paper reviews written reviews for each paper to be discussed in class are due by noon on fridays of...

Paper Reviews

• Written reviews for each paper to be discussed in class are due by noon on Fridays of the previous week• The soft copy of the reviews should be turned into both the class instructor and TA. • The hard copies need to be turned into the instructor only

For each paper, students should write a review answering each of the following questions: 1. What problems (with prior work or the lack thereof) were addressed or surveyed by the authors? 2. What solutions were proposed or surveyed by the authors? 3. What are the technical strengths and main contributions of the paper's proposed solutions? 4. What are the technical weaknesses of the paper's proposed solutions? 5. What suggestions do you have to improve upon the paper's ideas?

Routing inMobile Ad hoc Networks

Why Routing?

Common objective:Common objective:

Route packets along the optimal pathRoute packets along the optimal path

– Routing protocols adapt to changing network conditions and Routing protocols adapt to changing network conditions and by definition offers multi-hop pathsby definition offers multi-hop paths

– Routing protocols differ in route tableRouting protocols differ in route table

constructionconstruction

maintenancemaintenance

updateupdate

Next-hop routing protocols can be categorized as:Next-hop routing protocols can be categorized as:

– Link-stateLink-state

– Distance-vectorDistance-vector

– Traditional link-state protocols may not be suitableTraditional link-state protocols may not be suitable

– Closer to centralized version of shortest-path algorithmCloser to centralized version of shortest-path algorithm

– Each node maintains a view of network topology with a cost for each linkEach node maintains a view of network topology with a cost for each link

– Link costs are broadcast periodically to keep the views consistentLink costs are broadcast periodically to keep the views consistent

– Each node updates its view and applies a shortest-path algorithm to find Each node updates its view and applies a shortest-path algorithm to find

its next hop for each destinationits next hop for each destination

– Routing loops may occur due to propagation delays, partitioned Routing loops may occur due to propagation delays, partitioned

networks, and so onnetworks, and so on

– Alternative link-state routing approaches may not require all nodes to Alternative link-state routing approaches may not require all nodes to

have the identical link-state information and route selection algorithms have the identical link-state information and route selection algorithms

and may find routes on demandand may find routes on demand

Link-State Approach

[Dijkstra 1959 and McQuillan+ 1980]

– Based on shortest-path routing algorithms i.e., Distributed Bellman-FordBased on shortest-path routing algorithms i.e., Distributed Bellman-Ford

– DBF algorithms are also known as Distance-Vector (DV)DBF algorithms are also known as Distance-Vector (DV)

– For each destination, the node stores a single route table entry along with For each destination, the node stores a single route table entry along with

next-hop neighbornext-hop neighbor

– Route table entry for destination contains Route table entry for destination contains metric metric which is which is distancedistance from from

node to the destination and also the next-hop (node to the destination and also the next-hop (vectorvector) towards destination) towards destination

Distance-Vector Approach

[Ford+ 1962 and Leiner+ 1987]

Ad Hoc Routing Protocols Overview

Ad hoc Routing Protocols

Table Driven (Proactive)

CGSR DSDV WRPAODV DSR TORA SSRABR

Source-InitiatedOn-demand Driven

(Reactive)

Hybrid

ZRP

Proactive ProtocolsProactive Protocols– have lower latency due to maintenance of routes at all timeshave lower latency due to maintenance of routes at all times

– can result in much higher overhead due to frequent route updatescan result in much higher overhead due to frequent route updates

Reactive ProtocolsReactive Protocols may havemay have

– higher latency since the routes have to be discovered when the higher latency since the routes have to be discovered when the source node initiates a route requestsource node initiates a route request

– lower overhead since routes are maintained only on-demand basislower overhead since routes are maintained only on-demand basis

Proactive vs. Reactive Routing Protocols

– Based on classical distributed Bellman-Ford routing mechanismBased on classical distributed Bellman-Ford routing mechanism

– Routing loops in a mobile network have been eliminatedRouting loops in a mobile network have been eliminated

– Each node has a routing table (all possible destinations within network, Each node has a routing table (all possible destinations within network,

and number of routing hops to each destination)and number of routing hops to each destination)

– A sequence numbering system to distinguish stale routes fromA sequence numbering system to distinguish stale routes from new ones and assigned by the destination nodenew ones and assigned by the destination node

– Routing table updates are sent periodically (table consistency) Routing table updates are sent periodically (table consistency)

– High volumes of control traffic meaning an inefficient utilization of High volumes of control traffic meaning an inefficient utilization of

network resourcesnetwork resources

– To alleviate this problem, the protocol uses two types of route update To alleviate this problem, the protocol uses two types of route update

packets packets

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV)

[Perkins+ 1994]

Full dumpFull dump

Carries all available routing info and can require multiple network protocol Carries all available routing info and can require multiple network protocol

data units. Infrequently transmitted while there is not much movement. data units. Infrequently transmitted while there is not much movement.

IncrementalIncremental packets packets

These smaller packets are for relaying only the information that was updated These smaller packets are for relaying only the information that was updated

since the last full dump since the last full dump

– New route broadcastsNew route broadcasts:: destination address destination address ++ the # of hops to get to the # of hops to get to

destination destination ++ the sequence # of the information received about the the sequence # of the information received about the

destination destination ++ new sequence # unique to the broadcast at hand new sequence # unique to the broadcast at hand

– The route with the most recent sequence # (in increasing order) is always The route with the most recent sequence # (in increasing order) is always

usedused


– If there is an occurrence of two updates with the same sequence # , If there is an occurrence of two updates with the same sequence # ,

the route with the smaller hop count is used in order to obtain the route with the smaller hop count is used in order to obtain

optimized (shorter) path optimized (shorter) path

– Mobiles keep track of other metrics such as settling time of routes, Mobiles keep track of other metrics such as settling time of routes,

or the weighted average timeor the weighted average time

– The broadcast of a routing update is delayed by the settling time The broadcast of a routing update is delayed by the settling time

in order to reduce network traffic, as well as optimizing routesin order to reduce network traffic, as well as optimizing routes


Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

[Johnson+ 1996]

When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does not When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does not know a route to D, node S initiates a know a route to D, node S initiates a route discoveryroute discovery

Source node S floods Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)Route Request (RREQ)

Each node Each node appends own identifierappends own identifier when forwarding RREQ when forwarding RREQ

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Discovery in DSR

B

A

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Y

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

M

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B

A

S E

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C

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IK

Represents transmission of RREQ

Z

YBroadcast transmission

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[S]

[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ



B

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S E

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H

J

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G

IK

• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors: potential for collision

Z

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[S,E]

[S,C]



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IK

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

Z

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[S,C,G]

[S,E,F]



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M

• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their transmissions may collide

N

L

[S,C,G,K]

[S,E,F,J]



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IK

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Y

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D is the intended target of the route discovery

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[S,E,F,J,M]



Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route Reply (RREP)

RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route appended to received RREQ

RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was received by node D


Route Reply in DSR

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RREP [S,E,F,J,D]

Represents RREP control message


Route Reply in DSR

Route Reply can be sent by reversing the route in Route Request (RREQ) only if links are guaranteed to be bi-directional

– To ensure this, RREQ should be forwarded only if it received on a link that is known to be bi-directional

If unidirectional (asymmetric) links are allowed, then RREP may need a route discovery for S from node D

– Unless node D already knows a route to node S

– If a route discovery is initiated by D for a route to S, then the Route Reply is piggybacked on the Route Request from D.

If IEEE 802.11 MAC is used to send data, then links have to be bi-directional (since Ack is used)


Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route included in the RREP

When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is included in the packet header– hence the name source routing

Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a packet to determine to whom a packet should be forwarded


Data Delivery in DSR

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DATA [S,E,F,J,D]

Packet header size grows with route length


When to Perform a Route Discovery

When node S wants to send data to node D, but does not know a valid route node D


DSR Optimization: Route Caching

Each node caches a new route it learns by any means

When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S also

learns route [S,E,F] to node F

When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for

node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S

When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node F

learns route [F,J,D] to node D

When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route [E,F,J,D]

to node D

A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data packets


Use of Route Caching

When node S learns that a route to node D is broken, it uses another route from its local cache, if such a route to D exists in its cache. Otherwise, node S initiates route discovery by sending a route request

Node X on receiving a Route Request for some node D can send a Route Reply if node X knows a route to node D

Use of route cache – can speed up route discovery– can reduce propagation of route requests


Use of Route Caching

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[P,Q,R] Represents cached route at a node (DSR maintains the cached routes in a tree format)

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[S,E,F,J,D][E,F,J,D]

[C,S]

[G,C,S]

[F,J,D],[F,E,S]

[J,F,E,S]

Z


Use of Route Caching:Can Speed up Route Discovery

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[C,S]

[G,C,S]

[F,J,D],[F,E,S]

[J,F,E,S]

RREQ

When node Z sends a route requestfor node C, node K sends back a routereply [Z,K,G,C] to node Z using a locallycached route

[K,G,C,S]RREP


Use of Route Caching:Can Reduce Propagation of Route Requests

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[C,S]

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[F,J,D],[F,E,S]

[J,F,E,S]

RREQ

Assume that there is no link between D and Z.Route Reply (RREP) from node K limits flooding of RREQ.In general, the reduction may be less dramatic.

[K,G,C,S]RREP


Route Error (RERR)

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RERR [J-D]

J sends a route error to S along route J-F-E-S when its attempt to forward the data packet S (with route SEFJD) on J-D fails

Nodes hearing RERR update their route cache to remove link J-D


Route Caching: Beware!

Stale caches can adversely affect performance

With passage of time and host mobility, cached routes may become invalid

A sender host may try several stale routes (obtained from local cache, or replied from cache by other nodes), before finding a good route


Dynamic Source Routing: Advantages

Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate– reduces overhead of route maintenance

Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead

A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from local caches


Dynamic Source Routing: Disadvantages

Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing

Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network

Care must be taken to avoid collisions between route requests propagated by neighboring nodes

– insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ

Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to nodes replying using their local cache

– Route Reply Storm problem

– Reply storm may be eased by preventing a node from sending RREP if it hears another RREP with a shorter route


Dynamic Source Routing: Disadvantages

An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a stale cached route, thus polluting other caches

This problem can be eased if some mechanism to purge (potentially) invalid cached routes is incorporated.

For some proposals for cache invalidation, see [Hu+ 2000]– Static timeouts– Adaptive timeouts based on link stability


– Nodes are grouped into clusters with one clusterhead in charge of nodes Nodes are grouped into clusters with one clusterhead in charge of nodes

in a clusterin a cluster

– Distributed clusterhead selection algorithm is used to elect clusterheadsDistributed clusterhead selection algorithm is used to elect clusterheads

– This algorithm needs to be invoked when a clusterhead moves awayThis algorithm needs to be invoked when a clusterhead moves away

– Least Cluster Change (LCC)Least Cluster Change (LCC) algorithm is introduced to avoid re-invoking algorithm is introduced to avoid re-invoking

election algorithm when the cluster membership update occurselection algorithm when the cluster membership update occurs

– LCC algorithm allows the invocation of election algorithm when two LCC algorithm allows the invocation of election algorithm when two

clusterhead come into contact or when a node no longer be able to clusterhead come into contact or when a node no longer be able to

attach to any clusterheadsattach to any clusterheads

– Uses DSDV as an underlying routing schemeUses DSDV as an underlying routing scheme

– The route traffic follows:The route traffic follows:

SourceSource ClusterheadClusterhead GatewayGateway ClusterheadClusterhead …….. …….. DestinationDestination

Cluster Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)

[Chiang+ 1997]


Clusterhead

Gateway

Ordinary node

Cluster

– Each node keeps a cluster member table which stores the destination Each node keeps a cluster member table which stores the destination

clusterhead for each node in the networkclusterhead for each node in the network

– Every node periodically broadcasts these cluster member tables using Every node periodically broadcasts these cluster member tables using

DSDV protocolDSDV protocol

– Nodes update their cluster member tables upon receiving these Nodes update their cluster member tables upon receiving these

broadcastsbroadcasts

– Each node also maintains a routing table that is used to determine the Each node also maintains a routing table that is used to determine the

next hop towards the destinationnext hop towards the destination

– When a packet is received, the node checks both cluster member and When a packet is received, the node checks both cluster member and

routing tables to determine the nearest clusterhead in the route to the routing tables to determine the nearest clusterhead in the route to the

destinationdestination

– The node checks its routing table to determine the next hop node to The node checks its routing table to determine the next hop node to

reach clusterheadreach clusterhead

– Both cluster member and routing tables need to be updatedBoth cluster member and routing tables need to be updated


– Improvement on DSDV due to minimizing number of broadcasts by Improvement on DSDV due to minimizing number of broadcasts by

creating routes on-demand basiscreating routes on-demand basis

– Improves DSR by maintaining routing tables only at the nodes between Improves DSR by maintaining routing tables only at the nodes between

source and destination unlike routes being included in the data packets source and destination unlike routes being included in the data packets

in DSRin DSR

– Source initiates a path discovery process to locate the destination node Source initiates a path discovery process to locate the destination node

by broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to its neighbors. The by broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to its neighbors. The

neighbors in turn forward the request to their neighbors and so on until neighbors in turn forward the request to their neighbors and so on until

either an intermediate node with valid (fresh enough) route or either an intermediate node with valid (fresh enough) route or

destination is located destination is located

– Destination sequence numbers are used to ensure that routes are loop Destination sequence numbers are used to ensure that routes are loop

free and has the most recent route informationfree and has the most recent route information

Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)

[Perkins+ 1999]

– Each node maintains its own sequence number and broadcast ID Each node maintains its own sequence number and broadcast ID

(incremented with every RREQ the node initiates)(incremented with every RREQ the node initiates)

– Unique RREQUnique RREQ: node’s IP address + broadcast ID: node’s IP address + broadcast ID

– Source sends RREQ (which includes sequence number for the destination) Source sends RREQ (which includes sequence number for the destination)

along with its own sequence number and broadcast IDalong with its own sequence number and broadcast ID

– The intermediate node reply to RREQ only if The intermediate node reply to RREQ only if

sequence number of destination <= sequence number in the current RREQsequence number of destination <= sequence number in the current RREQ

– When a node broadcasts a RREQ, a reverse path towards the source is When a node broadcasts a RREQ, a reverse path towards the source is

createdcreated

– Route reply uses the reverse path when RREQ is forwardedRoute reply uses the reverse path when RREQ is forwarded

– A routing table entry containing reverse path is deleted after a sufficient A routing table entry containing reverse path is deleted after a sufficient

timeout intervaltimeout interval

– A routing table entry containing forward path is deleted if it is not active for a A routing table entry containing forward path is deleted if it is not active for a

sufficient timeout intervalsufficient timeout interval



S

A DB

E

C G

F

Propagation of RREQ

A

S

DB

E

C G

F

Route Reply to Source

AODV Route Discovery

– A node is considered active if it participates in forwarding the packetsA node is considered active if it participates in forwarding the packets

– Link failures are known to all active nodes using Route Error (RERR) Link failures are known to all active nodes using Route Error (RERR)

messages (destination sequence numbers are also updated)messages (destination sequence numbers are also updated)

– When a node cannot forward a packet towards a destination, it generates a When a node cannot forward a packet towards a destination, it generates a

RERR message; increments sequence number for destination; includes this RERR message; increments sequence number for destination; includes this

incremented destination sequence number in the RERR messageincremented destination sequence number in the RERR message

– When a source receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery process When a source receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery process

for the destination using sequence number equal or greater than the for the destination using sequence number equal or greater than the

destination sequence number in RERR messagedestination sequence number in RERR message

– Periodic Periodic HelloHello messages are used to ensure the links exist messages are used to ensure the links exist

– A link failure occurs when no hello message are exchanged for a timeout A link failure occurs when no hello message are exchanged for a timeout

interval interval

– Failure to receive MAC-level acknowledgement can also be interpreted as a Failure to receive MAC-level acknowledgement can also be interpreted as a

link failure link failure


– Utilizes location information (via GPS) to limit the boundary of route Utilizes location information (via GPS) to limit the boundary of route

request floodrequest flood

– Two new concepts:Two new concepts:

Expected zone:Expected zone: determined based on the location and velocity if the determined based on the location and velocity if the

destination and it is expected to contain the location of destinationdestination and it is expected to contain the location of destination

Request zone:Request zone: smallest rectangle which includes the location of smallest rectangle which includes the location of

source and the expected zonesource and the expected zone

– It has assumed that source has advanced knowledge of the destination It has assumed that source has advanced knowledge of the destination

location and velocitylocation and velocity

– Two schemes proposed:Two schemes proposed:

LAR 1LAR 1

LAR 2LAR 2

Location-Aided Routing (LAR)

[Ko+ 1998]

LAR 1 SchemeLAR 1 Scheme

– RREQ messages are limited to request zone only and nodes within request RREQ messages are limited to request zone only and nodes within request

zone forward these requestszone forward these requests

– Those nodes not located in the request zone simply discard the packetThose nodes not located in the request zone simply discard the packet

– Sender specifies the request zone in RREQ message explicitlySender specifies the request zone in RREQ message explicitly

– If a route cannot be found using smaller request zone, the source initiates If a route cannot be found using smaller request zone, the source initiates

another route discovery with larger request zone after a timeout intervalanother route discovery with larger request zone after a timeout interval


DrA

S

C

B

F

G

E

Expected zone

Request zone

LAR 2 SchemeLAR 2 Scheme

– Considers a route with shorter physical Considers a route with shorter physical

distance between source and destination nodedistance between source and destination node

– Source node calculates the distance to the Source node calculates the distance to the

destination and sends it to all its neighborsdestination and sends it to all its neighbors

– Neighbors calculate their distance to the Neighbors calculate their distance to the

destination and if their distance is less than the destination and if their distance is less than the

distance sent, they will send the new distance distance sent, they will send the new distance

to their neighbors until RREQ reaches to to their neighbors until RREQ reaches to

destinationdestination

– Destination node sends route reply to source Destination node sends route reply to source

similar to LAR 1 schemesimilar to LAR 1 scheme


A

S

C

B F

E

DdistA

distB

distsrc

distC

distF

distE

LAR Variation:LAR Variation:

– Request Zone in the forward request can be modified by each nodeRequest Zone in the forward request can be modified by each node

Advantages:Advantages:

– Reduces the route request flood to a limited area and reduces route Reduces the route request flood to a limited area and reduces route

discovery overhead as a resultdiscovery overhead as a result


Disadvantages:Disadvantages:

– A node needs to know its physical locationA node needs to know its physical location

– GPS availability is not worldwideGPS availability is not worldwide

– All mobile nodes may not necessarily equipped with GPS receivers All mobile nodes may not necessarily equipped with GPS receivers

(heterogeneity of devices)(heterogeneity of devices)

– Error in positional informationError in positional information

– Routing is solely based on location informationRouting is solely based on location information

– Prior and advance information about destination node may not be readily Prior and advance information about destination node may not be readily

available at the source nodeavailable at the source node

– An existing route from intermediate node to destination node is not usedAn existing route from intermediate node to destination node is not used


Suggestions/Improvements:Suggestions/Improvements:

– Possible improvement with more accurate request zones by using GPS; Possible improvement with more accurate request zones by using GPS;

security concerns must be addressedsecurity concerns must be addressed

– A request zone can be calculated at each intermediate node than from A request zone can be calculated at each intermediate node than from

the source nodethe source node

– In LAR 1 scheme, each intermediate node calculate its own request In LAR 1 scheme, each intermediate node calculate its own request

zone and broadcast to all its neighbors. This may further reduce the zone and broadcast to all its neighbors. This may further reduce the

overhead and route discovery can be initiated from intermediate node to overhead and route discovery can be initiated from intermediate node to

the destinationthe destination

– In LAR 1 scheme, determine the rectangle by considering relative In LAR 1 scheme, determine the rectangle by considering relative

positions of source and destinationpositions of source and destination

– ScalabilityScalability

– Performance comparison of LAR with widely used routing protocolsPerformance comparison of LAR with widely used routing protocols

– LAR and CGSRLAR and CGSR

– LAR and AODVLAR and AODV

– In existing MAC protocols, nodes are powered on most of the time even In existing MAC protocols, nodes are powered on most of the time even

when they are idlewhen they are idle

– There is a need for increasing node and network life-time by using There is a need for increasing node and network life-time by using

power-aware metric for routingpower-aware metric for routing

– Five power-aware metrics for determining routes based on battery power Five power-aware metrics for determining routes based on battery power

consumption at the nodes are introduced: consumption at the nodes are introduced:

Minimize energy consumed/packetMinimize energy consumed/packet

Maximize time to network partitionMaximize time to network partition

Minimize variance in node power levelsMinimize variance in node power levels

Minimize cost/packetMinimize cost/packet

Minimize maximum node costMinimize maximum node cost

Power-Aware Routing

[Singh+ 1998]

– Hybrid protocol incorporates the merits of proactive (table-driven) and Hybrid protocol incorporates the merits of proactive (table-driven) and

reactive (on-demand) routing protocolsreactive (on-demand) routing protocols

– Each node has a routing zone by specifying a zone radius in terms of Each node has a routing zone by specifying a zone radius in terms of

hopshops

– Size of a zone can affect the communication performanceSize of a zone can affect the communication performance

– Within the routing zone, a table driven routing protocol is used; therefore, Within the routing zone, a table driven routing protocol is used; therefore,

each node has a route to all the other nodes within the zoneeach node has a route to all the other nodes within the zone

– If destination falls out of the routing zone of source node, an on-demand If destination falls out of the routing zone of source node, an on-demand

routing protocol is usedrouting protocol is used

– Three sub-protocols:Three sub-protocols:

Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP) Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP) proactive proactive

Interzone Routing Protocol (IERP) Interzone Routing Protocol (IERP) reactive reactive

Bordercast Resolution Protocol (BRP)Bordercast Resolution Protocol (BRP)

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

[Hass+ 1998]

References [Bertsekas+ 1987] D. Bertsekas and R. Gallager, Data Networks, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,

N.J., 1987, 297-333.

[Chiang+ 1997] C.-C. Chiang, H.K. Wu, W. Liu, and M. Gerla, Routing in Clustered Multihop, Mobile Wireless Networks with Fading Channel, Proceedings of IEEE SIGCON’97, pp. 197-211.

[Dijkstra 1959] E.W. Dijkstra, A Note on Two Problems in Connection with Graphs, Numerische Math, 1:269-271.

[Ford+ 1962] L.R. Ford, Jr. and D.R. Fulkerson, Flows in Networks, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1962.

[Haas+ 1998] Z.J. Haas and M.R. Pearlman, The Performance of Query Control Schemes for the Zone Routing Protocol, ACM MOBICOM 1998.

[Hu+ 2000] Y-C Hu and D.B. Johnson, Caching strategies in on-demand routing protocols for wireless ad hoc networks, MOBICOM 2000, pp. 231-242.

[Johnson+ 1996] D.B. Johnson and D.A. Maltz, Dynamic Source Routing in Ad-Hoc Wireless Networks, Mobile Computing, ed. T. Imielinski and H. Korth, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 153-181, 1996.

[Ko+ 1998] Y. Ko and N. H. Vaidya, Location-Aided Routing (LAR) in Mobil Ad Hoc Networks, MOBICOM'98, October 1998, Dallas. (Recipient of the MOBICOM'98 Best Student Paper Award)

References [Leiner+ 1962] B.M. Leiner, D.L. Nielson, and F.A. Tobagi, Issues in Packet Radio Network Design,

Proceedings of the IEEE (Special Issue Packet Radio Networks), 75(1), January 1987, pp. 6-20.

[McQuillan+ 1980] J.M. McQuillan, I. Richer, and E.C. Rosen, New Routing Algorithm for the ARPANET, IEEE Transactions on Communications COM-28(5), May 1980, pp. 711-719.

[Perkins+ 1994] C.E. Perkins and P. Bhagwat, Highly Dynamic Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computers, Commuter Communications Review, October 1994, pp. 234-244.

[Perkins+ 1999] C.E. Perkins and E.M. Royer, Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing, Proceedings of 2nd IEEE Workshop on Mobile Computing Systems and Applications, 1999.

[Singh+ 1998] S. Singh, M. Woo and C.S. Raghavendra, Power-Aware Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, Proceedings of ACM/IEEE MOBICOM’98, pp. 181-190.

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