PAPER TASK FORCE

Duke University ** Environmental Defense FundJohnson & Johnson ** McDonald's

The Prudential Insurance Company of America ** Time Inc.

WHITE PAPER NO. 8

FUNCTIONALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION PAPERS ANDEFFECTS OF INCORPORATING DEINKED POSTCONSUMER CONTENT

1995 Environmental Defense Fund

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1

II. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS.......................................................................................................4

III. CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING THE FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE OFPUBLICATION PAPERS ....................................................................................................7A. Characteristics of Publication Grades............................................................................7B. Use of Recycled Fiber in the Manufacture of Publication Papers .................................9

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIFIC PUBLICATION GRADES .........................................12A. Uncoated Grades ..........................................................................................................12

1. Book papers ......................................................................................................13B. Coated Publication Papers.............................................................................................15

1. The demands of the coating process .................................................................152. Coated freesheet................................................................................................173. Coated groundwood..........................................................................................174. Postconsumer content in coated papers ............................................................17

V. PERFORMANCE OF RECYCLED-CONTENT PUBLICATION PAPERS INOFFSET PRESSES...........................................................................................................19A. Experiences of Publishers and Manufacturers .............................................................20B. Experiences of Printers ................................................................................................22C. Future Trends in Printing Equipment and Their Impact on Use of Recycled

Content Papers .......................................................................................................22

APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................23APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................................26APPENDIX C ................................................................................................................................29APPENDIX D................................................................................................................................33APPENDIX E ................................................................................................................................36APPENDIX F.................................................................................................................................38APPENDIX G................................................................................................................................39

BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................................40

ENDNOTES ..................................................................................................................................44

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PAPER TASK FORCE

WHITE PAPER NO. 8

FUNCTIONALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION PAPERS AND EFFECTS OF INCORPORATING DEINKED POSTCONSUMER CONTENT

I. INTRODUCTION

This White Paper summarizes the Paper Task Force’s research and findings on thefunctionality issues associated with publication papers and the effects of incorporatingpostconsumer fibera on the functionality of the grades. This White Paper is one component of anextensive research process supporting the Task Force’s recommendations for purchasing“environmentally preferable paper” (paper that reduces environmental impacts and meetsbusiness needs). The Task Force has made short- and long-term purchasing recommendationsfor specific grades and uses of paper, issued in a public report in December 1995; this paper doesnot contain purchasing recommendations.

The information presented in this paper has come from published articles, technicalmeetings and discussions with representatives from the pulp and paper industry, academia,printers, forms converters, publishers and paper purchasers. As an additional step in the researchprocess, the Task Force assembled a panel of experts to discuss the issues examined in this paper. Panelists are listed in Appendix A. This White Paper was also reviewed by several expertreviewers from companies and institutions not represented on the panel. The panelists’ andreviewers’ comments on White Paper No. 8 have been considered in drafting this document. (Alist of the expert reviewers for the Issue Paper No. 8 and White Paper No. 8 is found inAppendix A).

The Paper Task Force members endorse the broad principles set forth by the Task Force’sfinal report. The findings and research in this White Paper reflect the contribution of Paper TaskForce Working Groups and changes made in response to comments received from expertreviewers through the White Paper review process. The contents of this paper do not reflect thepolicy of individual Task Force member organizations.

a Throughout this paper, “postconsumer” refers to finished paper products that have been sold in commerce andhave served their original purpose. As defined in the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),postconsumer material is “paper, paperboard and fibrous wastes from retail stores, office buildings, homes, and soforth after they have passed through their end usage as a consumer item, including used corrugated boxes, oldnewspapers, old magazines, mixed recovered paper, tabulating cards and used cordage; and all paper, paperboardand fibrous wastes that enter and are collected from municipal solid waste”. In this White Paper, “recycled-contentpaper” refers to paper that contains some “postconsumer” content and, unless otherwise indicated, the percentagelevels of postconsumer content are measured by fiber weight. “Deinked” refers to fiber (both “post” and“pre”consumer) that has been subjected to the deinking process. The deinking process is designed to separate inkand contaminants from the fiber.

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This paper addresses only functional parameters relevant to the manufacture andperformance of publication grades. The Task Force’s final recommendations integrate findingson environmental, economic and functional aspects of paper use in a balanced manner thatreflects the needs of users of paper in the private sector. Other White Papers address thefollowing related topics:

• Environmental comparison of recycled and virgin pulp manufacturing processes

• Economic comparison of recycled and virgin pulp manufacturing processes

• Environmental comparison of recycling and other municipal solid waste managementoptions

• Economic comparison of recycling and other municipal solid waste managementoptions

• Functional issues associated with virgin and recycled-content business papers

The publication grades researched by the Task Force include papers used in magazines,books, catalogs, direct mail, annual reports, brochures, advertising pieces and other publications.Coated freesheet, coated groundwood, uncoated freesheet and uncoated groundwood comprisethese grades. This paper does not include newsprint in the scope of research, nor does the paperaddress issues associated with uncoated groundwood grades used in directories. The TaskForce’s research focused on the functional demands on paper used in offset lithography printingand postpress processes. We researched offset printing because of the variety and quantity ofpublication papers that are printed with the offset process, and because the end uses of the gradesexamined in this paper are generally printed on offset presses. In the United States, offsetprinting is the dominant method for printing magazines, books, direct mail and other commercialprinting products. For example, 75.9% of magazines published in the U.S. in 1994 wereproduced by offset printing.1

The Paper Task Force’s goals in researching the functional issues associated with variousgrades of paper are: (1) to identify the attributes of certain grades that enable them to perform asintended; (2) to analyze the relationship between the raw materials used to produce paper and thepapermaking process; and (3) to understand how equipment specifications, especially officeequipment and offset printing presses, drive paper’s specifications. For its research, the TaskForce defined “functionality” with respect to publication papers as the ability of a sheet (or roll)of paper to meet purchasers’ expectations for running in offset printing presses and creating thedesired end-product.

For 1994, the U.S. capacity totals for tons of publication grades were reported byResources Information Systems, Inc. as follows:b 4,602,000 short tons of coated freesheet; b The capacity total for uncoated freesheet includes printing and writing grades used for copy paper, envelopesand related office uses. These end uses are examined in White Paper No. 1; the uncoated freesheet grades discussedin White Paper No. 8 are publication grades. The capacity total reported for uncoated groundwood includesdirectories, an end use not researched by the Task Force. Functionality issues associated with business forms

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4,526,000 short tons of coated groundwood; 13,976,000 short tons of uncoated freesheet; and1,999,000 short tons of uncoated groundwood.c 2 A significant tonnage of groundwood isimported from Canada. In 1994, Canadian shipments to the United States were: 368,000 shorttons of coated groundwood and 2,076,075 short tons of uncoated groundwood.3

This White Paper is organized as follows. First, there is a general discussion of thespecifications and characteristics of publication papers that determine how well they perform onoffset presses and their print quality. Second, there is a description of the impacts ofincorporating deinked postconsumer fiber into publication grades and the adjustments made bypaper manufacturers to produce recycled-content papers that meet performance specifications.Third, there is a description of the characteristics of specific publication grades (uncoated andcoated) that are particularly critical to the performance of those grades. In the discussion ofuncoated grades, we have highlighted issues associated with book papers, that have uniqueattributes affected by the use of deinked fiber. Finally, the paper discusses the performance ofrecycled-content publication papers in offset presses and postpress operations.

produced with uncoated groundwood are addressed in White Paper No. 1. Newsprint is excluded from the AF&PAtonnage figures cited here.

c Uncoated groundwood papers contain more than 10% mechanical pulp (stone groundwood, refiner orthermomechanical) in their furnish, excluding newsprint. Coated groundwood refers to coated papers containingmore than 10% mechanical pulp. Uncoated freesheet papers are bleached uncoated printing and writing paperscontaining not more than 10% groundwood or other mechanical pulp. Coated freesheet refers to coated paperscontaining 10% or less of mechanical pulp (mostly stone groundwood and/or refiner in their furnish). (AmericanForest & Paper Association, p. 28, 1993).

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II. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Following are the Task Force’s findings with respect to the functionality of uncoated andcoated publications papers and the incorporation of deinked postconsumer fiber. The findingsare based on research that is summarized in the body of this paper. The findings includereferences to the corresponding sections of the White Paper.

1. There are commodity-grade, uncoated publication papers with 10-20% postconsumercontent and coated publication papers with 10-15% postconsumer content available todaythat meet the functional requirements of users and consistently perform well in offsetpresses and finishing operations. [Sections III.A.4.a.,B.4., IV.intro,A.,B.]

• Manufacturers and users of both recycled-content and virgin publication paper assessits performance with respect to two general parameters: its “runability” in offsetequipment and finishing equipment and the “print quality” of the final product. Theexperience of several large publishers, printers and paper manufacturers, as well as trialsconducted to compare the performance of recycled-content paper and virgin paper,confirm that recycled-content publication papers with the above mentioned level ofpostconsumer content perform as well as their virgin counterparts. [SectionsIV.intro,A.,B.]

• Acquiring a level of familiarity with paper stock (whether virgin or recycled content)prior to printing a job is the key to successful printing. Press adjustments (e.g., pressspeed, roller tension, and composition of the fountain solution/inks) required toaccommodate the characteristics of recycled-content paper are analogous to what isrequired for any change in paper stock, including changes among virgin grades. One ofthe most important attributes of a good paper product is consistency from batch to batch,so that when a particular supplier’s paper is put on the press, the press operator knows itwill perform the way it did the last time the paper was used. If the paper performsdifferently, the end user may not be satisfied with the product. [Section IV.intro]

• Paper manufacturers, publishers and printers have indicated that there are nodisadvantages to using recycled-content paper in finishing operations. There may becertain advantages to using recycled-content paper in finishing operations, includingbinding and gluing, because it has less tendency to crack at the fold and lays flat morereadily than virgin paper. [Sections III.A.1.a., IV.intro]

• Certain specialty grades, including cover stock and some text papers, are available withpostconsumer content levels of up to 100% that perform as well as comparable gradesproduced with virgin fiber. [Section III.A.1.a.]

• Lighter basis weights (34 lbs. and below) are more difficult to manufacture withpostconsumer content than heavier weights, particularly for coated papers. Severalmanufacturers are currently producing lightweight coated papers that perform well inoffset presses. [Sections III.B.4.,IV.A.]

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2. Paper manufacturers make adjustments during the papermaking process to compensatefor the properties of deinked fiber and to maintain the characteristics that are important toprint quality and press runability. The use of postconsumer fiber in publication grades canresult in advantages or disadvantages for the papermaking process. The relativeadvantages and disadvantages associated with the use of postconsumer fiber in a givenproduct depend on the source of the fiber, its inherent properties, and the fiber it isreplacing. [Sections II.B., Appendix D]

• Advantages associated with the use of postconsumer fiber in paper manufacturing mayinclude:

(1) More inherent opacity in postconsumer fiber made from deinked newsprint andmagazines when compared to virgin hardwood kraft fiber

(2) More bulk and dimensional stability (desirable for uncoated book papers, inparticular) in postconsumer fiber when compared to virgin hardwood kraft fiber

(3)Higher brightness levels in pulp made from deinked office paper (which is primarilyhardwood kraft) when compared to pulp made from virgin groundwood fiber

(4) More strength in postconsumer pulp made from deinked newsprint and magazineswhen compared to virgin groundwood pulp (less strength compared to virgin kraft,however)

• Disadvantages of postconsumer fiber in paper manufacturing may include:

(1) More contaminants in postconsumer than in virgin kraft fiber

(2) Reduced maximum brightness in postconsumer pulp when compared to pulp madefrom virgin hardwood kraft

(3) Reduced bonding ability (which may result in lower strength) in postconsumer pulpmade from office paper when compared to pulp made with virgin hardwood orgroundwood kraft

For most of the above characteristics, the paper manufacturer can make adjustments onthe paper machine or in the pulp mix to meet specifications of a given end use. In somecases, adjustments can result in losses in production efficiency and/or tradeoffs withrespect to other functional characteristics. [Sections II.B., Appendix D]

• Handling contamination in postconsumer fiber is the most significant challenge formanufacturers of recycled-content publication paper. Recent advances in deinkingtechnology have made possible the removal of most contaminants such as ink, dirt,plastic and stickies. Manufacturers express concern about contamination, particularly incoated papers, if postconsumer content levels increase and/or lower-quality recovered

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paper is used. Contamination near the surface of the sheet can cause coater streaks andscratches. [Sections II.B., III.B.4.]

3. There is little data available on the performance of coated papers with more than 15%postconsumer content. Several paper manufacturers report that it is possible to producecoated papers with as much as 20% postconsumer content that meet runability and printquality requirements, but cite concerns about (1) the technical difficulty of addressingcontamination at higher postconsumer levels (2) the cost of necessary capital modificationsfor paper machines and (3) the cost and tight supply of high-quality postconsumer fiberand/or pulp. [Section IV.intro]

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III. CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING THE FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE OFPUBLICATION PAPERS

The functional specifications for publication papers are driven by customers’expectations, the end -use of the product, limitations of the papermaking process, and therequirements of the printing presses in which they will be used. Brightness is a majorspecification for many publication papers, and is the primary method of classification for coatedgrades.

The performance requirements for publication papers can be grouped broadly in twocategories: requirements that determine the papers’ “runability” and those that determine “printquality.” Runability refers to the paper’s ability to withstand the tension and other stresses of theprinting press and subsequent binding and converting operations. A publication paper mustperform well in offset printing equipment, including web- and sheet-fed offset printing pressesand equipment used in finishing or postpress operations.d In Appendix B of this paper, the TaskForce describes in more detail the demands that such equipment places on the paper.

“Print quality” refers to the resolution and appearance of the printed image, type andreproduction of halftones. It also refers to properties such as brightness and gloss that affect theappearance of the end-product, particularly in multi-color printing on coated paper.

A. Characteristics of Publication Grades

For coated and uncoated publication grades, the Task Force has identified the followingproperties as critical to runability in offset printing equipment and converting operations: tensileand tear strength, cleanliness, smoothness, pick resistance and consistency from roll to roll.4Essential to in-line finishing operations are burst strength, uniform caliper and basis weight andstiffness. For optimal print quality in offset presses, important properties are opacity, porosity,flatness, cleanliness and surface smoothness. Printers also seek consistency in paper from roll toroll so that they can plan for and predict how a project will perform on press.

A brief description of the general properties essential for performance of publicationgrades as well as characteristics that are specific to uncoated and coated papers are included inAppendix C. For all publication grades, four properties have been identified by almost all of thesuppliers interviewed by the Task Force as most important for runability and print quality --strength, cleanliness, opacity and brightness.5

Tear strength is a particularly important property in lighter weight publication grades(less than 40 lbs.) to prevent web breaks in high-speed presses. Bonding strength is important

d Finishing and postpress operations consist of the supplementary operations to printing such as binding,finishing, and distribution. The demands of finishing and postpress operations include folding, die-cutting, cutting,trimming, scoring, stitching, gluing, and perforating. (Bruno, 1992)

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for surface characteristics that affect both print quality and runability, and can prevent suchproblems as blistering, linting, picking and fiber puffing.e Strength properties are determined bythe strength of the individual fibers, the type of fibers (i.e. the mixture of pulps used), and theamount of filler material in the sheet.

Cleanliness is the absence of visible dirt specks, stickies and other contaminants.f In thepapermaking process, contaminants in the pulp can damage the felt, the screen and otherequipment; they can also cause holes and blade scratches during the coating process. Duringprinting, contaminants on the paper can collect on the blankets and cause spots or holes on theprint surface or scratches on the plates. Contaminants can create weak spots in the sheet, whichmake it susceptible to tearing during the printing process.6 Paper manufacturers state thatcontaminants are particularly problematic in the manufacture of coated papers because evenminute levels can cause streaks and scratches when the coating is applied.7

Opacity is critical for readability in all publication papers. Minimizing show-throughfrom sheet to sheet is particularly important in magazines and other communication pieces.

Brightness is particularly important for coated grades. In the United States a ranking system isused to classify coated publication papers according to brightness levels. In general, there is atrend in the U.S. of increasing brightness levels in offset grades.8 The American Forest & PaperAssociation (AF&PA) is currently revising the classifications for offset grades to reflect the risein brightness levels. AF&PA is proposing the following classifications:9

GE Brightness Classificationsg

Current Proposed#5 70-72.9 70-74#4 73-78.9 (groundwood/freesheet) 74-80#3 79-82.9 (primarily freesheet) 80-83#2 83-84.9 (freesheet) 83-85#1 85 or above (freesheet) over 85

e Blistering is caused when moisture between the sheet and coating vaporizes into steam and causes holes orswellings in the coating. Lint refers to paper fragments or dust on the sheet. Excess lint can contaminate printers.Picking refers to the tendency of fibers or other particles on the paper’s surface (e.g., coating) being pulled awayfrom the surface of the sheet by a tacky material (e.g., tacky ink). Fiber puffing is associated with groundwood-based coated paper and appears as a rough surface, especially in areas of heavy ink coverage. Fiber puffing refers toindividual or fiber bundle swelling during the drying process of heat-set inks caused by trapped moisture within thefiber. (Kline, 1990; S.D. Warren, 1987; Written comments by representatives from International Paper, 1994.)

f Dirt refers to loose material from all manufacturing sources (e.g., slitter, trimmer dust, lint, starch and loosecoating pigments). Loosely bonded fibers on the surface are especially troublesome in offset. A stickie is definedas a particle that has tackiness to it.

g The classifications in this table also reflects the cost and quality of publication grades from the most expensiveand highest quality sheet (premium, No. 1) to the least expensive and lowest quality sheet (No. 5). Premium andNos. 1 and 2 are always freesheet, No. 3 is primarily freesheet, the content of No. 4 is predominantly groundwood,and No. 5 always contains a high percentage of groundwood. (Dils, 1990; AF&PA, 1995)

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B. Use of Recycled Fiber in the Manufacture of Publication Papers

Almost every grade of publication paper is available on the market today with somedeinked, postconsumer fiber, including lightweight coated and premium coated grades. Theintroduction and use of postconsumer recycled content in publication grades occurred only asrecently as 1989.10 This segment of the market has undergone significant change and growth ina short period. In 1989 there were no coated papers produced with recycled content; in 1993,approximately 10% of the coated papers market contained some recycled content.11 Accordingto a 1993 survey estimate, recycled-content papers comprised 10-14% of book paper usage.12

(The Task Force recognizes that this market is changing rapidly; this topic is more fullyaddressed in White Paper No. 9.)

Incorporating postconsumer fiber into publication grades brings both advantages anddisadvantages to the papermaking process, depending on the type of postconsumer fiber beingused and the fiber for which it is substituted. Papermakers must find the right blend of fibersand/or make tradeoffs between different properties to meet the end-use needs of a given product.For example, paper made with deinked old newspaper and/or magazine pulp has more opacityand bulk than paper made from virgin hardwood kraft pulp. This type of deinked pulp alsoenhances the dimensional stability of the sheet.13 Smoothness properties can be improved withdeinked fiber because the fiber can withstand substantial calendering. On the other hand, virginkraft pulps are generally brighter and have less contamination.14 In addition, linting andstiffness may be increased by the incorporation of deinked postconsumer fiber.15

There also are tradeoffs in characteristics associated with the substitution of differenttypes of deinked and virgin pulps. While virgin groundwood pulps or pulps made from thecombination of virgin groundwood and softwood kraft generally have excellent tear and mullenstrength characteristics; they have lower brightness than virgin hardwood kraft or deinked pulpmade with office paper.16 Except for some possible loss in brightness, the characteristics ofdeinked office recovered paper pulp can be very close in to those of virgin hardwood.17

Therefore, to achieve comparable brightness levels to paper made with virgin hardwood kraft,the manufacturer must brighten the fiber by adding optical brighteners and/or fillers.18

Manufacturers generally state that deinked, postconsumer fibers are not as strong asvirgin kraft fibers.19 However, in freesheet, deinked pulp containing postconsumer recoveredpaper may exhibit improved strength properties due to the inclusion of virgin kraft softwood, andthus longer fibers.20 Therefore, the strength properties of virgin or deinked pulp will be affectedby the percentage of softwood or hardwood fiber that the manufacturer uses in the mix.

When substituting deinked office recovered paper pulp for virgin groundwood ordeinked newsprint pulp, the result can be an increase in brightness because deinked officerecovered paper pulp is brighter than pulp with high groundwood content. On the other hand,deinked pulp with high groundwood content will have high opacity, good strength properties,and is typically less expensive. Deinked office recovered paper pulp has lower opacity than pulpmade with old newspapers and magazines.

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A description of the impact that deinked fiber has on paper properties and examples ofhow manufacturers accommodate those impacts is attached as Appendix D.

Postconsumer fiber contains varying amounts and types of contaminants. In general,deinked newsprint and magazines contain higher levels of contamination than deinked officepaper.21 State-of-the-art deinking technologies can remove almost all contaminants, though it isnot currently feasible to remove 100% of them.22 Experts have identified a suite of contaminantscommonly found in postconsumer deinked fiber that can pose problems for the manufacturer ofrecycled-content paper.23 These contaminants include dirt, ink, stickies, bright dyes, unbleachedfibers and groundwood fibers.

Stickies are the contaminants of greatest concern to papermakers and printers, because ifthey are not dispersed and/or removed during the deinking process, they can cause runabilityproblems during manufacture and printing, and can degrade the print quality of the finalproduct.24 Common sources of stickies are pressure sensitive adhesives, hot-melt glues andplastics.h 25

Variability among batches of deinked pulp in terms of the types and extent ofcontamination can pose problems for the paper manufacturer. In addition, the species and ratioof hardwood and softwood fibers present in the recovered paper that is deinked can affect thepulp’s performance.26 This variability, as much as the contaminants themselves, can posechallenges for paper manufacturers as they strive to make a product with consistentcharacteristics from machine run to machine run.

During the papermaking process, paper manufacturers compensate for differencesbetween deinked and virgin fibers in a variety of ways. Many of these adjustments are made onthe paper machine and are similar to changes that are required to account for changes in virginfiber furnish.27 (Because of the different behavioral characteristics of the fibers, changes in thehardwood/softwood ratio or even the species of hardwood or softwood used in a furnish, canrequire the paper manufacturer to make adjustments.) At many mills, the stock preparationprocess is designed to handle the furnishes separately so that the mill can manage each fiberstream to achieve the desired end-product characteristics.28

To the extent that deinked fiber exhibits certain attributes that pose challenges for thepapermaker, its properties can be improved by additional refining, by adjusting the type andquantity of chemical additives and/or fillers, by surface sizing, and by blending with virgin(particularly softwood) fiber.29 Contaminants can be reduced with improved deinkingtechnologies (e.g., double flotation,i kneading, fine screens, reverse cleaners) and better sourcing

h According to deinking experts, the most difficult contaminants to remove during deinking are the polymericadhesives used as pressure sensitive adhesives and hot-melt glues. (Morrison, J. “The Technology Challenge ofPaper Recycling,” Pressure Sensitive Paper Tape Council Conference, Chicago, Illinois, 4 May 1994. Interviewswith representatives of Superior Recycled Fiber Corporation, 5 July 1994; Fox River Fiber , 26 June 1994.)

i One example of an improved deinking technology is double flotation in which the pulp runs through twoflotation sequences.

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of recovered paper.30 For both virgin and recycled production, the papermaker must useadditives and fillers to enhance brightness and gloss or to compensate for brightness loss andvariability. The most common fillers are clay, calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide. Theincorporation of such fillers results in tradeoffs that the papermaker must also address (e.g.,calcium carbonate improves brightness but reduces gloss and opacity; clay improves printedgloss and smoothness but reduces opacity).31 While fillers may counteract certain attributes ofrecycled fiber, excess filler may affect strength properties.32 These steps and other adjustmentshave a cost impact and an impact on yield, which the Task Force addresses in White Paper No. 9.

Some manufacturers and suppliers have indicated that they closely monitor the way theybuy and process raw materials (e.g., recovered paper) used as postconsumer fiber. Controlsinclude: rigorous inspection of supplies, selective purchasing, hiring personnel to specialize inrecycled pulp and market availability, modified handling techniques of raw materials, use ofstandardized “office packs,”j and use of contractual arrangements with customers.33 To someextent, variability can also be addressed in the deinking/stock preparation process by blendingand storing pulp.

j The term “office recovered paper pack” refers to a new grade that consists of recovered papers being collectedfrom offices that are used for deinking into white printing/writing grades. Office packs are comprised of recoveredpaper generated at the desk, copy stations, and data generation groups, and from office recovered paper recoveryprograms. (McBride, 1994).

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IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIFIC PUBLICATION GRADES

A. Uncoated Grades

Uncoated freesheet and groundwood papers are used for a variety of publications. TheTask Force has researched the functional requirements of uncoated offset papers used formagazines, books and commercial printingk (e.g., brochures, annual reports and direct mailproducts). The Task Force has also researched cover papers, which are used as covers and/orjackets for magazines, pamphlets and paperback books which are produced in uncoated andcoated grades.

In the publication industry, uncoated freesheet is used for commercial printing andpublication products that are targeted for communication markets, including trade books,newsletters, direct mail and reply cards. In general, uncoated freesheet papers are considered tobe of higher quality than uncoated groundwood papers.

Uncoated groundwood papers typically are used in mass market paperback books, inserts,magazines, catalogs and direct mail pieces. These papers contain a high proportion ofmechanical pulp but have “more exacting production techniques, pulp furnishes and fillers(sizing).”34 Uncoated groundwood papers are considered to be of higher quality than newsprint,but of a lower quality than coated paper as a printing medium. One exception is so-called“supercalendered” (SC) papers,l which are designed to improve smoothness and printability.Some users of coated paper may substitute SC papers for coated No. 5s in magazines andcatalogs; SC papers comprise about 34% of the uncoated groundwood segment.35 (Newsprint isa separate category which is not within the scope of the Task Force study.)

The requirements for uncoated publication papers are less stringent than those the basestockm of coated papers. For example, paper that is not coated is subjected to less contact withwater in the manufacturing process than coated grades; the specifications for tensile and tearstrength may not be as stringent as for coated paper base stock. In addition, brightnessspecifications may be lower for uncoated groundwood than for freesheet because the highpercentage of mechanical pulp in groundwood papers lowers their brightness capability.

Surface properties of the sheet may be important characteristics for uncoated papers,depending on the end use of the paper. For example, smoothness is important for papers that areused in multi-color printing, because a rough sheet can cause solids and halftones to become

k Commercial printing consists of a wide array of promotional literature including annual reports and direct mailproducts not categorized as catalogs (e.g., materials sent out in bulk mail by banks, financial services companies andcredit card marketers). (Cody, 1993). Commercial printing products use both uncoated and coated papers.

l SC papers have been smoothed through an extra calendaring phase after papermaking. SC papers have clay andother pigments that enhance appearance by adding brightness, smoothness, opacity, strength and bulk. (Dils, 1990).

m Base stock is paper that will be further processed, as in coating or laminating. (Kline, 1990).

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“sandy” in appearance.36 However, if the product is predominantly type and/or uses only twocolors, print quality may be less affected by paper smoothness than in other uses.37 Provided themanufacturer has the necessary equipment, adjustments can be readily made during thecalendering stage of papermaking in order to meet specific smoothness specifications whenusing deinked fiber.38 One challenge for the manufacturer is to maintain bulk while increasingcalendaring.39

In general, the key runability properties for uncoated offset publication papers are: pickresistance, foldability, a smooth surface and burst strength (to perform well in postpressoperations).40 These and other properties are described in Appendix C, attached.

1. Book papers

Book papers must have many of the attributes of uncoated and coated papers.(Attributes of coated grades are described in Section III.B.) Approximately 58% of books areprinted on uncoated paper; 42% on coated paper.41 Book papers make up a small fraction ofpublication grades, constituting 5.26% of all coated publication grades and 4.2% of uncoatedpublication grades.42 A book is generally considered “trade” or “text” which refers to the way abook is sold in the marketplace. Trade books are sold “in the trade,” at large and small,independent and chain bookstores. Text books are sold directly to school systems or states. Thespecifications for these latter grades are driven to a large degree by the requirements of theNational Association of State Textbook Administrators.43 However, text books are publishedincreasingly on coated paper, due to an interest in more color and graphics.

While “children’s” books often are referred to as a distinct category, they typically aresold as are trade books; many are printed on coated paper. Mass market books are distributedand sold similarly to magazines, through wholesalers who distribute them to such vendors asairport stores, drug stores. Typically, mass market books are printed on uncoated groundwoodpaper.

Cover paper is a term applied to a variety of papers used for the covers of catalogs,books, brochures and other pieces.44 Cover papers can be uncoated or coated; some may havecolor or various finishes.45 They are made in heavier basis weights, typically ranging from 65-80lbs. for cover stock and 70-80 lbs. for text. These grades are also distinguished by their sizeswhich are 20x26 for cover and 25x38 for text. In general, the same companies that manufactureoffset and bond papers produce cover and text papers.46

As with other publication papers, easy readability in book papers depends upon goodprint resolution, high opacity and shade. Some manufacturers and publishers believe that highbrightness and high gloss may impede the readability of book papers.47 Books are printedpredominantly on web-offset presses and must meet the requirements of the presses, as well ashold up to gluing and binding operations. In addition, permanence may be an importantproperty, especially for archival books.

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Bulk is the degree of thickness of paper and measures the number of pages per inch for agiven basis weight.48 It is a particularly important specification for book papers and is driven bythe product’s end use for two reasons:

(1) Bulk contributes to the “feel” of book paper and also affects opacity.49 Thepublisher’s goal and the papermaker’s challenge is to achieve higher bulk andmaintain the same basis weight and/or produce a thinner paper that holds up tobinding and still achieves sufficient opacity.50

(2) For some books, publishers prefer high-bulk paper to give the appearance of morepages.51 In other instances, publishers may prefer “thin” paper for academic andtext books in order to pack more information into the book.

a. Impact of incorporating postconsumer content into book papers

Deinked postconsumer fibers offer both advantages and disadvantages for manufacturersof book papers.n An advantage of deinked fibers is that they are more dimensionally stable thanvirgin fibers.52 This characteristic enables the sheet to resist curling and ensures that the paperlays flat. Another attribute of deinked fibers is that they hold up well to the calendering processwhich enhances the sheet’s ability to be made smooth easily. The result is that a smoother finishcan be achieved without the loss of bulk that can accompany virgin fiber being calenderedextensively.53 Some manufacturers of book paper state that recycled-content paper performswell in bindery operations because it has less tendency to crack at the fold.54

A challenge associated with the use of postconsumer deinked fiber in book paper isrelated to achieving consistency in color, shade and brightness. Vivid colors such as hot pinkand dark greens can be difficult to remove completely in the deinking process and may requirethe use of expensive whitening and brightening agents.55 Therefore, it is critical to acquire high-quality deinked pulp that does not bring undesired tints to the mix. Because of the reducedbonding ability of recycled fibers, stiffness and linting may also be affected with the use ofpostconsumer content in book papers. Sufficient stiffness and minimal linting are important tobinding operations and pick resistance.56

Some manufacturers are producing text and cover papers at higher postconsumer contentlevels than other publication grades, including 60-100% postconsumer.57 Manufacturers are ableto produce these grades because the heavier basis weights of text and cover stock make it easierto include higher postconsumer levels than with lighter-weight papers. In today’s market, coverand text stocks also represent a smaller market niche, making it more feasible to acquire thehigh-quality, postconsumer, deinked pulp necessary.58

n Most manufacturers’ experience is with using 10-20% postconsumer fiber in book papers.

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B. Coated Publication Papers

Coated paper demand increased faster than for than most other major grades in the1980’s.59 U.S. demand for coated paper dropped 4.6% in 1991, but it rose 2.3% in 1992 and isprojected to grow at a rate of 3.8% from 1993-200260. Magazines, catalogs, inserts/coupons andcommercial printing comprise 95% of the demand for coated groundwood grades and 67% ofcoated freesheet papers.61 Magazines represent the largest single use of all coated grades.62

Appendices F and G show the breakdown of end uses for coated publication grades.

Coated papers are considered to be the highest-quality printing paper and are categorizedin several ways: coated one side (C1S) or coated two side (C2S); groundwood and freesheet;and along brightness and quality lines (e.g., Nos.1-5). Specifications and demand for coatedpapers are driven predominantly by advertising-related products, such as magazines, commercialprinting (e.g., brochures, direct mail, inserts and other communication pieces), and catalogs. Ingeneral, the coated paper segment has increased due to the growth of special interest magazines,catalogs and other direct mail products.63 Another market factor has been the introduction oflightweight coated papers, which are less expensive to mail than their normal-weightcounterparts.

1. The demands of the coating process

Coating is a form of surface treatment, as is calendering and sizing, but it is morecomplex. The coating operation creates a surface that is smoother than the uncoated surface andhas a much finer pore structure.64 These two traits improve the paper’s printing characteristics,particularly printed gloss. Coatings may also increase brightness if the added pigments arebrighter than the fiber.65

The requirements for the surface properties of the base stock usually are more stringentfor coated than for uncoated papers. Five factors are important in determining the nature anduniformity of the coating layer: (1) surface, strength and optical properties of the base stock; (2)composition of the coating (e.g., the coating’s composition can affect the rate of fluid penetrationinto base stock, degree of filling, and rate of drying); (3) method of coating; (4) method of drying(e.g., shrinkage in the thickness of the coating occurs during drying); and (5) extent ofsupercalendering.66 This White Paper primarily addresses the first of these factors.

Coating serves an important function in smoothing the paper surface because even thefinest uncoated paper can remain somewhat rough and porous as it forms on the machine andbegins to dry. Also, some poorly bonded fibers, which can be picked off by a tacky ink anddeposited on an offset blanket, may be present. Coating can fill in crevices and create a tight,flat, smooth surface that the addition of sizing or perfect blend of fibers may not achieve.However, according to manufacturers, coating cannot entirely make up for defects in the basestock.67

Coatings are applied either on or off the paper machine. The three main features of anycoater operation are: uniform application of coating to the entire paper surface, controlling theweight or thickness of the coating layer, and smoothing and evening the surface. Types of

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coaters are air-knife, blade, rod, roll and cast. Some operations use multiple coating techniquessuch as double coating in order to get the advantages of, and counteract the defects of each. Amajor concern in coating is referred to as “dwell time;” the elapsed time between the applicationof coating and the smoothing/metering operation. If the dwell time is too long, water and bindercan migrate into the sheet, resulting in inconsistent coating composition.68

For both virgin and recycled-content paper, the coating process presents challenges.Coaters operate at very high speeds. Blade coaters, for example, must apply and remove (byscraping off) excess coating, while the paper is conveyed at these high speeds. Any defect in thebase sheet or loose contaminants on the surface can cause a web break on the coater or streaksand scratches , resulting in downtime to clean up and restart. Even with extensive cleaning andfiltering equipment, coater streaks and scratches remain the single largest functional problemassociated with the use of postconsumer fiber in coated papers.69

Uniformity of coating is critical. If the coating is not applied uniformly,supercalenderingo will further emphasize the non-uniformity.70 Supercalendering is used in mosthigh-quality coated applications and for lightweight uncoated stock (such as catalogs) to developsmoothness and gloss for printing on both sides of the sheet.

The Task Force has focused on blade coating because 75-80% of coated paper used inweb-offset printing is made using this method.71 Blade coating can be compared to applying athick, final coat of paint. One side at a time is coated, excess is removed, and the remainingsmoothed over by a blade (similar to spreading butter). Some of the coating is absorbed by thepaper, but most remains on the surface to form a layer that can be up to one tenth of the thicknessof the base paper itself. On average, coating makes up approximately 30% of the weight of thesheet.72 In general, blade coating produces a smoother sheet, but variations in the thickness ofthe coating and ink absorption may occur. Thickness variations may be minimized bycalendaring, but the differences in ink absorption are more difficult to overcome.73

The paper manufacturer strives to match the brightness of the base sheet to the brightnessof the coating. Differences in the two levels can result in problems with shade in the finalproduct.74 These differences can especially affect multi-color printing. The transparent inksused in multi-color printing act as filters, transmitting certain light waves and absorbing others.To get optimum color, transparent inks must be able to reflect light back through the paper.Therefore, the brighter the paper, the more light it reflects, and the more intense the inks appear.

The following characteristics are particularly important to the performance of coatedpublications papers: opacity/show-through, brightness, gloss, basis weight, smoothness, pickresistance, stiffness, tensile strength and tear strength. A description of the characteristics isfound in Appendix C.

o The supercalendering process is separate from the papermaking machine. It uses alternate metal and resilientrolls to produce a high finish paper. (Bruno, 1992.)

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2. Coated freesheet

Coated freesheet is found primarily in Nos.1, 2 and 3 grades. No. 1 and No. 2 gradesare generally used in high-end products such as annual reports. No. 3 coated grades are used incertain magazines, books and commercial printing (e.g., advertising pieces, product manuals).Some critical properties of coated freesheet are smoothness, opacity, type of finish, cleanlinessand brightness.75 These properties enhance multi-color printing, reproduction of photographs,and the brilliance and snap desired by advertisers.

In 1993, 33% of the U.S. coated freesheet market was used for commercial printing’ 20%for catalogs, 13% for magazines, 10% for direct mail and labels, 8% for book papers, and 3% forannual reports.76

3. Coated groundwood

Coated groundwood papers are generally used for magazines, text books, catalogs, free-standing inserts and direct mail pieces. These grades have the advantage of high inherentopacity, more light absorption , and lower costs than freesheet. Their limiting properties are intensile strength, pick resistance, brightness and lower gloss.

Rising postage costs have stimulated the demand for lightweight groundwood papers(under 40 lbs.) that also meet print quality standards. A challenge to manufacturers oflightweight coated grades is to achieve acceptable brightness and sufficient strength for massive,high-speed runs.

In 1993, 53% of the U.S. coated groundwood market was used for magazines, 25% forcatalogs, 9% for inserts, 4% for commercial printing, and 3% for book papers.77

4. Postconsumer content in coated papers

According to manufacturers, coated papers are the most challenging grade in which toincorporate postconsumer fiber.78 The reasons cited are: (1) the sensitivity of the coatingprocess to even low levels of contamination on the base stock, and (2) the availability and cost ofhigh-quality deinked pulpp.79 The type and blend of deinked fibers being used determinewhether strength properties and/or brightness are reduced and must be compensated for by thepapermaker.80

Lighter basis weights (34 lbs. and below) are more difficult to manufacture withpostconsumer content than heavier weights, particularly for coated papers.81 The tolerance fordefects and contamination is lower in lightweight coated grades because contaminants have agreater probability of being on or near the sheet’s surface.82

p These and other economic issues are addressed in White Paper No. 9.

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Several major paper manufacturers of coated groundwood papers used in book publishingand commercial printing products report that at the 10% postconsumer level, runability and printquality are equivalent to comparable virgin grades.83 For magazines, some manufacturers andpublishers report that coated groundwood with 10-15% postconsumer content can meetperformance standards.84 Some papermakers note that web breaks are sometimes associatedwith recycled content because the mill has made sudden changes in production from virgin torecycled content. If proper equipment for cleaning and fine screening has been installed, theseproblems are unlikely to occur any more often than with virgin pulp.85

Several manufacturers state that the advantages of using deinked fibers in coatedgroundwood are more dimensional stability, and the ability to reach higher pages per inch (ppi)with a lower caliper.86 The limitations in coated freesheet grades containing deinked fiber are intear resistance and brightness.87 Tear resistance depends upon three factors: (1) the number offibers participating in the tear’ (2) fiber length, and (3) the number and strength of fiber-to-fiberbonds. With increased fiber-to-fiber bonding in the sheet, fiber rupture may occur, but fewerfibers are pulled from the sheet. Because it takes less energy to rupture a fiber than to pull onefrom the sheet, tear resistant properties increase as interfiber bonding increases.88 Theacceptability of brightness levels is more closely related to the end use of the paper. Forexample, several manufacturers interviewed by the Task Force consistently achieve acceptablebrightness specifications at 78 for trade books and 82 for text books in coated groundwoodgrades with 10% postconsumer content.89

Blade coating presents challenges to the papermaker when base stock that containsdeinked fiber is used. To meet the challenges, manufacturers report that it is critical to use high-quality, clean base stock. Certain adjustments can also be made in the coating mechanisms, suchas the “bent-blade” or “flooded nip” designs. 90 However, blade coaters are used on the majorityof lightweight grades. The coater design used by a manufacturer may be affected by the speedand width limitations of the design, the capabilities of the individual mill, and/or the particularend- use of the paper.91 Depending on an individual mill’s technology, changes in coatingmechanisms may require investments in new or start-up equipment.

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V. PERFORMANCE OF RECYCLED-CONTENT PUBLICATION PAPERS IN OFFSET PRESSES

The Task Force has learned that the affected properties and/or quality concerns associatedwith deinked fibers that have been described are routinely accommodated in the manufacture ofcoated publication papers at the 10-15% postconsumer level and uncoated publication papers atthe 10-20% postconsumer level.92 Five major paper manufacturers and several printersinterviewed by the Task Force indicate that the press performance of these grades of recycled-content offset papers is equivalent to comparable virgin grades, and that negative feedback fromcustomers and printers has been minimal.93

Some major paper manufacturers state that coated papers with as much as 20%postconsumer content can be produced to meet runability and printability standards.94 Theyemphasize that substituting more postconsumer fiber for virgin or preconsumer fiber will requireimproved sorting and handling mechanisms for raw materials, separation of pulp furnishes, theavailability of high-quality deinked pulp, and screening and process controls to removecontaminants such as stickies.95 There may also be cost impacts associated with thesemechanisms (addressed in White Paper No. 9). The three major impediments for manufacturersto increasing postconsumer content are (1) high contaminant levels in deinked fiber; (2) the costof high-quality postconsumer pulp; and (3) the availability of high-quality deinked pulp.96

Printers make adjustments (makereadyq) to the printing process prior to each press run,(e.g., adjusting the press speed, the tension of the rollers, the composition of fountain solutions,and the type and degree of tackiness of the ink).97 The adjustments, necessary to ensure that thecombination of variables produces a high-quality product, are driven by the characteristics of thepaper being used. Adjustments are made whether the paper used is made with recycled-contentor virgin fiber.98 However, one of the leading attributes of a “good” paper product is itsconsistency, so that when a particular supplier’s paper is put on the press, the press operatorknows its response will be nearly identical to the last use of that paper.99

In postpress operations, printers and converters make other adjustments such as in thedepth of scoring and amount of perforation. Again, these adjustments are made for both virginand recycled-content papers to accommodate the paper’s characteristics.100

Making these press and postpress adjustments prior to binding and gluing operations areroutine.101 Printers adjust their presses and finishing equipment to perform optimally on a per-job basis. For example, gluers and tension wheels are set for the properties and design of aparticular job -- the paper, the type of ink, the basis weight, the capability of the machines, andthe customers’ requests for the end-product.

Some printers emphasize the importance of planning prior to a press run when usingrecycled stock because it is a relatively new material. Those printers explain that the same

q “Makeready” refers to all work done to set up a press for printing.

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degree of planning is required for other new materials such as new inks and fountain solutions.102

Several printers state that press adjustments can be made readily if the printer is able to testproducts, see how they perform, and gain experience working with the paper.103 Acquiring a“level of familiarity” with the stock is key to successful printing.104 Printers also state that allparties should get involved in a project early on to anticipate and work around variables that mayarise.

When discussing the common problems in offset printing described in Appendix B, someprinters told the Task Force that the quality and brand of paper is more likely to determinewhether a problem will occur than whether the paper is virgin or has recycled content.105

Both printers and paper manufacturers have told the Task Force that recycled-contentpapers present no problems in binding and gluing operations.106 In fact, one manufacturerreports that deinked fibers have less tendency to crack at the fold, are more dimensionally stable,and lay flat more readily than virgin fibers.107 Suppliers and printers who worked with Time Inc.in producing its 32 lb., 10% postconsumer content magazine stock stated that there have notbeen limitations in meeting binding requirements, and that strength at the fold was sufficient formagazines, books and pamphlets.108

Recent experience with recycled-content papers has been more positive than experiencewith the papers when they were introduced a number of years ago. When publication paperscontaining postconsumer content were first produced in the late 1980’s, web breaks hurtrunability, and dust and picking affected print quality. One large printer stated that uncoatedstock has a tendency to lint more than paper made from virgin fiber, but “if any pressadjustments are necessary to reduce this tendency or minimize the impact, they are minor.”109

For the most part, problems such as web breaks and linting have been corrected by measuressuch as adjusting the fiber mixes and the refining processes, improvements in cleaningtechnologies, and the use of higher-quality deinked fiber.r Some manufacturers “tweak” theirprocesses to adjust for differences among batches of deinked and virgin pulps; for example,slowing down the paper machines and lengthening the drying time. Appendix D summarizesthe properties that are affected by the incorporation of deinked fiber and adjustments made bymanufacturers to accommodate the effects.

A. Experiences of Publishers and Manufacturers

One of the members of the Paper Task Force, Time Inc., began working with its suppliersand printers to produce magazines printed on recycled-content paper in 1991. Time Inc. haspublished several titles on coated groundwood with 10% postconsumer content in basis weights

r The concern most often cited by manufacturers when discussing the challenges associated with manufacturinghigh-quality postconsumer-containing publication papers is the cost of obtaining deinked postconsumer pulp that isrelatively free of contaminants. (Interviews and written comments from representatives of Consolidated Papers, 13October 1994; P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994.; Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995. D’Amico, E.B. “How SoonWill You Print on Recycled?”, Folio, 22(9) May 15, 1993).

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ranging from 32-45 lbs.s Time Inc. reports that, within five months of the conversion to 10%postconsumer stock, the entire process was running smoothly -- from manufacture of the paper tofinal publication of magazines. Certain issues arose during the conversion to recycled stock andwere addressed early in the process. The issues that arose included concern about possible webbreaks, impact on advertising (especially loss of print quality/brightness), consistent supply ofdeinked fiber, and loss of opacity.

Time Inc.’s paper purchasers, suppliers and printers now state that functionality issues arelargely resolved at the 10-15% postconsumer level even with papers as light as 32 lb. Inparticular, they note that: (1) strength and opacity properties are sufficient, (2) the coatingprocess has been little altered in the switch to recycled content, and (3) achieving sufficientbrightness in groundwood products has not been a problem.t

Time Inc.’s experience with the runability and print quality for magazines published with10% postconsumer content is echoed by other large publishers.110 In a survey conducted byGreen Seal, one publisher reported that it experienced no losses in opacity, gloss or brightnesswith 10% postconsumer content paper. As part of that same study, two manufacturers indicatedcomparable performance with publication papers at the 10% level, but they experienced someproblems with cleanliness at 15% postconsumer content and limits to brightness at 20%postconsumer content. In particular, the manufacturers noted challenges with achieving thehigher brightness levels for premium grades (Nos. 1 and 2) in American mills.111

Another publisher, Rodale Press, also indicates no runability problems associated withthe use of recycled-content paper in books, magazines and direct mail pieces.112 Rodale Presspublishes all of its print products on paper with recycled content and on offset presses --averaging 10-15% postconsumer content in direct mail papers, 10% postconsumer content inmagazines, and 15% postconsumer in books. Printers have experienced no excessive web breaksor slowdowns and no problems in bindery operations. Rodale Press began its transition fromvirgin paper by testing several different brands of recycled-content paper in all of its magazinetitles. After successful results with runability and print quality in magazine production, thecompany changed to recycled-content paper for its books and direct mail.113

Representatives from Rodale Press stated that the company’s goal was to maintain thesame quality and to have no visible differences between virgin and recycled-content products.Except for a few isolated cases of differences in brightness, this goal has been achieved. RodalePress estimates that 75% of its publications retained the same brightness levels and that thechange in the others (a one point drop in brightness) is considered to be imperceptible by itsadvertisers, editors and customers.114

s By the spring of 1994, three of Time Inc.’s weekly plants were publishing on 32 lb., No. 5 groundwood paperwith 10% postconsumer recycled content.

t Achieving brightness for freesheet products at the 82-83 GE level has been more problematic. However,suppliers state that that coating and gloss can compensated for much of the brightness loss .

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B. Experiences of Printers

Some printers have noted that several common problems (web breaks, baggy rolls, holes,picking and piling) occur during production no more frequently with recycled content than withvirgin papers.115 From a print quality perspective, several printers also report no significantdifferences in surface smoothness, sheet uniformity, and ink holdout between recycled-contentgrades and virgin grades.116 Three areas of small difference were noted: (1) less fiber puff wasexperienced on recycled-content sheets than is normally found in virgin sheets, (2) shadevariation and/or lower brightness was more prevalent on recycled-content grades, and (3) specksare sometimes more noticeable in papers with recycled content.

The printers interviewed by the Task Force report that the decision to use recycledcontent in a publication grade is made, for the most part, by their customers.117 According torepresentatives from R. R. Donnelley & Sons, the main deterrent to the use of recycled-contentpapers is not functional performance, but cost. (Economic issues are discussed in White PaperNo. 9.)

Another member of the Paper Task Force, The Prudential Insurance Company ofAmerica, is using paper with recycled content in many of its publications. Both uncoated andcoated grades containing recycled content in a variety of basis weights are being used incorporate advertising such as annual reports and in Prudential’s internal services (e.g., trainingand sales materials, magazines and posters). Overseeing the publication of these products isPrudential’s Creative Services Division, whose manager reports that the company runs recycled-content papers in most of its projects.118

The Prudential disperses its print jobs among several different vendors, who havereported no significant performance problems between the recycled content and virgin papercounterparts. For some high-end projects such as the corporate annual report, company officialswere initially concerned about the presence of specks, brightness, and the reproduction ofimages. Therefore, approval was obtained from the company’s senior management to userecycled-content paper and accept the possibility of an occasional speck appearing on a photoreproduction. The manager also noted that: (1) sufficient colors and textures have been availablein recycled-content grades, and (2) designers have responded favorably to the color selectionoffered in recycled-content stocks, focusing more on ink colors than paper colors.

C. Future Trends in Printing Equipment and Their Impact on Use of RecycledContent Papers

Some printers indicate three significant future trends in offset printing technology andprocesses: (1) customers’ demand for more versatility in using color, (2) increase in waterlessprinting, 2) the emergence of stochastic screening, and (4) development of digital offset colorprinting. These trends and their potential impact on paper’s performance are discussed further inAppendix E.

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APPENDIX A

PANEL ON FUNCTIONALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION PAPERS ANDEFFECTS OF INCORPORATING DEINKED POSTCONSUMER CONTENT

On October 13, 1994 in Charlotte, North Carolina, the Paper Task Force held a panel ofexperts to discuss the topic “Functionality Requirements for Publication Papers and Effects ofIncorporating Deinked Postconsumer Content”. The members of the panel were:

Kathleen Gray, Paper Project Manager and Research Associate, Green Seal.

Jim Kolinski, Vice President, Consolidated Papers.

Tina Moylan, Corporate Product Manager, P. H. Glatfelter Company.

Cliff Tebeau, Laboratory Manager, Corporate Environmental Affairs, R. R. Donnelley & SonsPrinting Company.

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LIST OF EXPERT REVIEWERS

White Paper No. 8 was sent to the individuals or company representatives listed below. Thislisting is not meant to imply an endorsement of the White Paper by any reviewer.

This White Paper is the product of and sole responsibility of the Paper Task Force.Acknowledgement of the parties listed below does not imply their endorsement of this paper.

American Forest & Paper Association*Blandin Paper CompanyBowater Communication Papers Inc. *Champion International*Consolidated PapersCraftsman Printing CompanyGeorgia-Pacific Corporation* P. H. Glatfelter CompanyGrass Roots PressGreen SealJohn A. Heitmann, Jr., Ph.D., North Carolina State University*International Paper*Lyons Falls Pulp & Paper Company*Quebecor Printing (USA) Corporation *Rodale Press*R. R. Donnelley & SonsUnion Camp Corporation*Westvaco*

* Returned written comments to the Paper Task Force on Issue Paper No. 8 and/or White Paper No. 8

Paper Performance

Functionality Requirements for Uncoated Business Papers and Effects of IncorporatingPostconsumer Recycled Content (White Paper 1)

Functionality Requirements for Coated and Uncoated Publication Papers and Effects ofIncorporating Postconsumer Recycled Content (White Paper 8)

Functionality Issues for Corrugated Packaging Associated with Recycled Content, SourceReduction and Recyclability (White Paper 6A)

Functionality Issues for Folding Cartons Associated with Recycled Content, Source Reductionand Recyclability (White Paper 6B)

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Recycling and Used Paper Management

Economics of Recycling as an Alternative to Traditional Means of Solid Waste Management(White Paper 2)

Lifecycle Environmental Comparison - Virgin Paper and Recycled Paper-Based Systems (WhitePaper 3)

Economics of Manufacturing Virgin and Recycled-Content Paper (White Paper 9)

Forest Management

Environmental Issues Associated with Forest Management(White Paper 4)

Economic Considerations in Forest Management (White Paper 11)

Pulp and Paper Manufacturing

Environmental Comparison of Bleached Kraft Pulp Manufacturing Technologies (White Paper5)

Economics of Kraft Pulping and Bleaching (White Paper 7)

Environmental Comparison - Manufacturing Technologies for Virgin and Recycled-ContentPrinting and Writing Paper (White Paper 10A)

Environmental Comparison - Manufacturing Technologies for Virgin and Recycled CorrugatedBoxes (White Paper 10B)

Environmental Comparison - Manufacturing Technologies for Virgin and Recycled CoatedPaperboard for Folding Cartons (White Paper 10C)

Comparison of Kraft, Sulfite and BCTMP Pulp and Paper Manufacturing Technologies (WhitePaper 12)

Nonwood Plant Fibers as Alternative Fiber Sources for Papermaking (White Paper 13)

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APPENDIX B

PRINTING PROCESSES

The two methods most commonly used in printing publication papers are rotogravure andlithographic offset. The Task Force’s research has focused on offset printing because it is thedominant method of printing magazines, books and commercial printing products in the UnitedStates. A recent Magazine Publishers of America’s survey showed that in 1994, 75.9% of themagazines published in the U.S. will be produced via offset printing.119 Rotogravure printing isused in high volume runs for packaging, cartons, catalogs and newspaper inserts. The twoprinting processes use different type of inks and ink transfer system.120 Strength is particularlyimportant in rotogravure because web breaks cause more costly production downtime and wastebecause of the large width of gravure presses (up to 120 inches).121 One manufacturer reportsthat some loss in printability (less sharpness and less crisp dots), that has not been experiencedwith web-offset, has occurred with the use of recycled-content papers on rotogravure.122

THE OFFSET PRINTING PROCESS

Demands of Offset Printing

Lithography offset printing is the most widely used printing process. In offset, the imageis formed on a metal plate and transferred to a rubber blanket or cylinder, then transferred topaper. Sheet-fed presses use pre-cut paper, and are slower than other alternatives because paperis conveyed one sheet at a time. Web-fed presses print images on a continuous roll and can printat high speeds. Web printers are classified as heat-set or nonheat-set. Heat-set is primarily forprinting on paper that is not highly absorbent, thereby requiring heat to evaporate the solventsand dry the ink. This is commonly used for publication grades, especially coated papers, for end-uses where heavy ink coverage is required. Nonheat-set printers are designed for absorbentpapers such as newspapers or books because heat is not required for drying.123

Printing presses perform multiple functions: securing and mounting the image carrier,positioning the paper during printing, conveying the paper through the printing units, storing andapplying ink, setting printing pressures for transfer of the inked image to the paper, and feedingand delivering the printed paper.124 Presses are either sheet- or web-fed, with web-offset beingthe fastest growing printing method and accounting for the largest share of overall printingsales.125

The offset printing process demands that paper withstand the tensions of rollers, pressureof the blanket, moisture added by the application of fountain solution and ink, and heat appliedduring the drying phase. Put more graphically, paper is stretched and contracted, hit with waterand ink, driven from room temperature to 300° F in less than three-quarters of a second, and thendropped to under 100° F in less than a second.126 Many web presses include in-line finishingequipment that perform gluing, perforating, die-cutting, imprinting, stapling, stitching andcutting.

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Speed is a major advantage of web-offset; current state of the art presses run at speedsbetween 1500 and- 2500 feet per minute, with new presses targeted at 3000 feet per minute.127

Another advantage to offset is that less wear and abrasion occur to equipment than with otherprocesses (such as xerography) because paper does not contact the plates.

Common Problems in Offset Printing

The three major problems that the printer and purchaser seek to avoid throughout theprinting stages are press stoppage, inaccuracy and/or stoppage during in-line finishing processes,and loss of print quality in the end-product.128 Following is a description of how the propertiesof an uncoated or coated publication paper can contribute to these problems.

1. Press stoppage. The water used in offset printing can reduce the sheet’s strength andultimately cause the paper to tear, resulting in production downtime. Variations in thestiffness, basis weight or caliper of the paper can also hinder the transfer of the sheetthrough the machine.129

Tearing is a particular concern for lightweight papers, because strength properties aremore difficult to achieve than with heavier basis weights.130 Coatings usually have somewater-resistant features built in which provide some protection for lightweight coatedpapers.131 Coatings can reduce tear resistance as they increase in proportion to the fiberweight.132

2. Post-processing issues. At high speeds, slight variation in a sheet’s stiffness, basisweight or caliper can create resistance as the paper moves through equipment. This canreduce the accuracy of folding, perforating or cutting operations.133

3. Print quality. Image deletion and hickiesu can occur if linting and picking contaminatethe blanket. Variation in caliper can also hinder the transfer of the image from theblanket to the sheet.134 (Tacky inks, rather than the paper itself, may also contribute topicking and/or delamination.) Delamination occurs if the tack of the ink causes theprinted paper to stick to the blankets and pull apart (delaminate) as the paper tensionsnaps the paper off the blanket. This can occur in coated or uncoated paper.

For uncoated papers, picking and dusting are a particular concern. The heavy inks oftenused in offset printing make paper susceptible to picking, and there is no protective coating layerto smooth out the sheet’s surface or to help properly set the ink.135

Although paper endures stress, the offset printing process does offer advantages toenhance the paper’s performance:

(1) Controls exist throughout the paper’s path to hold or grip the paper throughout thepress

u Hickies appear as white spots on the printed sheet.

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(2) The “rubber blanket conforms to irregular printing surfaces, compensating forvariability in thickness and texture so a wide range of papers can be used andrequiring less pressure and makeready”136

(3) Halftones can be printed with text and solids on both rough and smooth surfacepapers137

(4) Smudging and set-off are reduced because less ink is required for equal coverageand drying is faster

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APPENDIX C

CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLICATION PAPERS

For all publication grades, the following properties are critical to print quality or torunability in paper machines, offset printing equipment, and converting operations.

1. Strength. This is considered the most basic requirement because paper needsstrength for runability and printability. Paper’s strength is determined byinterfiber bonding during sheet formation, fiber strength, the type of fibers in thesheet, and the degree of refining. Bonding strength between fibers is especiallyimportant for surface characteristics. Good fiber surface bonding and internalbonding can prevent such problems as: blistering, linting, picking and fiberpuffing.v Internal and surface strength are important to publication papers (e.g.,tensile, tear and mullen or burst strength).

2. Flatness. A flat sheet is free of buckles, puckers, wave and curl. This property isimportant in both the printing and converting processes.138

3. Porosity. This is the property of paper that determines permeation of air through thesheet. It may affect ink saturation which can blur print quality, especially in areas ofheavy ink coverage. Porosity is especially important to coated grades because it affectsthe amount of coating absorbed into the sheet, ink holdout, and coverage of fiber bycoating.139

4. Cleanliness. This is the absence of visible dirt specks, stickies and othercontaminants.w In the papermaking process, these contaminants can damage felts,screens, and other equipment, and can also cause holes and blade scratches in the coatingprocess. During printing, contaminants can collect on the blankets and cause spots in theprint surface or scratches on the plates. Contaminants can create weak spots in the sheetwhich make it susceptible to tearing later in the process.140

v Blistering is caused by moisture between the sheet and coating that vaporizes into steam and causes holes orswellings in the coating. Lint content are paper fragments or dust on the sheet. Excess lint can contaminateprinters. Picking refers to the tendency of fibers or other particles on the paper’s surface (e.g., coating) to be pulledaway from the surface of the sheet by a tacky material (e.g., tacky ink). Fiber puffing is associated withgroundwood-based coated paper and appears as a rough surface especially in areas of heavy ink coverage. It isindividual or fiber bundle swelling during the drying process of heat-set inks caused by trapped moisture within thefiber. (Kline, 1990; S.D. Warren, 1987; International Paper, 1994).

w Dirt refers to loose material from all manufacturing sources (e.g., slitter, trimmer dust, lint, starch, loose coatingpigments, and loosely bonded fibers on surface are especially troublesome in offset.) A stickie is defined asanything having tackiness .

30

Several manufacturers have stated to the Task Force that the impact of contaminants isespecially high in the manufacture of coated paper because of streaks and scratches thatmay occur when the coating is applied.141

5. Opacity. Opacity is the property of paper which minimizes the show-through ofprinting from the back side or the next sheet. Basis weight, brightness, formation,surface finish, apparent density or void volume, and the inclusion of various pigments asfillers affect opacity.142

6. Basis Weight/Caliper. Basis weight is the weight of a ream (500 sheets) orother standardized measure of paper. Basis weight will affect the end-product’ssurface characteristics. For example, a sheet with a heavier basis weight canaccept more coating to provide a smoother finish and/or increase brightness.Caliper is a measure of the thickness of a sheet of paper. A uniform caliper isimportant for runability in offset printing and post-processing operations such asfolding, die-cutting and binding. Not only are basis weight and caliper importantto runability in printing presses, they can also affect other properties such asstrength, opacity and stiffness.

7. Dimensional stability. This is the property of paper that allows it to resist curl andcockle because the paper will be less susceptible to changes in heat and/or humidity.This characteristic is especially important in finishing operations. Dimensional stabilityis important to ensure a uniform web, which provides for uniform removal of waterthroughout the web, and produces paper that is less susceptible to curling from anincrease or decrease in the sheet’s moisture content. Dimensional stability is determinedby paper formation, how well the fibers are dispersed within the sheet, and how thefibers are prepared (refined) prior to the sheet formation.143

The following characteristics are particularly important to the functional performance ofuncoated, offset publication grades.

8. Stiffness. Stiffness is the ability of paper to maintain structure and resist bendingstresses.144 Stiffness affects how well the paper performs in transport through offsetpresses and, in particular, during converting and handling operations. Stiffness isdetermined by the caliper of the paper (e.g., a slight increase in caliper provides asignificant increase in stiffness), the type and quantity of fiber used, and the degree offiber bonding.

9. Foldability. Foldability is a function of sheet formation, fiber species, fiber bonding,and sheet elongation.145 This is a critical property for converting operations.

10. Bulk. Bulk is the degree of thickness of paper, referring to the amount of fiberneeded to achieve density. A bulkier sheet appears thick in relation to its weight andneeds less fiber to obtain a certain thickness.

31

11. Mullen or burst strength. This refers to the ability of a sheet of paper to withstandpuncture, and is important in folding, perforating, and other in-line finishing operations.

12. Roll quality. For good runability, rolls need to have uniform density across thewidth of the roll.146

13. Permanence and reversion. Permanence refers to the life expectancy of paper andits resistance to becoming brittle (deterioration). Reversion refers to the discoloration(yellowing) of paper which is caused by the presence of lignin or mechanical pulp.

14. Shade/color. Shade is the amount of light reflected across the entire visiblespectrum. It especially affects the color reproduction of lighter tints.x Colors vary withadvertising trends from cool to warm shades, and cover the full color spectrum.

The following characteristics are critical to the performance of coated publication papers.

15. Brightness. Brightness is the amount of light a paper reflects in the blue region ofthe UV spectrum at a wavelength of 457 nm.147 It determines color intensity perceivedby the human eye and affects the appearance of the printed subject (i.e., the degree of“snap” or “sparkle”). Brightness also affects the degree of contrast and is important inmulti-color printing.y

Brightness is often used as tool for product differentiation by manufacturers. Mostmanufacturers agree that this practice and customer expectations have driven brightnesslevels higher.148

16. Gloss. Gloss provides a shiny and lustrous appearance. The manufacturer controlsgloss level by the amount and type of coating, moisture content, and the degree ofcalendering through heat and pressure.149

17. Smooth surface. Smoothness is measured by the degree of resistance of the paper toair moving across its surface.z It refers not to the silky finish of a sheet, but morespecifically to the levelness of the sheet, including internal levelness.150 Smoothnessaffects the appearance of color, halftones, line art, and typeaa on the sheet. If the surfacedoes not have these properties, halftone dots spread, reducing contrast and halftone

x According to members of the printing industry, type is more easily read against a soft (yellowish) white, whileprocess colors reproduce most accurately on neutral white paper. Current preference is for a blue/white paper.

y Contrast makes type stand out from paper and the printed image.

z Smoothness is generally measured using an air leak type test which measures the degree of resistance paperprovides to air moving across and between the sealed surface of paper. Thus, the roughness of the paper’s surfacecan provide pathways for the air to leak out. (Written comments by representatives from Union Camp, 22 March1995).

aa These properties are sometimes referred to as “print resolution.”

32

detail. Smoothness affects ink holdoutbb; for example, a smoother sheet will displaymore ink holdout than a one with a rough surface.151 The rougher the surface the moreinfluence it will have on dot gain (spread), light scattering, color strength and coatinguniformity.152

18. Pick Resistance. Picking is the lifting of the paper (or coating) surface duringprinting. It occurs when the tack (pulling force) of the ink is greater than surface strengthof the paper.

19. Tensile strength. This is paper’s ability to withstand the stresses that cause breaksin the web, and to withstand folding without cracking.

20. Tear strength. Tear strength is a function of the length and coarseness of the fibers,the degree of bonding between fibers, and the degree of fibrillation (mechanical refining)of the fiber.153 Tear strength allows the paper to resist tearing when subjected to therigorous product demands of manufacturing, printing, binding and converting operations.

21. Basis weight. Basis weight is an important attribute for coated freesheet becausethere is a direct relationship between basis weight and the amount of coating that can beapplied. A paper with a heavier basis weight can accept more coating, resulting in asmoother surface. Additional coating can enhance brightness due to brightening agentsadded to the coating.154

bb Ink holdout is the property of coated paper that allows ink to set on a high-gloss surface with. If holdout is toohigh, it can cause set-off (transfer to the back of the previous sheet) in the paper pile.

33

APPENDIX D

ATTRIBUTES AFFECTED BY USE OFDEINKED FIBER AND PROCESS ADJUSTMENTS

ATTRIBUTE IMPACT PROCESS ADJUSTMENTStrength: In comparison to virgin kraft, deinked

fibers have reduced bonding abilityduring sheet formation because they tendto be stiffer and have less area availablefor bonding. Reduced bonding abilitymay lead to a loss in tear strength.155

However, in freesheet, deinked pulpcontaining postconsumer office papermay exhibit improved strength propertiesdue to the inclusion of virgin kraftsoftwood, and thus longer, fibers.156

Because groundwood fibers havetypically been refined more than thoseused in virgin kraft or deinked officerecovered paper pulp, groundwood fibersmay have increased bonding ability.Therefore, groundwood-containing pulpsmay have improved strength properties.

Addition of softwood fiber and furtherrefining during the papermakingprocess.157 The strength properties of avirgin or deinked pulp will be affected bythe percentage of softwood or hardwoodfiber that the manufacturer uses in themix. Note: The amount of softwood thatcan be added may be limited because itsinclusion affects other properties such assmoothness and formation.158

Stiffness: Deinked fibers may produce a recycled-content sheet that is less stiff than a virginsheet due to the deinked fibers’ reducedbonding ability.159

Use of less filler (more fiber) in the pulpand/or the addition of more softwoodfiber to increase bonding.160 Note: Theaddition of fillers also affects otherproperties of the sheet.

34

ATTRIBUTE IMPACT PROCESS ADJUSTMENTDimensionalstability:

In comparison to groundwood containinggrades, deinked pulps made from oldnewspapers and magazines may improvedimensional stability. Manufacturersdisagree as to how and why this occurs.It may be due to the hydration andrefining that deinked fiber has undergone,allowing the fiber to bond in moreplaces.161 It may have to do with thedecreased reactivity of the fiber or thereduced bonding character of deinkedfiber may actually enhance the stability ofthe sheet.162

Some manufacturers state that deinkedfibers in a sheet may not react uniformlywhen exposed to moisture, and mayadversely affect dimensional stability.163

Built-in curl and precise fiber orientation,differential drying, and converting curlare processes the papermaker can use todevelop dimensional stability.164

Opacity: Deinked fibers made from oldnewspapers and magazines are moreopaque than virgin hardwood andsoftwood fibers. In general, the presenceof material in a web that results inscattering more light will make the sheetmore opaque (e.g., dirt may sometimesperform this function).165

Deinked fibers’ increased opacity doesnot pose challenges for which thepapermaker must make processadjustment.166 In fact, less filler may berequired.

Brightness: Deinked pulps are generally not as brightas virgin hardwood and softwood pulps atmaximum brightness; the type of deinkedpulp used determines the degree ofbrightness loss. For example, it is easierto achieve comparable brightness withdeinked office recovered paper than withdeinked magazines and newspaper.Substituting deinked office recoveredpaper for groundwood pulp will alsoincrease brightness.

The papermaker may brighten the fiberby adding optical brighteners and fillersand/or virgin fiber. Note: The use ofthese fillers may affect other properties.

35

ATTRIBUTE IMPACT PROCESS ADJUSTMENTSmoothness: Paper made with deinked fiber can

undergo more calendering than virginpaper, because the bulkier deinked fiberstands up to the process.

In addition, deinked fiber’s shorter lengthenables it to fill in gaps on the sheetsurface, contributing to smoothness.167

May allow the papermaker to use morecalendering if desired; this property doesnot pose challenges for which thepapermaker must make processadjustment.168 It should be noted thatextensive calendering can havedetrimental effects on other propertiessuch as strength.169

Linting: Two characteristics of deinked fiber canlead to increased linting.

1. The reduced bonding ability of thedeinked fiber can cause more fibers tobecome loose.

2. The stiffness of deinked fibers cancause them to stick up on the surface ofthe sheet, and be shed more easily.170

Better surface sizing and the addition ofsoftwood fiber.171 Note: The increaseduse of softwood can affect otherproperties.

Cleanliness: The presence of dirt and stickies indeinked fiber can result in specks on thesheet or contaminants in paper machines,copiers and offset equipment.172

Additional screening and cleaning andbetter sourcing of recovered paper.

Variability ofdeinked pulp:

Because of the inherent variability inrecovered paper sources used for deinkedfiber, papermakers must makeadjustments to deal with a range ofdifferences in the fiber source. The resultcan be a product that is more variable inquality from machine run to machine runthan its virgin counterpart.173

Better sourcing of recovered paper; bettersorting and inspection of supplies; andimproved handling techniques.174

Bulk: Deinked fibers made from oldnewspapers and magazines are generallybulkier than virgin hardwood kraft fiber.Therefore, the papermaker may achievemore opacity with less fillers, and thepublisher gains more ppi with lowercaliper.175

If more bulk is desired, the papermakercan reach it with minimal adjustmentswhen using deinked pulp made from oldnewspapers and magazines. If basisweight must be lowered, depending onthe end use, the papermaker may have toadd virgin fiber to maintain strength.This may reduce bulk and lessen theadvantage of the bulkier recycled fiber.176

36

APPENDIX E

FUTURE TRENDS IN PRINTING EQUIPMENTAND

IMPACT ON PAPER PERFORMANCE

1. Waterless printing techniques use no water in the process, and there is no emulsification. Thiscould reduce problems of tearing or feeding when using any type of paper, thus improvingproductivity. Waterless printing also produces sharper color than the traditional offset process.However, there is still uncertainty as to the stress level on paper because press speed will alsoincrease, and the tack reduction effect of the water in the ink-water system will be gone.177

Some printers indicate other advantages to waterless lithography: Less makeready time isrequired and less paper waste is generated and colors are brighter because 300-350 line screencan provide sharper definition even on uncoated stocks.178

2. As stochastic screeningcc advances, it promises astounding color and “warp-speed”runs. In time, this computerized process should make life easier for the printer, with less timespent on press. Some printers suggest that the sophistication of stochastic screening process willproduce a more vibrant print quality on lower-quality paper. Where there have been limitationsin print quality to higher recycled-content papers, stochastic screening may provide an improvedend-product. Stochastic screening may also open doors for more experimentation with recycled-content paper by customers who have thought it to be inferior or have previously experiencedproblems. Another view is that stochastic screening will increase the use of coated papersbecause some consider coated papers to be the best for printing dots of any size and with any sortof ink.

3. The demand for more versatility in multi-color printing may put more stress on paperand increase the need for uniformity in shade of the product.

4. Some printers note that customers’ demand for high-quality, multi-color products iscoupled with their interest and acceptance in using paper with specks to indicate that the productcontains recycled content.

cc This new technology completely alters conventional arrangements of dots. Rather than equally spaced dotsarranged in a rigid pattern, stochastic screening uses very small dots that are randomly arranged by computer. Theadvantages of the technology include: dot size is no longer limited by the line ruling which frees halftones from theconstraints of line ruling, and screen angles and rosettes (clusters of colored dots that affect skin tones and neutralareas) are eliminated. The result is a more simplified printing job for more than four colors, a broader spectrum ofcolor, and greater dimensional effects.

There are problems to work out as well: The small dots require extremely high-resolution film and plates;and proof preparation systems are not yet advanced enough to meet the needs of stochastic screening, and so requiretime-consuming and complicated work by the printer.

The process is also known as FM screening, because the frequency of the dots is spatially modulated.(Consolidated Papers, White Space, 1 (7), 1994).

37

5. Another emerging technology in color printing is “digital offset.” This technologyworks like an offset press but can handle shorter runs. The production speed is similar to thecurrent crop of color copiers, and the images seem to be close in quality to those of offsetpresses. Digital offset originates from a company in Israel, and it is unclear how closely or fastthe large copier companies such as Xerox and Canon can compete using dry toners to createlook-alike offset documents.179 The key to digital offset is a specially formulated ink thatbecomes a plastic film when it contacts the heated blanket. The film then transfers cleanly topaper, leaving the blanket ready for a fresh impression of ink.

6. Many agree that the emerging technologies related to electronic imaging will almostcertainly make printing less of an art and more of a science.

38

APPENDIX F

U. S. END USES FOR COATED FREESHEET 1992

(33.0%)

(20.0%)

(13.0%)

(10.0%) (10.0%)

(8.0%)

(3.0%)

(2.0%)

(1.0%)

Commercial Printing 33.0%

Catalog 20.0%

Magazine 13.0%

Direct Mail 10.0%

Labels 10.0%

Book Publishing 8.0%

Annual Reports 3.0%

Inserts/other 2.0%

Inserts/coupons 1.0%

Source: Dils, M. (1994). 1992 Study by Strategic Futures, North American Pulp & PaperFactbook

39

APPENDIX G

U. S. END USES FOR COATED GROUNDWOOD 1992

(53.5%)

(25.3%) (9.1%)

(4.0%)

(3.0%)

(3.0%)

(2.0%)

Magazines 53.5%

Catalogs 25.3%

Inserts/coupons 9.1%

Commercial Printing 4.0%

Book Publishing 3.0%

Inserts/other 3.0%

Direct Mail 2.0%

Source: Dils, M. (1994). 1992 Study by Strategic Futures, North American Pulp & PaperFactbook

40

BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

American Forest & Paper Association. Paper Paperboard Pulp Capacity, 34th Annual Survey,December 1993.

Beazley, K. Surface Coating, A Literature Review, Pira International, Leatherhead, U.K., 1992.

Brown, A. “Selecting the Right Paper for Your Magazine,” Folio, 22(19), pp. 195-1987.

Bruno, M. Pocket Pal, 15th edition, International Paper, 1992.

Business Week. “First Gutenberg, Now Benny Landa?,” p 143-144, July 11, 1994.

Consolidated Papers. White Space, 1 (7), 1994.

D’Amico, E.B. “How Soon Will You Print on Recycled?,” Folio, 22 (9) May 15, 1993.

Dils, M. 1990 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, Miller Freeman 1990, pp. 160-190.

Dils, M. 1994 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, Miller Freeman., 1993, pp. 165-200.

Dinwiddie, J.M. “The Relationship Between Fiber Morphology and Paper Properties: A Review ofLiterature,” TAPPI, 48:8, 1965, pp. 440-447.

Doshi, M. and Klungness, J. “Technological Advances in Deinking of Nonimpact Printing/WritingPapers,” 1994, pp. 97-101,.

Durrant, W.R., Meacock, C.W. and Whitworth, R.E. Machine Printing, Hastings House Publishers,Chapter 3, 1973.

Erkenswick, J. “How to Get an A in Paper Identification,” Recycling Today, 1993, 31:10.

Folio: Special Sourcebook Issue. “1993 MPA Paper Survey,” 1993, 22:19.

Harrison, A. “Silver Leaf Modernizes Michigan Mill to Market Coated Recycled Specialties,” Pulp& Paper, August 1993, 67:8.

Howard, R.C. “The Effects of Recycling on Paper Quality,” Journal of Pulp & Paper Science , 16:5,September 1990.

Jaakko Pöyry Consulting. The Jaakko Pöyry Recycled Gradefinder, 4:1, 30 June 1994.

41

Kline, J.E. Paper and Paperboard, San Francisco: Miller Freeman, 1990.

McBride, D. “Deinking Systems for Office Waste Offer “Pay Now/Pay Later” Choices,” Pulp &Paper, April 1994.

Mentyka, S. “Decisions for Sound Design,” Sound Design, a publication of Partners in Design andAmerican Institute of Graphic Arts/Seattle, 1992.

O’ Brien, M. “Repap Introduces Consistent, Dependable, Recycled Freesheet & GroundwoodCoated Papers,” PaperAge, 109:5, May 1993.

Polk, R. and Polk, E. The Practice of Printing, Chas. Bennett Publishing, 1971.

Resource Information Systems, Inc., RISI Pulp & Paper Review, RISI, Bedford, MA, April, 1995,pp. 77-81.

Schultz, A.M. “Are Printers Accepting Recycled Paper?” 6th Publishing & Printing PapersConference, 20 September 1993.

S. D. Warren Company. Coated Papers for Web-offset Printing, Websource Bulletin No. 5, 1987.

Smook, G.A. Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologies, 2nd Edition, Angus Wilde Publications,Vancouver, 1992.

Thompson, C.G. Recycled Papers: The Essential Guide, MIT Press, 1992.

Walter, A. ed. The Coating Process, TAPPI Press, 1993.

42

Research was collected from conference calls, written comments, and/or technical meetingswith the following individuals and/or company representatives.

American Forest & Paper Association. Written comments, 22 March 1995.

Blandin Paper Company, Ralph O’Connor, Vice President, Sales; Tim Marks, Technical Service.Conference call, 10 January 1995.

Bowater Communication Papers, Inc., Jim Feeney. Telephone call, , 14 February 1995. Writtencomments, 16 March 1995.

Champion International, Fred Renk, Director, Marketing, Coated Papers; Diane Wilson, Printing &Writing Group, Jack Schultz, Technical Director, Research and Development. Conference call, 19August 1994. Fred Renk. Written comments, ., 1 November 1994 and 17 March 1995.

Coe Design Industries, Stanley S. Coe, President. Conference call, 28 December 1994.

Consolidated Papers, Jim Kolinski, Vice President. Panel,. 13 October 1994.

Craftsman Printing Company, Claire Lawrence, Vice President; Bob Bowers, Pressroom Manager;Dale Jordan, Purchasing Manager. Meeting, 25 May 1994.

Cross Pointe Paper Corporation, Jobe Morrison, President, Miami Mill. Conference call, 1 July1994.

Georgia-Pacific Corporation, Rick Larrick, Production Manager; Jim Miller, Corporate MarketingDirector; Dave Modi, Senior Director, Government Affairs. Conference call, 6 January 1995.Written comments, 28 March 1995.

P. H. Glatfelter Company, Tina Moylan, Corporate Product Manager. Panel, 13 October 1994. TinaMoylan. Telephone call, 5 January 1995.

Green Seal, Kathleen Gray, Paper Project Manager and Research Associate. Panel, 13 October1994. Arthur Weisman, Vice President, Standards and Planning; Kathleen Gray, Conference call, 15November 1994.

Grass Roots Press, Gary Cappy, President; Miriam Melendez, Vice President. Meeting, 22 August1994.

Heitmann, John A., PhD. North Carolina State University, Department of Wood and Paper Science.Meeting, 30 August 1994. Written comments, 1 March 1995.

43

International Paper, Tom Moore, Manager, Customer Service; Charlie Nash, Business Manager,Coated Papers; Steve Van Booris, Recycling for Printing and Writing Sector; Bob Barakat,Manager, Recycling Programs. Conference call, 1 September 1994. Jim Kohler, Senior ResearchScientist; Athanasia Perez, District Sales Manager. Meeting, 5 May 1994. Tom Moore. Writtencomments, 24 October 1994.

Lyons Falls Pulp & Paper Inc., Frederick Szmit, President; Larry Cannon, Vice President, Sales.Conference call, 23 August 1994. Frederick Smizt. Written comments, 1 November 1994.

Quebecor Printing (USA) Corporation. Written comments by representatives of Quebecor, 15February 1995 and 14 March 1995.

The Prudential Insurance Company of America, Eugene Locascio, Manager, Creative ServicesDivision; Bob Zanisnik, Senior Purchasing Agent. Meeting, 1 September 1994.

R. R. Donnelley & Sons Printing Company, Cliff Tebeau, Laboratory Manager, CorporateEnvironmental Affairs. Panel, 13 October 1994. Cliff Tebeau. Telephone call, 4 January 1995.

Rodale Press, Thomas Wolf, Vice President and General Manager; Al Green, Production Editor forMagazines. Conference call, 13 February 1995. Written comments, 17 March 1995.

Superior Recycled Fiber Corporation, Rod Johnson, Director, Sales and Technical Service; SteveSemenchuk, Vice President, Sales and Technical Service. Conference call, 5 July 1994.

Time Inc., David Refkin, Director, Environmental Affairs, Director, Magazine Purchasing.Conference call, 11 November 1994.

Union Camp Corporation, Norman Shroyer, Technical Director (emeritus); Edgar Parker, Managerof Customer Technical Service. Conference call, 1 August 1994. Dale Raymond, Director Qualityand Technology. Written comments, . 21 November 1994 and 22 March 1995.

Westvaco Corporation, George Martin, Manager, Technical and Marketing Services; Bill Small,Mill Manager; Lee Andrews, Manager, Fine Papers Division; Jack Raymond, BusinessManagement; Ronnie Hise, Research Department; Steve Tabor, Technical Regulatory Manager.Meeting, 24 August 1994. George Martin. Written comments, 3 November 1994 and 9 March1995.

Weyerhaeuser Paper Company, Gary Wong, Director, Technical Paper Division; Alan Winslow,Manager, Printing and Technical Services. Conference call, 3 June 1994.

Xerox Corporation, George Treier, Principal Engineer and Manager Paper Design and QualityGroup; Dr. Francesco Zirilli, Manager Thruput Products Technology; Gary Chapin, TechnicalSpecialist; Roy Hankee, Paper Product Manager; Robert Belmonte, Manager, EnvironmentalLeadership; Gregory Harold, Corporate Executive Account Manager. Presentation meeting, 7 June1994.

44

ENDNOTES

1. Folio: Special Sourcebook Issue. "1993 MPA Paper Survey,” 22:19, 1993.

2. Resource Information Systems, Inc., RISI Pulp & Paper Review, RISI, Bedford, MA, April1995, pp. 77-81.

3. Robert Wood, Canadian Pulp & Paper Association. Interview, 26 July 1995.

4. Dils, M. 1990 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, Miller Freeman Publications, p.171, 1990. AF&PA . Written comments, 22 March 1995.

5. Interviews with representatives ofWestvaco, 24 August 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13October 1994; Champion, 19 August 1994; Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995.

6. Written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October 1994.

7. Interviews with and written comments by representatives of Westvaco, 3 November 1994;Champion, 1 November 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994; Georgia-Pacific, 6January 1995.

8. Interviews with representatives of Westvaco, 24 August 1994; International Paper, 1September 1994.

9. Interview with representatives of International Paper, 1 September 1994.

10. Interviews with and written comments by representatives of Consolidated Papers, 13October 1994. O'Brien, M. PaperAge, 109 (5) 1993; Harrison, A. "Silver Leaf ModernizesMichigan Mill to Market Coated Recycled Specialties,” Pulp & Paper, 67 (8) August 1993.

11. Interviews with representatives of Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994; Green Seal, 13October 1994.

12. Jaakko Pöyry Consulting, Jaako Pöyry Recycled GradeFinder, 4 (1), 30 June 1994.

13. Thompson, C.G. Recycled Papers: The Essential Guide, MIT Press: Cambridge, MA., 1992.Interviews with John A. Heitmann,Jr., Ph.D., 30 August 1994; and representatives ofInternational Paper, 1 September 1994; Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13October 1994; Lyons Falls, 23 August 1994.

14. Thompson, C.G. Recycled Papers: The Essential Guide, MIT Press: Cambridge, MA., 1992.Interviews with John A. Heitmann, Jr., Ph.D., 30 August 1994; and representatives ofInternational Paper, 1 September 1994; Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13October 1994; Lyons Falls, 23 August 1994.

15. Howard, R.C. "The Effects of Recycling on Paper Quality,” Journal of Pulp and PaperScience, 16 (5) September 1990.

45

16. Interview with representative of Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994.

17. Written comments by representatives of Champion, 1 November 1994.

18. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13October 1994.

19. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995; AF&PA, 22 March1995; Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994; Champion, 19 August1994; International Paper, 24 October 1994.

20. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995.

21. Interviews with representatives of Superior Recycled Fiber Corporation, 5 July 1994; UnionCamp, 1 August 1994.

22. McBride, Don. "New Deinking Systems for Office Wastepaper Offer `Pay Now/Pay Later`Choices". Doshi and Klungess. "Technological Advances in Deinking of NonimpactPrinting/Writing Papers,” Sorted Office Paper: Markets, Technologies, and Trends, SanFrancisco: Miller Freeman, 1994.

23. Smook, G.A. Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologies, 2nd Edition, Angus WildePublications, Vancouver, 1992. Interviews with representatives of Superior Recycled FiberCorporation., 5 July 1994; Cross Pointe, 1 July 1994; Champion, 27 May 1994; InternationalPaper, 29 April 1994; Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994.

24. Interviews with representatives of International Paper, 20 April 1994; Weyerhaeuser 3 June1994; Champion, 27 May 1994.

25. Interviews with representatives of Superior Recycled Fiber Corporation., 5 July 1994; CrossPointe, 1 July 1994.

26. Erkenswick, J., "How to Get an A in Paper Identification?,” Recycling Today, 31 (10), pp 3-8.

27. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 27 May 1994; Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994;Cross Pointe, 27 July 1994.

28. Harrison, A. "Silver Leaf Modernizes Michigan Mill to Market Coated RecycledSpecialties," Pulp & Paper, August 67 (8), 1993. Interviews with representatives ofInternational Paper, 5 May 1994.

29. Howard, R.C. "The Effects of Recycling on Paper Quality,” Journal of Pulp & Paper Science16 (5) September 1990. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 27 May 1994;Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994.

46

30. McBride, Don. "New Deinking Systems for Office Recovered paper Offer `Pay Now/Pay

Later` Choices". Doshi and Klungess. "Technological Advances in Deinking of NonimpactPrinting/Writing Papers,” Sorted Office Paper: Markets, Technologies, and Trends, SanFrancisco: Miller Freeman, 1994. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June1994.

31. Smook, G.A. Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologies, 2nd Edition, Angus WildePublications, Vancouver, p. 225, 1992. Interviews with representatives of Westvaco, 24August 1994. Written comments by representatives of AF&PA, 22 March 1995.

32. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995; AF&PA, 22 March1995.

33. Interviews with representatives of Westvaco, 24 August 1994.

34. Dils, M. 1994 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, San Francisco: Miller Freeman,1994.

35. Dils, M. 1990 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, San Francisco: Miller FreemanPublications, 1990.

36. Bruno, M. Pocket Pal, 15th edition, a publication by International Paper, 1992.

37. Bruno, M. Pocket Pal, 15th edition, 1992.

38. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994; International Paper, 1September 1994; Cross Pointe, 27 July 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994;Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; John A. Heitmann, Jr., Ph.D., 30 August 1994.

39. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995.

40. Dils, M. 1990 Pulp & Paper North American Factbook, p 184, 1990.

41. Dils, M. 1994 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, San Francisco: Miller FreemanPublishing, 1994.

42. Dils, M. 1994 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, San Francisco: Miller FreemanPublishing, 1994.

43. For example, NASTA specifies heavier basis weights (e.g., 60 lb) for elementary schoolbooks in order to withstand the tough treatment by children.

44. Bruno, p 191, 1992.

45. Mentyka, S. "Decisions for Sound Design,” Sound Design, a project of AIGA/Seattle, 1992.

47

46. Dils, M. 1990 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, San Francisco: Miller Freeman

Publications, 1990.

47. Interviews with representatives of Lyons Falls, 23 August 1994.

48. Bruno, 1992.

49. Interviews with representative of P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994.

50. Written comments by representatives of AF&PA, 22 March 1995. Interview withrepresentative of P. H. Glatfelter, 5 January 1995.

51. Interview with representative of P. H. Glatfelter, 5 January 1995.

52. Interview with representatives of P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994; Georgia-Pacific, 6January 1995.

53. Interview with representative of P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994.

54. Interviews with representatives of P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994 and 5 January 1995;Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995.

55. Interviews with representatives of Superior Recycled Fiber Corporation, 27 July 1994; P. H.Glatfelter, 13 October 1994.

56. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995.

57. Jaakko Pöyry Consulting. The Jaakko Pöyry Recycled Gradefinder, 4 (1), 30 June 1994.Interviews with Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995.

58. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995.

59. Cody, H.M. "The U.S. Outlook for Coated Papers,” TAPPI Coating Conference, 2-5 May1993.

60. Cody, H.M "The U.S. Outlook for Coated Papers,” TAPPI Coating Conference, 2-5 May1993, p 121.

61. Dils, M. 1994 North American Pulp & Paper Factbook, 1994.

62. Cody, H.M. "The Outlook for Coated Papers,” TAPPI Coating Conference, 2-5 May 1993.

63. Cody, H.M. "The Outlook for Coated Papers,” TAPPI Coating Conference, 2-5 May 1993.

64. Kline, J.E. Paper and Paperboard, Miller Freeman Publications, Inc., 1990.

65. Interviews with representatives of Westvaco, 24 August 1994; International Paper, 1September 1994.

48

66. Smook, G.A. Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologies, 2nd Edition, Angus Wilde

Publications, Vancouver, 1992. Kline, 1990.

67. Smook, G.A. Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologies, 2nd Edition, Angus WildePublications, Vancouver, 1992.

68. Smook, 1992.

69. Two sources report that coater streaks and scratches have increased by as much as 50-100%when using 10% postconsumer fiber compared to virgin fiber. Written comments byrepresentatives of AF&PA, 22 March 1995; Westvaco, 22 March 1995.

70. Smook, 1992.

71. Interview with representatives of Blandin Paper, 10 January 1995; Georgia-Pacific, 6January 1995.

72. Dils, M. 1990.

73. Written comments by representatives of AF&PA, 22 March 1995.

74. Interviews with representatives of Westvaco, 24 August 1994; International Paper, 1September 1994.

75. Interviews with representatives of Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994; P. H. Glatfelter,13 October 1994; Champion, 19 August 1994; Westvaco, 24 August 1994.

76. Dils, M., 1994.

77. Dils, 1994.

78. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 19 August 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13October 1994.

79. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 19 August 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13October 1994. Cody, H.M., 1993.

80. Interviews with John A. Heitmann, Jr., Ph.D., 30 August 1994; and representatives ofInternational Paper, 1 September 1994; Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13October 1994; Lyons Falls, 23 August 1994.

81. Written comments by representatives of AF&PA, 22 March 1995.

82. Written comments by representatives of AF&PA, 22 March 1995.

83. Interview with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; Blandin Paper, 10January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994.

49

84. Interview with representatives of Blandin Paper, 10 January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13

October 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994.

85. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995.

86. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13October 1994.

87. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13October 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994.

88. Written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October 1994; Westvaco, 3November 1994; AF&PA, 22 March 1995.

89. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; Blandin Paper, 10January 1995; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994.

90. For example, a different shaped blade (e.g., bent-blade) has been more successful in handlingirregularities in the paper's surface and preventing blade streaks by dirt that does get through.(Mentyka, S., 1992. Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October, 1994;Green Seal, 13 October 1994). Bent-blade systems are typcially used on heavier basis weights.Some coater designs (e.g., flooded nip) allow the excess coating and contaminants to overflow andrecirculate through a filter system. Air-knife coaters blow excess coating off the sheet's surface,even out the coating along the contours of the sheet, and are considered to be more forgiving ofcontaminants in the sheet because they cover up the defects. Air-knife are predominantly used onspecialty products. (Harrison, 1993; Written comments, AF&PA, 22 March 1995).

91. Written comments by representatives of AF&PA, 22 March 1995.

92. O'Brien, M. "Repap Introduces Consistent, Dependable, Recycled Freesheet & GroundwoodCoated Papers:, PaperAge, 109 (5) May 1993, p. 8. Interviews with and written commentsby representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994;Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994; Blandin Paper, 10 January 1994; Westvaco, 3November 1994.

93. Interviews with and written comments by representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994; BlandinPaper, 10 January 1994; Westvaco, 3 November 1994; R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October1994; Grass Roots Press, 22 August 1994.

94. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; Blandin, 10 January1995; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994.

95. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; Blandin, 10 January1995; International Paper, 1 September 1994.

50

96. Interviews with and written comments by representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January

1995; P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994; BlandinPaper, 10 January 1994; International Paper, 1 September 1994; Westvaco, 3 November1994.

97. Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October 1994; Grass RootsPress, 22 August 1994.

98. Mentyka, S. "Decisions for Sound Design,” Sound Design, a project of AIGA/Seattle, 1992.Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October 1994; Grass RootsPress, 23 August 1994. Written comments by representatives of Quebecor, 15 February1995.

99. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995.

100. Interview with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October 1994; Grass RootsPress, 22 August 1994. Written comments by representatives of Quebecor, 15 February1995.

101. Schultz, A. "Are Printers Accepting Recycled Paper?" 6th Publishing and Printing PapersConference. 20 September 1993; Mentyka, S. "Decisions for Sound Design,” SoundDesign, a project of AIGA/Seattle, 1992. Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley& Sons 4 January 1995.

102. Mentyka, S. "Decisions for Sound Design,” Sound Design, a project of AIGA/Seattle, 1992;Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons 13 October 1994; Grass RootsPress, 22 August 1994.

103. Mentyka, S., 1992. Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October1994.

104. Mentyka, S. 1992.

105. Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October 1994; Grass RootsPress, August 22 1994; P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994.

106. Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October 1994; P. H.Glatfelter, 13 October 1994. Written comments by representatives of Quebecor, 15 February1995.

107. Interview with representatives of P. H. Glatfelter, 13 October 1994.

108. Interviews with R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October1994.

109. Written comments by representatives of Quebecor, 15 February 1995.

51

110. Interviews with representatives of Green Seal, 13 October 1994 and 15 November 1994;

Rodale Press, 13 February 1995.

111. Interviews with representatives of Green Seal, 13 October 1994; Westvaco, 24 August 1994.

112. Interview with representatives of Rodale Press, 13 February 1995.

113. Interview with representatives of Rodale Press, 13 February 1995.

114. Interview with representatives of Rodale Press, 13 February 1995.

115. Schultz, A., 1993. Interviews with representative of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October1994; Grass Roots Press, 22 August 1994; Rodale Press, 13 February 1995.

116. Schultz, A.M. "Are Printers Accepting Recycled Paper?" 6th Publishing and Printing PapersConference, 20 September 1993 p 2. Interview with representative of R. R. Donnelley &Sons, 13 October 1994; Written comments by representatives of Quebecor, 21 February1995.

117. Interviews with representatives of R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October 1994; Grass RootsPress, 22 August 1994; Craftsman Printing, 25 May 1994. Written comments byrepresentatives of Quebecor, 15 February 1995.

118. Interview with representative of The Prudential, 1 September 1994.

119. Folio: Special Sourcebook Issue, 1993.

120. Interview with representatives of Blandin, 10 January 1995.

121. Bruno, 1992. Interview with representatives of Blandin, 10 January 1995.

122. Interview with representatives of Blandin, 10 January 1995.

123. Durrant, W.R., Meacock, C.W., and Whitworth, R.E. Machine Printing, Hastings HousePublishers, chapter 3, 1973. Polk, R. The Practice of Printing, Chas Bennett Publishing, 1971.

124. Bruno, M., p 130, 1992.

125. S.D. Warren Company, Coated Papers for Web Offset Printing, Websource Bulletin No. 5,1987.

126. S.D. Warren Company, Coated Papers for Web Offset Printing, Websource Bulletin No. 5,1987.

127. Interviews with and written comments of Champion, 1 November 1994; ConsolidatedPapers, 13 October 1994.

52

128. Polk, R. The Practice of Printing, Chas. Bennett Publishing, 1971. Interviews with

representatives of Craftsman Printing, 25 May 1994; R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 13 October1994.

129. Bruno, 1992.

130. Interviews with representative of Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994; R. R. Donnelley &Sons, 13 October 1994.

131. Interview with John A. Heitmann, Jr., Ph.D. 30 August 1994.

132. Written comments by representatives of AF&PA, 22 March 1995.

133. Interviews with representatives of Craftsman Printing, 25 May 1994; Westvaco, 24 August1994.

134. Bruno, 1992. Interviews with representatives of Craftsman Printing, 25 May 1994.

135. Bruno, 1992.

136. Bruno, M., p 132, 1992.

137. Bruno, M., p 134, 1992.

138. Bruno, M. Pocket Pal, 15th edition, a publication by International Paper, 1992, p. 175.Interviews with and written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October1994.

139. Interviews with and written comments by Champion, 1 November 1994.

140. Written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October 1994.

141. Interviews with and written comments by representatives of Westvaco, 3 November 1994;Champion, 1 November 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994.

142. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 27 May 1994; Written comments byrepresentatives of International Paper, 24 October 1994.

143. Interviews with representatives of International Paper, 1 September 1994; XeroxCorporation, 7 June 1994. Written comments by representatives of AF&PA, 22 March1995.

144. Written comments by representatives of Champion, 1 November 1994.

145. Interviews and written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October 1994.

146. Written comments by representatives of Westvaco, 3 November 1994.

53

147. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 27 May 1994.

148. Interviews with representatives of Westvaco, 24 August 1994; International Paper, 1September 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13 October 1994.

149. Interviews with and written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October1994; Champion, 1 November 1994.

150. Brown, A. "Selecting the Right Paper for Your Magazine,” Folio: Special SourcebookIssue, 1994.

151. Written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October 1994; Westvaco, 3November 1994.

152. Written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October 1994.

153. Written comments by representatives of International Paper, 24 October 1994; Westvaco 3November 1994.

154. Interviews with representatives of Westvaco, 24 August 1994; Consolidated Papers, 13October 1994.

155. Dinwoodie, J.M., "The Relationship Between Fiber Morphology and Paper Properties,"Tappi, 48(8) pp 330-338, 1993.

156. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995.

157. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 11994; International Paper, 20April 1994.

158. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995.

159. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 2994.

160. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994; International Paper, 20 April1994.

161. Interviews with representatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995.

162. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995.

163. Presentation by George Treier, Principal Engineer and Manager, Paper Design and QualityGroup, Xerox Corporation, 22 June 1994.

164. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 27 May 1994. Presentation by representativesof Xerox Corporation, 7 June 1994.

54

165. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995. Howard, R.C., "The

Effects of Recycling on Paper Quality," Paper Technology, 32(4) pp 20-25. Thompson,C.G., Recycled Papers The Essential Guide, MIT Press, 1992. Written comments byrepresentatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995.

166. Interviews with representatives of Union Camp, 1 August 1994.

167. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 27 May 1994.

168. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994.

169. Written comments of Union Camp 21 November 1994.

170. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994.

171. Interviews with representatives of Champion, 19 August 1994.

172. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994; Champion, 27 May 1994.

173. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994.

174. Interviews with representatives of Weyerhaeuser, 3 June 1994.

175. Interviews with John A. Heitmann, Jr., Ph.D., 30 August 1994; and representatives ofGeorgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; Blandin, 10 January 1995.

176. Written comments by representatives of Union Camp, 22 March 1995. Interviews withrepresentatives of Georgia-Pacific, 6 January 1995; Lyons Falls 23 August 1994; UnionCamp, 1 August 1994.

177. Written comments by representatives of Westvaco, 3 November 1994.

178. Mentyka, S., 1992.

179. Business Week, "First Gutenberg, Now Benny Landa?,” 11 July 1994.