Paper IIIPaper III

Qualitative research

Qualitative research

methodology

methodology

Objective 1.8

Objective 1.8

Explain the Explain the effect of triangulation

effect of triangulation on on

the credibility/trustworthiness of

the credibility/trustworthiness of

qualitative research

qualitative research

..

• TriangulationTriangulation refers to the use refers to the use of more than one approach to of more than one approach to the investigation of a research the investigation of a research question in order to enhance question in order to enhance confidence in the ensuing confidence in the ensuing findings. findings.

• Since much social research is Since much social research is founded on the use of a single founded on the use of a single research method and as such research method and as such may suffer from limitations may suffer from limitations associated with that method or associated with that method or from the potential subjective from the potential subjective application of it, application of it, triangulation triangulation offers the prospect of offers the prospect of enhanced credibility. enhanced credibility.

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• By By combining multiple observers, theories, combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials, methods, and empirical materials, researchers can hope to researchers can hope to overcome the overcome the weakness or intrinsic biasesweakness or intrinsic biases and the problems and the problems that come from single-method, single-that come from single-method, single-observer, single-theory studies.observer, single-theory studies.

• Often the purpose of triangulation in specific Often the purpose of triangulation in specific contexts is to contexts is to obtain confirmation of findings obtain confirmation of findings through convergence of different through convergence of different perspectives. perspectives.

• The point at which the perspectives converge The point at which the perspectives converge is seen to represent a credible reality.is seen to represent a credible reality.

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• Triangulation, when properly used, can Triangulation, when properly used, can reduce the effect of researcher bias-which reduce the effect of researcher bias-which in turn increases credibility of research.in turn increases credibility of research. Explain this to the reader. Provide an Explain this to the reader. Provide an example (preferably from the stimulus example (preferably from the stimulus material on the exam). material on the exam).

• Triangulation, when used between Triangulation, when used between qualitative and quantitative methods, can qualitative and quantitative methods, can also increase the internal validity of your also increase the internal validity of your research. research. Explain this to the reader. Explain this to the reader. Provide an example.Provide an example.

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• Denzin (1970) extended the idea Denzin (1970) extended the idea of triangulation beyond its of triangulation beyond its conventional association with conventional association with research methods and designs. research methods and designs.

• He described three forms of He described three forms of triangulation: triangulation: • Data Triangulation: Data Triangulation: Gathering data Gathering data

using multiple sampling methods. using multiple sampling methods.

• Investigator triangulationInvestigator triangulation: which : which refers to the use of more than one refers to the use of more than one researcher in researcher in the field to gather and the field to gather and interpret data.interpret data.

• Methodological triangulationMethodological triangulation: which : which refers to the use of more than one refers to the use of more than one method method for gathering data.for gathering data.

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Data triangulation Data triangulation involves using involves using different different sourcessources of information of information in order to increase the validity in order to increase the validity of a study. of a study.

These sources are likely to be These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a groupstakeholders in a group——participants, other researchers, participants, other researchers, family, other community family, other community members, and so on. members, and so on.

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• If we were researching the RHS afterschool If we were researching the RHS afterschool program, for example, the research process program, for example, the research process would start by identifying the stakeholder would start by identifying the stakeholder groups such as youth in the program, their groups such as youth in the program, their parents, school teachers, and school parents, school teachers, and school administrators. administrators.

• In-depth interviews could be conducted with In-depth interviews could be conducted with each of these groups to gain insight into their each of these groups to gain insight into their perspectives on program outcomes.perspectives on program outcomes.

• During the analysis stage, feedback from the During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence. of divergence.

Data

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tion

• If we were researching the RHS afterschool If we were researching the RHS afterschool program, for example, the research process program, for example, the research process would start by identifying the stakeholder would start by identifying the stakeholder groups such as youth in the program, their groups such as youth in the program, their parents, school teachers, and school parents, school teachers, and school administrators. administrators.

• In-depth interviews could be conducted with In-depth interviews could be conducted with each of these groups to gain insight into their each of these groups to gain insight into their perspectives on program outcomes.perspectives on program outcomes.

• During the analysis stage, feedback from the During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence. of divergence.

Data

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• Investigator triangulationInvestigator triangulation involves involves using using several different investigators several different investigators in the analysis process. in the analysis process.

• Typically, this manifests as an Typically, this manifests as an evaluation team consisting of evaluation team consisting of colleagues within a field of study colleagues within a field of study wherein wherein each investigator examines each investigator examines the group with the same qualitative the group with the same qualitative method method (interview, observation, (interview, observation, case study, or focus groups). case study, or focus groups). In

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• The findings from each evaluator The findings from each evaluator would then be compared to would then be compared to develop a broader and deeper develop a broader and deeper understanding of how the different understanding of how the different investigators view the issue.investigators view the issue.

• If the findings from the different If the findings from the different evaluators arrive at the same evaluators arrive at the same conclusion, then the conclusion, then the credibilitycredibility in in the findings would be heightened.the findings would be heightened.

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• Methodological triangulation Methodological triangulation involves involves the use of multiple qualitative and/or the use of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative methods to study the quantitative methods to study the program. program.

• For example, For example, results from surveys, results from surveys, focus groups, and interviews could be focus groups, and interviews could be comparedcompared to see if similar results are to see if similar results are being found.being found.

• If the conclusions from each of the If the conclusions from each of the methods are the same, then methods are the same, then credibility is established.credibility is established.M

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How would How would triangulation triangulation effect effect credibility?credibility?

• Data triangulation Data triangulation validates your validates your data and research by cross data and research by cross verifying the same information. verifying the same information.

• This triangulation of data This triangulation of data strengthens the research strengthens the research because the because the data has increased data has increased credibility due to fact that credibility due to fact that multiple sources confirm the multiple sources confirm the description.description.

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• The triangulation of data The triangulation of data strengthens the researchstrengthens the research..

• Additional sources of information Additional sources of information often give often give more insight more insight into a into a topictopic

• Inadequacies found in one-source Inadequacies found in one-source data is minimized when multiple data is minimized when multiple sources confirm the same datasources confirm the same data

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• In addition to that, triangulation In addition to that, triangulation can take on a confirmatory can take on a confirmatory approach, approach, overcoming challenges overcoming challenges related to a single-method, related to a single-method, single-observer and single-theory single-observer and single-theory biasness biasness and thus can be applied and thus can be applied to add truth value to the to add truth value to the research results and conclusions research results and conclusions (Denzin,1989 in (Shih, 1998). (Denzin,1989 in (Shih, 1998).

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• The findings from each evaluator The findings from each evaluator would then be compared to would then be compared to develop a broader and deeper develop a broader and deeper understanding of how the different understanding of how the different investigators view the issue.investigators view the issue.

• If the findings from the different If the findings from the different evaluators arrive at the same evaluators arrive at the same conclusion, then the conclusion, then the credibilitycredibility in in the findings would be heightened.the findings would be heightened.

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• It is important to note that the use of It is important to note that the use of triangulation strategies triangulation strategies does not does not strengthen a flawed study. strengthen a flawed study. Why is this Why is this the case? Provide an example.the case? Provide an example.

• Researchers should use triangulation if Researchers should use triangulation if it can contribute to understanding the it can contribute to understanding the phenomenon; however, they must be phenomenon; however, they must be able to articulate why the strategy is able to articulate why the strategy is being used and how it might enhance being used and how it might enhance the study.the study.

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• It is also important to note that It is also important to note that one can one can never rule out bias or preconceptionsnever rule out bias or preconceptions but you should be cognizant of their but you should be cognizant of their presence and potential impact. presence and potential impact.

• In fact, failing to recognize bias in itself In fact, failing to recognize bias in itself is known as “design bias” (which also is known as “design bias” (which also includes failing to disclose assumptions includes failing to disclose assumptions and possible bias when reporting your and possible bias when reporting your findings). findings).

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• Particularly with qualitative Particularly with qualitative research, it is considered best research, it is considered best practice to acknowledge bias and practice to acknowledge bias and preconceptions. preconceptions.

• This is what Contemporary This is what Contemporary Psychologist refer to as Psychologist refer to as ““REFLEXIVITYREFLEXIVITY”.”.

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Objective 1.9

Objective 1.9

Explain Explain reflexivity

reflexivity in in

qualitative research.

qualitative research.