,while facilitating sustainable use of these importantnatural resources. There was also a need to strengthenthe Government’s institutional capability to provide,operate, manage and maintain urban infrastructure andfacilities.

A preparatory TA (PPTA 1952-VAN) designed toprepare Vanuatu for urban growth and development in1993 fulfilled its target of formulating urban strategy andurban structure plans for Port Vila and Luganville andthe identification of the sectors and components thatwould form the basis of an investment package.Necessary IEE was likewise prepared for recommendedinvestment projects that progressed into the

implementation of a project on Urban Infrastructure in1996 (Loan 1448-VAN). This project was piggy-backedby two advisory TAs that tackled growth management of Port Vila (AOTA 2596-VAN and AOTA 2597-VAN).

AOTA 2596-VAN focused on an analysis of the majorparameters and policies that governed future economicand social development in urban centers. Among theseparameters were role of tourism for the economy,government policies for internal population migration,and ecological and environmental constraints. The TA

has also completed drafting the Environment Acts, WaterResource Management Act, and the Building Act. Thisdraft legislation has been reviewed and is nowundergoing revisions and finalization. AOTA 2597-VAN,on the other hand, contributed significantly in assistingthe Government in preparing a 20-year sanitation masterplan for Port Vila.




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i. AOTA 35218-01-VAN: Capacity Building forAgriculture Sector Development, $400,000;

ii . PPTA 36406-01-VAN: Prepara tion of anAgriculture Project, $300,000;

iii. AOTA 36409-01-VAN: Capacity Building forEnvironmental M anagement, $200,000; andiv. PPTA 33164-01-VAN: Preparation of an Urban

Sanitation and Public Health Project, $200,000.

Regional

ADB implemented 19 environment-related regional TAs (RETAs) in the region; others are ongoing. They aregrouped according to the five major sectors:

Institutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity BuildingInstitutional Strengthening and Capacity Building . Of the seven RETAs categorized under this sector, six aredesigned to directly strengthen the institutional capabilityof Pacific developing member countries concerned in theimplementation of environment-related projects and/ orin the performance of mandates of the agenciesconcerned. Although one is about the promotion of traditional environmental management practices, it isalso basically capacity building in nature.

With the objective of developing mechanisms tomobilize existing and additional investment funds for

sustainable development of ADB developing membercountries (DMCs), RETA 5491-REG: Regional Study of Financing Mechanisms for DMC Environmental Programsand Projects, was implemented. To this end, a number of commissioned papers have been prepared that shed lighton various financing issues. The RETA concluded thatpolicy reform is central to reduce financing requirementsthat normally obstruct the smooth flow of projects’implementation, and this applies not only to membercountries but also to international organizations like ADB.

The project (RETA 5542-REG) that investigatedenvironmental indicators and indexes was successful inproviding new insights on how international financinginstitutions and policy and planning officials of concernedDMCs can measure environmental performance in theregion. A related TA (RETA 5555-REG) was likewisesuccessful in laying the foundation for the developmentand collection of environment statistics in 11 participatingPDMCs. Important environmental statistics are nowavailable for the use of participating countries and ADB.

But in order to sustain the updating and collection of thesestatistics, training is still necessary to continuously developexpertise. It is also important to have coordinated effortsamong international organizations to develop a commonset of environmental indicators for the region (handbooksand manuals included) to avoid duplication of work.

ADB also financed the conduct of a ministerial levelconference on environment and development and thepreparation of a state of the environment report (RETA5585-REG). While this was successful in its objectives,preparation of the SoE report was rather slow becauseof the long consultation process among its implementingagencies and participating countries. In 1998, ADBsponsored a related undertaking, the Mayors’ Asia-PacificEnvironmental Summit (RETA 5816-REG).

ADB carried out another successful TA (RETA 5658-REG) in the area of environmental law through apartnership with The World Conservation Union (IUCN),University of Singapore, and the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP). Legal practitioners andlaw students in the Asia and Pacific DMCs were trainedon various aspects of environmental law enforcement.

The RETA publ ished a two- volume compilation of relevant materials on environmental laws.

With regard to environmental awareness, assistance(RETA 5913-REG) in the promotion of traditional

environmental management (TEM) practices is now beingimplemented in three countries: Cook Islands, MarshallIslands, and Vanuatu. This RETA aims to (i) incorporate

TE M in to existi ng formal and nonformal educationprograms and disseminate it to decision-makers,government personnel, NGOs, and the generalcommunity; (ii) promote the role of traditional leaders inenvironmental management; (iii) strengthen the regionalinformation network for the transfer of knowledge andskills using standard information transfer systems andInternet-based technologies; and (iv) assessment of NEMS

in the three project sites.

The TA was supposed to be executed over an 18-month period, commencing in May 2000, but imple-mentation commenced only in February 2001, due mainlyto other commitments of the implementing agency andcoordinators at the country level. The TA is still ongoingand so far has accomplished only Objective No. 1,although the TEM materials produced are still in draftform. With regard to the promotion of the role of



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traditional leaders, little was accomplished, except forthe holding of consultation-workshops with concernedleaders. Strengthening of a regional information networkand evaluation of NEMS are not accomplished at all.Wrapup of the RETA is underway, where a special casestudy on how traditional knowledge is mainstreamed in

solid waste management is now being assessed.

Social InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial InfrastructureSocial Infrastructure . A project on poverty reduction andits relation to environmental improvement is nowongoing (RETA 5939-REG). Its objective is to improve theknowledge and information base for use by national andurban DMC governments to address urban environmentand poverty nexus.

In terms of water, a big project (RETA No. 6031-REG)on water management in the Asia and Pacific region isnow in full swing. Financed under the Cooperation Fundfor the Water Sector, this $4.0 million RETA has sixcomponents: promotion of public awareness; know ledgebase and capacity building; pilot demonstrations; waterpartnerships; regional events and partnerships; andprogram coordination, monitoring and evaluation.

Some of the major accomplishments of the projectare as follow s:

i. Launching of a comprehensive water awarenessprogram for the Asia-Pacific region;

ii. Conducting a comparative study of water in 21cities in the Asia-Pacific region;

iii . Another comparative study of small waterproviders in nine Asian cities;

iv. Launching pilot demonstration activities inseveral countries;

v. Holding a multistakeholders’ dialogue to discussways to improve water services to urban poor;

vi. Joining the Water Dome exhibition during theWSSD;

vii. Holding several regional workshops in preparation

for the 3rd

World Water Forum;viii. Organizing ADB’s first Water Week; andix. Participating in and playing a key role during the

3rd World Water Forum in Kyoto, Japan.

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture , Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine, Marine , and o ther Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources, and o ther Natural Resources . Thissector comprised five RETAs: one on biodiversityconservation, two (one supplementary in nature) onstatus of forestry and forest industries, and another twoon fisheries management.

Through a TA (RETA 5557-REG) financed by ADB in1993, a regional conference on Asia-Pacific biodiversityconservation was held and was able to identify priorityconcerns, major issues, and constraints affectingbiodiversity conservation and protection in the region.Included were the following:

i. Recognition of the role of indigenous commu-nities and respect for the knowledge of thesecommunities;

ii. The importance of multisector and integratedapproaches to biodiversity conservation;

iii. The increased need for financial and technicalassistance, including identification of innovativeand expeditious means of financing small-sizedpilot-level biodiversity conservation projects;

iv. The need for assistance in refining policies anddrafting appropriate legislation in response to theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD) andstrengthening institutions to enhance theircapacity; and

v. The need for r egu la r moni to ring o f CBDimplementation in the Asia and Pacific region.

A follow-up RETA (5591-REG) on the status of forestry and forestry industries in the concerned DMCsin the Asia and Pacific region was implemented in 1994.

This RETA was augmented by a supplementary RETA ona similar subject in 1997. Basically, the technical

assistance updated the forestry statistical database in theregion, documented trends and prospects for wood andnonwood products, initiated new forest policies, anddevised a profile of each forestry and forest industriesprojects in the region.

The RETA (5815-REG) designed to develop aninternational agreement on the conservation andmanagement of tuna resources in the Central andWestern Pacific Ocean was successful in providing PDM Cswith an understanding of the various management

options that could be taken. The RETA was particularlysuccessful in:

i. making the countries aware that their ownactions in managing their fisheries within theEEZs could have a significant influence onConvention Area management arrangement thatmay be adopted in the future;

ii. identifying and expanding on issues of long-termbenefits;

pacific region environmental strategy 2005-2009 - volume 1: strategy document

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