palaeolinguistics – war and peace

Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab

Palaeolinguistics – war and peace

Army: *kor(i �)os: OP kara- ’people, army’, MIr. cuire, Goth. harjis, Lith. karias ’army’ (and karas ’war’);

From this ‘the leader of the army’: ON Herjann, epithet of Odin, Gk. Koiranos and Bret. ethnonym Korionotota

Denom.: ON. herja ’to cause havoc, vandalize’; a *korios is the same as a ”Männerbund”

Cf. also personal names such as ON Herjólfr, OE Herewolf; Gk. Koirómakhos, perhaps Lat. Coriolanus (< *-lasno-’eager, greedy for?) – but what about the name of the town Corioli?

Gaulic compounds Vo-corii, Tri-corii, Petru-cori, units of two, three, four warriors


War and peace

København, 13. juni 2014Dias 2

In Germanic and Greek tradition har similar groups, thus the Greek ephebes aged 16-25, living in the woods and wearing woolf- or bearskin.

With a similar meaning Skt. márya- ’young man’ used about Indra’s followers, cf. Av. mairiio ’rascal, bandit’, perhaps OIr. muire ’leader’ Bleached semantics in Gk. meirax ’young person’, lat. maritus ’married’ (about men)

Perhaps also Mitanni ma-ri-ia-an-nu ’group of chariot fighters’, OP marika- ’member of an escort’

*lah2u�ós: Gk. laós ’people’; pl. ’army’, Myc. ra-wa-ke-ta ’leader of the people/army’, leízomai ‘vandalize’, Phryg. lawagtaei ’leader of the army’. The base word is assumed in Hitt. lahha- ’campaign’


The Germanic tribes

Ynglinga saga: ”(Odin’s men) used to go without preastplates, furious as dogs or wolves, biting their shilds, strong as bears or bulls; they slew men, and neither fire nor sword could injure them – this was called berserksgangr”.

Also called úlfhednar ‘woolf-skinned’, cf. Skr. Vrkajina- ‘wolfskin’

The Greek battle-fury is called lússa, a derivative of lúkos ‘woolf’



The cattle raids

Skt. gavisti- lit. ‘desire for cows’ typically signifies an expedition to win them

RV 10.38: ”In this glorious battle, Indra,This energetic tumult, urge us to win,In the cattle raid where among the bold beringed onesThe arrows fly in all directions for men’s defeat”.

Irish saga, Táin bó Cúailnge (The cattle-raid of Cooley)

But Avestan: ”I abjure thievery and cattle-raiding …”



War and peace

*teu�táh-, on the contrary, denotes the people as consisting of free, especially married (Osc. touto, OIr. túath, Goth. þiuda (whence þiudans ’king’), Lith. tautà)

Traditionally compared with Hitt. tuzzi- ’army; camp’ < *teuti-; the counter-arguments (Kloekhorst) do not seem compelling: *teuta a substratum word (why?); semantic development ’people’ > ’camp’ unlikely (but couldn’t the Hittite meaning be original?)

Alternative explanation (Melchert): *dhh1-uti- to katta dai- ’siege’

Another word for leader (of the army): *h2aĝos: Skt. ajá-, Gk. agos; cf. also compounds Myc. ra-wa-ke-ta, Gk. stragegós, Skr. prtanaj- ’leading into fight’



War and peace

Another word for leader perhaps *u�nZ-ә2g’-t-? Skt. van-íj- ’merchant’, also an epithet of Indra (AV 3.15.1) : Gk. vanax, -ktos ‘ruler’

The leader of a *teu�tah2, on the contrary, is the *h3reĝs (McCone)



Weapons

Sword, dagger: *hnZsis: Pal. hasira- ’dagger’, Skt. así- ’sword, slaughter knife’, Av. aŋhu ’sword’, Lat. ensis ’sword’; the character of the laryngeal uncertain (Pal. vs. Lat.)

*skVlmah2- (?): Thrac. skalme ’sword, knife’, ON. skolm ’sword’.

Knife:*u�eben-: Toch.A.B. yepe ’knife’, Goth. pl. wepna, ON vápn; what is Gk. hópla ‘weapons’?

*k’әstrom: skr. śastra- ’knife, dagger’, Lat. *castrum ’knife’ → castrare ‘prune; castrate’ (also castrum (cutting >) ’camp’



Weapons

Metal knives are known from South East Europe from about 3500 f.Kr, but some weapons and tools may originally have been made of flint.

Cf. perhaps Arm. gerandi ’sickle’, if < *ghernZtio- : Gk. kherás, -ádos ’gravel’

Spear:*gwéru- : Av. grauua- (< *gwreu�o-) ’staff’, lat. veru ’spear’, Umbr. berva ’lance’, OIr. biur ’spear’, perhaps Goth. qairu ’thorn, point’ (uncertain reading)



Weapons

*h2ai �k’smo-/ah2-: Gk. aihmé ’spear, point of a spear’, OPr. aysmis, Lith. iešmas ’spit, skewer’

*k’úhlos: Skt. śula- ’spear, lance’, arm. slakc ’spear, dagger, arrow’ (probably = Lat. culex ’mosquito’)

*ĝhai �sós: Skt. hésas- ’missle’, Gk. khaíos ’pastoral staff’, Gallo-Rom. gaesum, OIr. gae ’spear’, OE. gar ’spear’; Goth. PN Gaisa-reix

*k’elh-: Skt. śalá- ’staff’, śaylá- ’spear’, Gk. kéla ’arrowshafts’, Alb. thel ’large nail, spear’, MIr. cáil ’spea’, ON hali ’spear, tail’, OPr. kelian ‘spear’



Axe and club

Axe:*h2edhés-: Hitt. ates-, atessa-, OE adesa (> Eng. adze)

*tek’s(l)o/-ah2-: Av. taša-, OIr. tál, OHG dehsala, Russ.CS. tesla ‘axe’

Also old borrowings: *pelek’u- (Skt. paraśu-, Myc. pe-re-ke-we, Gk. pélekus ’axe’ (both tool and war-axe), : Akk. pilakku ’axe’ (?), perhaps Sum. balag ’spindle’

*sekur-: Lat. securis, OCS sekyra ’axe’ : Akk. šukurru ’axe’

Club, thunderbolt:*u�aĝro-: Skt. vajra-, Av. vazra- (loanword: Toch.AB waśir ’thunderbolt’, Finn. vasara ’hammer’), Gk. PN Meléagros. Perhaps Germ. PN Odoacer, OE Eadwacer < *audawakraz ‘rich in weapons’



Bow and arrow

*gwii �o-/-ah2 ‘bowstring’: Skt. jya, Gk. Biós

*h1isus ‘arrow’: Skt. iśú-, Av. išu-, gr. ἰός

Also *toksom ‘bow’ (MP taxš, Gk. tóxon) as a special semantic development of ’yew’



Weapons and names

PN Gk. Douriklutos ‘spear-famed’, Klutótoxos ‘bow-famed’ (Apollo)

Skt. Srutáratha- ‘chariot-famed’

- And epithets of the weapons, e.g. Miollnir ‘mordgiarn’ (eager to kill’), OE spear ‘wælgifru’ (greedy for carnage)

Indian arrows ‘drink blood’ and Homeric spears ‘yearn to get their fill for flesh’



Dialogues between the warriors

Il. 6. 123ff (Diomedes to Glaucus):

”Who are you, my good fellow, of mortal men?Unfortunate are they wholse sons come against my fury”

Shah-name: ”What is your name? Who is it that must weep over thy headless body”?

Táin: ”We shall not part like this until I carry off your head or until I leave my head with your”.



Loot and captives

Loot:*seru: Hitt. saru ’loot’, especially men and cattle, vb. saruwai ’to plunder, pillage’

Derivative *seru�o/ah2- > OIr. serf ’theft’, W. herw ’predatory expedition’; Lat. servus could be included, but there are other possibilities (*serhu- ’take care of’)

Prisoner of war:*kaptos: Lat. captus, OIr. cacht, W. caeth, ON haftr – dialectally limited.



Victory

*seĝh- ‘conquer’: the base meaning of the verb is ‘to hold’

hence s-stem *seĝhos > skr. sahas- ’victory’, Av. hazah- ‘act of violence’, Goth. sigis ’victory’

*seĝhu�r Z → Skt. sahuri- ’victorious’, Gk. hekhurós ’strong’; cf. also the PN Hektor

Also personal names such as Gaul. Segomarus, OHG. Sigwart, ON Sigurðr



The god of war

*mau�ort-: OLat. Mavors, later Mars, vs. Osc. Mamers, Carmen Arvale: Marmar, Etrusc. Marmarce

Sometimes compared with Ved. marutah ’crowd of war gods, associated with either the wind, Vayu-, or Indra

The original function of Mars is debatable, perhaps an agricultural god?

Cf. the ritual text of the Fratres Arvales’, recorded 218 AD, but partly incomprehensible at the time:

Enos Lases iuuate …. ’help us, lares’ (3x)Neue lue, neue rue ’neither failure of the crops nor

misfortune’… satur fu, fere Mars (3x) ’be content, wild Mars’Enos Marmor iuuato ’let Mars help us’ (3x)Triumpe (5x)



War and peace

Independence: *su�e-dheh1-: Ved. svadha-’independence, custom’, Gk. éthos ’custom’, Lat. suodales ’members of a brotherhood’

Fight: *h2aĝ-: Toch.B. ak ’zeal’, Skt. aji- ’competition, fight’, Gk. agón ’competition, fight’, MIr. ág ’fight’

*i �eu�dh-: Toch.A. yutk- ’worry’, Skt. yudhyáti, Vv. yuiδiieiti ’fight’, Gk, husméne, Lat. iubeo ’command’ (make move and fight’), lit. judù ’move’

*katu-: OIr. cath ’battle’, OHG. hadu ’fight’, OCS. kotora ’fight’.

Personal names in Celtic and Germanic, e.g. Gaul. Caturix : Germ. Hadu-rih



Sickness and health

Sickness

*su�ergho-: Toch.A. särk, OIr. serg ‘sickness’, Lith. sergù ‘I am ill’

*h3ligo-: Gk. loigós ‘destruction, death’, Alb. lig ‘ill; skinny’, Lith. ligà ’sickness’; but Toch.A. lykäly ’small, fine’,Gk. olígoi ’few’

*h1ermen-: Hitt. erman-/armn- (*h1érmn, *h1r Zméns) ’illness’, Arm. ołorm ’compassion’, Goth. arms ’poor’, arma-hairts ’merciful’; from erman- probably also armae- ’be pregnant’and perhaps even arma- ’moon, moon god’

*seu�g-: Arm. hiwcanim ’be ill’, Goth. siuks ’ill’, OHG. suht illness’

‘



Skin diseases

Rash:*de-dru-: Skt. dadru-, dadruka-, OE. teter, OHG. zittaroh, German Zitterich (reduplicated formation from*der- ’tear (the skin)’

Crust of a wound: Gaul. crupellarii ’armoured gladiators’, ON hrúfa ’wound’ (OHG ge-rob > grob), Lith. kraupùs ’rough’, Latv. kraupa ’wart’

Wart:*uer-(d)-: NP balu, Lat. verruca, ON. varta ’wart’, Russ. vered ’boil’; Arm. xaławart ’boil, blister’ perhaps Iranian loan xała- : Av. xvara- ’sår’ + *vard-



Wounds and ulcers


Wound, *h1elkos: Skt. árśas- ’hemorrhoid’, Gk. hélkos ’supporating wound’, Lat. ulcus ’wound’ (hence ulciscor ’take revenge’)

(Supporating) wound: *su�ero- : Av. xvara- ’wound’, W. chwarren ’supporating wound’, OHG. swero ’pain’

Wound: *u�olno- etc.: Gk. oulé, Lat. volnus ’wound’ vs. Skt. vraná-, Russ. rana ’wound’; Cf. also OIr. fuili ’bleeding wounds’, W. gweli ’wound; blood’

Scar (?): *(h2)aru(s)-: Skt. árus- ‘wound’, ON (*arwi- >) ørr ‘scar’


Blindness

Blind: *(h2)andho-: Skt. andhá-, Av. anda- ’blind’, Gaul. andabata- ’gladiator wearing a helmet that covers the eyes’

One-eyed, cockeyed (?): *ke/olno-: Skt. kaná-, Gk. kellás ’one-eyed’, OIr. coll ’having lost one’s right eye’; with *s-: OHG. scëlah, Arm. šil ’cockeyed’

One-eyed, cockeyed (?):*kái �ko-: Skt. kekara- ’cockeyed’, Lat. caecus ’blind’, OIr. cáech ’one-eyed’, Goth. haihs ‘one-eyed’

The one-eyed god/sage: Odin (as opposed to the one-handed Tyr); Skt. Bhaga; Roman legendary heroes: the one-eyed Horatius Cocles prevents the attack of the Etruscans; Mucius Scaevola; Celtic names of druids in Dall- ’blind’; NB: same stem for ’eye’ and ’source’ is reminiscent of Odin at Mimer’s well.



Deaf, dumb and crazy

Deaf: *bhodhxró-: Skt. badhirá-, OIr. bodar

Dumb: *mu-: Skt. muka-, Gk. mukós, Arm. munĵ, Lat. mutus

Stupid: *muh3ró-: Skt. mūrá- = Gk. mōrós

Gk. seleniakós ‘moonsick, mad’; Arm. lusnot and Lat. lunaticus probably calques



Suffixes denoting illness and frailty

Lat. -ac-/-ic-, -uc- vs. -(-ago), especially -igo, -ugoe.g. lumbago; (appendix vs.) pendigo ’svulst’, impetix, impetigo ’rash’, intertrigo ’sore, red skin as a consequence of scratching’, lentigo ’freckles’, robigo ’all sorts of diseases causing redness’, mentigo ’rash on the chins of lambs’; aurugo ’jaundice’ (cf. also ferrugo’rust’, aerugo ’greenspan’); cf. Also Arm. dalukn ‘jaundice’

The suffixes Lat. -edo and Gk. –edon for physical and mental (especially unhealthy) states, e.g. frigedo ’cold’, gravedo ’pains in the joints’, torpedo ’paralysis’ , Gk. algedon ’pain’



Healing

*(h)ei �sh1-: Hitt. iskiya- ’anoint (ritually and medicallly)’, Toch. aise ’vigour’, Skt. isirá- ’strong, lively’, ís-krti- ’healing’, Gk. hierós ’holy’, iáomai ’heal’ (*(h)ish1i �ah2-i �e/o-), iatrós ’doctor’, iaíno ’warm, refresh’ *med-(?): Av. vi-maδaiia- (only ’als Ermesser ermessen’ = ’als Artzt untersuchen’), Lat. medeor, medicus; root *med- ’measure; worry about, take care of, think’ (cf. e.g. OIr. midithir ’judge’, Lat. modus, modestus, Osk. meddík- ’a magistrate’)



Health and healing

Healthy: *sol(h)u�o-: Toch.A. salu-, Skt. sarva-, Av. hauruua-, Gk. hólos ’whole’, Arm. ołĵ ’whole, healthy’, Alb. gjallë ’vigorous’, Lat. salvus ’whole, healthy’

Different root in W. coel ’good omen’, Goth. hails ’healthy’, OCS. cělъ ‘healthy’ The triple treatment:Pindar (Pyth.3, 47-53): epaodais ... pharmaka ... tomais ’by formulas ... medicine ... cutting’

Av. (Videvdat 7.44): karəto.baešaza ... uruuaro.baešaza ... maϑro.baešaza ’the knife-treatment ... herb-treatment ... formula-treatment’



Seen and unseen (worms)

Vedic, e.g. AV 2.31.2: drstam ... adrstam atrham ’I have crushed the seen and the unseen (invisible) (worm)

Cato, Agr. 141: morbos uisos inuisosque ’unseen and seen diseases’

Umbr. (Ig. VIa, 28): uirseto auirseto uas ’seen and unseen defect’



Bodyparts and cosmos

Bodyparts, especially of the primordial being correspond the elements in the cosmos (bone = stone, flesh = earth, blood = water), mentioned in a particular sequence:

Vedic: hair, skin (blood, fat), flesh (sinews), bones (joints) marow; thus also in Avestan, in Hittite ritual texts, especially birth- and healing rituals where a scapegoat is typically used (the Hittites also use scapemice !), from Germanic (OHG) and from Old Irish:

”Dían Cecht didn’t like the cure. He raised a sword over the head of his son and cut until the flesh of the head. It healed. He cut him again until the bone. It healed. He cut a third time until the brain membrane. It healed. Then he cut a fourth time until the brain, so Míach died”.



Healing

Similarities between the Atharvaveda and the Merseburger Sprüche:

ben zi bena : asthnasty... ’bone to bone’bluot zu bluoda : ásrk te asthna ’blood to (your) blood’lid zi geliden : párusa paruh ’limb to limb’ AV: ”Let your marrow be with marrow, your joint with joint. Let what of your flesh has fallen apart be together, let marrow be joined with marrow, let skin grow together with skin, let your blood grow with blood, let flesh grow with flesh. Join hair with hair, join skin with skin. Let you bone grow with bone. Put what is broken together, o plant!”



Merseburger Sprüche

”Phol and Wotan were riding to the woods, Balder’s horse sprained its foot, Sithgunt, sister of Sunna beseeched it, Freya, sister of Folla beseeched it, Wotan beseeched it as well as he could: As leg-spraining, thus blood-spraining, thus joint-spraining: bone to bone, blood to blood, joint to joint”.



Sick-maintenance in Indo-European (Watkins)

Hit. Laws, § 10: ”If somebody strikes a man so that he gets ill, he must take care of (nu apun šaktaizzi). He must give a man instead who can take care of his house until he gets well. When he gets welll, he must give him 6 shekel silver, and he must also pay the doctor’s bill.” Similarly in Old Irish:

Oir. Hit.Attack + +Illness + +The invalid is moved +The invalid nursed + +Man as compensation + +Security +Doctor declares patient cured +Compensation + + København, 13. juni 2014Dias 30

palaeolinguistics – war and peace

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