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UNITUNIT

C H A P T E R 3 2An Age of Limits1968–1980

C H A P T E R 3 3The ConservativeTide1980–1992

C H A P T E R 3 4The United States in Today’s World1992–2001

E P I L O G U E

Issues for the 21stCentury

UNIT

PROJECT

Campaign Scrapbook As you read this unit, choose acandidate for political office whomyou would like to support. Createa scrapbook that recounts yourexperiences on the campaign trail.

Exhibit at the Ellis Island ImmigrationMuseum, design by MetaForm; portraits inflag by Pablo Delano

Passage to a NewCentury1968–2001

Passage to a NewCentury1968–2001

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998 CHAPTER 32

Americacelebrates thefirst Earth Day.

1970

USAWORLD

RichardM. Nixon iselected president.

1968

Nixon visitsChina and theSoviet Union.

Nixon isreelected.1972

1972

Energy crisis begins, and gasoline prices soar.

1973

War breaksout in the MiddleEast when sevenArab states attackIsrael on Yom Kippur.

1973

Richard Nixon leaves theWhite House after resigningas president on Friday,August 9, 1974.

AstronautNeil Armstrongbecomes the firstperson to walk onthe moon.

1969

China gives the U.S.two pandas.

Terrorists kill elevenIsraeli athletes at the XXOlympiad in Munich.

1972

1972

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 19731968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

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An Age of Limits 999

Vice PresidentGerald R. Ford becomespresident after theWatergate scandal forcesPresident Nixon to resign.

1974

President JimmyCarter is elected president.

Americans celebrate the nation’sbicentennial.

1976

1976

A nuclear poweraccident occurs atThree Mile Island inPennsylvania.

1979

Egyptian and Israelileaders meet and sign theCamp David Accords withPresident Carter.

1978

I N T E R A C TI N T E R A C TW I T H H I S T O R YW I T H H I S T O R Y

The date is August 9, 1974. You are

serving your country as an honor

guard at the White House. As a mem-

ber of the military, you’ve always felt

patriotic pride in your government.

Now the highest officer of that govern-

ment, President Richard M. Nixon, is

stepping down in disgrace. The trust

you once placed in your leaders has

been broken.

In what ways can a presidentmisuse power?Examine the Issues

• What are some powers granted tothe president?

• What systems exist to protectagainst abuse of power?

• How can a president lose or restorethe nation’s trust?

AyatollahKhomeini seizespower in Iran.

1979

The movieSaturday NightFever inspiresdisco fashion.

1977

Visit the Chapter 32 links for more informationrelated to An Age of Limits.

RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 19791974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

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1000 CHAPTER 32

Terms & NamesTerms & NamesMAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

One American's Story

The NixonAdministration

•Richard M. Nixon•New Federalism•revenue sharing•Family AssistancePlan (FAP)

•Southern strategy •stagflation

•OPEC (Organization of PetroleumExportingCountries)

•realpolitik•détente•SALT I Treaty

President Richard M. Nixontried to steer the country in aconservative direction andaway from federal control.

American leaders of the early1970s laid the foundations forthe broad conservative basethat exists today.

WHY IT MATTERS NOWWHY IT MATTERS NOW

In November of 1968, Richard M. Nixon hadjust been elected president of the United States. Hechose Henry Kissinger to be his special adviser onforeign affairs. During Nixon’s second term in1972, as the United States struggled to achieve anacceptable peace in Vietnam, Kissinger reflected onhis relationship with Nixon.

A PERSONAL VOICE HENRY KISSINGER

“ I . . . am not at all so sure I could have donewhat I’ve done with him with another president. . . . I don’t know many leaders who would entrustto their aide the task of negotiating with theNorth Vietnamese, informing only a tiny group ofpeople of the initiative.”

—quoted in The New Republic, December 16, 1972

Nixon and Kissinger ended America’s involvement in Vietnam, but as the warwound down, the nation seemed to enter an era of limits. The economic prosperi-ty that had followed World War II was ending. President Nixon wanted to limit thefederal government to reduce its power and to reverse some of Johnson’s liberalpolicies. At the same time, he would seek to restore America’s prestige and influenceon the world stage—prestige that had been hit hard by the Vietnam experience.

Nixon’s New Conservatism President Richard M. Nixon entered office in 1969 determined to turn America ina more conservative direction. Toward that end, he tried to instill a sense of orderinto a nation still divided over the continuing Vietnam War.

President Nixon (right)confers with Henry Kissinger.

▼

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A

AnalyzingAnalyzing

“DOMESTIC LIFE”Pulitzer Prize–winning cartoonist Paul Szep frequently used Nixon as the subject of hiscartoons. Although President Nixon focusedhis domestic policy on dismantling a numberof Great Society social programs, his chiefinterest was foreign policy.

SKILLBUILDERAnalyzing Political Cartoons

1. What does the cartoonist suggest aboutNixon by showing him leaving with his bags packed?

2. Whom do the children represent in thiscartoon?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R24.

NEW FEDERALISM One of the main items on President Nixon’s agenda was todecrease the size and influence of the federal government. Nixon believed thatLyndon Johnson’s Great Society programs, by promoting greater federal involve-ment with social problems, had given the federal government too much respon-sibility. Nixon’s plan, known as New Federalism, was to distribute a portion offederal power to state and local governments.

To implement this program, Nixon proposed a plan to give more financialfreedom to local governments. Normally, the federal government told state andlocal governments how to spend their federal money. Under revenue sharing,state and local governments could spend their federal dollars however they sawfit within certain limitations. In 1972, the revenue-sharing bill, known as theState and Local Fiscal Assistance Act, became law.

WELFARE REFORM Nixon was not as successful, however, in his attempt to over-haul welfare, which he believed had grown cumbersome and inefficient. In 1969,the president advocated the so-called Family Assistance Plan (FAP). Under theFAP, every family of four with no outside income would receive a basic federal pay-ment of $1,600 a year, with a provision to earn up to $4,000 a year in supplemen-tal income. Unemployed participants, excluding mothers of preschool children,would have to take job training and accept any reasonable work offered them.

Nixon presented the plan in conservative terms—as a program that wouldreduce the supervisory role of the federal government and make welfare recipientsresponsible for their own lives. The House approved the plan in 1970. However,when the bill reached the Senate, lawmakers from both parties attacked it. Liberallegislators considered the minimum payments too low and the work requirementtoo stiff, while conservatives objected to the notion of guaranteed income. Thebill went down in defeat.

NEW FEDERALISM WEARS TWO FACES In the end, Nixon’s New Federalismenhanced several key federal programs as it dismantled others. To win backing forhis New Federalism program from a Democrat-controlled Congress, Nixon sup-ported a number of congressional measures to increase federal spending for somesocial programs. Without fanfare, the Nixon administration increased Social


A. Answer Toshrink the sizeand responsibili-ty of the federalgovernment bydistributing someof its power tostate and localgovernments.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

ASummarizing

What was thegoal of Nixon’sNew Federalism?


B

Security, Medicare, and Medicaid payments and made foodstamps more accessible.

However, the president also worked to dismantle someof the nation’s social programs. Throughout his term,Nixon tried unsuccessfully to eliminate the Job Corps pro-gram that provided job training for the unemployed andin 1970 he vetoed a bill to provide additional funding forHousing and Urban Development. Confronted by lawsthat he opposed, Nixon also turned to a little-used presi-dential practice called impoundment. Nixon impounded,or withheld, necessary funds for programs, thus holdingup their implementation. By 1973, it was believed thatNixon had impounded almost $15 billion, affecting morethan 100 federal programs, including those for health,housing, and education.

The federal courts eventually ordered the release of theimpounded funds. They ruled that presidential impound-ment was unconstitutional and that only Congress hadthe authority to decide how federal funds should be spent.Nixon did use his presidential authority to abolish theOffice of Economic Opportunity, a cornerstone of Johnson’santipoverty program.

LAW AND ORDER POLITICS As President Nixon foughtwith both houses of Congress, he also battled the moreliberal elements of society, including the antiwar move-ment. Nixon had been elected in 1968 on a dual promiseto end the war in Vietnam and mend the divisivenesswithin America that the war had created. Throughout his

first term, Nixon aggressively moved to fulfill both pledges. The president de-esca-lated America’s involvement in Vietnam and oversaw peace negotiations withNorth Vietnam. At the same time, he began the “law and order” policies that hehad promised his “silent majority”—those middle-class Americans who wantedorder restored to a country beset by urban riots and antiwar demonstrations.

To accomplish this, Nixon used the full resources of his office—sometimesillegally. The FBI illegally wiretapped many left-wing individuals and theDemocratic Party offices at the Watergate office building in Washington, D.C. TheCIA also investigated and compiled documents on thousands of American dissi-dents—people who objected to the government’s policies. The administrationeven used the Internal Revenue Service to audit the tax returns of antiwar andcivil rights activists. Nixon began building a personal “enemies list” of prominentAmericans whom the administration would harass.

Nixon also enlisted the help of his combative vice-president, Spiro T. Agnew,to denounce the opposition. The vice-president confronted the antiwar protestersand then turned his scorn on those who controlled the media, whom he viewedas liberal cheerleaders for the antiwar movement. Known for his colorful quotes,Agnew lashed out at the media and liberals as “an effete [weak] corps of impudentsnobs” and “nattering nabobs of negativism.”

Nixon’s Southern StrategyEven as President Nixon worked to steer the country along a more conservativecourse, he had his eyes on the 1972 presidential election. Nixon had won a slimmajority in 1968—less than one percent of the popular vote. As president, he began

1002 CHAPTER 32

Neil Armstrong’sphotograph ofBuzz Aldrin on themoon

▼

B. AnswerHe increasedseveral federalprograms,including SocialSecurity,Medicare, andMedicaid, whilehe dismantledother programs,most notably theOffice ofEconomicOpportunity.

SPOTLIGHTSPOTLIGHTHISTORICALHISTORICAL

AMERICANS WALK ON THE MOON

Not all was political war duringthe Nixon administration. On July20, 1969, one of America’s long-held dreams became a reality.

Nearly ten years after John F.Kennedy challenged America toput a person on the moon, astro-naut Neil Armstrong climbeddown the ladder of his lunar mod-ule and stepped onto the surfaceof the moon. “That’s one smallstep for man,” Armstrong said,“one giant leap for mankind.”

Americans swelled with pride andaccomplishment as they watched

the historic moon landing ontheir televisions. Speaking

to the astronauts from theWhite House, PresidentNixon said, “For everyAmerican, this has to be the proudest day ofour lives.”

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

AnalyzingIssues

In what waysdid Nixon bothstrengthen andweaken federalprograms?


D

working to forge a new conservative coalition to build on his support. In oneapproach, known as the Southern strategy, Nixon tried to attract Southernconservative Democrats by appealing to their unhappiness with federal desegre-gation policies and a liberal Supreme Court. He also promised to name aSoutherner to the Supreme Court.

A NEW SOUTH Since Reconstruction, the South had been a Democratic strong-hold. But by 1968 many white Southern Democrats had grown disillusioned withtheir party. In their eyes, the party—champion of the Great Society and civilrights—had grown too liberal. This conservative backlash first surfaced in the1968 election, when thousands of Southern Democrats helped former Alabamagovernor George Wallace, a conservative segregationist running as an indepen-dent, carry five Southern states and capture 13 percent of the popular vote.

Nixon wanted these voters. By winning over the Wallace voters and other dis-contented Democrats, the president and his fellow Republicans hoped not onlyto keep the White House but also to recapture a majority in Congress.

NIXON SLOWS INTEGRATION To attract white voters in the South, PresidentNixon decided on a policy of slowing the country’s desegregation efforts. InSeptember of 1969, less than a year after being elected president, Nixon madeclear his views on civil rights. “There are those who want instant integration andthose who want segregation forever. I believe we need to have a middle coursebetween those two extremes,” he said.

Throughout his first term, President Nixon worked to reverse several civilrights policies. In 1969, he ordered the Department of Health, Education, andWelfare (HEW) to delay desegregation plans for school districts in South Carolinaand Mississippi. Nixon’s actions violated the Supreme Court’s second Brown v.Board of Education ruling—which called for the desegregation of schools “with alldeliberate speed.” In response to an NAACP suit, the high court ordered Nixon toabide by the second Brown ruling. The president did so reluctantly, and by 1972,nearly 90 percent of children in the South attended desegregated schools—upfrom about 20 percent in 1969.

In a further attempt to chip away at civil rights advances, Nixon opposed theextension of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The act had added nearly one millionAfrican Americans to the voting rolls. Despite the president’s opposition,Congress voted to extend the act.

CONTROVERSY OVER BUSING President Nixon then attempted to stop yetanother civil rights initiative—the integration ofschools through busing. In 1971, the Supreme Courtruled in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board ofEducation that school districts may bus students toother schools to end the pattern of all-black or all-whiteeducational institutions. White students and parents incities such as Boston and Detroit angrily protested bus-ing. One South Boston mother spoke for other whiteNortherners, many of whom still struggled with theintegration process.

A PERSONAL VOICE

“ I’m not against any individual child. I am not a racist,no matter what those high-and-mighty suburban liberalswith their picket signs say. I just won’t have my chil-dren bused to some . . . slum school, and I don’t wantchildren from God knows where coming over here.”

—A South Boston mother quoted in The School Busing Controversy, 1970–75

A demonstrator inBoston protestscourt-orderedschool busingduring the early1970s.

C

▼

C. Answer Theywere unhappywith theDemocraticleadership’sdesegregationpolicies, as wellas the liberalleanings of theSupreme Court.

D. Answer Itwas part of his“Southern strat-egy” to attractthe support ofwhiteSoutherners.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

FormingGeneralizations

Why hadmany Democraticvoters in theSouth becomepotentialRepublicansupporters by1968?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

D

AnalyzingMotives

Why didPresident Nixonoppose theextension of theVoting Rights Act?


E

Nixon also opposed integration through busing andwent on national television to urge Congress to halt thepractice. While busing continued in some cities, Nixon hadmade his position clear to the country—and to the South.

A BATTLE OVER THE SUPREME COURT During the1968 campaign, Nixon had criticized the Warren Court forbeing too liberal. Once in the White House, Nixon sudden-ly found himself with an opportunity to change the direc-tion of the court. During Nixon’s first term, four justices,including chief justice Earl Warren, left the bench throughretirement. President Nixon quickly moved to put a moreconservative face on the Court. In 1969, the Senateapproved Nixon’s chief justice appointee, U.S. Court ofAppeals judge Warren Burger.

Eventually, Nixon placed on the bench three more jus-tices, who tilted the Court in a more conservative direc-tion. However, the newly shaped Court did not always takethe conservative route—for example, it handed down the1971 ruling in favor of racially integrating schools throughbusing.

Confronting a Stagnant EconomyOne of the more pressing issues facing Richard Nixon was atroubled economy. Between 1967 and 1973, the UnitedStates faced high inflation and high unemployment—a sit-uation economists called stagflation.

THE CAUSES OF STAGFLATION The economic problemsof the late 1960s and early 1970s had several causes. Chiefamong them were high inflation—a result of LyndonJohnson’s policy to fund the war and social programsthrough deficit spending. Also, increased competition ininternational trade, and a flood of new workers, includingwomen and baby boomers, led to stagflation. Another causeof the nation’s economic woes was its heavy dependencyon foreign oil. During the 1960s, America received much ofits petroleum from the oil-producing countries of the

Dependent onforeign oil,Americans in1979 wait in linefor gas during theoil embargo.▼

E. Answer Itinvolved winningover disgruntledSouthernDemocrats byappealing to theirunhappiness withintegration and aliberal SupremeCourt. To winthese voters,Nixon slowed inte-gration policiesand attempted toappoint SupremeCourt justices who were moreconservative.

THE TWENTY-SIXTHAMENDMENT

During President Nixon’s firstterm, the Twenty-sixthAmendment was ratified in 1971,extending voting rights toAmericans 18 years or older. Theamendment was one example ofefforts in the 1960s and 1970sto expand opportunities to partic-ipate in government.

At the time, liberals supportedthe amendment because theybelieved that young people were more likely to be liberal.Conservatives opposed itbecause they didn’t want toextend the vote to more liberals.

Opponents also argued that theamendment would be too expen-sive for states to administer andthat 18-year-olds were not matureenough for the responsibility.Many Americans, however, con-sidered it unfair to be asked tofight and die for their country inVietnam without being allowed tovote.


MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

ESummarizing

What wasNixon’s Southernstrategy and how did heimplement it?


G

Middle East. Many of these countries belonged to a cartelcalled OPEC (Organization of Petroleum ExportingCountries). During the 1960s, OPEC gradually raised oilprices. Then in 1973, the Yom Kippur War broke out, withIsrael against Egypt and Syria. When the United States sentmassive military aid to Israel, its longtime ally, the ArabOPEC nations responded by cutting off all oil sales to theUnited States. When OPEC resumed selling its oil to theUnited States in 1974, the price had quadrupled. This sharprise in oil prices only worsened the problem of inflation.

NIXON BATTLES STAGFLATION President Nixon tookseveral steps to combat stagflation, but none met withmuch success. To reverse deficit spending, Nixon attemptedto raise taxes and cut the budget. Congress, however,refused to go along with this plan. In another effort to slowinflation, Nixon tried to reduce the amount of money incirculation by urging that interest rates be raised. This mea-sure did little except drive the country into a mild reces-sion, or an overall slowdown of the economy.

In August 1971, the president turned to price and wagecontrols to stop inflation. He froze workers’ wages as well asbusinesses’ prices and fees for 90 days. Inflation eased for ashort time, but the recession continued.

Nixon’s Foreign Policy TriumphsRichard Nixon admittedly preferred world affairs to domes-tic policy. “I’ve always thought this country could run itselfdomestically without a president,” he said in 1968.Throughout his presidency, Nixon’s top priority was gain-ing an honorable peace in Vietnam. At the same time, healso made significant advances in America’s relationshipswith China and the Soviet Union.

KISSINGER AND REALPOLITIK The architect of Nixon’sforeign policy was his adviser for national security affairs,Henry Kissinger. Kissinger, who would later becomeNixon’s secretary of state, promoted a philosophy knownas realpolitik, from a German term meaning “political realism.” According torealpolitik, foreign policy should be based solely on consideration of power, notideals or moral principles. Kissinger believed in evaluating a nation’s power, notits philosophy or beliefs. If a country was weak, Kissinger argued, it was oftenmore practical to ignore that country, even if it was Communist.

Realpolitik marked a departure from the former confrontational policy ofcontainment, which refused to recognize the major Communist countries. Onthe other hand, Kissinger’s philosophy called for the United States to fully confront the powerful nations of the globe. In the world of realpolitik, however,confrontation largely meant negotiation as well as military engagement.

Nixon shared Kissinger’s belief in realpolitik, and together the two menadopted a more flexible approach in dealing with Communist nations. Theycalled their policy détente—a policy aimed at easing Cold War tensions. One ofthe most startling applications of détente came in early 1972 when PresidentNixon—who had risen in politics as a strong anti-Communist—visitedCommunist China.


Vocabularycartel: a bloc ofindependentbusinessorganizations thatcontrols a serviceor business

BackgroundSee embargo onpage R40 in theEconomicsHandbook.

F. AnswerInflation prompt-ed by Johnson’sdeficit spending,increased com-petition in inter-national trade,too many newworkers, andthe OPEC oilembargo.

G. AnswerForeign policyshould be basedsolely on con-siderations ofpower, not onideals or moralprinciples.

THE YOM KIPPUR WAROn October 6, 1973, Syria andEgypt invaded Israel on YomKippur, the most sacred Jewishholiday. The war—the climax ofyears of intense border disputes—was short but brutal. Even thoughfighting lasted only three weeks,as many as 7,700 Egyptians,7,700 Syrians, and 4,500 Israeliswere killed or wounded.

Although the United States sup-plied massive amounts of militaryaid to Israel, U.S. officials alsoworked to broker a cease-firebetween the warring nations. Inwhat became known as “shuttlediplomacy,” Secretary of StateHenry Kissinger traveled back andforth between Middle Easterncountries in an attempt to forge apeace agreement. Kissinger’sdiplomatic efforts finally paid off.Israel signed an official peaceaccord with Egypt in January 1974.Four months later in May, Israelsigned a cease-fire with Syria.

WORLD STAGEWORLD STAGE

F

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

F

AnalyzingCauses

What factorsbrought on thecountry’s eco-nomic problems inthe late 1960sand early 1970s?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

GSummarizing

What was thephilosophy ofrealpolitik?

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NIXON VISITS CHINA Since the takeover of mainlandChina by the Communists in 1949, the United States hadnot formally recognized the Chinese Communist govern-ment. In late 1971, Nixon reversed that policy by announ-cing to the nation that he would visit China “to seek thenormalization of relations between the two countries.”

By going to China, Nixon was trying, in part, to takeadvantage of the decade-long rift between China and theSoviet Union. China had long criticized the Soviet Union asbeing too “soft” in its policies against the West. The twoCommunist superpowers officially broke ties in 1960.Nixon had thought about exploiting the fractured relation-ship for several years. “We want to have the Chinese withus when we sit down and negotiate with the Russians,” hetold a reporter in 1968. Upon his arrival at the BeijingAirport in February, 1972, Nixon recalls his meeting withChinese premier Zhou En-lai.

A PERSONAL VOICE RICHARD M. NIXON

“ I knew that Zhou had been deeply insulted by FosterDulles’s refusal to shake hands with him at the GenevaConference in 1954. When I reached the bottom step,therefore, I made a point of extending my hand as I walked toward him. When our hands met, one era endedand another began.”

—The Memoirs of Richard Nixon

Besides its enormous symbolic value, Nixon’s visit alsowas a huge success with the American public. Observersnoted that it opened up diplomatic and economic relationswith the Chinese and resulted in important agreements

between China and the United States. The two nations agreed that neither wouldtry to dominate the Pacific and that both would cooperate in settling disputespeacefully. They also agreed to participate in scientific and cultural exchanges aswell as to eventually reunite Taiwan with the mainland.

NIXON TRAVELS TO MOSCOW In May 1972, three months after visiting Beijing,President Nixon headed to Moscow—the first U.S. president ever to visit the

1006 CHAPTER 32

President Nixontours the GreatWall as part of hisvisit to China in1972.

▼

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

H

AnalyzingEffects

How didNixon’s trip changethe United States’relationship withChina?

H

H. AnswerNixon openedfriendly diplo-matic and eco-nomic relationswith China.

KEY PLAYERKEY PLAYER

RICHARD M. NIXON 1913–1994

The hurdles that Richard Nixonovercame to win the presidencyin 1968 included his loss in the1960 presidential race and a1962 defeat in the race for gov-ernor of California.

Nixon faced many obstaclesfrom the start. As a boy, he roseevery day at 4 A.M. to help in hisfather’s grocery store. Nixon alsoworked as a janitor, a bean pick-er, and a barker at an amuse-ment park.

The Nixon family suffered greattragedy when one of Nixon’sbrothers died from meningitisand another from tuberculosis.

None of these traumatic experi-ences, however, dulled the futurepresident’s ambition. Nixon fin-ished third in his law class atDuke University, and after servingin World War II, he launched hispolitical career.

After winning a seat in Congressin 1946, Nixon announced, “I hadto win. That’s the thing you don’tunderstand. The important thing isto win.”


Soviet Union. Like his visit to China, Nixon’s trip to the Soviet Union receivedwide acclaim. After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks(SALT), Nixon and Brezhnev signed the SALT I Treaty. This five-year agreementlimited the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched missiles to 1972 levels.

The foreign policy triumphs with China and the Soviet Union and theadministration’s announcement that peace “is at hand” in Vietnam helped reelectNixon as president in 1972.

But peace in Vietnam proved elusive. The Nixon administration grappledwith the war for nearly six more months before withdrawing troops and endingAmerica’s involvement in Vietnam. By that time, another issue was about to dom-inate the Nixon administration—one that would eventually lead to the downfallof the president.


•Richard M. Nixon•New Federalism•revenue sharing

•Family Assistance Plan (FAP)•Southern strategy•stagflation

•OPEC (Organization ofPetroleum ExportingCountries)

•realpolitik•détente•SALT I Treaty

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTES

In a two-column chart similar to theone shown, list the policies ofRichard Nixon that promoted changeand those that slowed it down.

In what ways do you think Nixon wasmost conservative? In what wayswas he least conservative? Explain.

CRITICAL THINKING3. ANALYZING EFFECTS

What were the effects of the ArabOPEC oil embargo on the UnitedStates?

4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONSWhy was the timing of Nixon’sforeign policy achievementsparticularly important? Relate hisachievements to other events.

5. EVALUATING DECISIONSIn your opinion, did Nixon’s policy of détente help solve the country’smajor foreign policy problems?Support your answer with evidencefrom the text. Think About:

• the definition and origin ofdétente

• the effect of détente on U.S.dealings with Communist countries

• the effect of détente on theAmerican public

A 1973 militaryparade in Moscowdisplays the SovietUnion’s arsenal,components ofwhich were frozenat 1972 levels asa result of the Salt I Treaty.

▼

Promoted SlowedChange ChangePolicies: Policies:



On July 25, 1974, Representative Barbara Jordan of Texas, a member of the House Judiciary Committee, along with the other committee members, considered whether to recommend that President Nixon be impeached for “highcrimes and misdemeanors.” Addressing the room, Jordancited the Constitution in urging her fellow committee mem-bers to investigate whether impeachment was appropriate.

A PERSONAL VOICE BARBARA JORDAN

“ ‘We the people’—it is a very eloquent beginning. But whenthe Constitution of the United States was completed . . . I was not included in that ‘We the people’. . . . But throughthe process of amendment, interpretation, and court decision,I have finally been included in ‘We the people’. . . . Today . . . [my] faith in theConstitution is whole. It is complete. It is total. I am not going to sit here and be an idle spectator in the diminution, the subversion, the destruction of theConstitution. . . . Has the President committed offenses . . . which theConstitution will not tolerate?”

—quoted in Notable Black American Women

The committee eventually voted to recommend the impeachment ofRichard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. However, before Congresscould take further action against him, the president resigned. Nixon’s resignation,the first by a U.S. president, was the climax of a scandal that led to the imprison-ment of 25 government officials and caused the most serious constitutional crisisin the United States since the impeachment of Andrew Johnson in 1868.

President Nixon and His White HouseThe Watergate scandal centered on the Nixon administration’s attempt to coverup a burglary of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at theWatergate office and apartment complex in Washington, D.C. However, the

1008 CHAPTER 32

Watergate: Nixon’s Downfall

Terms & NamesTerms & NamesMAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOWWHY IT MATTERS NOW

•impeachment•Watergate•H. R. Haldeman•John Ehrlichman•John Mitchell

•Committee toReelect thePresident

•John Sirica•Saturday NightMassacre

President Richard Nixon’sinvolvement in theWatergate scandal forcedhim to resign from office.

The Watergate scandal raisedquestions of public trust that stillaffect how the public and mediaskeptically view politicians.

▼

U.S. RepresentativeBarbara Jordan,1974.

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A

B

Watergate story began long before the actual burglary. Many historians believethat Watergate truly began with the personalities of Richard Nixon and those ofhis advisers, as well as with the changing role of the presidency.

AN IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY When Richard Nixon took office, the executivebranch—as a result of the Great Depression, World War II, and the Cold War—had become the most powerful branch of government. In his book The ImperialPresidency, the historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., argued that by the time RichardNixon became president, the executive branch had taken on an air of imperial, orsupreme, authority.

President Nixon settled into this imperial role with ease. Nixon believed, as hetold a reporter in 1980, that “a president must not be one of the crowd. . . . People. . . don’t want him to be down there saying, ‘Look, I’m the same as you.’” Nixonexpanded the power of the presidency with little thought to constitutional checks,as when he impounded funds for federal programs that he opposed, or when heordered troops to invade Cambodia without congressional approval.

THE PRESIDENT’S MEN As he dis-tanced himself from Congress, Nixonconfided in a small and fiercely loyalgroup of advisers. They included H. R. Haldeman, White House chiefof staff; John Ehrlichman, chiefdomestic adviser; and JohnMitchell, Nixon’s former attorneygeneral. These men had played keyroles in Nixon’s 1968 election victoryand now helped the president directWhite House policy.

These men also shared PresidentNixon’s desire for secrecy and the con-solidation of power. Critics chargedthat these men, through their person-alities and their attitude toward thepresidency, developed a sense thatthey were somehow above the law.This sense would, in turn, promptPresident Nixon and his advisers tocover up their role in Watergate, andfuel the coming scandal.

The Drive Toward ReelectionThroughout his political career, Richard Nixon lived with the overwhelming fearof losing elections. By the end of the 1972 reelection campaign, Nixon’s cam-paign team sought advantages by any means possible, including an attempt tosteal information from the DNC headquarters.

A BUNGLED BURGLARY At 2:30 A.M., June 17, 1972, a guard at the Watergatecomplex in Washington, D.C., caught five men breaking into the campaign head-quarters of the DNC. The burglars planned to photograph documents outliningDemocratic Party strategy and to place wiretaps, or “bugs,” on the office telephones.The press soon discovered that the group’s leader, James McCord, was a formerCIA agent. He was also a security coordinator for a group known as the Committeeto Reelect the President (CRP). John Mitchell, who had resigned as attorneygeneral to run Nixon’s reelection campaign, was the CRP’s director.


A. Answer Theidea that theexecutive branchhad become themost powerful of the threebranches of gov-ernment, actingas a supremeauthority.

B. AnswerBecause ofNixon’s over-whelming fearof losing and theteam’s beliefthat all meansshould be takento defeat theopponent.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

ASummarizing

What ismeant by “imperialpresidency”?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

AnalyzingMotives

Why would theNixon campaignteam take such arisky action asbreaking into theopposition’sheadquarters?

The Inner Circle

John EhrlichmanChief Domestic Advisor

John W. Dean III Presidential Counsel

H.R. HaldemanChief of Staff

John N. Mitchell Attorney General


1010 CHAPTER 32

Just three days after the burglary, H. R. Haldeman noted in his diary Nixon’snear obsession with how to respond to the break-in.

A PERSONAL VOICE H. R. HALDEMAN

“ The P[resident] was concerned about what our counterattack is. . . . He raisedit again several times during the day, and it obviously is bothering him. . . . Hecalled at home tonight, saying that he wanted to change the plan for his pressconference and have it on Thursday instead of tomorrow, so that it won’t look likehe’s reacting to the Democratic break-in thing.”

—The Haldeman Diaries

The cover-up quickly began. Workers shredded allincriminating documents in Haldeman’s office. The WhiteHouse, with President Nixon’s consent, asked the CIA tourge the FBI to stop its investigations into the burglary onthe grounds of national security. In addition, the CRPpassed out nearly $450,000 to the Watergate burglars to buytheir silence after they were indicted in September of 1972.

Throughout the 1972 campaign, the Watergate bur-glary generated little interest among the American publicand media. Only the Washington Post and two of itsreporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, kept on thestory. In a series of articles, the reporters uncovered infor-mation that linked numerous members of the administra-tion to the burglary. The White House denied each new Postallegation. Upon learning of an upcoming story that tiedhim to the burglars, John Mitchell told Bernstein, “That’sthe most sickening thing I ever heard.”

The firm White House response to the charges, and itspromises of imminent peace in Vietnam, proved effective inthe short term. In November, Nixon was reelected by alandslide over liberal Democrat George S. McGovern. ButNixon’s popular support was soon to unravel.

The Cover-Up UnravelsIn January 1973, the trial of the Watergate burglars began.The trial’s presiding judge, John Sirica, made clear hisbelief that the men had not acted alone. On March 20, afew days before the burglars were scheduled to be sen-tenced, James McCord sent a letter to Sirica, in which heindicated that he had lied under oath. He also hinted thatpowerful members of the Nixon administration had beeninvolved in the break-in.

THE SENATE INVESTIGATES WATERGATE McCord’s rev-elation of possible White House involvement in the burglaryaroused public interest in Watergate. President Nixonmoved quickly to stem the growing concern. On April 30,1973, Nixon dismissed White House counsel John Dean andannounced the resignations of Haldeman, Ehrlichman, andAttorney General Richard Kleindienst, who had recently

replaced John Mitchell following Mitchell’s resignation. The president then wenton television and denied any attempt at a cover-up. He announced that he was

WOODWARD AND BERNSTEIN

Bob Woodward and Carl Bernsteinof the Washington Post seemedan unlikely team. Woodward, 29(at right in the photo above), hadgraduated from Yale, while the28-year-old Bernstein was a col-lege dropout.

As the two men dug deeper intothe Watergate scandal, a mysteri-ous inside source known only asDeep Throat helped them to uncov-er the scandal. Nearly 30 yearslater, the reporters still refuse toidentify their famous source.

While people lauded the tworeporters for their dogged deter-mination, some Nixon officialsremain bitter toward them.

“I really believe [they] were on a personal crusade to bring downa president,” said Gerald Warren,Nixon’s deputy press secretary.Woodward denied that charge,saying, “We tried to do our joband, in fact, if you look at it, our coverage was pretty conserv-ative.”


C

C. AnswerOfficials shred-ded documents,attempted toobstruct theinvestigation,and paid theWatergate bur-glars to remainsilent.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

ChronologicalOrder

What steps didthe White Housetake to cover upits involvement inthe Watergatebreak-in?


E

appointing a new attorney general, Elliot Richardson, and was authoriz-ing him to appoint a special prosecutor to investigate Watergate. “Therecan be no whitewash at the White House,” Nixon said.

The president’s reassurances, however, came too late. In May 1973,the Senate began its own investigation of Watergate. A special committee,chaired by Senator Samuel James Ervin of North Carolina, began to call administration officials to give testimony. Throughout the summermillions of Americans sat by their televisions as the “president’s men” testified one after another.

STARTLING TESTIMONY John Deandelivered the first bomb. In late June,during more than 30 hours of testimo-ny, Dean provided a startling answer toSenator Howard Baker’s repeated ques-tion, “What did the president know andwhen did he know it?” The former WhiteHouse counsel declared that PresidentNixon had been deeply involved in thecover-up. Dean referred to one meetingin which he and the president, alongwith several advisers, discussed strate-gies for continuing the deceit.

The White House strongly deniedDean’s charges. The hearings had sud-denly reached an impasse as the commit-tee attempted to sort out who was tellingthe truth. The answer came in Julyfrom an unlikely source: presidentialaide Alexander Butterfield. Butterfieldstunned the committee when herevealed that Nixon had taped virtuallyall of his presidential conversations.Butterfield later claimed that the tapingsystem was installed “to help Nixonwrite his memoirs.” However, for theSenate committee, the tapes were thekey to revealing what Nixon knew andwhen he knew it.

THE SATURDAY NIGHT MASSACREA year-long battle for the “Nixon tapes” followed. Archibald Cox, the specialprosecutor whom Elliot Richardson had appointed to investigate the case, tookthe president to court in October 1973 to obtain the tapes. Nixon refused andordered Attorney General Richardson to fire Cox. In what became known as theSaturday Night Massacre, Richardson refused the order and resigned. Thedeputy attorney general also refused the order, and he was fired. Solicitor GeneralRobert Bork finally fired Cox. However, Cox’s replacement, Leon Jaworski, provedequally determined to get the tapes. Several months after the “massacre,” theHouse Judiciary Committee began examining the possibility of an impeachmenthearing.

The entire White House appeared to be under siege. Just days before theSaturday Night Massacre, Vice President Spiro Agnew had resigned after it wasrevealed that he had accepted bribes from Maryland engineering firms, as governorof Maryland, and during his term as vice president. Acting under the Twenty-fifth


“ Divine rightwent out withthe AmericanRevolution anddoesn’t belong to White Houseaides.”SENATOR SAM ERVIN

D. Answer Thetapes of Nixon’sprivate conver-sations wouldprovide clearand convincingevidence as towhat Nixonknew aboutWatergate andwhen he knew it.

E. AnswerAttorney GeneralRichardsonrefused to obeyNixon’s order tofire the specialprosecutor,Archibald Cox,after he askedhim to hand overthe secret tapes.Richardsonresigned. Thedeputy attorneygeneral alsorefused to fireCox. Nixon thenturned toSolicitor GeneralRobert Bork,who agreed tofire Cox.

D

▼

The Watergatehearings, chairedby Senator SamErvin, shown (top left) withSam Dash, chiefcounsel to theSenateWatergateCommittee,made headlinesthroughout thesummer of 1973.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

D

DrawingConclusions

What wassignificant aboutthe revelation thatNixon taped hisconversations?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

ESummarizing

What eventsled to theSaturday NightMassacre?


AnalyzingAnalyzing

Amendment, Nixon nominated the House minority leader, Gerald R. Ford, as hisnew vice-president. Congress quickly confirmed the nomination.

The Fall of a PresidentIn March 1974, a grand jury indicted seven presidential aides on charges of con-spiracy, obstruction of justice, and perjury. The investigation was closing in onthe president of the United States.

NIXON RELEASES THE TAPES In the springof 1974, President Nixon told a television audi-ence that he was releasing 1,254 pages of edit-ed transcripts of White House conversationsabout Watergate. Nixon’s offering failed to sat-isfy investigators, who demanded the uneditedtapes. Nixon refused, and the case went beforethe Supreme Court. On July 24, 1974, the highcourt ruled unanimously that the presidentmust surrender the tapes. The Court rejectedNixon’s argument that doing so would violatenational security. Evidence involving possible

criminal activity could not be withheld, even by a president. President Nixonmaintained that he had done nothing wrong. At a press conference in November1973, he proclaimed defiantly, “I am not a crook.”

THE PRESIDENT RESIGNS Even without holding the original tapes, the HouseJudiciary Committee determined that there was enough evidence to impeachRichard Nixon. On July 27, the committee approved three articles of impeachment,charging the president with obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contemptof Congress for refusing to obey a congressional subpoena to release the tapes.

1012 CHAPTER 32

THE WHITE HOUSE TAPESDuring the Watergate hearings a bombshellexploded when it was revealed that PresidentNixon secretly tape-recorded all conversationsin the Oval Office. Although Nixon hoped thetapes would one day help historians documentthe triumphs of his presidency, they were usedto confirm his guilt.

SKILLBUILDERAnalyzing Political Cartoons

1. What does this cartoon imply about privacyduring President Nixon’s term in office?

2. What building has been transformed into agiant tape recorder?


BackgroundAlthough historianssued for accessto thousands ofhours of tapes, itwas not untilsome 21 yearslater, in 1996,that an agreementwas made forover 3,700 hoursof tape to bemade public.

AUTH copyright © Philadelphia Inquirer. Reprinted with permission of UniversalPress Syndicate. All rights reserved.

The originalNixon WhiteHouse taperecorder andtape from the1970s.

▼



•impeachment•Watergate•H. R. Haldeman

•John Ehrlichman•John Mitchell

•Committee to Reelect thePresident

•John Sirica•Saturday Night Massacre



Use a time line like the one belowto trace the events of the Watergatescandal.

Which event made Nixon's downfallcertain?

CRITICAL THINKING3. HYPOTHESIZING

If Nixon had admitted to andapologized for the Watergate break-in, how might subsequent eventshave been different? Explain. Think About:

• the extent of the cover-up• the impact of the cover-up• Nixon’s public image

4. ANALYZING EVENTSHow did the Watergate scandalcreate a constitutional crisis?

5. EVALUATINGDo you think that Nixon would havebeen forced to resign if the tapeshad not existed? Explain youranswer.

event

event event

eventJune1972

August1974

On August 5, Nixon released the tapes. Theycontained many gaps, and one tape revealed adisturbing 181/2-minute gap. According to theWhite House, Rose Mary Woods, PresidentNixon’s secretary, accidentally erased part of a conversation between H. R. Haldeman andNixon. More importantly, a tape dated June 23,1972—six days after the Watergate break-in—that contained a conversation between Nixonand Haldeman, disclosed the evidence investi-gators needed. Not only had the presidentknown about his administration’s role in theburglary, he had agreed to the plan to cover upand obstruct the FBI’s investigation.

The evidence now seemed overwhelming.On August 8, 1974, before the full House vote onthe articles of impeachment began, PresidentNixon announced his resignation from office. Defiant asalways, Nixon admitted no guilt. He merely said that someof his judgments “were wrong.” The next day, Nixon andhis wife, Pat, returned home to California. A short timelater, Gerald Ford was sworn in as the 38th president of theUnited States.

THE EFFECTS OF WATERGATE The effects of Watergatehave endured long after Nixon’s resignation. Eventually,25 members of the Nixon Administration were convictedand served prison terms for crimes connected toWatergate. Along with the divisive war in Vietnam,Watergate produced a deep disillusionment with the“imperial” presidency. In the years following Vietnamand Watergate, the American public and the media devel-oped a general cynicism about public officials that still existstoday. Watergate remains the scandal and investigative storyagainst which all others are measured.

With wife Pat looking on, Richard Nixonbids farewell to his staff on his final day aspresident. Nixon’s resignation letter isshown above.

▼


Television ReflectsAmerican Life

From May until November 1973, the Senate Watergate hearings were thebiggest daytime TV viewing event of the year. Meanwhile, television pro-gramming began to more closely reflect the realities of American life. Showsmore often addressed relevant issues, more African-American charactersappeared, and working women as well as homemakers were portrayed. Inaddition, the newly established Public Broadcasting System began show-ing many issue-oriented programs.

1968–19801968–1980DAI LY LIFEDAI LY LIFE

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMING Public television devoted much ofits programming to quality chil-dren’s television. Shows such asSesame Street and Zoom! madeit fun for children to learn. Theywere deliberately fast-paced toappeal to the new generation of“television babies.”

▲

DIVERSITYChico and the Man was the first series set in a Mexican-Americanbarrio, East Los Angeles. The program centered on the relation-ship between Ed Brown, a cranky garage owner, and ChicoRodriguez, an optimistic young mechanic Brown reluctantly hired.

▲

SOCIAL VALUESAll in the Family was themost popular series ofthe 1970s. It told thestory of a working-classfamily, headed by the bigoted Archie Bunkerand his long-sufferingwife, Edith. Through thebarbs Bunker traded withhis son-in-law and hisAfrican-American neigh-bor, George Jefferson,the show dealt openlywith the divisions inAmerican society.

▲

1014 CHAPTER 32

p1014-1015aspe-0932dl 10/17/02 9:26 AM Page 1014 Page 1 of 2

INDEPENDENTWOMENThe Mary Tyler MooreShow depicted MaryRichards, a singlewoman living inMinneapolis and work-ing as an assistantmanager in a local TVnews department.Mary symbolized theyoung career womanof the 1970s.

▲

CULTURAL IDENTITYThe miniseries Roots, based on a book by Alex Haley,told the saga of several generations of an African-American family. The eight-part story began with KuntaKinte, who was captured outside his West African villageand taken to America as a slave. It ended with his great-grandson’s setting off for a new life as a free man. Thegroundbreaking series, broadcast in January 1977, wasone of the most-watched television events in history.

▲

F I L E

D A T AD A T A

TV EVENTS OF THE 1970s• A congressional ban on TV cigarette commercials

took effect in 1971.

• ABC negotiated an $8-million-a-year contract totelevise Monday Night Football, first broadcast inSeptember 1970.

• In 1972, President Nixon, accompanied by TVcameras and reporters from the major networks,made a groundbreaking visit to China.

• Saturday Night Live—a show that would launch the careers of Dan Aykroyd, Jane Curtin, EddieMurphy, and many other comic actors—premieredin October 1975.

• WTCG-TV (later WTBS) in Atlanta, owned by TedTurner, became the basis of the first true satellite-delivered “superstation” in 1976.

• In November 1979, ABC began broadcasting late-night updates on the hostage crisis in Iran. Thesereports evolved into the program Nightline with Ted Koppel.

Average Weekly Hours of TV ViewingH

ours

Per

Wee

k

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Source: Nielson Media Research

Children 2–11 years oldTeens 12–17 years oldAdults 18 and over

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998

THINKING CRITICALLYTHINKING CRITICALLY

CONNECT TO HISTORY1. Analyzing Causes In what ways did television change

to reflect American society in the 1970s? What factorsmight have influenced these changes?


CONNECT TO TODAY2. Creating a Graph Use the Internet or an almanac to

find data on the number of televisions owned in theUnited States and the number of hours of TV watchedevery day. Make a graph that displays the data.


IRESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM

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1016 CHAPTER 32


The Ford and Carter Years

James D. Denney couldn’t believe what he was hearing.Barely a month after Richard Nixon had resigned amid theWatergate scandal, President Gerald R. Ford had grant-ed Nixon a full pardon. “[S]omeone must write, ‘TheEnd,’” Ford had declared in a televised statement. “I haveconcluded that only I can do that.” Denney wrote a letterto the editors of Time magazine, in which he voiced hisanger at Ford’s decision.

A PERSONAL VOICE JAMES D. DENNEY

“ Justice may certainly be tempered by mercy, but therecan be no such thing as mercy until justice has beenaccomplished by the courts. Since it circumvented jus-tice, Mr. Ford’s act was merely indulgent favoritism, abland and unworthy substitute for mercy.”

—Time, September 23, 1974

James Denney’s feelings were typical of the anger and the disillusion-ment with the presidency that many Americans felt in the aftermath of theWatergate scandal. During the 1970s, Presidents Gerald Ford and JimmyCarter sought to restore America’s faith in its leaders. At the same time,both men had to focus much of their attention on battling the nation’sworsening economic situation.

Ford Travels a Rough RoadUpon taking office, Gerald R. Ford urged Americans to put the Watergate scan-dal behind them. “Our long national nightmare is over,” he declared. Thenation’s nightmarish economy persisted, however, and Ford’s policies offeredlittle relief.

Terms & NamesTerms & NamesMAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

•Gerald R. Ford•Jimmy Carter•National Energy Act•human rights

•Camp DavidAccords

•Ayatollah RuhollahKhomeini

The Ford and Carteradministrations attempted toremedy the nation’s worsteconomic crisis in decades.

Maintaining a stable nationaleconomy has remained a toppriority for every president sinceFord and Carter.

WHY IT MATTERS NOWWHY IT MATTERS NOW

▼

Two womenprotest PresidentFord’s pardon ofRichard Nixon.


A

“A FORD, NOT A LINCOLN” Gerald Ford seemed tomany to be a likable and honest man. Upon becomingvice president after Spiro Agnew’s resignation, Ford can-didly admitted his limitations. “I’m a Ford, not a Lincoln,”he remarked. On September 8, 1974, President Ford par-doned Richard Nixon in an attempt to move the countrybeyond Watergate. The move cost Ford a good deal of pub-lic support.

FORD TRIES TO “WHIP” INFLATION By the time Fordtook office, America’s economy had gone from bad toworse. Both inflation and unemployment continued torise. After the massive OPEC oil-price increases in 1973,gasoline and heating oil costs had soared, pushing infla-tion from 6 percent to over 10 percent by the end of 1974.Ford responded with a program of massive citizen action,called “Whip Inflation Now” or WIN. The president calledon Americans to cut back on their use of oil and gas andto take other energy-saving measures.

In the absence of incentives, though, the plan fellflat. Ford then tried to curb inflation through a “tightmoney” policy. He cut government spending and encour-aged the Federal Reserve Board to restrict credit throughhigher interest rates. These actions triggered the worsteconomic recession in 40 years. As Ford implemented hiseconomic programs, he continually battled a DemocraticCongress intent on pushing its own economic agenda.During his two years as president, Ford vetoed more than50 pieces of legislation.

Ford’s Foreign Policy

Ford fared slightly better in the international arena. Herelied heavily on Henry Kissinger, who continued to holdthe key position of secretary of state.

CARRYING OUT NIXON'S FOREIGN POLICIES FollowingKissinger’s advice, Ford pushed ahead with Nixon’s policyof negotiation with China and the Soviet Union. InNovember 1974, he met with Soviet premier LeonidBrezhnev. Less than a year later, he traveled to Helsinki,Finland, where 35 nations, including the Soviet Union,signed the Helsinki Accords—a series of agreements thatpromised greater cooperation between the nations ofEastern and Western Europe. The Helsinki Accords wouldbe Ford’s greatest presidential accomplishment.

ONGOING TURMOIL IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Like presidents before him, Fordencountered trouble in Southeast Asia. The 1973 cease-fire in Vietnam had brokendown. Heavy fighting resumed and Ford asked Congress for over $722 million tohelp South Vietnam. Congress refused. Without American financial help, SouthVietnam surrendered to the North in 1975. In the same year, the Communist gov-ernment of Cambodia seized the U.S. merchant ship Mayagüez in the Gulf of Siam.President Ford responded with a massive show of military force to rescue 39 crewmembers aboard the ship. The operation cost the lives of 41 U.S. troops. Criticsargued that the mission had cost more lives than it had saved.


DIFFICULTDIFFICULT

DECISIONSDECISIONS

PARDONING PRESIDENT NIXON

President Ford’s pardon ofRichard Nixon outraged manyAmericans. But President Fordargued that the pardon ofRichard Nixon was in the coun-try’s best interest. In the event of a Watergate trial, Ford argued,“ugly passions would again bearoused. . . . And the credibilityof our free institutions . . . wouldagain be challenged at home andabroad.” Ford called the pardondecision “the most difficult of mylife, by far.”

In 2001, after more than 25years, Ford received the John F.Kennedy Profiles in CourageAward for his courageous decision in the face of publicopposition.

1. How might the country havebeen affected if a formerUnited States president hadgone on trial for possiblecriminal wrongdoing?

2. If you had been in PresidentFord’s position, would youhave pardoned RichardNixon? Why or why not?

A. AnswerManyAmericans hadlittle faith intheir govern-ment and sowere less likelyto make person-al sacrifices atgovernmentsuggestion.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

MakingInferences

Why wasFord’s call forvoluntary actionsto help theeconomyunsuccessful?


Carter Enters the White HouseGerald Ford won the Republican nomination for presidentin 1976 after fending off a powerful conservative challengefrom former California governor Ronald Reagan. Becausethe Republicans seemed divided over Ford’s leadership, theDemocrats confidently eyed the White House. “We couldrun an aardvark this year and win,” predicted oneDemocratic leader. The Democratic nominee was indeed asurprise: a nationally unknown peanut farmer and formergovernor of Georgia, Jimmy Carter.

MR. CARTER GOES TO WASHINGTON During the post-Watergate era, cynicism toward the Washington establish-ment ran high. The soft-spoken, personable man fromPlains, Georgia, promised to restore integrity to the nation’shighest office, “I will never tell a lie to the American people.”

Throughout the presidential campaign, Carter and Fordsquared off over the key issues of inflation, energy, andunemployment. On Election Day, Jimmy Carter won by anarrow margin, claiming 40.8 million popular votes toFord’s 39.1 million.

From the very beginning, the new first family broughta down-to-earth style to Washington. After settling intooffice, Carter stayed in touch with the people by holdingRoosevelt-like “fireside chats” on radio and television.

Carter failed to reach out to Congress in a similar way,refusing to play the “insider” game of deal making. Relyingmainly on a team of advisers from Georgia, Carter evenalienated congressional Democrats. Both parties on CapitolHill often joined to sink the president’s budget proposals, aswell as his major policy reforms of tax and welfare programs.

Carter’s Domestic AgendaLike Gerald Ford, President Carter focused much of hisattention on battling the country’s energy and economiccrises but was unable to bring the United States out of itseconomic slump.

CONFRONTING THE ENERGY CRISIS Carter consideredthe energy crisis the most important issue facing thenation. A large part of the problem, the president believed,was America’s reliance on imported oil. On April 18, 1977,during a fireside chat, Carter urged his fellow Americans tocut their consumption of oil and gas.

A PERSONAL VOICE JIMMY CARTER

“ The energy crisis . . . is a problem . . . likely to get pro-gressively worse through the rest of this century. . . . Ourdecision about energy will test the character of theAmerican people. . . . This difficult effort will be the ‘moralequivalent of war,’ except that we will be uniting ourefforts to build and not to destroy.”

—quoted in Keeping Faith

B


JIMMY CARTER1924–

James Earl Carter, Jr., was borninto relative prosperity. His father,Earl Carter, was a disciplinarianwho tried to instill a sense ofhard work and responsibility inhis son.

To earn money for himself,Carter undertook a variety of jobsselling peanuts, running a ham-burger and hot dog stand, collect-ing newspapers and selling themto fish markets, and sellingscrap iron.

Before entering politics, Carterjoined the navy, where heexcelled in electronics and navaltactics. In 1952, he joined aselect group of officers whohelped develop the world’s firstnuclear submarines. The group’scommander was Captain HymanG. Rickover. Carter later wrotethat Rickover “had a profoundeffect on my life—perhaps morethan anyone except my own par-ents. . . . He expected the maxi-mum from us, but he always con-tributed more.”

B. AnswerCarter’s person-ality and senseof morality, aswell as hisdirect campaignstyle.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

AnalyzingCauses

What factorsplayed a signifi-cant role inCarter’s election?

This 1976campaign toy exaggeratesJimmy Carter’swell-known smileand parodies hisoccupation as apeanut farmer.

▼

1018 CHAPTER 32


C


Vocabularylobby: a special-interest group thattries to influencethe legislature

In addition, Carter presented Congress with more than100 proposals on energy conservation and development.Representatives from oil- and gas-producing states fiercelyresisted some of the proposals. Automobile manufacturersalso lobbied against gas-rationing provisions. “It was impos-sible for me to imagine the bloody legislative battles wewould have to win,” Carter later wrote.

Out of the battle came the National Energy Act. Theact placed a tax on gas-guzzling cars, removed price con-trols on oil and natural gas produced in the United States,and extended tax credits for the development of alternativeenergy. With the help of the act, as well as voluntary con-servation measures, U.S. dependence on foreign oil hadeased slightly by 1979.

THE ECONOMIC CRISIS WORSENS Unfortunately, theseenergy-saving measures could do little to combat a suddennew economic crisis. In the summer of 1979, renewed vio-lence in the Middle East produced a second major fuelshortage in the United States. To make matters worse, OPECannounced another major price hike. In 1979 inflationsoared from 7.6 percent to 11.3 percent.

Faced with increasing pressure to act, Carter attemptedan array of measures, none of which worked. Carter’s scatter-shot approach convinced many people that he had no eco-nomic policy at all. Carter fueled this feeling of uncertaintyby delivering his now-famous “malaise” speech, in which hecomplained of a “crisis of spirit” that had struck “at the veryheart and soul of our national will.” Carter’s address mademany Americans feel that their president had given up.

By 1980, inflation had climbed to nearly 14 percent,the highest rate since 1947. The standard of living in theUnited States slipped from first place to fifth place in theworld. Carter’s popularity slipped along with it. This eco-nomic downswing—and Carter’s inability to solve it duringan election year—was one key factor in sending RonaldReagan to the White House.

ECONOMICECONOMIC

THE 1980s TEXAS OIL BOOMThe economic crisis that grippedthe country in the late 1970swas largely caused by theincreased cost of oil. The OPECcartel raised the price of oil byagreeing to restrict oil production.The resulting decrease in thesupply of oil in the marketcaused the price to go up.

Most Americans were hurt bythe high energy prices. However,in areas that produced oil, suchas Texas, the rise in prices led toa booming economy. Real-estatevalues—for land on which to drillfor oil, as well as for office spacein cities like Houston andDallas—increased greatly. (Seesupply and demand on page R46in the Economics Handbook.)

Unemployment and Inflation, 1970–1980

15

12

9

6

3

0

Perc

ent

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1980, 1995 Unemployment Rate Inflation Rate

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Graphs1. What trends did the economy experience during the Carter years? 2. Which year of the Carter administration saw the greatest stagflation (inflation plus unemployment)?

C. Answer The act placed a tax on gas-guzzling cars,encouraged thedevelopment ofalternative ener-gy sources, andremoved pricecontrols on oiland natural gasproduced in theUnited States.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. The inflationrate rose; theunemploymentrate dipped andthen began torise again.2. 1980.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

CSummarizing

How did theNational EnergyAct help easeAmerica’s energycrisis?


D

Nonfarm Employment by Sector, 1950–2000

Sources: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2000; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics; Historical Statistics of the United States

1950 1980 2000

Goods41%

Services59%

Services72%

Services80%

Goods28%

Goods20%

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Graphs1. How much greater was the percentage of employment in service industries in 1980 than

in 1950?2. What additional change is shown by the year 2000? Do you think the trend will continue?

A CHANGING ECONOMY Many of the economic problems Jimmy Carter strug-gled with resulted from long-term trends in the economy. Since the 1950s, therise of automation and foreign competition had reduced the number of manu-facturing jobs. At the same time, the service sector of the economy expandedrapidly. This sector includes industries such as communications, transportation,and retail trade.

The rise of the service sector and the decline of manufacturing jobs meant bigchanges for some American workers. Workers left out of manufacturing jobs facedan increasingly complex job market. Many of the higher-paying service jobsrequired more education or specialized skills than did manufacturing jobs. Thelower-skilled service jobs usually did not pay well.

Growing overseas competition during the 1970s caused further change inAmerica’s economy. The booming economies of West Germany and countries onthe Pacific Rim (such as Japan, Taiwan, and Korea) cut into many U.S. markets.Many of the nation’s primary industries—iron and steel, rubber, clothing, auto-mobiles—had to cut back production, lay off workers, and even close plants.Especially hard-hit were the automotive industries of the Northeast. There, high

energy costs, foreign competition, and computerized productionled companies to eliminate tens of thousands of jobs.

CARTER AND CIVIL RIGHTS Although Carter felt frustrated bythe country’s economic woes, he took special pride in his civilrights record. His administration included more African Americansand women than any before it. In 1977, the president appointedcivil rights leader Andrew Young as U.S. ambassador to the UnitedNations. Young was the first African American to hold that post. Tothe judicial branch alone, Carter appointed 28 African Americans,29 women (including 6 African Americans), and 14 Latinos.

However, President Carter fell short of what many civil rightsgroups had expected in terms of legislation. Critics claimed thatCarter—preoccupied with battles over energy and the economy—

failed to give civil rights his full attention. Meanwhile, the courts began to turnagainst affirmative action. In 1978, in the case of Regents of the University ofCalifornia v. Bakke, the Supreme Court decided that the affirmative action policiesof the university’s medical school were unconstitutional. The decision made itmore difficult for organizations to establish effective affirmative action programs.(See Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, page 1024.)

1020 CHAPTER 32

▼

Andrew Youngstands outside the UnitedNations in NewYork City, in 1997.

D. Answer Thetechnologicalrevolution andgrowing over-seas competition.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. 21% more;26% in 1950,47% in 1980.2. 19% more;47% in 1980,66% in 2000: Yes. the serviceindustries willcontinue togrow as moremanufacturingoccurs outsidethe UnitedStates.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

D

AnalyzingCauses

What factorsplayed a role inAmerica’seconomicstagnation?


F

E


A Human Rights Foreign PolicyJimmy Carter rejected the philosophy of realpolitik—the pragmatic policy ofnegotiating with powerful nations despite their behavior—and strived for a for-eign policy committed to human rights.

ADVANCING HUMAN RIGHTS Jimmy Carter, like Woodrow Wilson, sought touse moral principles as a guide for U.S. foreign policy. He believed that the UnitedStates needed to commit itself to promoting human rights—such as the free-doms and liberties listed in the Declaration of Independence and the Bill ofRights—throughout the world.

Putting his principles into practice, President Carter cut off military aid toArgentina and Brazil, countries that had good relations with the United States buthad imprisoned or tortured thousands of their own citizens. Carter followed upthis action by establishing a Bureau of Human Rights in the State Department.

Carter’s philosophy was not without its critics. Supporters of the containmentpolicy felt that the president’s policy undercut allies such asNicaragua, a dictatorial but anti-Communist country. Othersargued that by supporting dictators in South Korea and thePhilippines, Carter was acting inconsistently. In 1977, Carter’s poli-cies drew further criticism when his administration announcedthat it planned to give up ownership of the Panama Canal.

YIELDING THE PANAMA CANAL Since 1914, when theUnited States obtained full ownership over the Panama Canal,Panamanians had resented having their nation split in half bya foreign power. In 1977, the two nations agreed to twotreaties, one of which turned over control of the Panama Canalto Panama on December 31, 1999.

In 1978, the U.S. Senate, which had to ratify each treaty,approved the agreements by a vote of 68 to 32—one more votethan the required two-thirds. Public opinion was also divided.In the end, the treaties did improve relationships between theUnited States and Latin America.

THE COLLAPSE OF DÉTENTE When Jimmy Carter took office,détente—the relaxation of tensions between the world’s super-powers—had reached a high point. Beginning with PresidentNixon and continuing with President Ford, U.S. officials hadworked to ease relations with the Communist superpowers ofChina and the Soviet Union.

However, Carter’s firm insistence on human rights led to abreakdown in relations with the Soviet Union. President Carter’sdismay over the Soviet Union’s treatment of dissidents, oropponents of the government’s policies, delayed a secondround of SALT negotiations. President Carter and Soviet pre-mier Leonid Brezhnev finally met in June of 1979 in Vienna,Austria, where they signed an agreement known as SALT II.Although the agreement did not reduce armaments, it did pro-vide for limits on the number of strategic weapons andnuclear-missile launchers that each side could produce.

The SALT II agreement, however, met sharp opposition inthe Senate. Critics argued that it would put the United Statesat a military disadvantage. Then, in December 1979, the Sovietsinvaded the neighboring country of Afghanistan. Angered overthe invasion, President Carter refused to fight for the SALT IIagreement, and the treaty died.

WORLD STAGEWORLD STAGE

SOVIET–AFGHANISTAN WARAfghanistan, an Islamic countryalong the southern border of theSoviet Union, had been run by aCommunist, pro-Soviet govern-ment for a number of years.However, a strong Muslim rebelgroup known as the mujahideenwas intent on overthrowing theAfghan government. Fearing arebel victory in Afghanistan, theSoviet Union sent troops toAfghanistan in late 1979.

While the Soviets had superiorweaponry, the rebels fought theSoviets to a stalemate by usingguerrilla tactics and intimateknowledge of the country’s moun-tainous terrain.

After suffering thousands ofcasualties, the last Soviet troopspulled out of Afghanistan inFebruary 1989. Fighting betweenrival factions continued for years.By 2000, the Taliban, a radicalMuslim faction, controlled 90 per-cent of Afghanistan.

U.S.S.R. CHINA

IRANAFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

INDIA

E. Answer Itundercut ColdWar alliancesand was incon-sistent in itstreatment of dictators.

F. AnswerCarter’s concernover the Soviets’human rightsviolations andtheir invasion ofAfghanistan.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

E

IdentifyingProblems

Whatproblems didcritics have withCarter’s foreign-policy philosophy?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

F

AnalyzingCauses

What led tothe collapse ofdétente with theSoviet Union?


Triumph and Crisis in the Middle EastThrough long gasoline lines and high energy costs, Americans became all tooaware of the troubles in the Middle East. In that area of ethnic, religious, and eco-nomic conflict, Jimmy Carter achieved one of his greatest diplomatic triumphs—and suffered his most tragic defeat.

THE CAMP DAVID ACCORDS Through negotiation and arm-twisting, Carterhelped forge peace between long-time enemies Israel and Egypt. In 1977, Egyptian

president Anwar el-Sadat and Israeliprime minister Menachem Begin metin Jerusalem to discuss an overallpeace between the two nations. In thesummer of 1978, Carter seized on thepeace initiative. When the peace talksstalled, he invited Sadat and Begin toCamp David, the presidential retreatin Maryland.

After 12 days of intense negotia-tions, the three leaders reached anagreement that became known as theCamp David Accords. Under thisfirst signed peace agreement with anArab country, Israel agreed to withdrawfrom the Sinai Peninsula, which it hadseized from Egypt during the Six-DayWar in 1967. Egypt, in turn, formallyrecognized Israel’s right to exist. Still,many issues were left unresolved.

TunisAlgiers

TripoliBeirut Baghdad

Tehran

Esfahan

AmmanCairo

Khartoum

Alexandria

Damascus

Kuwait

RiyadhMedina

Istanbul

Mecca

Aden

Sana

Muscat

Ankara

AbuDhabi

TUNISIA CYPRUS

KUWAITIRAQ

OMAN

SYRIALEBANON

UNITED ARABEMIRATES

BAHRAIN

QATAR

YEMEN

P.D.R.YEMEN

JORDAN

ISRAEL

SOMALIA

DJIBOUTI

LIBYA

ALGERIA

EGYPT

TURKEY

IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

SAUDIARABIA

SUDAN

ETHIOPIA

NeutralZone

Black Sea

ArabianSea

AegeanSea

RedSea

Persian Gulf

CaspianSea

Gulf o f Aden

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Strait ofHormuz

Gulf ofOman

Nile

Rive

r

Euphrates R.

R.

Tigris

60°E

45°E

15°N

30°N

N

S

EW

President Carter,President Anwarel-Sadat, andPrime MinisterMenachem Beginreach a peaceagreement in1978.

Jerusalem

Tel Aviv

Haifa

WESTBANK

GOLAN HEIGHTS

GAZA STRIP

SINAIPENINSULA

Cairo

LEBANON

EGYPT

SAUDIARABIA

JORDAN

DeadSea

RedSea

SuezCanal

Sea ofGalileeMediterranean

Sea

R.

Jord

an

Gul

f of A

qaba

Gulf of Suez

Israel

Israeli-occupied land

Israeli conquests returnedto Egypt, 1979–1982

OPEC Member

Middle East, 1978–1982

▼

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Location What OPEC countries are shown on the map?2. Human-Environment Interaction How does Israel’s

location contribute to its conflicts?

G. Answer Itwas the firstsigned agree-ment betweenIsrael and anArab country.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Algeria, Libya,Iraq, Iran,Kuwait, SaudiArabia, Qatar,United ArabEmirates.2. It is located atthe crossroadsof 3 continentsand 2 seas. It islocated centrallyto many oil pro-ducing nations.

G

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

GSummarizing

What was thesignificance of theCamp DavidAccords?


U.S. hostageswere blindfoldedand paradedthrough thestreets of Tehran.

Joking at the hard work ahead, Carter wrote playfully in his diary, “I resolvedto do everything possible to get out of the negotiating business!” Little did thepresident know that his next Middle East negotiation would be his most painful.

THE IRAN HOSTAGE CRISIS By 1979, the shah of Iran, an ally of the UnitedStates, was in deep trouble. Many Iranians resented his regime’s widespread corruption and dictatorial tactics.

In January 1979, revolution broke out. The Muslim religious leaderAyatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (FQyE-tIPlE rL-hIPlE kI-mAPnC) led the rebels inoverthrowing the shah and establishing a religious state based on strict obedienceto the Qur’an, the sacred book of Islam. Carter had supported the shah until thevery end. In October 1979, the president allowed the shah to enter the UnitedStates for cancer treatment, though he had already fled Iran in January 1979.

The act infuriated the revolution-aries of Iran. On November 4, 1979,armed students seized the U.S.embassy in Tehran and took 52Americans hostage. The militantsdemanded that the United States sendthe shah back to Iran in return for therelease of the hostages.

Carter refused, and a painful year-long standoff followed, in which theUnited States continued quiet butintense efforts to free the hostages.The captives were finally released onJanuary 20, 1981, shortly after thenew president, Ronald Reagan, wassworn in as president. Despite thehostages’ release after 444 days incaptivity, the crisis in Iran seemed to underscore the limits that Americans facedduring the 1970s. Americans also realized that there were limits to the nation’senvironmental resources. This realization prompted both citizens and thegovernment to actively address environmental concerns.


•Gerald R. Ford•Jimmy Carter

•National Energy Act•human rights

•Camp David Accords•Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini



Create a time line of the majorevents of the Ford and Carteradministrations, using a form suchas the one below.

Which two events do you think werethe most important? Why?

CRITICAL THINKING3. EVALUATING DECISIONS

Do you think that Ford made a gooddecision in pardoning Nixon? Explainwhy or why not.

4. COMPARINGHow were the actions taken byPresidents Ford and Carter toaddress the country’s economicdownturn similar? How did theydiffer?

5. ANALYZING ISSUESDo you agree with President Carterthat human rights concerns shouldsteer U.S. foreign policy? Why orwhy not? Think About:

• the responsibility of promotinghuman rights

• the loss of good relations withcertain countries

• the collapse of détente with theSoviet Union

event two

event three

event four

event one

▼


REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA v. BAKKE (1978)

ORIGINS OF THE CASE In 1973, Allan Bakke applied to the University of Californiaat Davis medical school. The school had a quota-based affirmative-action plan thatreserved 16 out of 100 spots for racial minorities. Bakke, a white male, was not admittedto the school despite his competitive test scores and grades. Bakke sued for admission,arguing that he had been discriminated against on the basis of race. The CaliforniaSupreme Court agreed with Bakke, but the school appealed the case.

THE RULING The Court ruled that racial quotas were unconstitutional, but that schoolscould still consider race as a factor in admissions.

1024 CHAPTER 32

LEGAL REASONINGThe Court was closely divided on whether affirmative-actionplans were constitutional. Two different sets of justices formed 5-to-4 majorities on two different issues in Bakke.

Five justices agreed the quota was unfair to Bakke. Theybased their argument on the equal protection clause of theFourteenth Amendment. Justice Lewis Powell, writing for themajority, explained their reasoning.

“ The guarantee ofequal protection can-not mean one thingwhen applied to oneindividual and some-thing else whenapplied to a person ofanother color. If bothare not accorded thesame protection, then it is not equal.”

The four justices thatjoined Powell in this part ofthe decision said race shouldnever play a part in admis-sions decisions. Powell and

the other four justices disagreed. These five justicesformed a separate majority, arguing that “the attain-ment of a diverse student body . . . is a constitutionallypermissible goal for an institution of higher education.”In other words, schools could have affirmative-actionplans that consider race as one factor in admission deci-sions in order to achieve a diverse student body.

UNITED STEELWORKERS OF AMERICA v. WEBER(1979)

The Court said a business could have a short-termprogram for training minority workers as a way of fix-ing the results of past discrimination.

ADARAND CONSTRUCTORS v. PENA (1995)The Court struck a federal law to set aside 10 percentof highway construction funds for minority-owned busi-nesses. The Court also said that affirmative-action programs must be focused to achieve a compelling government interest.

RELATED CASES

U.S. CONSTITUTION, FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT(1868)

“No state shall . . . deprive any person of life, liberty,or property, without due process of law; nor deny toany person within its jurisdiction the equal protectionof the laws.”

LEGISLATION

LEGAL SOURCES

▼

Allan Bakke receives hisdegree in medicine from themedical school at U.C. Davison June 4, 1982.

p1024-1025aspe-0932sc 10/17/02 9:27 AM Page 1024 Page 1 of 2


On October 8, 1977, protestors march in suppport of affirmative action at a park in Oakland, California.

THINKING CRITICALLYTHINKING CRITICALLY

CONNECT TO HISTORY 1. Evaluating Research articles about Bakke in the library

or on the Internet. Read the articles and write a para-graph for each one explaining the writer’s point of viewon the case. Conclude by telling which article gives thebest discussion of the case. Cite examples to supportyour choice.


CONNECT TO TODAY2.

Visit the links for Historic Decisions of the Supreme Courtto research and read about Proposition 209, California’s1996 law banning affirmative action at state universities.Prepare arguments for an in-class debate about whetherthe law will have a positive or negative long-term effect.

WHY IT MATTEREDMany people have faced discrimination in America.The struggle of African Americans for civil rights in the1950s and 1960s succeeded in overturning Jim Crowsegregation. Even so, social inequality persisted forAfrican Americans, as well as women and other minor-ity groups. In 1965, President Lyndon Johnsonexplained why more proactive measures needed to betaken to end inequality.

“ You do not take a person who for years hasbeen hobbled by chains and . . . bring him up tothe starting line of a race and then say, ‘you arefree to compete with all the others’ and still justlybelieve that you have been completely fair.”

As a result, Johnson urged companies to begin totake “affirmative action” to hire and promote AfricanAmericans, helping them to overcome generations ofinequality. Critics quickly opposed affirmative actionplans as unfair to white people and merely a replace-ment of one form of racial discrimination with another.

University admissions policies became a focus ofthe debate over affirmative action. The Court’s rulingin Bakke allowed race to be used as one factor in admis-sions decisions. Schools could consider a prospectivestudent’s race, but they could not use quotas or userace as the only factor for admission.

HISTORICAL IMPACTSince Bakke, the Court has ruled on affirmative actionseveral times, usually limiting affirmative-action plans.For example, in Adarand Constructors v. Pena (1995), theCourt struck a federal law to set aside “not less than 10percent” of highway construction funds for businessesowned by “socially and economically disadvantagedindividuals.” The Court said that affirmative-action pro-grams must be narrowly focused to achieve a “com-pelling government interest.”

On cases regarding school affirmative-action plans,the Supreme Court has chosen not to act. The Courtrefused to hear a case challenging a California law ban-ning the consideration of race or gender for admissionto the state’s universities. Similarly, the Court refused tohear an appeal of a 1996 lower court ruling that out-lawed any consideration of race for admission to theUniversity of Texas law school. In December of 2000,however, supporters of affirmative action won a victoryin the federal court. A federal judge ruled that aUniversity of Michigan affirmative action plan was con-stitutional. He noted that Bakke—not the Texas case—was the law of the land, and schools still had the rightto consider race in admissions decisions.

In recent years, some states have found new ways ofhelping minority students enter state universities. Forinstance, California, Florida, and Texas have enactedplans guaranteeing admittance to state universities fortop students from each high school graduating class.

▼

IINTERNET ACTIVITY CLASSZONE.COM

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1026 CHAPTER 32


EnvironmentalActivism

In 1972, Lois Gibbs and her family moved to Niagara Falls, New York.Underneath this quiet town, however, was a disaster in the making. In the1890s, the Love Canal had been built to provide hydroelectric power for theNiagara Falls area. Chemical companies were dumping hazardous wasteinto the canal. In 1953, bulldozers filled in the canal. Shortly thereafter,a school and rows of homes were built nearby.

In 1977, when Lois Gibbs’s son fell sick, she decided to investi-gate. She eventually uncovered the existence of the toxic wasteand mobilized the community to demand government action.In 1980, President Carter authorized funds for many NiagaraFalls families to move to safety. Years later, Lois Gibbs wrote abook detailing her efforts.

A PERSONAL VOICE LOIS GIBBS

“ I want to tell you our story—my story—because I believe thatordinary citizens—using the tools of dignity, self-respect, commonsense, and perseverance—can influence solutions to importantproblems in our society. . . . In solving any difficult problem, youhave to be prepared to fight long and hard, sometimes at greatpersonal cost; but it can be done. It must be done if we are to survive . . . at all.”

—Love Canal: My Story

Lois Gibbs’s concerns about environmental hazards were shared by manyAmericans in the 1970s. Through the energy crisis, Americans learned that theirnatural resources were limited; they could no longer take the environment forgranted. Americans—from grassroots organizations to the government—began tofocus on conservation of the environment and new forms of energy.

The Roots of EnvironmentalismThe widespread realization that pollution and overconsumption were damagingthe environment began in the 1960s. One book in particular had awakened

POISONEDPLAYGROUNDLois Gibbs andthe Crisis atLove Canal

Terms & NamesTerms & NamesMAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOWWHY IT MATTERS NOW

•Rachel Carson•Earth Day•environmentalist

•EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA)

•Three Mile Island

During the 1970s, Americansstrengthened their efforts toaddress the nation’senvironmental problems.

The nation today continues tostruggle to balance environmentalconcerns with industrial growth.


A

America’s concerns about the environment and helped laythe groundwork for the activism of the early seventies.

RACHEL CARSON AND SILENT SPRING In 1962, RachelCarson, a marine biologist, published a book entitled SilentSpring. In it, she warned against the growing use of pesti-cides—chemicals used to kill insects and rodents. Carsonargued that pesticides poisoned the very food they wereintended to protect and as a result killed many birds and fish.

Carson cautioned that America faced a “silent spring,”in which birds killed off by pesticides would no longer fillthe air with song. She added that of all the weapons used in“man’s war against nature,” pesticides were some of themost harmful.

A PERSONAL VOICE RACHEL CARSON

“ These sprays, dusts, and aerosols . . . have the power tokill every insect, the ‘good’ and the ‘bad,’ to still the songof birds and the leaping of fish in the streams, to coat theleaves with a deadly film, and to linger on in soil—all thisthough the intended target may be only a few weeds orinsects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down sucha barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth withoutmaking it unfit for all life?”

—Silent Spring

Within six months of its publication, Silent Spring soldnearly half a million copies. Many chemical companiescalled the book inaccurate and threatened legal action.However, for a majority of Americans, Carson’s book was anearly warning about the danger that human activity posedto the environment. Shortly after the book’s publication,President Kennedy established an advisory committee toinvestigate the situation.

With Rachel Carson’s prodding, the nation slowly began to focus more onenvironmental issues. Although Carson would not live to see the U.S. govern-ment outlaw DDT in 1972, her work helped many Americans realize that theireveryday behavior, as well as the nation’s industrial growth, had a damagingeffect on the environment.

Environmental Concerns inthe 1970sDuring the 1970s, the administrations ofRichard Nixon and Jimmy Carter confrontedsuch environmental issues as conservation,pollution, and the growth of nuclear energy.

THE FIRST EARTH DAY The UnitedStates ushered in the 1970s—a decadein which it would actively address its environmental issues—fittinglyenough with the first Earth Daycelebration. On that day, April 22,1970, nearly every community

A. Answer ItheightenedAmericans’awareness thatmany of theiractivities werepotentiallyharmful to theenvironment.


RACHEL CARSON1907–1964

The marine biologist RachelCarson was born far from the sea,in the small town of Springdale,Pennsylvania.

Carson was a sickly child whooften had to remain at home,where her mother tutored her.Throughout her youth and into hercollege years, Carson was a stu-dious, but quiet and aloof, person.

Carson entered college intenton becoming a writer. During hersophomore year, she took a biol-ogy class to fulfill her sciencerequirement and quickly fell inlove with the study of nature. Bythe next year Carson switched hermajor from English to zoology—the study of animals.

A flag celebratingthe first EarthDay in 1970.▼

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

AnalyzingEffects

What effectsdid RachelCarson’s bookhave on the nationas a whole?


in the nation and more than 10,000 schools and 2,000 colleges hosted some typeof environmental-awareness activity and spotlighted such problems as pollution,the growth of toxic waste, and the earth’s dwindling resources. The Earth Day cel-ebration continues today. Each year on April 22, millions of people around theworld gather to heighten public awareness of environmental problems.

THE GOVERNMENT TAKES ACTION Although President Nixon was not con-sidered an environmentalist, or someone who takes an active role in the pro-tection of the environment, he recognized the nation’s growing concern aboutthe environment. In an effort to “make our peace with nature,” President Nixonset out on a course that led to the passage of several landmark measures. In 1970,he consolidated 15 existing federal pollution programs into the EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA). The new agency was given the power to set andenforce pollution standards, to conduct environmental research, and to assiststate and local governments in pollution control. Today, the EPA remains the fed-eral government’s main instrument for dealing with environmental issues.

In 1970 Nixon signed a new Clean Air Act that added several amendments tothe Clean Air Act of 1963. The new act gave the government the authority to setair standards. Following the 1970 Clean Air Act, Congress also passed theEndangered Species Act, in addition to laws that limited pesticide use and curbedstrip mining—the practice of mining for ore and coal by digging gaping holes inthe land. Some 35 environmental laws took effect during the decade, addressingevery aspect of conservation and clean-up, from protecting endangered animalsto regulating auto emissions.

BALANCING PROGRESS AND CONSERVATION IN ALASKA During the 1970s,the federal government took steps to ensure the continued well-being of Alaska,the largest state in the nation and one of its most ecologically sensitive.

The discovery of oil there in 1968, and the subsequent construction of a mas-sive pipeline to transport it, created many new jobs and greatly increased staterevenues. However, the influx of new development also raised concerns aboutAlaska’s wildlife, as well as the rights of its native peoples. In 1971, Nixon signed

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, which turned over millionsof acres of land to the state’s native tribes for conservation and trib-al use. In 1978, President Carter enhanced this conservation effortby setting aside an additional 56 million acres in Alaska as nationalmonuments. In 1980, Congress added another 104 million acres asprotected areas.

THE DEBATE OVER NUCLEAR ENERGY As the 1970s came to aclose, Americans became acutely aware of the dangers that nuclearpower plants posed to both humans and the environment. Duringthe 1970s, as America realized the drawbacks to its heavy depen-dence on foreign oil for energy, nuclear power seemed to many tobe an attractive alternative.

Opponents of nuclear energy warned the public against theindustry’s growth. They contended that nuclear plants, and thewastes they produced, were potentially dangerous to humans andtheir environment.

THREE MILE ISLAND In the early hours of March 28, 1979, theconcerns of nuclear energy opponents were validated. That morn-ing, one of the nuclear reactors at a plant on Three Mile Islandnear Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, malfunctioned. The reactor over-heated after its cooling system failed, and fear quickly arose thatradiation might escape and spread over the region. Two days later,

B

Vocabularytoxic: capable ofcausing injury ordeath, especiallyby chemicalmeans; poisonous

▼

The Trans-AlaskaPipeline, stretch-ing acrosshundreds of milesof tundra, wascompleted in1977.

B. Answer In1970 Nixonsigned a newClean Air Act.Congresspassed theEndangeredSpecies Act, and additionallaws limitingpesticide useand curbingstrip miningwere passed.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

BSummarizing

What were theenvironmentalactions takenduring the Nixonadministration?



ScienceScience

More than 20 years after the accident, clean-up at Three Mile Island continues.The final ‘clean-up bill’ could soar to more than $3 billion. The TMI-2 reactor was dangerously contaminated and could not be entered for two years. All thematerials in the containment structure, along with anything used in the clean-up,had to be decontaminated. Because the reactor will never be completely free ofradioactivity, it will one day be entombed in cement.

ContainmentStructure

Pump

BackupCoolingWater

ControlRods

FuelElements

Heat

ReactorCore

SteamGenerator

Water

Generator

Pumps

Pumps

Condenser

Cool Water

Hot Water

Cooling Tower

Turbine

Electricity

3

2

41

REACTOR MELTDOWNThe radioactive reactor core generates heat as its atoms split during a controlled chain reaction.

An inoperative valve releases thousands of gallons of coolant from the reactor core.

Half of the 36,816 exposed fuel rods melt in temperatures above five thousand degrees.

The melted material burns through the lining of the reactor chamber and spills to thefloor of the containment structure.

432

1

THE ACCIDENT AT THREE MILE ISLANDA series of human and mechanical errors that caused the partial meltdown of the reactor corebrought the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant to the brink of disaster. The accident at ThreeMile Island caused widespread concern about nuclear power throughout the American public.

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History ThroughHistory Through

low-level radiation actually did escape from the crippled reactor. Officials evacu-ated some residents, while others fled on their own. One homemaker who livednear the plant recalled her desperate attempt to find safety.

A PERSONAL VOICE

“ On Friday, a very frightening thing occurred in our area. A state policeman wentdoor-to-door telling residents to stay indoors, close all windows, and turn all airconditioners off. I was alone, as were many other homemakers, and my thoughtswere focused on how long I would remain a prisoner in my own home. . . . Sud-denly, I was scared, real scared. I decided to get out of there, while I could. I ranto the car not knowing if I should breathe the air or not, and I threw the suitcasesin the trunk and was on my way within one hour. If anything dreadful happened, Ithought that I’d at least be with my girls. Although it was very hot in the car, Ididn’t trust myself to turn the air conditioner on. It felt good as my tense musclesrelaxed the farther I drove.”

—an anonymous homemaker quoted in Accident at Three Mile Island: The Human Dimensions

In all, more than 100,000 residents were evacuated from the surrounding area.On April 9, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the federal agency that monitorsthe nuclear power industry, announced that the immediate danger was over.

The events at Three Mile Island rekindled the debate over nuclear power.Supporters of nuclear power pointed out that no one had been killed or seriouslyinjured. Opponents countered by saying that chance alone had averted a tragedy.

HOLLYWOOD AND NUCLEAR FEARSAt the end of the 1970s and in the early 1980s,Hollywood responded to Americans’ concerns overnuclear power by making pointed social-awareness filmsexposing dangers in the nuclear industry. These filmsalerted the public to the importance of regulations inthe relatively new field of atomic energy.

▼

BackgroundThe U.S. govern-ment does notexpect to have apermanent burialsite for nuclearwaste until 2010.A proposed site isbeneath the YuccaMountains insouthern Nevadaabout 100 milesnorthwest of LasVegas.

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Visual Sources

1. Why do you think movies based on real events arepopular with the general public?

2. How do you think these films influenced present-daynuclear energy policy?


1030 CHAPTER 32

In 1983, on her way to meet with a reporter from theNew York Times, Karen Silkwood, a worker at a nuclearpower facility, was hit and died in a car crash. In the filmdramatization, Silkwood (1983), Meryl Streep playedKaren, and Kurt Russell and Cher, her co-workers.

In 1979, The China Syndrome, starring Jane Fonda andJack Lemmon, became the movie everyone was talkingabout. Only 12 days after the film’s release, a seriousaccident similar to the one portrayed in the movieoccurred at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant. ▼


C

•Rachel Carson•Earth Day

•environmentalist•Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA)



Re-create the web below on yourpaper and fill in events that illustratethe main idea in the center.

CRITICAL THINKING3. ANALYZING CAUSES

How much should the United Statesrely on nuclear power as a source ofenergy? Explain your view. Think About:

• the safety of nuclear power• the alternatives to nuclear power• U.S. energy demands

4. ANALYZING VISUAL SOURCESWhat message does this 1969poster from the EnvironmentalProtection Agency give about thegovernment’s role in pollution?

Concern for the environment grew in the United States.

They demanded that the government call a halt to the con-struction of new power plants and gradually shut downexisting nuclear facilities.

While the government did not do away with nuclearpower, federal officials did recognize nuclear energy’spotential danger to both humans and the environment. Asa result of the accident at Three Mile Island, the NuclearRegulatory Commission strengthened its safety standardsand improved its inspection procedures.

A Continuing MovementAlthough the environmental movement of the 1970sgained popular support, opponents of the movement alsomade their voices heard. In Tennessee, for example, wherea federal dam project was halted because it threatened aspecies of fish, local developers took out ads asking resi-dents to “tell the government that the size of your wallet is more important than some two-inch-long minnow.”When confronted with environmental concerns, oneunemployed steelworker spoke for others when heremarked, “Why worry about the long run, when you’re out of work right now.”

The environmental movement that blossomed in the1970s became in the 1980s and 1990s a struggle to balanceenvironmental concerns with jobs and progress. In theyears since the first Earth Day, however, environmentalissues have gained increasing attention and support.


C. AnswerOpponents ofnuclear powerwanted the gov-ernment to stopusing nuclearplants. Instead,the NuclearRegulatoryCommissiontightened itsstandards andimproved itsinspection procedures.

NOWNOW THENTHEN

AIR POLLUTION INCALIFORNIA

As evidenced in the state ofCalifornia, new laws limiting pollu-tion and improving care of theenvironment can make a differ-ence. Due to its high populationdensity and heavy traffic,Southern California has long hadsome of the most polluted air inthe country. To counteract this,the Golden State has been a pio-neer in passing laws to protectthe environment.

In 1970 California passed whatbecame the strictest motor-vehi-cle emissions standards in thenation. Newer pollution-fightingmeasures requiring cleaner burn-ing gasoline were adopted in1996. More recent requirementsmandate that by 2003, 10 percentof all new vehicles sold must bezero-emission vehicles (ZEVs),which include electric cars.

California’s efforts seem to bepaying off. In the past decade airquality in Los Angeles hasimproved more than 85 percent.

•Three Mile Island

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

AnalyzingEffects

How did theThree Mile Islandincident affect theuse of nuclearpower in America?


1032 CHAPTER 32

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

TERMS & NAMES For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining its significance to the Nixon, Ford, or Carter administrations.

1. Richard M. Nixon 6. Saturday Night Massacre2. stagflation 7. Camp David Accords3. OPEC (Organization of 8. Ayatollah Ruhollah

Petroleum Exporting KhomeiniCountries) 9. Rachel Carson

4. SALT I Treaty 10. Environmental Protection5. Watergate Agency (EPA)

MAIN IDEASUse your notes and the information in the chapter toanswer the following questions.

The Nixon Administration (pages 1000–1007)1. In what ways did President Nixon attempt to reform

the federal government?2. How did Nixon try to combat stagflation?

Watergate: Nixon’s Downfall (pages 1008–1013)3. In what ways did the participants in Watergate

attempt to cover up the scandal?4. What were the results of the Watergate scandal?

The Ford and Carter Years (pages 1016–1023)5. What were Gerald Ford’s greatest successes as

president?6. How did President Carter attempt to solve the

energy crisis?

Environmental Activism (pages 1026–1031)7. What factors increased Americans’ concerns about

environmental issues during the 1960s and 1970s?8. What was the impact of the Three Mile Island

incident?

CRITICAL THINKING1. USING YOUR NOTES In a chart like the one shown,

identify one major development for each issue listedthat occurred between 1968 and 1980. Indicatewhether you think the impact of the development waspositive (+) or negative (–).

2. ANALYZING EVENTS Between 1972 and 1974,Americans were absorbed by the fall of PresidentNixon in the Watergate scandal. What might Americans have learned about the role of the executive office? Explain.

3. INTERPRETING GRAPHS Study the graph on page1019. Describe the changes in unemployment as compared to inflation from 1970 to 1980.

AN AGE OF LIMITSVISUAL SUMMARY

THE CARTER ADMINISTRATION

• Energy crisis• Worsening inflation• Panama Canal Treaties• Camp David Accords• Nuclear power• Iran hostage crisis

• Revenue sharing• Law-and-order politics• Integration delays• Inflation, recession, and

unemployment• Opening to China• Détente with the Soviet Union• Watergate scandal• Nixon resignation

THE FORD ADMINISTRATION

• Unelected president• Nixon pardon • Whip Inflation Now program• Economic recession• Mayagüez incident• Helsinki

Accords

THE NIXON ADMINISTRATION

Issue Development Impact

Economic conditions

Democratic government

Efficient energy use

Environmental protection

p1032-1033aspe-0932ca 10/17/02 9:27 AM Page 1032 Page 1 of 2


ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT1. Recall your discussion of

the question on page 999:

In what ways can a president misuse power?

Now that you’ve learned how your country’shighest office holder, President Nixon, lost thenation’s trust after the Watergate scandal, wouldyou change your response? Discuss your sugges-tions with a small group. Then create a list, rankingthe misuses from least to most severe.

2. LEARNING FROM MEDIA View theAmerican Stories video “Poisoned

Playground.” Discuss the following questions in a group, then do the activity.

• How did Lois Gibbs’s struggle affect her personal life?

• What finally prompted the government to evacuate the residents of Love Canal?

Cooperative Learning Activity In a small group, discuss possible environmental problems in eachgroup member’s neighborhood, listing them on asheet of paper. Compare lists with other groups todetermine the most common problems. List possible solutions for each problem.

I N T E R A C TI N T E R A C TW I T H H I S T O R YW I T H H I S T O R Y

Standardized Test Practice

Use the two graphs below and your knowledge of U.S.history to answer question 1.

1. The OPEC oil embargo hit the United States sohard in 1973 because —

A domestic oil production slowed and peopleimmediately consumed less.

B domestic oil consumption and productionslowed, causing an economic slump.

C the United States consumed increasingly moreoil while producing less.

D the United States increased oil consumptiondramatically that year.

2. How did Watergate affect the presidents who followed after Richard Nixon?

F It caused them to be less trusted and less powerful.

G It made them reluctant to oppose Congress. H It made them more popular with the media.J It caused them to rely less on the counsel of

cabinet members.

3. Which of the following is a contribution made byRachel Carson to the American environmentalmovement?

A Carson researched “cleaner” sources of energy.B Carson lobbied for the passage of the National

Energy Act.C Carson lobbied for making April 22, 1970, the

first Earth Day. D Carson published a book on the hazards of

pesticide use.

ADDITIONAL TEST PRACTICE, pages S1–S33.

ITEST PRACTICE CLASSZONE.COM

U.S. Oil Production, 1965–1979

Barr

els

per D

ay (

in m

illio

ns)

1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979

20

15

10

5

0

Source: Annual Energy Review, 1999

U.S. Oil Consumption, 1965–1979

Barr

els

per D

ay (

in m

illio

ns)

1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979

20

15

10

5

0

Source: Annual Energy Review, 1999

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