parable of lost son

8/4/2019 Parable of Lost Son

1/19

Parable of the Lost Son

By

John R. Neal

Instructor: Dr. Rodney Cloud

In Partial Fulfillment

For NT6314A

The Gospel of Luke

1


2/19

Parable of Lost Son

(Luke 15:11-32)

Context/Background:

Here in Luke chapter fifteen, Dr. Luke records three parables of Jesus that

answer the charge of His critics (the Pharisees and scribes) of why this man

receives sinners and eats with them (Luke 15:2). First, Jesus tells the

Parable of the Lost Sheep (vs. 3-7); He tells about a man who loses one

sheep, leaves the ninety-nine, and goes after the one who is lost. When he

finds the sheep, he rejoices. In the second parable, Jesus tells the Parable of

the Lost Coin (vs. 8-10) about a woman who loses a coin and searches

diligently until she finds the coin (Greek, , refers to a Greek silver

coin worth normally about 18 or 19 cents.). The purchasing power of one

drachma coin in by no means insignificant. One could purchase a sheep

and under good circumstances an ox for one drachma (four drachma coins

could buy a slave).1 When she finds the coins, she and her friends rejoice.

But even greater joy is found in one sinner repenting.

The parable of the Prodigal Son is perhaps the best-loved and most

widely known parable in the whole Bible.2 One author refers to this as being

1 William F. Ardnt and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon Of The New Testamentand Other Early Christian Literature, 2nd Ed. Revised and Augmented by F. Wilbur Gingrichand Frederick W. Danker From Walter Bauers Fifth Edition, 1958. (Chicago: The University

of Chicago Press, 1979), s.v. , pg. 206. (Marshall Repr. 1983) (Forbes June 1999)(Lightfoot. 1986) (Barclay 1970) (Kittle 1985) (Tenney 1985) (Josephus n.d.) (F. W. Josephusn.d.) (Bell 1998) (Brenton Repr. 1987) (Guthrie 1970) (Hauer 1986) (Tidwell 1921) (Brown1986)2 Leon Morris, Luke, Tyndale New Testament Commentary, Vol. 3. (Downers Grove, IL:Inter-Varsity Press, Repr. 2008), 254.


3/19

the parable of the waiting Father (emphasis upon the love and grace of the

Father equally, if not more, than the sinfulness of the younger son).3 In fact,

since the first two parables in Luke 15 portray individuals who actively

seek after the lost may place the emphasis on the truth that God does not

wait passively for sinners to come to him, but actively seeks them out. 4 The

theme of joy over that which is lost and found in the first two parables (the

Lost Sheep and Lost Coin) carries on in the parable of the Lost Son, though

now we have a longer, more personal story with three main characters. In

this third and final parable, the younger of two sons becomes unsettled with

life on the family estate and requests his share of the inheritance, only to

squander it recklessly in a foreign land. Upon the Prodigals return back

home he is welcomed and received by his father, who then orders a

communal feast. This provokes anger on the part of the older brother, who

is resentful over his fathers treatment of one so undeserving. The parable

thus ends with the matter of the elder sons attitude unresolved.5

Before we continue in examining the Parable of the Prodigal Son, we need

to ask the question, what is a parable? A parable is a type or figure or

an illustration.6 Literally, the word parable means a casting or throwing

alongside of. A parable is where one thing is placed beside another for the

purpose of comparison.7 A parable is a short discourse that makes a3 I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke, A Commentary on the Greek Text. The NewInternational Greek Testament Commentary. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Repr. 1983), 604.4 Morris, 255.5 Repentance And Conflict In The Parable Of The Lost Son (Luke 15:11-32), by GregForbes. JETS 42/2 (June 1999): 211.6 Ardnt-Gingrich-Danker, 612.7 Neil R. Lightfoot, The Parables of Jesus, vol. 1, Rev. Ed., The Way of Life Series. (Abilene:ACU Press, 1986), 1.

3


4/19

comparison and often expresses a (single) complete thought. The

evangelists considered that the gospel accounts needed interpretation

because Jesus sometimes presented teaching in obscure fashion.8 As

found in the synoptic gospels, a parable denotes a characteristic form of the

teaching of Jesus (found 17 times in Matthew, 13 times in Mark, 18 times in

Luke).9 The most popular definition of a parable is an earthly story with a

heavenly meaning. Jesus used earthly stories to lead mens minds to

heavenlythings.10 A parable is a similitude which uses evident truth from

a known field (nature of human life) to convey new truth in an unknown (the

kingdom, the nature, and action of God). A similitude is something clearly

resembling that of another, a counterpart or a double.11

Although many commentators are divided over who is the pivotal player

in the story (the father, the younger son, or the older son), yet all three

characters play a crucial role and contribute to the overall interpretation of

the parable. There is also some difference in opinion over how to interpret

the parable, particularly as to whether the first section deals with the theme

of repentance or not, and whether in the second part the elder son acts as a

referent for the Jewish religious leaders.12 There are numerous players in

this parable. There are in this particular narrative: (1) the Pharisees and (2)

the scribes who charge (grumble against) Jesus with eating with social

8 Ardnt-Gingrich-Danker, 612.9 Ibid.10 William Barclay,And Jesus Said, A Handbook on Parables. (Philadelphia: WestminsterPress, 1970), 20.11 Gerhard Kittle and Gerhard Friedrich, Eds. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament,

Abridged in one Volume, by Geoffre W. Bromiley. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), 774.12 Forbes, 211.


5/19

outcasts, there are (3) the tax-collectors and (4) sinners, and (5) the three

individuals of the parable (the father, the younger son, and the older son).

First, the term Pharisee is of Semitic origin ( , Hebrew, or

, Aramaic) and means separated ones or separatists.13 Who or

what they are separating themselves from is a matter of great debate. They

may be reacting to the influence of Hellenism (or Greek culture) upon Jewish

society. The Pharisaic mindset would not allow them to buy food or drink

with a sinner or Gentile, nor would they eat in the house of a Gentile. They

could allow a sinner to dine in the home of a Pharisee, but the Pharisee

would provide a change of clothes for his non-Jewish guest to wear. They

give adherence to the oral (rabbinic interpretation of the law) and written

law.14 According to Josephus, we know that the Pharisees date back to at

least the time of the Maccabean ruler, John Hyrcanus I, who rules Israel from

134-104 B.C. During the reign of the Maccabean ruler, Alexander Jannaeus

(103-76 B.C.), the Pharisees fall out of favor with Alexander and he crucifies

800 of them (they watch as their wives and childrens throats are slit). The

Pharisees would later on gain in power and popularity during the reign of

Alexandra (Alexanders wife) and her son, Hyrcanus II (76-67 B.C.).15

Second, the term scribe () refers to a professional group who

are copyists of the Law of Moses. The scribes (soferim) may trace their

heritage back to the time of Ezra the scribe (Ezra 7:10) who returns from

13 Ardnt-Gingrich-Danker, 853.14 Merril C. Tenney, New Testament Survey, Revised by Walter M. Dunnett. (Grand Rapids:Eerdmans, 1985), 105.15 Josephus,Antiquity of the Jews, 13.10.6. Wars of the Jews, 2.5.3. Antiquities, 13; 15.5-16, 1-2. Tenney, 25-31.

5


6/19

Babylonian captivity in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (cir. 458 B.C.) to teach

the Jews the law of God. By the second century B.C., the non-canonical book

of wisdom (Sirach or Ecclesiasticus) equates the scribe or copyist with being

a wise man or sage (Sirach 38:24-39:12).16

The wisdom of a learned man [scribe] cometh by opportunity of leisure:and he that hath little business shall become wise But he that givethhis mind to the law of the most High, and is occupied in the meditationthereof, will seek out the wisdom of all the ancients, and be occupied inprophecies.17

The scribes often receive condemnation by our Lord (especially in Matthew

23) as being hypocrites. When the term Pharisee is found, often they are

found listed with the scribes (scribes and Pharisees). The argument can be

made that rather than this being two different classes of people, that what

the gospel writers mean is that they are scribes, namely the Pharisees

(making them one distinct group rather than two).18

Third, the term tax-collector refers to a group of men who are not

well thought of by mainstream Judaism, for they both helped the hated

Romans in their administration of conquered territory and enriched

themselves at the expense of the fellow-countrymen. They are looked upon

as both social and religious outcasts.19 The apostle Matthew is a former

tax-collector (Matthew 9:9), as well as Zaccheus in Lukes narrative (Luke 19)

who tells Jesus that he is willing to return anything taken by fraud.

16 Albert A. Bell, Exploring The New Testament World, Forward by Bruce M. Metzger.(Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 34.17Ibid. Sir Lancelot C.L. Brenton, The Septuagint With Apocrypha: Greek And English.(Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, Repr. 1987), 109-110.18 Bell, 34-35.19 Morris, 255.


7/19

Fourth, the term sinners is a reference to those who are either

immoral or who follow occupations that the pious Pharisees find as

incompatible with the Law.20 Everyone is a sinner in the eyes of God

(Romans 3:23), but the Pharisees look at those who do not hold to their strict

traditions as being unfit to share table-fellowship. Jesus did not keep the

traditions or rituals of the elders, such as the precise way of washing ones

hands before they eat (Matthew 15:1ff.), or by not allowing an immoral

person to touch Him (Luke 7:36-39, the immoral person who anointed Jesus),

and thus defile Him.

The Parable of the Prodigal Son can be divided into two parts: (i) part one

(vs. 11-24) deals with the father and the younger son; (ii) part two (vs. 35-

32) deals with the father and the older son.21 Some argue that originally this

parable is two individual parables, but others defend the unity of the

parable.22

What are some of the reasons why the parable can be taken as is

original. First, the older son is mentioned from the very outset of the story

(see vs. 11-12). Why would he be mentioned here if he plays no further role

in the parable? Second, the parable builds upon the tension between the

two brothers. Third, if Luke does crates verses 25-32 as an attack on the

Pharisees, we would have expected a far harsher portrayal of the fathers

20 Ibid.21 Ibid. An argument can be made that this parable could be divided into three sections: (1)Home (vs. 11-12), (2) Running Away From Home (vs. 13-19), and (3) Returning Home (vs.20-32).22 Ibid, 211-12.

7


8/19

relationship to the elder son, and it is extremely unlikely that the parable

would have been left open-ended.23 Fourth, there is one particular author

who notes that the Prodigal Son parable draws on Semitic/Jewish folk tale

and thus clearly does not owe its origins to Hellenistic Luke. Fifth, Tolbert

shows the unity of both parts of the story based on structural parallels.

Sixth, Pohlmann demonstrates that the protest of the hearer is reflected in

the protest of the elder son. Seventh, the themes of this story are not

necessarily Lucan creations. Finally, this parable parallels other

teachings of Jesus on love for the lost.24

There are numerous comparisons between the Prodigal Son and Old

Testament narratives/stories. For example, there are similarities between

Luke 15:11-32 and the Joseph story. The images of the far country, jealousy

of the elder brother(s), ring/clothes/banquet, famine, and reconciliation to

the father all recall elements of Genesis 37-50. In a similar vein, the

fathers loving acceptance for the wayward son recalls Gods mercy shown

towards Ephraims repentance (see Jeremiah 31:18-20; cf. 1 Kings 8:47-51;

Hosea 11:1-9; Psalms 103:13). One author makes an analysis of Luke 15 in

light of Psalm 23 and finds thirteen common motifs between the two

passages. However, rather than simply considering one of the above as the

background to our text, one may be wise in looking at the parable of the

Lost Son as an embodiment or a mosaic of OT reminiscences.25

23 Ibid.24 Ibid, 212.25 Ibid, 212-13.


9/19

Rengstorf argues that this parable should be interpreted against the

backdrop of the Jewish ceremony known as ketsatsah, where a person is cut

off from the community for breaking the rules of society (e.g. selling property

to a Gentile). This excommunication could be reversed by another

ceremony (as in the Lost Son with robe, ring and shoes).26 In our story,

the son is not cut off he leaves voluntarily. Some also dispute the legal

practice of dividing the inheritance.27

Analysis of Text: (vs. 11-24)

Dividing of the property (vs. 11-12). According to the Law of Moses,

the firstborn son had rights to a double share of the inheritance (Deut

21:17; m. B. Bat. 8:7). The younger son would only receive about a third of

his fathers worth. The property could be left via a will effective on the

death of the father, or by a gift during his lifetime. In the case of a gift

during fathers lifetime, any interest accrued on the property is only

payable after the fathers death. Normally in this situation, if the son

disposed of the property the buyer could not take possession of it until the

death of the father (m. B. Bat. 8:7). Concerning the parable under

consideration, Jesus seems to be saying that the father retains possession

of the property (v. 31) and the family was supported by the income from the

estate.28 More than likely, the younger son would have received slightly

26 Ibid, 214.27 Ibid.28 Ibid.

9


10/19

less than a third, due to the ongoing costs of running the estate.29

From a standpoint of Hebrew wisdom material and a cultural

standpoint, what the younger son asks is a slap in the face to the father. In

Sirach 33:19-23, the wise saying warns the children of God against the

practice of allocating the inheritance of the father while the father is still

alive, tying it to the issue of the fathers honor (cf. b. B. Mes. 75b). There

are some scholars who would argue that since this warning is made in

Sirach, that this must be a common practice at this time.30 However, some

argue that (based on a Middle Eastern cultural analysis) such a practice is

extremely rare.31 The matter on hand may be more of the father dividing

up the inheritance rather than his son asking for his fair share. The

younger son is basically wishing the father dead, for the notion of passing

on an inheritance while in good health is unthinkable. No Middle Eastern son

ever asks for inheritance, let alone is given it! Pohlmann does an analysis

of the Greek and Wisdom view of the word house and shows that the

father was not rich, nor was the farm a large estate, but one that provided

basic support for the family. He displays the rebellious fool in the Wisdom

tradition.32

The younger son sets out to a far off country (vs. 13-14). In Jesus

story, the young man runs through all of his money. When the money is

gone, then the friends and fun are gone. Then Jesus states that a famine

29 Ibid, 214-15.30 Ibid.31 Ibid.32 Ibid, 215.


11/19

arose in the land and the boy is brought to feeding swine. How remarkable

that in scripture, a physical famine is often connected to a spiritual famine.

Because Israel is guilty of the sin of idolatry (during the time of King Ahab),

Elijahs promise that there would be neither dew nor rain these years,

except by my word (1 Kings 17:1), leads to a famine. James tells us the

drought lasted three and a half years (James 5:17). God protects the

prophet by feeding Him (via ravines and the widow of Zerepath). Even the

prophets of old proclaim that God cuts the food off as means of punishment

(Joel 1:14-20; Amos 8:11-14). He is left doing that which is despicable to any

Jewish boy, feeding pigs. Morris points out the rabbinic curse placed upon

the one who breeds swine (Baba Kamma 82b). Swine are among the

unclean animals (according to Moses law, see Leviticus 11:17) and under

normal circumstances a Jew would have nothing to do with pigs.33

The Son Returns Home. Surely the son does not return the same way he left

(tattered clothes and no sandals are the sign of a slave, poor man, not one of

royalty). Some find in the acknowledgement of the younger son (I am no

longer worthy to be called your son) the so-called shame/honor dynamics.

In other words, in the first century Mediterranean cultural setting, the shame

in what the lost son does (asking for his inheritance and later squandering

his fortune) turns to honor (when he returns humbly to the father and

regains his robe, ring, and sandals).34 The reader also sees the unmerited

33 Morris, 258-59.34 David M. Mays, Drawn From Nature or Common Life: Social and Cultural ReadingStrategies for the Parables. Review and Expositor, 94 (1997): 204-05.

11


12/19

forgiveness on the part of the father when he kisses (the Greek verb,

, carries the idea of kissing one fervently, tenderly, or many

times as a sign of forgiveness)35 the returning son rather than the son

falling to the ground and kissing his fathers feet.36 The servants are told

by the father to go immediately (dont waste any time) and to bring the robe,

ring, and shoes (perhaps indicates that these items were stripped off when

he left as part of the ketsatsah ceremony.). This is a re-instatement.

The ring could be a signet ring which conveyed authority (Esth 3:10; 8:8; 1

Macc 6:15). This could be the fathers robe he is given to wear.

Returning home barefoot is lowers him to the status of a servant. After the

father welcomes the lost son back in open arms, then the sons former

honor is restored.37

The fathers compassion. The father seems to meet the son on the

outskirts of town rather than in the village (where he would have received

a cold reception). The father runs out to meet him.38 This should show us

that Jesus parable focuses as much on the grace and mercy of the father

than on the sinfulness of this wayward son. The extravagant nature of

the fathers love continues with the killing of the fatted calf (something

saved for a special occasion) and a celebration follows.39 This banquet has a

way of completing (feasting) the former imagery of a half-starved son (eating

35 Ibid, 260. Fritz Rienecker,A Linguistic Key To The Greek New Testament, RegencyReference Library, Trans. by Cleon L. Rogers, Jr. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1980), 187.36 Forbes, 220.37 Ibid.38 Ibid.39 Ibid, 221.


13/19

the carob pods), with a lost-found, sin-repentance, and alienation-

restoration imagery.40

The theme of joy runs throughout Luke-Acts (Lukes narrative).

Here in Luke chapter 15, Jesus gives three parables that bring out the joy of

God when the lost is found.41 There is joy over the return of the lost son

(the father throws a welcome home party). This gospel truly begins and

ends with joy (Luke 1:47; 24:52, 53).42 When the angel appears to

Zacheria(s) in the temple, the angel prophecies that the couple would have a

son named John and that he would be set apart at birth (like a Nazarite, 1:15;

Num. 6:1-8). He would also be likened to the prophet Elijah (vs. 17) to

prepare the way of the Lord. The angel also says of Johns birth, And thou

shalt have joy and gladness; and many shall rejoice at His birth. Later on in

Johns birth narrative, one sees that at his birth, many of their close friends

rejoice: and they rejoiced with her (Luke 1:58). With the birth of Jesus,

there is likewise much rejoicing.43 When Mary visits her cousin Elizabeth, the

text states that when Elizabeth hears Marys voice, that her baby leaped in

my womb for joy (1:44). Elizabeth somehow knows that Mary would be the

mother of the Savior, for she states in vs. 42: And whence is this to me, that

the mother of my LORD should come to me? Luke later records that at the

same time that Jesus is born, that an angel makes this announcement before

40 Ibid.41 Morris, 254-55.42 Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction. (Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press,1970), 93.43Christian E. Hauer and William A. Young,An Introduction To The Bible: A Journey IntoThree Worlds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1986), 224.

13


14/19

shepherds in the field. The angel states, behold, I bring you good tidings of

great joy, which shall be to all people. This message of joy is concerning

the birth of the Savior.44 There is no hint of gloom in the opening chapters of

Lukes gospel (he doesnt record the murderous rampage of Herod).45 The

theme of joy is proclaimed during Jesus ministry. When the seventy

disciples returned following the limited commission, they rejoiced that even

the devils are subject unto us through Thy name.Joy is also expressed over

the salvation of one lost soul: lost sheep, lost coin, and lost son (15:7, 10,

32). Following Jesus resurrection, He appears to the disciples in Jerusalem

(24:34-41). The text states that the disciples did not believe for joy (vs.

41). Then the next to the last verse in Lukes gospel says, And they

worshiped Him, and returned to Jerusalem with great joy. Their true

sadness had been turned into joy.46 Broadening this theme into the book of

Acts, you find converts to Christ rejoicing.

Analysis of Text (vs. 25-32):

The parable now focuses upon the older brother who is not joyful that

the younger brother returns home safe and sound (representing the attitude

of the Pharisees).47 In verses 25-26, the older brother returns home from the

field and asks a servant what is going on, why the joyful festivities? He

44 Ibid.45 Josiah Blake Tidwell, The Gospels and The Life of Christ. (Waco: Baylor Univ. Press,1921), 62.46 Hauer and Young, 244.47 Forbes, 222.


15/19

hears music ( means a band of players or singers) and dancing

( or the choral dance that would be provided by the entertainers).48

Obviously, the sound of music is not something heard in the house for some

time. When the servant says that his younger brother is home once again,

then the older brother refuses to go inside the house.

The father must come out and try to get him to get his older son come

in. There is some thought that a Middle Eastern father would have come out,

locked up the older brother, and then beat him.49 The older brother offers a

flimsy excuse of why he cannot celebrate: I am serving (word

means to be a slave for someone) you all these years and never once do I

neglect (a 2nd aorist from , meaning to neglect or transgress)

one of your commandments (the aorist tense denotes not even once does

he transgress the father in contrast with his many years of service).50 You

never cooked a goat for me to celebrate with my friends! Notice the

derogatory comments the older brother makes about the younger son: he

wasted his money on prostitutes (obviously an inference made by the older

brother); hes your son, not my brother (verse 30). This harsh comment

shows the jealousy and hatred in the heart of the older brother (symbolic of

the Pharisees hatred towards the publicans and sinners, as opposed to

the love in the heart of the father.

The parable concludes by the father reasoning with the older son, first

of all, that from here on out everything that he (the father) has belongs to

48 Rienecker, 187. Morris, 260.49 Ibid, 222.50 Rienecker, 188.

15


16/19

the older son. He is not getting shortchanged one bit. Secondly, there is a

necessity for them to rejoice over the return of the younger son. Why? The

one who is formerly dead now lives, the one lost is now found (verse 32).

Interpretation

Luke addresses this parable to the Pharisees and scribes who object

to Jesus keeping company with sinners. The references to joy in heaven

show that the parables give a lesson in Gods loving mercy and dramatize

the value of those whom others despise as lost.51 The reader notices Jesus

extension of table fellowship and His acceptance of these social outcasts

are no less than the extension to them of Gods forgiving grace.52 Luke

15:1 tells us that the Pharisees and scribes criticize Him for associating with

the outcasts of Jewish society. What other group of people could Jesus be

addressing than these religious leaders? Over in Luke 16:14, Dr. Luke tells

us that Jesus takes a further jab at this group in the Parable of the Unjust

Steward. Jesus pronounces we must choose which Master we will serve. In

verse 14, Luke states: Now the Pharisees, who were lovers of money, were

listening to all these things, and they were scoffing at Him. They knew

Jesus was responding to their criticism and they did not care.

The lost or prodigal son stresses that the elder brother should not be

51 Raymond E. Brown,An Introduction To The New Testament. The Anchor Bible ReferenceLibrary. New York: Doubleday, 1996) 249).52 Malcolm M. Tolbert, The Broadman Bible Commentary, Vol. 9, Luke-John, Ed. By Clifton J.Allen. (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970), 123.


17/19

jealous of the fathers compassionate treatment towards this sinful younger

brother (the older brother refers to him as your sin), and that fits the

context of correcting the Pharisees attitude towards sinners. They did not

feel the outcasts were worthy of salvation. Lukes theological history shows

that Jesus comes to bring salvation to all mankind, not just part of mankind!

Lukes depiction of the father running to meet his lost son and kissing him

before he can even get back into town and proclaim his prepared speech is a

great demonstration of the fathers/Christs love toward the lost (as found in

Rom. 5:8 and 1 John 4:10).53

Bibliography

Ardnt, William F. and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English

Lexicon Of The New Testament Greek and Other Early Christian

Literature, 2nd Ed. Revised and Augmented by F. Wilbur Gingrich

and Frederick W. Danker From Walter Bauer's Fifth Edition, 1958.

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1979.

Barclay, William. And Jesus Said, A Handbook on Parables.

Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1970.

Bell, Albert A. Exploring The New Testament World, Forward by

Bruce M. Metzger. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998.

Brenton, Sir Lancelot C.L. The Septuagint With Apocrypha: Greek

53 Ibid.

17


18/19

And English. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, Repr. 1987.

Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction To The New Testament. The

Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1986.

Forbes, Greg. ""Repentance And Conflict In The Parable Of The Lost

Son (Luke 15:11-32)." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

42, no. 2 (June 1999).

Guthrie, Donald. New Testament Introduction. Downers Grove, IL:

Inter-Varsity Press, 1970.

Hauer, Christian E. and William A. Young. An Introduction To The

Bible: A Journey Into Three Worlds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-

Hall, Inc., 1986.

Josephus, Flavius. Antiquity of the Jews.

Josephus, Flavius. Wars of the Jews.

Kittle, Gerhard and Gerhard Frederich, Eds. Theological Dictionary

of the New Testament, Abridged in One Volume, by Geoffre W.

Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985.

Lightfoot., Neil R. The Parables of Jesus, Vol. 1, Rev. Ed., The Way of

Life Series. Abilene: ACU Press, 1986.

Marshall, I. Howard. The Gospel of Luke, A Commentary on the

Greek Text. The New International Greek Testament Commentary.

Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Repr. 1983.

Mays, David M. "Drawn From Nature or Common Life": Social and

Cultural Reading Strategies for the Parables. Review and Expositor,


19/19

94 (1997).

Morris, Leon. Luke, Tyndale New Testament Commentary, Vol. 3.

Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, Repr. 2008

Fritz Rienecker, The Linguistic Key To The Greek New Testament,

Regency Reference Library, Trans. by Cleon L. Rogers, Jr.

Zondervan: Grand Rapids, 1980.

Tenney, Merril C. New Testament Survey, Revised by Walter M.

Dunnett. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985.

Tidwell, Josiah Blake. The Gospels and The Life of Christ. Waco:

Baylor University Press, 1921.

Tolbert, Malcolm M. The Broadman Bible Commentary, Vol. 9, Luke-

John. Edited by Clifton J. Allen. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970.

19

parable of lost son

Documents