paper-2 contemporary india and education

8/16/2019 Paper-2 Contemporary India and Education

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COURSE -2

CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION

UNIT -1

MEANING of EDUCATION

Education is a systeatic !"ocess t#"ou$# %#ic# a c#i&d o" an adu&t ac'ui"es (no%&ed$e)

e*!e"ience) s(i&& and sound attitude+ It a(es an indi,idua& ci,i&ied) "efined) cu&tu"ed and

educated+ .o" a ci,i&ied and socia&ied society) education is t#e on&y eans+ Its $oa& is to a(e

an indi,idua& !e"fect+ E,e"y society $i,es i!o"tance to education /ecause it is a !anacea fo" a&&

e,i&s+ It is t#e (ey to so&,e t#e ,a"ious !"o/&es of &ife

t#e %o"d 0Education #as /een de"i,ed f"o diffe"ent atin %o"ds+

a3 ‘educare’ %#ic# eans ‘to bring out’ o" ‘to nourish’+

/3 ‘educere’ %#ic# eans ‘to lead out’ o" ‘to draw out’+

c3 ‘educatum’ %#ic# eans ‘act of teaching’ or ‘training’.

d3 ‘educatus’ %#ic# eans ‘to bring up, rear, educate’.

e3 0ēducātiō %#ic# eans “a breeding, a bringing up, a rearing.”

4 T#e G"ee( %o"d ‘pedagogy’ is soeties used fo" education+

4 T#e ost coon Indian %o"d ‘shiksha’ is de"i,ed f"o t#e Sans("it ,e"/a& "oot

‘shas’ %#ic# eans 0to discipline’, ‘to control’, ‘to instruct’ and ‘to teach’+

4 Sii&a"&y t#e %o"d ‘idya’ is de"i,ed f"o Sans("it ,e"/a& "oot ‘id’ %#ic# eans ‘to

know’+ 5idya is t#us t#e su/6ect atte" of (no%&ed$e+ T#is s#o%s t#at disci!&inin$ t#e

ind and i!a"tin$ (no%&ed$e %#e"e t#e fo"eost conside"ations in India

Soe i!o"tant definitions a"e7

1+ !ahatma "andhi 8 9:y education I ean an a&&-"ound d"a%in$ out of t#e /est in

an 8 /ody) ind and s!i"it+;

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/en:educatio#Latinhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/en:educatio#Latin


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2+ #abindranath $agore 8 9Education ena/&es t#e ind to find out t#e u&tiate

t"ut#) %#ic# $i,es us t#e %ea&t# of inne" &i$#t and &o,e and $i,es si$nificance to &ife+;


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/*$3#4 5 4%36*$25/

As is t#e eanin$ of education) so is its natu"e+ It is ,e"y co!&e*+ et us no% discuss

t#e natu"e of education7

7. Education is a &ife-&on$ !"ocess- Education is a continuous and &ife&on$ !"ocess+ It

sta"ts f"o t#e %o/ of t#e ot#e" and continues ti&& deat#+ It is t#e !"ocess of

de,e&o!ent f"o infancy to atu"ity+ It inc&udes t#e effect of e,e"yt#in$ %#ic#

inf&uences #uan !e"sona&ity+

8. Education is a systeatic !"ocess- It "efe"s to t"ansact its acti,ities t#"ou$# a

systeatic institution and "e$u&ation+

9. Education is de,e&o!ent of indi,idua& and t#e society- It is ca&&ed a fo"ce fo" socia&

de,e&o!ent) %#ic# /"in$s i!"o,eent in e,e"y as!ect in t#e society+

:. Education is odification of /e#a,iou"- uan /e#a,iou" is odified and i!"o,ed

t#"ou$# educationa& !"ocess+

;. Education is !u"!osi,e7 e,e"y indi,idua& #as soe $oa& in #is &ife+ Education

cont"i/utes in attainent of t#at $oa&+ T#e"e is a definite !u"!ose unde"&ined a&&

educationa& acti,ities+


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7@. Education #e&!s in indi,idua& ad6ustent7 a an is a socia& /ein$+ If #e is not a/&e to

ad6ust #ise&f in diffe"ent as!ects of &ife #is !e"sona&ity cant "eain /a&anced+ T#"ou$#

t#e ediu of education #e &ea"ns to ad6ust #ise&f %it# t#e f"iends) c&ass fe&&o%s)

!a"ents) "e&ations) nei$#/ou"s and teac#e"s etc+

77. Education is /a&anced de,e&o!ent7 Education is conce"ned %it# t#e de,e&o!ent

of a&& facu&ties of t#e c#i&d+ it !e"fo"s t#e functions of t#e !#ysica&) enta&) aest#etic)

o"a&) econoic) s!i"itua& de,e&o!ent of t#e indi,idua& so t#at t#e indi,idua& ay $et

"id of #is ania& instincts /y su/&iatin$ t#e sae so t#at #e /ecoes a ci,i&ied !e"son+

78. Education is a dynaic !"ocessA Education is not a static /ut a dynaic !"ocess

%#ic# de,e&o!s t#e c#i&d acco"din$ to c#an$in$ situations and ties+ It a&%ays induces

t#e indi,idua& to%a"ds !"o$"ess+ It "econst"ucts t#e society acco"din$ to t#e c#an$in$needs of t#e tie and !&ace of t#e society+

79. Education is a /i!o&a" !"ocess7 Acco"din$ to Adas) education is a /i!o&a" !"ocess

in %#ic# one !e"sona&ity acts on anot#e" to odify t#e de,e&o!ent of ot#e" !e"son+

T#e !"ocess is not on&y conscious /ut de&i/e"ate+

7:. Education is a t#"ee diensiona& !"ocess7 Fo#n De%ey #as "i$#t&y "ea"(ed) 9A&&

educations !"oceeds /y !a"tici!ation of t#e indi,idua& in t#e socia& consciousness of t#e

"ace+; T#us it is t#e society %#ic# %i&& dete"ine t#e ais) contents and et#ods of

teac#in$s+ In t#is %ay t#e !"ocess of education consists of < !o&es 8 t#e teac#e") t#e

c#i&d and t#e society+

7;. Education as $"o%t#7 T#e end of $"o%t# is o"e $"o%t# and t#e end of education is

o"e education+ Acco"din$ to Fo#n De%ey) 9an indi,idua& is a c#an$in$ and $"o%in$

!e"sona&ity+; T#e !u"!ose of education is to faci&itate t#e !"ocess of #is#e" $"o%t#+

T#e"efo"e) t#e "o&e of education is count&ess fo" a !e"fect society and an+ It is necessa"y fo" e,e"y society and nation to /"in$ #o&istic #a!!iness and !"os!e"ity to its indi,idua&s


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*2!( 5 4%36*$25/

Ais $i,e di"ection to acti,ities+ Ais of education a"e fo"u&ated (ee!in$ in ,ie% t#eneeds of situation+ uan natu"e is u&tisided %it# u&ti!&e needs) %#ic# a"e "e&ated

to &ife+ Educationa& ais a"e co""e&ated to idea&s of &ife+

T#e $oa& of education s#ou&d /e t#e fu&& f&o%e"in$ of t#e #uan on t#is ea"t#+ Acco"din$

to a UNESCO study) 9t#e !#ysica&) inte&&ectua&) eotiona& and et#ica& inte$"ation of t#e

indi,idua& into a co!&ete an%oan is t#e fundaenta& ai of education+;

T#e $oa& of education is a&so to fo" c#i&d"en into #uan !e"sons coitted to %o"(

fo" t#e c"eation of #uan counities of &o,e) fe&&o%s#i!) f"eedo) 6ustice and

#a"ony+ Students a"e to /e ou&ded on&y /y a(in$ t#e e*!e"ience t#e si$nificance

of t#ese ,a&ues in t#e sc#oo& itse&f+ Teac#e"s cou&d ac#ie,e t#is on&y /y t#e &i,ed e*a!&e

of t#ei" &i,es anifested in #und"eds of sa&& and /i$ t"ansactions %it# students in %o"d

and deed+

2ndiidual and (ocial *imsA

Indi,idua& ais and socia& ais a"e t#e ost i!o"tant ais of education+ T#ey a"eo!!osed to eac# ot#e" indi,idua& ais $i,es i!o"tance fo" t#e de,e&o!ent of t#e

indi,idua&ity+ Socia& ai $i,es i!o"tance to t#e de,e&o!ent of society t#"ou$#

indi,idua& not fu&fi&&in$ #is desi"e+ :ut it %i&& /e seen t#at de,e&o!ent of indi,idua&ity

assues eanin$ on&y in a socia& en,i"onent+

2ndiidual *ims + Si" Pe"cy Nunn o/se",es) 9Not#in$ $oods ente"s into t#e #uan

%o"&d e*ce!t in and t#"ou$# t#e f"ee acti,ities of indi,idua& en and %oen and t#at

educationa& !"actice ust /e s#a!ed t#e indi,idua&+ Education s#ou&d $i,e sco!e to

de,e&o! t#e in/o"n !otentia&ities t#"ou$# a*iu f"eedo

6riticism of 2ndiidual *imA

Indi,idua& ai is not desi"a/&e /ecause an is a socia& ania&+ Societys inte"est s#ou&d

/e !"otected+


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H13 Indi,idua& ai a(es indi,idua& se&fis#+

H23 Ma*iu f"eedo ay $o a$ainst t#e society+

H3 #o %i&& "eco$nie society- %#e"e indi,idua& is se&fis#J

(ocial *imA

T#e su!!o"te"s /e&ie,e t#at society o" state is su!"ee o" "ea&+ T#e indi,idua& is on&y aeans+ T#e !"o$"ess of t#e society is t#e ai of education+ Education is fo" t#e society

and of t#e society+ T#e function of education is fo" t#e %e&fa"e of t#e state+ T#e state %i&&

a(e t#e indi,idua& as it desi"es+ It !"e!a"es t#e indi,idua& to !&ay diffe"ent "o&es in

society+ Indi,idua&ity #as no ,a&ue) and !e"sona&ity is eanin$&ess a!a"t f"o society+ If

society %i&& de,e&o! indi,idua& %i&& de,e&o! autoatica&&y+ e"e society !&ays an

i!o"tant "o&e+

6riticism of (ocial *imA

H13 It a(es indi,idua& on&y a too& of $o,e"nent+

H23 It "educes indi,idua& to a e"e non-entity+

H


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Philosophical factors aecting education

$he content of the curriculum, and the aims and functions of schooling

T#e issue of %#at s#ou&d /e tau$#t to students at a&& &e,e&s of educationKt#e issue of cu""icu&u contentK

o/,ious&y is a fundaenta& one) and it is an e*t"ao"dina"i&y difficu&t one %it# %#ic# to $"a!!&e+

In de,e&o!in$ a cu""icu&u H%#et#e" in a s!ecific su/6ect a"ea) o" o"e /"oad&y as t#e %#o&e "an$e of

offe"in$s in an educationa& institution o" in a syste3) a nu/e" of difficu&t decisions needs to /e ade+

Issues suc# as t#e !"o!e" o"de"in$ o" se'uencin$ of to!ics in t#e c#osen su/6ect) t#e tie to /e a&&ocated

to eac# to!ic) t#e &a/ %o"( o" e*cu"sions o" !"o6ects t#at a"e a!!"o!"iate fo" !a"ticu&a" to!ics) can a&& /e

"e$a"ded as tec#nica& issues /est "eso&,ed eit#e" /y educationists %#o #a,e a de!t# of e*!e"ience %it# t#e

ta"$et a$e $"ou! o" /y e*!e"ts in t#e !syc#o&o$y of &ea"nin$ and t#e &i(e+ :ut t#e"e a"e dee!e" issues) ones

conce"nin$ t#e ,a&idity of t#e 6ustifications t#at #a,e /een $i,en fo" inc&udin$ !a"ticu&a" su/6ects o" to!ics

in t#e offe"in$s of fo"a& educationa& institutions+

."ei"e H1B21-1BBB3 %#o %o"(ed to t"ansfo" teac#in$ and &ea"nin$ f"o t#e &iited

conce!t of t"ansittin$ info"ation to en$a$in$ in t#e !"o6ect of co!&etin$ ones

identity and eanin$ in a %o"&d t#at needs to /e ade o"e e'uita/&e and #uane+

Acco"din$ to ."ei"e) !"e-se",ice !"e!a"ation s#ou&d in,o&,e futu"e teac#e"s in dia&o$ues

in %#ic# t#ey c"itica&&y assess t#e socia&) econoic) and !o&itica& conditions t#at #a,e an

i!act on sc#oo&s+ In t#ei" c&ass"oo !"actice) teac#e"s s#ou&d #e&! students to %o"( fo"socia& 6ustice /y c"eatin$ a t"ue consciousness t#at e*!"esses t#e conditions t#at

a"$ina&ie t#e and t#ei" counities

FACTORS INFLUENCING NATIONAL SYASTEMS OFEDUCATION

the national character of a given system of education is never determined by

one factor, but rather a combination and interweaving of several factors. Some

factors are dominant in one particular system while in another system, they would be less dominant. Consequently national factors of a country are closely

related with nationalism and national system of education. As such, in the

study of comparative education we should study the factors which make the

education of a country national. These factors include geographical, economic,

social, cultural, historical, religions, political, language and technological. In

this chapter we shall study some such factors;


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1) Geographical Factors.

The geography of any particular place is often natural, which means that it is

undefined by man. Man in this respect ought to behave in accordance with the

geography and nature in particular. In this regard the education system cum

school system is influenced by the geography of the particular region. By and

large the geography of a particular area dictates the type of building and

equipment, means and methods of transporting children to school, school

going age of pupils among others. However, there are three major geographical

aspects that influence the educational system directly. These are, climatic

conditions, population distribution and land configuration. In regard to

climatic conditions they influence the system of education in terms of ,content

of education depend on the continental climate, for example, training of doctors

in the tropics is likely to emphasize more on tropical disease like malaria.Extreme low temperatures in Continental Europe, affects accessibility to school

by young children. Temperatures also affect the time at which schools can

reasonably begin in the morning and when they end. In Norway, for example,

the sun does not rise during winter until ten o'clock in the morning and often

temperatures fall to negative 20 degrees. Thus in the Scandinavian countries

there are no infant schools or early childhood education departments in some

schools because of extreme temperatures. Climatic conditions also influence

the education system in relation to time of vacations. In North America and

many countries in Europe take school vacations during cold winter and others

during hot summer. In hot climatic conditions especially experienced in arid

and semi-arid areas, learning often takes place during morning hours when it

is cool. When it is hot in the afternoon very little learning takes place due to

excessive heat.

In regard to population distribution, which is often as a result of geographical

influence also affects the educational system. Generally worldwide, population

is either concentrated in the urban centers, or scattered in the country side.

For example Australia has two systems of education, that is, one for the urban

areas and the other for rural areas. In the urban areas there are well-equippedschools with adequately qualified teachers and administrative personnel. While

in the rural areas, schools are small with one teacher for ten up to forty

students. This is because farms are far from the nearest schools and daily

attendance is difficult. Therefore the central government is responsible for their

administration and financing. The government also provides the means and

organization of correspondence, tuition and traveling teachers. As such most


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students receive education through correspondence and occasional visits by

the traveling education inspectors.

In regard to land configuration, this also influences the education system in

terms of architectural structure of farm houses, school buildings, village

location and also the whole way of life and thinking of people because of the

rigours of the climate, in some cases, because of closeness of family ties,

boarding schools for children are non-existence, except for the few who come

from far and inaccessible places on daily basis. By and large land configuration

determines settlement and location of schools.

2) Economic Factors.

The type of education largely depends on the economic strength of any country.

Also the economic factor determines the content and method of an educationsystem. It is important to note that formal education is often possible where

production exceeds consumption. In indigenous traditional education people

were trained depending on the economic conditions and needs of the

community. From an economic perspective, expenditure on education refers to

the amount or percentage of national revenue spent on education by both

individuals and the government. If the economic condition is poor, education

becomes backward in many aspects while if the economy of a country is strong,

then educational aims and the curriculum are given a special direction for

making the country prosperous. For example, in the USA and Japan,education system is patterned so as to make the individual graduate, strong

and capable enough to stand on his or her own feet after having received

education. While in India, college and university graduate do not know where to

go after completing their education and most of the students continue to stay

on in the university as long as they can so that one can post pone for a few

years the problem of the educated - unemployed.

Another economic influence on education is that, the poorer classes in

communities tend to be content with minimum education for their children,

and the richer classes are known to be able to keep their children longest atschool because they can afford to meet the costs. In a subsistence economy,

that is, one is which people are just able to make ends meet, educational

systems tend to be informal occurring on the job. On the contrary, where there

are enough grants in systems of education, minimum requirements are met

and thus the quality of education is often high. For example, Britain, France,

Japan and the USA among other strong economy countries, they provide


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enough grants that are allocated to their systems of education; actually they

have enough funds to support all educational programmes in their education

systems. Unlike the case of developing countries, where funds are very scarce,

which affects even payment of teachers salaries, essential resource materials

such as textbooks are not adequate and in some cases not even available. As

such, this greatly affects the nature of the systems of education in terms of the

content and methods in learning institutions and in essence the whole system

of education.

In this regard, the growth of the capacities of individual citizens and national

development is of great importance. In fact, the education system should be

such that, it provides opportunities for the maximum development of each

citizen. The aim here is to ensure that the wealth of the nation is not

concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists who manage to attain some level

of education. It is actually by developing individuals that the overall growth ofthe nation can be guaranteed. At the same time, there should be no-class

distinction in the planning of education that should be permitted, because this

results in neglect of the education of other more capable citizens. If this

happens it often results in social disparities and in the long run weakens the

nation. Proper planning of the education system also calls for the

establishment of a proper national character, which if it lacks, then the

necessary leadership and co-operation of the people will also be lacking. Lack

of a proper national character, means that the national education system will

not be able to realize its objectives. Consequently, with good leadership and

people's cooperation, there is much that can be achieved even when adequate

economic resources are wanting. Thus, there is evidence to show that there is a

very close relationship between economic security and the national system of

education of any country.

3) The Social and Cultural Factor.

Schools at large often and closely reflect the social patterns prevailing in a

particular country. As such the education system is usually seen as a social

factor which must reflect the ethos of the people that it serves. In this regard, itis the prime aim of education to ensure cultural continuity through fostering

the growth and development of national characteristics that often act as

stabilizing forces. In its simplest definition a culture of a society is the total way

of life of the society. Every society consist of human beings and in whatever

state they find themselves they always have some kind of educational system.

This form of education of the society will always strive to perpetuate and


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protect its traditions and aspirations. As such a close study and analysis of

each education system will always reveal the cultural concept and pattern of

the community in question. Also the social patterns of the people in any

particular community or country are reflected in its system of education.

It is important to realize that the culture of the people often changes at a slow

pace. In each culture, there are certain values which are not affected by time

and place, for example, faith in God, love for truth and non-violence and the

ideal of universal motherhood and justice are the permanent values of many

cultures of the world. However, radical reforms in a society may be slowed down

or blocked at the level of implementation because of the cultural lag. In African

the various projects for educational reform does indicate that there has been

basic cultural charges in the life of a people from the colonial period into the

post independence period. In many countries of the world today, changes have

occurred in the attitude of the youngsters towards their elders, for examplestudents do not show due respect to their teacher as students did some twenty

five or thirty years ago. The teachers also now care more for the increments, in

their salaries and other allowances then for teaching. In many meetings of

teachers, there is more talk of groupism, backbiting and salaries, than of

students' welfare. In some circles, guardians and parents also do not respect

teachers as they did before. All these and others are a clear indication that the

relations between parents and children, sisters and brothers, husband and

wife, masters and servants and between many other units of society have

undergone great changes. Thus, we have begun to discard many old mores and

modes and are adopting more liberal attitudes. As such time and place have

been changing many elements of culture and as a result it is being reflected in

the education system in various ways.

Another view of cultural and social change is in the reshaping of the

educational machinery to make for equality of educational opportunity for all.

This has led to the widening of the school curriculum and increased emphasis

on the importance of the right kind of technical educational for the new

technological age. As a result, the old dichotomy between a liberal and a

technical education is slowly broken down and the social distinctions whichexisted mainly because of that divide have become of no consequence and has

been minimized with time. In this regard therefore, it is necessary to develop

love for one's own culture through the education system because it strengthens

nationalism. In order to make the country strong and prosperous, the spirit of

nationalism must be nurtured. In each country there are various types of

communities, classes, castes, and interests and due to the lack of national


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feelings many people ignore national interests. In many cases minorities are

suspicious about the majority and in certain contexts this may be true of the

majority as well. This makes it necessary to inculcate love for the country's

culture and especially through the adoption of a national system of education.

4) The Historical Factor.

Each country of the world has its own history that shapes the nations aims,

aspirations, activities and destiny. This is often reflected through the

educational system. Colonialism has been an important historical factor that

can be said to have shaped the education system of many African countries

and others in the world. For example, the Berlin conference in 1815 was

dabbed the scramble for Africa. At this conference the European powers shared

African states like a cake. This latter meant that; the colonies had to take up

much of what was in their colonial masters homeland and to date features ineducation of these former colonial master are reflected in their former colonies.

The missionary factor also contributed a great deal in shaping the systems of

education in most African countries. Christian missionaries in particular from

Britain, France, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and USA among others, have

largely influenced the development of the education system in Africa. In this

regard, the present systems of education in many countries of Africa, Asia,

North and South America are actual products of past colonial influence. As

such, most of these countries in their present endeavors in education representin most cases, heroic efforts of their colonial heritage.

Another historical element is manifest between periods in history when

attempts were made to try and bring together groups within close geographical

boundaries, for example, East Africa, South Africa, West Africa and North

Africa. A close look at these groups reflects features in their systems of

education that tend to have similarities. While on the other hand, historically

there have been struggles for the creation of national states, with each state

wanting to have its own unique national identity. The national factors of these

countries often show differences that are reflected in their education system. As such, similarities and differences of education systems all over the world

have a history behind them.

5. Political Factor


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The political philosophy which controls the government of a country often has

its inevitable impact on education. The political factor dictates the kind of

administration the system of education will have. They also underlie the

features in education system and the functioning of the same. For example, the

fundamental ideas of socialism as a political philosophy were about the

exploitation of labour by capital and this resulted in class mass. As a political

philosophy, socialism recognizes property as the basis of the economic

structure of the state which results in the concentration of civil and legal power

in the hands of the property owning class. Socialism advocates for the

nationalization of the means of production; where owners of means of

production do not work and workers who produce do not own anything. A

change of such a social order can only be achieved with reform in education.

This would be through a state mechanism with full control of education and

the curriculum and this means that the citizens must be trained by the state,

for the state and in state institutions. In such cases, the details of thecurriculum are often decided by the state authorities and involve functional

training of citizens. The curriculum may also involve scientific training for

social utilization purposes.

Good examples of countries that have introduced a socialist system of

education are Mexico, Bulgaria and Cuba. The common features of their

education system include monopoly of the state control on education,

secularism, physical and military training political indoctrination in and out of

school and also more emphasis on science subjects. In these states, freedom of

individuals and the idea of tolerance are not accepted. Unlike these countries,

France has a centralized system of education based on its political philosophy.

In France, everything to do with education is controlled from the centre

(metropole) which is the central government. In the case of USA and Japan,

their education systems are highly decentralized, and are often based on the

democratic influence and the capitalistic political philosophy of these

countries.

There is also a close relationship between the national character and the

national system of education. For example, the national character of USA isdemocratic as such its education system is democratic in most of its aspects.

Nationalism also as a political ideology influences the system of education in a

country. Nationalism could be defined as a psychological feeling within a group

which believes they have common outlook and traditions based on myth of

common ancestry. These common ancestries include race, language, religion

and territory and often strengthen the consciousness of nationality. The racial


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aspect which is often within the political ideology of a country may play a

significant role in determining features in the education system. Race refers to

a tribe, a nation or a group of nations. Modern population includes people of

different racial origins. The British colonial policy was based on the principle of

decentralization and on the building up of a commonwealth of nations each of

which should be free to develop its own culture and national character. Hence

there is a close relationship between national character and national system of

education and the former has been universally accepted as an important basis

of national system of education. Thus the political system of a country is

closely related with its educational programme.

6) Language Factor

Many languages may be spoken in a country, but only one enjoys the status of

a national language. In every country the national language occupies a specialplace. Also every government tries to ensure that every one acquires the

capacity to express himself through the national language. Without one's own

national language, no country can be said to be strong.

Language in itself is a symbol of the people. Each community or group has an

original language of its own which often suits its environment and stage of

cultural development. It is through language that individuals become members

of a community and this is important in building the national character.

Through the native language, the child has the first expression ofhimself/herself and the world. However, in the modern world today, there is

increasing use of foreign language especially in the school system. This requires

a child before entering school to learn the foreign language. In most cases,

before entering school the child acquires proficiency in mother tongue or native

language and in so doing builds up vocabulary covering most of the objects of

sense, impression and daily activities. This means using a different and a

foreign language in school system means superimposing on this basis a

language of ideas expressed entirely in a foreign medium and this often poses a

problem to the learners.

In East Africa, Kiswahili has slowly influenced features in the education

systems in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi. Kiswahili is a

compulsory subject in primary schools in Kenya and Tanzania. In Tanzania

Kiswahili is used as a medium of instruction in all primary schools. In South

Africa, there are two linguistic groups, the English speaking and the Africans

speaking groups. After the colonization by the British, English was enacted as


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a medium of instruction in schools. The inhabitants spoke Afrikaans and had

been used to the Dutch school system. The use of English failed and in 1914

Afrikaans was recognized also as a medium of instruction in school for African

speaking children. As such, in a South Africa, a bilingual system of education

came into being, where some schools use English, while others use Afrikaans

or even both.

French as a language is also used in former French colonies like Cameroon,

Tunisia, Madagascar, Senegal, Rwanda and Burundi. Cameroon also emerges

as a bilingual country with two official languages and two systems of

education, that is, the Anglophone to the West and Francophone to the East.

Although the Cameroon government has been trying to put the two zones

together it has proved to remain difficult. Interestingly the ex-British

Anglophone system of education continues to produce local syllabuses with the

aim of making secondary school examination; the ex-French francophonesystem still clings firmly on the old and move formal baccalaureate.

By end large in Africa colonialism influenced the language of instruction in

schools. In the former British colonies, pupils were taught in their vernacular

in the lower elementary or primary school curriculum. The French colonies put

more emphasis on French as a medium of instruction. To date most of the

inherited systems of education still suffer from the effect of the colonial

masters in the school system and at large in the education system. Thus the

place of national language in the development of a national feeling cannot be

over-emphasized. As such in a national system of education, special emphasis

is placed on the study of national language.

7) Religious Factor

Religious loyalties also dictate aims, content and even methods of instruction in

education. Indeed, religion and beliefs have also been known to influence and

shape aspects in education system.

In Africa, European Christian Missionaries did influence and continue toinfluence the education system. The initiative taken by the Christian churches

to extend education and their power to control development often explains

many of the common elements which can be discerned in education systems in

countries that were colonized by the Europeans. For examples schools days are

from Monday to Friday and resting days are Saturday and Sunday. This is more


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so because some people have their worship days as Saturday and others on

Sunday.

Religious organizations have also been and are still involved in educational

development through building of educational institutions. For example, the

catholic Jesuits succeeded in building up some of the greatest systems of

secondary and higher education institution known in history. There is

currently a catholic university establish in Kenya besides many catholic

sponsored primary and secondary schools. The Muslim faithful also have their

own establish institutions of learning as well as other religious groups such as

the Hindus, Buddhists.

In Africa, the present systems of education have been influenced by the work

which was initiated by European Christian missionaries who included

Catholics, Protestant and Muslim. All these have influenced features in theeducation system in the areas, they occupied. Most current is that the primary

and secondary curriculums have religious subjects being taught in schools in

Kenya.

8) Technological Factors

Technological changes cannot also be ignored in education. Technology and

especially modern technology also influence the education system of the

country. Historically, emphasis on industrial and technical education followedthe industrial revolution. Technology affects the type of education as well as

the means of instruction.

With the emergence of computer technology, internet technology, this has

revolutionalised the whole education system especially in the developed

countries. Through information communication technology, home learning has

been made possible. Universities are also adopting projects like AUV and e-

learning. Today the influence of technology in education cannot be ignored.

Indeed the challenge is for the educational administrators and policy makers to

see to it that the right infrastructure is in place in order to allow the use ofinformation communication technology fully and be able to reap its maximum

benefits in the education system especially in the developing world


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UNIT -2

INDIAN CONSTITUTIONA :ASIS O. EDUCATION

CONCEPT O. DI5ERSITY

'istoricity of 3nity in %iersityA

The Indian cultural tradition is unique The notions o! dhar"a #nor"ati$e

order%& 'ar"a #(ersonal "oral co""it"ent) and *ati #caste% as the hierarchical

(rinci(les o! social strati!ication are +asic to Indian culture A certain le$el o!

con!i,uration o! these ele"ents and consensus ha$e +rou,ht a+out

(ersistence and equili+riu" in Indian societ-& and hence no "a*or +rea'do.nhas ta'en (lace in its culture It is said that the chan,e is in the cultural

s-ste" and not o! the s-ste" In other .ords& +asic cultural and social $alues

and nor"s still continue .ith so"e "odi!ications

The $alues o! dhar"a& 'ar"a and *ati continue to ,uide social and cultural

acti$ities to a lar,e e/tent 0ence& chan,e is in the s-ste" and not o! the

s-ste" 0o.e$er& the conte"(orar- India has .itnessed +asic structural

chan,es in econo"ic and (olitical !ields The traditional $alue s-ste" has lost

its ,round to a considera+le e/tent as the *ati has acquired a ne. !or"& and it

is no "ore an e!!ecti$e "echanis" o! di$ision o! la+our and status

deter"ination

The uniqueness o! the Indian culture does not si"(l- re!er to its esoteric

nature It requires a thorou,h stud- in ter"s o! its histor- A+sor(tion and

assi"ilation characterised social and cultural chan,e Ar-ans and Dra$idians

li$ed to,ether 0indus and Musli"s li$ed in close (ro/i"it- 1 sociall- and

culturall-


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Later on& Christians *oined the" Toda-& 0indus& 2ains& Musli"s& Si'hs&

Christians and (eo(le o! other !aiths (artici(ate to,ether in the ,o$ern"ent&

industr-& co""erce and other sectors o! (u+lic li!e Thus& there has +een a

continuous unit- e$en in the situation o! star' di$ersit-

Di$ersit- is re!lected in thousands o! caste ,rou(s& each ha$in, its o.n rituals&

rites& rules and custo"s It can +e seen in ter"s o! lin,uistic& reli,ious and

other ethnic $ariations The st-les o! li!e di!!er !ro" re,ion to re,ion and $ar-

e$en +et.een di!!erent castes and reli,ious ,rou(s .ithin the sa"e $illa,e

So"e rulers "ade conscious e!!orts to ensure unit- in di$ersit-

The e"(eror Asho'a .or'ed !or the unit- o! India +- achie$in, cultural and

reli,ious har"on- and ad"inistrati$e e!!icienc- A'+ar& one o! the "ost

(o.er!ul Mu,hal e"(erors& (ro*ected the conce(t o! a state reli,ion called

Din3e3Illahi& a s-nthesis o! 0induis" and Isla"

The "a*orit- o! Musli"s in $illa,es trans!or"ed their social li!e +e-ond

reco,nition The- "in,led .ith 0indus !reel- in al"ost all .al's o! li!e The

0indu ra*as and Musli" 'in,s reco,ni4ed literar- and artistic a+ilities in

indi$iduals !ro" +oth the co""unities 5a+ir and Nana' .ere ,reatl-

in!luenced +- the teachin,s o! Isla"

Con$ersion to Isla"& and later on to Christianit-& and toda- to 6uddhis"& has

resulted in a 7"i/ed8 culture The Father o! the Nation& Mahat"a Gandhi&

.or'ed throu,hout his li!e to achie$e national unit- and inte,rit- throu,h

co""unal har"on-& u(li!t"ent o! the (oor and do.ntrodden and (ro(a,ation

o! a *ust social order


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The colonial India has t.o histories One is o! colonialis" (roduced +- the

colonisers& and the other is o! India8s culture and ci$ili4ation (er(etrated

throu,h its intellectual and (hiloso(hical !er$our India8s histor-& its

architectural treasures& its literature& (hiloso(h-& "usic& dra"a& dance& and its

other !ine arts& all contri+uted to its social li!e& and could not +e destro-ed +-

alien rule It is this histor- .hich re"ained ne,lected durin, 6ritish Ra*

Mahat"a Gandhi desired radical chan,es 0o.e$er& he .ished to associate

such chan,es .ith India8s tradition and cultural herita,e 2a.aharlal Nehru&

the architect o! "odern India& .ith a "odern and secular outloo'& u(held

India8s (ast .ith re$erence and a sense o! (ride 0e #9:;Yet the

(ast is e$er .ith us and all that .e are and that .e ha$e co"e !ro" the (ast

?e are its (roducts and .e li$e i""ersed in it Not to understand it and !eel it

as so"ethin, li$in, .ithin us is not to understand the (resent To co"+ine it

.ith the (resent and e/tend it to the !uture& to +rea' !ro" it .here it cannot +e

so united& to "a'e all this the (ulsatin, and $i+ratin, "aterial !or thou,ht and

action 1 that is li!e@

In another (assa,e& Nehru hi,hli,hts India8s cultural herita,e 0e #i+id% .rites=

>The risin, "iddle classes .anted so"e cultural roots to clin, on to&

so"ethin, that ,a$e the" assurance o! their o.n .orth& so"ethin, that .ould

reduce the sense o! !rustration and hu"iliation that !orei,n conquest and rule

had (roduced The (ast o! India& .ith all its cultural $ariet- and ,reatness&

.as a co""on herita,e o! all the Indian (eo(le& 0indu& Mosle"& Christian and

othersB and their ancestors had hel(ed to +uild it@ 6ut Nehru ne$er .anted

the dead.ood o! the (ast to do"inate the (resent 0e .as& in !act& a "an .ith

a de"ocratic s(irit and "odern outloo'


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#eligionA

%efining #eligionA

There are two types of values:

(1) categorical or absolute values, and

(2) instrumental values.

The first refers to beliefs and practices relating to the supernatural

powers. The second refers to norms and practices related to work,

efficiency, productivity, etc. Religion falls in the first category of thevalue system.

Religion may be defined as beliefs and practices related to supernatural

entities, spirits and powers, which are considered as ultimate in shaping

human relations!.

#eligious 6ommunities and %iersity in 2ndiaA

"ccording to the 1#$1 census, there were ten religious groups in %ndia.

These included& 'indus, ains, uddhists, *oroastrians, +uslims, ikhs,

-hristians, ews, and other tribal and nontribal religious groups. The

census of 1#/1 listed only seven religious categories, namely, 'indus,

ains, uddhists, +uslims, and -hristians, ikhs and other religions and

persuasions.

Religion is really a comple0 phenomenon in %ndia. or e0ample,

elements of anskritic and tribal religion are found in a mi0ed form at

various levels. o is the interaction between the great3 and the little3

traditions. %ntegration of anskritic 'indu religion and tribal religion is


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also found. The anthals, for e0ample, observe several high caste

festivals. This is also the case with the lower and untouchable3 castes.

ome tribals worship hiva.

M.N. Srinivas (1952) writes:

4ifferent tribes are anskriti5ed in different degrees, and different

sections of the same tribe may not be uniformly anskriti5ed.!

-onversion to -hristianity and %slam has been a controversial issue over

the past couple of decades.

%t is said that the members of the depressed classes and tribals have

converted to -hristianity, %slam and ikhism in various parts of the

country, particularly in the 1#26s and also after independence. " good

number of tribals have accepted 'indu rituals and religious practices in

ihar, engal, "ssam and other areas. Thousands of 'ari7ans have

converted to uddhism in 8ttar 9radesh and +aharashtra.

%nduced or forced conversion is certainly against the spirit of the

-onstitution of %ndia and the law of the land. There may be several

factors responsible for change of religion. %n recent years intense debate

has occurred on religious conversions.

:ne view is that the lower castes and communities are converting to

%slam and -hristianity because of the oppressive nature of 'induism.

-ontrary to this is the view that conversions are being induced by the

proponents of %slam and -hristianity.


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paper-2 contemporary india and education

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