4

PARAMETER SETTINGS

4.1 Introduction

Let us consider the X-bar Rule Schemata from Chapter 2, reproduced below, wherein

a phrase in any language is defined as follows:

·X" ~ ( ylI) ; X" - (1) (The Outer Adjunct Ru1e)

X" ~. ( Z") ; X' - (2) (The Specifier Rule)

·X' ~ (T") ; X' -(3) (The Adjunct or the Complement Rule)

X' ~ (W"); XO -(4) (The Complement Rule)

'Y'" in Rule (1) is referred as the outer Adjunct, 'Z'" in Rule (2) is referred as

the Specifier, and 'W'" in Rule (4) is referred as the Complement. 'T'" in Rule (3) is

referred either as the Complement or as the inner Adjunct depending on whether T"

act as a Complement or as an inner Adjunct in X". This is jointly decided by the

Argument Structure of XO and whether X" actually has the inner Adjuncts. The

parenthesis on the right hand side of a rule denotes that the constituents within them

may not be present in a phrase. In other words, a phrase may not have any of the

Specifier, Adjunct(s) (inner or outer), and Complement(s). Note that Complements in

Rule (4) and Rule (3) are not optional, they are determined by the Argument Structure

ofXO in X". A '*' in a Rule (1) and RuJe (3) means that the rules are optional provided

T" in Rule (3) is not a Complement. These rules will be used only if a phrase contains

Adjunct(s). The symbol ';' in a rule means that the constituents on the right hand side

of any rule are unordered. This has to be fixed for the language under consideration.

There are three parameters associated with the X-Bar ruJe schemata. These

parameters are the Specifier parameter, the Adjunct parameter Gointly corresponds to

outer Adjuncts and inner Adjuncts in Rule (1) and Rule (3) respectively in the X-bar

103

rule schemata), and the Complement parameter (Cook [1988], Dorr [1990b, 1993a,b],

Haegeman [1991], and Radford [1988]). Once we know the parameter settings for

these parameters and the order of constituents on the right hand side of each rule in

the X-Bar rule schemata, a phrase is immediately defined.

In Chapter 3, we dealt with parameter settings for the Complement Parameter.

As pointed out in Chapter 3, the parameter settings for the Complement Parameter

depends on each lexical/ non-lexical item and were handled under the title of

Argument Structure. The parameter settings for the rest of two parameters associated

with X-bar Rule Schemata, namely that of the Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct

Parameter,_ jointly referred as the 'Parameter Settings', vary with respect to each

phrase, and therefore need separate handling. In this chapter we will work out these

parameter settings for Punjabi.

In the X-bar Rule Schemata, the 'X' may stand either for lexical heads, namely

the Noun (N), the Verb (V), the Adjective (ADJ), the Preposition! Postposition (P),

the (::ase Marker (CASE), the Adverb (ADV), the Determiner (DET), the Conjunct

(CONJ), the Quantifier (Q), the Negation word (NEG), and the Emphatic word

(EMP); or for non-lexical heads, namely the Inflection (I) and the Complementizer

(C). For a specified X, we have the corresponding phrase denoted by X" or XP.

As mentioned in Chapter 2, one of the important conditions on X-bar rule

schemata is the Modifier Maximality Constraint (see, for example, Jackendoff [1977:

36], Chomsky [1986a: 3], Stowell [1981: 70], Duarte [1991: 28-31], and Radford

[1988: 263]). This constraint requires that each non-head constituent in a phrase

defined by the X-bar rule schemata (viz. Specifiers, Adjuncts, and Complements)

must be full phrases like NP, AP, PP, etc. Stowell [1981: 70] states this constraint as

follows: 'Every non-head term in the expansion of a rule must itself be a Maximal

Projection of some category'. Duarte [1991: 31] considers an X-bar syntactic structure

invalid once it does not conform to the Modifier Maximality Constraint. It is precisely

this constraint which forces us to introduce a phrase corresponding to each lexicaV

non-lexical item (head).

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, Referring back to the rule schemata, any of Y", Z", T", and W" iIi a particular

phrase XP can assume values from any of the phrases in a language (we have

identified a total of 13 phrases in Punjabi corresponding to various lexicaV non-lexical

heads). Leaving aside the case of multiple Adjuncts, and the case of 3- or 4-place

predicates, there will be a total of28561 (= 134) possible structures for a phrase. This

will lead to the problem of tremendous overgeneration. This problem can be

overcome if one works out each of the actual Specifiers, Adjuncts, and Complements

(they are already known from the Argument Structure discussed in Chapter 3 by this

time) for each phrase.

In the following sections we will work out for each phrase the parameter

settings for each of the Specifier and the Adjunct Parameter. For each of these

parameters, for each phrase we require the following information:

(i) The Number (i.e. possible number of values a Specifier/ Adjunct can assume);

(ii) The type for each of the Specifier/ Adjunct mentioned in (i); and

(iii) Whether this Specifier/ Adjunct is head-first! head-last.

Section 4.2 describes the parameter settings for the Noun Phrase (NP), Section

4.3 describes those for the Adjectival Phrase (ADJP), Section 4.4 describes those for

the Postpositional Phrase (PP), Section 4.5 describes those for the Verb Phrase (VP),

Section 4.6 describes those for the Case Phrase (CASEP), Section 4.7 describes those

for the Adverb Phrase (ADVP), Section 4.8 describes those for the Determiner Phrase

(DETP), Section 4.9 'describes those for the Conjunct Phrase (CONJP), Section 4.10

describes those for the Quantifier Phrase (QP), Section 4.11 describes those for the

Negation Phrase (NEGP), Section 4.12 describes those for the Emphatic Phrase

(EMPP), Section 4.13 describes those for the Inflectional Phrase (IP), and Section

4.14 describes those for the Complementizer Phrase (CP). Section 4.15, finally,

concludes the chapter.

Here are some common remarks applicable to the sections 4.2 through 4.14.

Each non-head item in a phrase is a maximal projection. The information about the

Complements of a head X' ~ provided from its Argument Structure discussed in

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Chapter 3. The symbols 'SPEC', 'ADJNCT' and 'CaMP' respectively denote the

Specifier, the Adjunct and the Complement. For typographical convenience we will

use X for XO. The word 'Adjuncts' will jointly refer to 'inner Adjuncts' plus the 'outer

Adjuncts'. An Adjunct can be distinguished to be inner or outer based on whether the

Rule (3) or the Ru1e (1) is applied.

4.2 The Noun Phrase (NP)

A Noun Phrase consists of a Noun (or Pronoun) as head and optional satellites. The

satellites are the Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). A Noun Phrase typically

functions as a Specifier in an Inflectional Phrase (IP) (for example, the NP 'meraa

bharaa' ('my brother') in IP 'meraa bharaa bahut hushiaar hai.' ('My brother is very

intelligent. ')), as a Complement in a Verb Phrase (VP) (for example, the NP 'kitaab'

('book') in VP 'kitaab khariidegaa' ('will buy a book')), as a Complement in a

Postpositional Phrase (PP) (Punjabi has Postpositions as against Prepositions as

found, for example, in English, hence the corresponding phrase.) (for example, the NP

'baag' ('garden') in PP 'baag vic' ('in the garden')), as a Specifier and as a

Complement in a Conjunct Phrase (CONJP) (for example, the Specifier NP 'Ram'

('Ram') and the Complement NP 'meraa bharaa' ('my brother') in CONJP 'Ram ate , meraa bharaa' ('Ram and my brother')), as a Complement in a Case Phrase (CASEP)

(for example, the NP 'mere bharaa' ('my brother') in CASEP 'mere bharaa daa' ('of

my brother')), or as a Specifier in an Adjectival Phrase (ADJP) (for example, the NP

'pan} JuT' (,five feet') in ADJP 'pan} JuT Duungaa' (,five feet deep')).

Let us now consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the

parameter settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in an

NP. The NPs are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar

. structure) using bracketed notation immediately following them.

(la) [NP baccaa] sitaar vajaaegaa.

child sitar play-fut.ms

('The child will play sitar.')

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(2a) [NP Mohan] DaakTar hai.

Mohan doctor IS

('Mohan is a doctor. ')

(3a) [NP meraa bharaa] bimaar hai.

my brother sick IS

(,My brother is sick. ')

(3b) [NP [SPEC meraa] [N' [N bharaa]]]

(4a) [NP meraa choTaa bharaa] bimaar hai.

my younger brother sick IS

(,My younger brother is sick. ')

(4b) [NP [SPEC meraa] [N' £ADJNCT choTaa] [N' [N bharaa]]]]

(5a) [NP mere choTe bharaa daa mundaa] bimaar hai.

my younger brother of son

(,My younger brother's son is sick.')

sick IS

(5b) [NP [SPEC mere choTe bharaa daa] [N' [N mundaa]]]

(6a) huN [NP ikk baccaa] giit gaaegaa.

now a child song sing-fut.ms

('Now, a child will sing a song. ')

(6b) [NP [SPEC ikk] [N' [N baccaa]]]

(7a) [NP kujh bacce] huN giit gaauNge.

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some children now song sing-fut.mp

('Some children will sing songs now.')

(7b) [NP [SPEC kujh] [N' [N bacce]]]

(8a) [NP Taiksaan daa khaatmaa] jaruurii hai.

taxes of abolition essential is

('The abolition of taxes is essential.')

(8b) [NP [N' [caMP [Taiksaan daa]] [N khaatmaa]]]

(9a) [NP phaslaan te Taiksaan daa khaatmaa] jaruurii hai.

crops on taxes of abolition essential is

('The abolition of taxes on crops is essential.')

(9b) [NP [N' [COMP [NP [N' [ADJNCT ([NP [N' [N phaslaan]]] tel] [N'[N

Taiksaan]]]] daa] [N khaatmaa]]]

(lOa) [NP inaah kitaabaan te Taiksaan daa khaatmaa]jaruurii hai.

these books on taxes of abolition essential is

('The abolition of taxes on these books is essential.')

(lOb) [NP [N' [CaMP [NP [N' [ADJNCT [[NP [SPEC inaah] [N' [N

kitaabaan]]] tel] [N'[N Taiksaan]]]] daa] [N khaatmaa]]]

(11 a) us ne [NP do projaikTaan dii riporT] jamhaan-kiitii.

he ERG two projects of report submitted

('He submitted the report of two projects.')

(lIb) [NP [N' [caMP [NP [SPEC do] [N' [N projaikTaan]]] dii] [N riporT]]]

(l2a) adhiaapak ne [NP jamaat vicon gairhaajar vidiaarthiiaan nuun] sazaa-dittii.

teacher ERG class from absent students ACC punished

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('The teacher punished the students absent from the class.')

(12b) [NP [N' [ADJNCT jamaat vicon gairhaajar] [N' [N vidiaarthiiaan]]]]

(13a) [NP ikk Topii vaalaa mundaa] tuhaadii intzaar-kar-rihaa hai.

A cap with boy your waiting is

(' A boy with a cap is waiting for you. ')

(13b) [NP [SPEC ikk] [N' [ADJNCT Topii vaalaa] [N' [N mundaa]]]]

(14a) [NP pardhaan mantrii te hamlaa] baRaa bhiaanak sii.

prune Minister on attack very dreadful was

('The attack on the Prime Minister was very dreadful.')

(14b) [NP [N' [cOMP pardhaan mantrii tel [N hamlaa]]]

(l5a) [NP is thiuuram daa sabuut] bahut mushkil hai.

This theorem of proof very difficult is

('The proof of this theorem is very difficult. ')

(l5b) [NP [N' [COMP [NP [SPEC is] [N' [N thiuuram]]] daa] [N sabuut]]]

(16a) [NP merii piaarii cho Tii kaaIii billii] baRii sharaartii hai.

my sweet small black cat very naughty is

('My sweet small black cat is very naughty.')

(l6b) [NP [SPEC merii] [N' fADJNCT piaarii] [N' [ADJNCT choTii] [N'

lADJNCT kaaIii] [N' [N billii ]]]]]]

(l7a) [NP merii choTii piaarii kaalii billii] baRii sharaartii hai.

(l7b) [NP [SPEC merii] [N' lAnJNCT choTii] [N' lAnJNCT piaarii] [N'

lADJNCT kaaIii] [N' [N billii ]]]]]]

109

(I8a) [NP uh vidiaarthiijo parinciipal kolon inaam laegaa] Renu daa

that student who principal from prize receive-fut.ms Renu of

bhaaii hai.

brother is.

('That student who will receive the prize from principal is Renu's brother.')

(I8b) [NP [SPEC uh] [N' [N' [N vidiaarthii]] lADJNCT jo parinciipal kolon

inaam laegaa]]]

(I9a) [NP Lachaman, Ram daa bharaa], baRaa mahaan yodhaa SI1.

Laxman· Ram of brother very great warn or was

(,Laxman, Ram's brother, was a great warrior.')

(l9b) [NP [NP Lachaman] [ADJNCT Ram daa bharaaa]]

(20a) [NP Ram daa bharaa, Lachaman], baRaa mahaan yodhaa sii.

Ram of brother Laxman very great warnor was

('Ram's brother, Laxman, was a great warrior.')

(20b) [NP [NP Ram daa bharaaa] [ADJNCT Lachaman]]

(2Ia) [NP lagbhag saare bacce] gairhaajar san.

nearly all children absent were

('Nearly all children were absent. ')

(2Ib) [NP [SPEC·lagbhag saare] [N' [N bacce]]]

It may be observed from above examples that the Specifier in an NP can either

be a Detenniner Phrase (DETP) (such as ih ('this'), uh ('that'), inhaan ('these'),

unhaan ('those'), ikk ('a'), meraa ('my'), saaDaa ('our'), usdaa ('his'), kujh

('some'), bahut ('many'), saare ('all'), 'balld bahut' (,rather many'), . 'takriibanl

110

lagbhag saare' (nearly all'), '/ceval linn' ('only three'), 'bi/leul inhaan' (,essentially

these'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (3), (4), (6), (7), (10), (11), (13), (15),

(16), (17), (18), and (21 ) above), or a Case Phrase (like 'Ram daa' (Ram's), 'Ram de

choTe bharaa daa' ('Ram's younger brother's), 'merii choTii kuRii daa' ('my

younger daughter's), etc.) (see, for example, the sentence, (5) above). Both of these

types of Specifiers are head-first (i.e. they appear to the left side of the head, or

equivalently left-branching). The details of each ofDETP and CASEP will be given in

the following sections.

The Adjuncts in an NP can be an Adjectival Phrase (ADJP) (such as choTaa

('younger'), 'jamaat vicon gairhaajar' ('absent from the class'), choTii ('small'),

piaarii ('sweet'), kaalii ('black'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (4), (12), (16),

and (17) above), a Postpositional Phrase (PP) (like 'phaslaan Ie' ('on crops'), 'inaah

kitaabaan Ie' ('on these books'), 'TopU vaa/aa' ('with a cap'), 'lambe vaalaan vaalii'

('with long hairs'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (9), (10), and (13) above), or

an Inflectional Phrase (IP) (such as 'jo parinciipal kolon inaam laegaa' ('who wiil

receive the prize from principal'), ), 'jis ne caava/ nahiin khaadhe' ('who did not take

the rice'), etc.) (see, for example, .the sentence, (13) above). The Adjuncts ADJP and

PP are head-first while IP is head-last. An NP may have NP as an outer Adjunct (such

as, 'Ram daa bharaa' ('Ram's brother'), Laxman, etc.) (see, for example, the

sentences, (19) and (20) above). This Adjunct is always head-last (i.e. right­

branching). The details of ADJP, PP, and IP will be provided later in the following

sections.

Thus for a Noun Phrase we have the following results. The direction of each of

the Specifier/ Adjunct is shown by an L or R within brackets following the type of the

Specifier/ Adj~ct.

Noun Phrase (NPl

Number=2

III

Typel = DETP (L) [ikk ('a'), meraa ('my'), inhaan ('these'), bahut ('many'),

'balld bahut' ('rather many'), 'bi/leul inhaan' ('essentially

these'), etc.]

Type2=CASEP(L) ['Mohan daa' ('Mohan's'), 'merii choTU leuRU daa' ('my

younger daughter's'), etc.]

A~J~~.~~:

Number = 3

Typel = ADJP (L) [kaalii ('black'), 'bahul choTaa' ('very small'), 'Ravinder

naalon sohNaa' ('more beautiful than Ravinder'), 'jamaat

vicon gairhaajar ' ('absent from the class '), etc.]

Type2 = PP (L)

Type3 = IP (R)

[' TopU vaalaa' ('with cap'), 'phaslaan te ' ('on crops'), 'inaah

kitaabaan te' ('on these books'), etc.]

['jo gUt gaaegaa' (,who will sing a song'), 'lis ne caaval nahiin

khaadhe' (,who did not take rice'), 'jo parinciipal kolon inaam

laegaa' ('who will receive the prize from principal'), etc.]

4.3 The Adjectival Phrase (ADJP)

An Adjectival Phrase is a phraSe having Adjective as head and the optional satellites

namely Specifier, Adjunct, and Complement. An Adjectival Phrase typically

functions as an Adjunct in an NP (such as, for example, ADJP 'cangaa' ('good') in

NP 'cangaa adhiaapak' ('good teacher') in 'uh cangaa adhiaapak hai.' (,He is a good

teacher. '», or as a Complement in a copula sentence, i.e. the Inflectional Phrase (IP)

(for example, the ADJP 'bhukhaa' ('hungry')' in IP 'uh bhukhaa hai' ('He is

hungry.'), or the ADJP 'bahut sohNU' ('very beautiful') in IP 'uh bahut sohNii hai .•

(,She is very beautiful. '».

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in an ADJP. The

ADJPs are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure)

using bracketed notation immediately following them. The notations A and A' stand

for ADJ and ADJ' respectively.

112

(la) kuRii [ADJP sohNii] hai.

girl beautiful is

('The girl is beautifuL')

(2a) kuRii [ADJP bahut sohNii] hai.

girl very beautiful is

('The girl is very beautifuL')

(2b) [ADJP [SPEC bahut] [A' ~ sohNii]]]

(3a) Meenaa [ADJP moTii] hai.

Meenaa fat is

(,Meenaa is fat.')

(3b) [ADJP [A' [A moTii]]]

(4a) Meenaa [ADJP innii moTii] hai.

Meenaa this fat IS

('Meenaa is this fat.')

(4b) [ADJP [SPEC innii] ~, [A moTii]]]

(5a) Meenaa [ADJP ghaTT moTii] hai.

Meenaa less fat IS

('Meenaa is less fat.')

(5b) [ADJP [SPEC ghaTT]~' ~ moTii]]]

(6a) kapRaa [ADJP dikhaN vic cangaa] sii.

cloth see-inf in nice was

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('The cloth was nice to see. ')

'(6b) [ADJP [A' [ADJNCTdikhaN vic] [A' [A cangaa]]]]

(7a) uh [ADJP haunsle naa} bharpuur] sii.

he courage with full was

('He was full of courage. ')

(7b) [ADJP [A' [cOMP haunsle naal]·[A bharpuur]]]

(8a) Meenaa [ADJP sohNii] kuRii hai.

Meenaa beautiful girl is

(,Meenaa is a beautiful girl. ')

(8b) [ADJP [A' [A sohNii]]]

(9a) Meenaa [ADJP Simran naalon sohNii] kuRii hai.

Meenaa Simran than beautiful girl IS

('Meenaa is beautiful than Simran. ')

(9b) [ADJP [SPEC Simrannaalon] [A' [A sohNii]]]

(lOa) Meenaa {ADJP sabhbh naalon sohNii] kuRii hai.

Meenaa all than beautiful girl IS

(,Meenaa is beautiful of all. ')

(lOb) [ADJP [SPEC 'sabhbh naalon] [A' [A sohNii]]]

(Ila) Meenaa lAoJP sohNii] hai.

(II b) [ADJP [A' lA sohNii]]]

(12a) Meenaa lAoJP Simran naalon sohNii] hai.

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(12b) ADJP [SPEC Simran naalon] [A' LA sohNii]]]

(13a) Meenaa [ADJP Simran naalon kaii pakhkhaan ton samajhdaar] hai.

Meenaa Simran than many ways from wise IS

(,Meenaa is wiser than Simran in many ways. ')

(13b) LADJP [SPEC Simran naalon] [A' £ADJNCT kaii pakhkhaan ton] [A' [A

samajhdaar]]]]

(14a) Ram [ADJP kitaabaan daa shaukiin] hai.

Ram books. of fond IS

(,Ram is fond of books.')

(14b) [ADJP [A' [cOMP kitaabaan daa] [A shaukiin]]]

(15a) Ram [ADJP pichle ikk haphte ton utshaah naal bharpuur] hai.

Ram last one week from inspiration with full IS

(,Ram is full of inspiration from last one week. ')

(15b) [ADJP [A' [ADJNCT pichle ikk haphte ton] [A' [COMP utshaah naal]

[A bharpuur]]]]

(16a) uh [ADJP bilkul muurkh] hai.

he absolutely foolish IS

(,He is absolutely foolish.)'

(16b) [ADJP LA' [ADJNCT bilkul] LA' LA muurkh]]]]

(l7a) adhiaapak ne [ADJP jamaat vicon gairhaajar] vidiaarthii nuun sazaa-dittii.

teacher ERG class from abseilt student ACC punished

('The teacher punished the student absent from the class. ')

llS

(l7b) WJJP (A' [ADJNCT jamaat vicon] lA' lA gairhaajar]]]]

(l8a) uh [ADJP balki kaaphiil thoRiil bahutl innii moTii] hai.

she rather quite! less! very! this fat IS

(,She is rather quite/ less! very! this fat. ')

(18b) IADJP [SPEC balki kaaphiil tboRiil bahutl innii] (A' [A mo Tii]]]

(19a) main nuun [ADJP balki! lagbhagl takriibanl bilkull keval innii

I ACC rather! nearly! approximately! precisely! only this

patalii] painsil caahiidii hai .

. thin pencil want-prst.fs is

('I want rather! nearly! approximately! precisely! only this thin pencil. ')

(19b) [ADJP [SPEC balki!lagbhagl takriibanl bilkull keval innii] [A' lA patalii]]]

(20a) ih talaab [ADJP caar miiTar Duungaa] hai.

this pond four meter deep IS

('This pond is four meters deep. ')

(20b) [ADJP [SPEC caar miiTar] [A' [A Duungaa]]]

(21a) ih [ADJP satt fuT uccaa] khambaa hai.

this seven feet high pole IS

('This is a seven feet high pole. ')

(21b)[ADJP [SPEC satt fuT] [A' [A uccaa]]]

(22a) us ne Mohan nuun do [ADJP panj fuT lamiiaan] painsilaan dittiiaan

he ERG Mohan DA T two five feet long pencils give-pst.ms

(He gave Mohan two five feet long pencils. ')

116

(22b) WJJP [SPEC panj fuT] [AI £A long]]]

It may be observed from above examples that the Specifier in an ADJP can

either be a Quantifier Phrase (QP) (such as bahut (,very'), inniil innaa ('this'), unnii/

unnaa (,that'), ghaTT/ thoRaa ('less'), vadhdhl jiaadaa ('more'), kaaphii ('quite'),

'balld kaaphii' ('rather quite'), 'balld thoRii' ('rather less'), 'keval innaa' ('only

this'), 'balki bahut' ('rather very'), 'takriibanl lagbhag unnaa' ('nearly that'), 'bi/kul

innaa' ('exactly/ precisely'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (2), (4), (5), (18),

and (19) above); a Postpositional Phrase (PP) (like 'Simran naalon' ('th~ Simran'),

'sabhbh naalon' ('of all'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences, (9), (10), (12), and

(13) above), or a Noun Phrase (NP) (like 'caar miiTar' ('four meters'), 'salt fuT

('seven feet'), 'che inc' ('six inches'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences, (20)-(22)

above). Each of these types of Specifiers are head-first. It may be observed that the

Specifiers like bahutl kaaphii in an ADJP are different from their corresponding

counterparts in an NP (contrast between the Specifiers, for example, of ADJP 'bahut

samajhdaar' and 'bahut bacce'; or between those of 'kaaphii samajhdaar' and

'kaaphii bacce). 'bahut' in an ADJP corresponds to 'very' in English while 'bahut'

in an NP corresponds to 'many' in English. Similarly, 'kaaphii' in. an ADJP

corresponds to 'quite' in English while' kaaphii' in an NP corresponds to 'several' in

English. The details of each of QP and PP will be given in the subsequent sections.

The Adjuncts in an Adjectival Phrase can be any of Postpositional Phrase (PP)

(such as 'dilchaN vic' ('to see'), 'kaii pakhkhaan ton' ('in many aspects'), 'leaii

Dhangaan naa/' Cin many ways'), 'pichle ikk haphte ton' ('from last one week'),

'jamaat vicon' ('from the class'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (6), (13), (15),

and (17) above), or Adverb Phrase (ADVP) (such as bi/kul ('absolutely', 'puuraa'

('completely'), 's!1ccmucc' ('really'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentence (16) above).

Both of these types of Adjuncts are head-fIrst.· The details of PP and ADVP will be

given in the subsequent sections.

The parameter settings for the Adjective Phrase are summarized as follows.

The direction of each of the Specifier/ Adjunct is shown by an L or R within brackets

following the type of the Specifier/ Adjunct.

117

Adjectival Phrase (ADJP)

Number = 3

Typel = QP (L)

Type2 = PP(L)

Type3 = NP(L)

Number =2

Typel = PP (L)

[bahut ('very'), innii/ innaa ('this'), unniil unnaa· ('thaC),

gha1T/ thoRaa ('less'), vadhdhl jiaadaa ('more'), kaaphii

('quite'), 'balld kaaphii' ('rather quite'), 'bal/d thoRii' ('rather

less'), 'keval innaa' ('only this'), 'bal/d bahut' ('rather very'),

'takriibanl lagbhag unnaa' ('nearly thaC), 'bilkul innaa'

('exactly/ precisely'), etc.]

['Mohan naalon' ('than Mohan'), 'sabhbhl saariaan naa/on'

('of all'), etc.]

['caar miiTar' ('four meters'), 'salt fuT ('seven feet'), 'che

inc' ('six inches'), etc.]

['dikhaN vic' ('to see'), 'kaii pakhkhaan ton' ('in many

aspects'), 'kaii Dhangaan naa/' ('in many ways'), 'kujh

gallaan vic' ('in some ways'), 'kaii kaarNaa karke' ('because

of many reasons'), 'pich/e ikk haphte ton' ('from last one

week'), 'jamaat vicon' ('from the class'), etc.]

Type2 = ADVP (L) [bilkul ('absolutely'), 'puuraa' ('completely'), 'saccmucc'

('really'), etc.]

4.4 The Postpositional Phrase (PP) In Punjabi, elements corresponding to English prepositions follow their complements

and are referred to as postpositions. We use P to indicate a Postposition and PP to

indicate a Postpositional Phrase. A Postpositional Phrase consists of a Postposition as

head and optional satellites. The satellites are the Specifier, Adjunct(s) and

Complement(s). A postposition expresses a relation between two entities, one being

that represented by the postpositional complement. A Postpositional Phrase typically

functions as Adjuncts in NPs (for example, 'daRii vaalaa' ('with beard') in NP 'ikk

118

daRU vaalaa baccaa' ('a boy with beard')), ADJPs (for example, 'jamaat vicon'

('from the class') in ADJP 'jamaat vicon gairhaajar' ('absent from the class'), or

'kaii pakhkhaan ton' ('in many ways') in ADJP 'kaa pakhkhaan ton samajhdaar'

('wise in many ways')), and VPs, as will be seen later, (for example, 'baag vic' ('in

the garden') in VP 'baag vic leulph;; khaavaangaa' ('will eat· ice-cream in the

garden')). A PP may function as complements in NPs (for example, 'cearmain te'

('on the chairman') in NP 'cearmain Ie hamlaa' ('attack on the chairman')), ADJPs

(for example; 'utshaah naa!' ('of courage') in ADJP ' utshaah naal bharpuur' ('full

of courage')), VPs (for example, 'Ram laU' ('for Ram') in VP 'Ram laU raDiio

bhejaangaa' ('send Ram a radio'), or 'kamare vic' ('in the room') in VP 'kamare vic

hai' ('is in the room')), and PPs (for example, 'Mohan de baare' in PP 'Mohan de

baare vic " or 'Ram lon' in PP 'Ram ton pahilaan). A PP may act as a Specifier in

ADJP (for example, 'Mohan naalon' ('than Mohan') in ADJP 'Mohan naalon

hushiaar' in ADJP (,intelligent than Mohan')), or 'sabhbhl saariaan naa/on' ('of all')

in ADJP 'sabhbhl saariaan naalon ca/aak' ('clever of all')).

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the' parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in a PP. The PPs

are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (Le. X-bar structure) using

bracketed notation immediately following them.

(l a) caaabii [pp khuunje vic] hai.

key comer in is

('The key is in the comer:)

(lb) [pp [pI [COMP khuunje] [p vic]]]

(2a) caaabii [pp aain khuunje vic] sii.

key right comer in was

('The key was right in the comer.')

(2b) [pp [SPEC aain] [pI [cOMP khuunje] [p vic]]]

119

(3a) us ne [pp botal naal] dudh piitaa.

he ERG bottle with milk drink-pst.ms

('He drank milk with a bottle. ')

(3b) [pp [p' [COMP botal] [p naal]]]

(4a) us ne [pp botal . de naal] dudh piitaa.

he ERG bottle GEN with milk drink-pst.ms

('He drink milk with a bottle. ')

(4b) [pp [p' [cOMP [hotal de]] [p naal]]]

(5a) uh [pp dillii. ton] aaegaa.

he Delhi from come-fut.ms

(,He will come from Delhi.')

(5b) [pp [p' [cOMP dillii] [p ton]]]

(6a) uh [pp aain/ thiik samen tel saaDe ghar pahunciaa.

he right! precisely time on our home reach-pst.ms

(,He reached our home right! precisely in time. ')

(6b) [pp [SPEC aain/ Thiik] [p' [cOMP samen] [p te]]]

(7a) main [pp is baare] socaangii.

1 this about think-fut.fs

('I shall think about this.')

(7b) [pp [p' [COMP is] [p baare]]]

(8a) us ne [pp nadii de

he ERG river GEN

paasl kol] kapRe rakhkhe.

near clothes place-pst

(,He placed the clothes near the river.')

120

(8b) [pp [pI [cOMP [nadii de]] [p paasl kol]]]

(9a) uh [pp aapNii vahutii de naal] khaRaa S11.

he his wife GEN besides stand-pst.ms was

(,He stood besides his wife.')

(9b) [pp [pI [cOMP [aapNii vahutii de]] [p naal]]]

(10a) main [pp agle haphte tak] [pp Patiaale ton] aa-Jaavaangaa.

1 next week upto Patiaale from return-fut.ms

('I shall retUrn from Patiaale by next week. ')

(lOb) [pp [pI [cOMP [agle haphte]] [p tak]]]

(1ta) us ne {pp dillii ton] [pp mere laii] phuTbaal liaandaal khariidiaa.

he ERG Delhi from me for football brought! bought

(,He brought! bought a football for me from Delhi. ')

( It b) [pp [pI [cOMP mere] [p laii]]]

(12a) us ne [pp khand ton binaah]

he ERG sugar from without

('He prepared tea without sugar.')

caah baNaaii.

tea made

(12b) {pp [pI [COMP [khand ton]] [p binaah]]]

(13a) Ram [pp mere naal] bazaar giaa.

Ram me with market go-pst.ms

(' Ram went to market with me. ')

(13b) [pp [pI [COMP mere] [p naal]]]

121

(14a) main [pp Ram diiaan galtiiaan de baavyuud] us nuun caahundaa haan.

1 Ram GEN mistakes GEN in spite him ACe like-prst.ms am

('I like Ram in spite of his' mistakes.')

(14b) [pp [pI [COMP [Ram diiaan galtiiaan de]] [p baavyuud]]]

'(I5a) uh [pp kamre de andron baahar] aaiaa.

he room GEN inside outside come-pst.ms

('He came out side from inside of the room.')

(I5b) [pp [pI [cOMP [kamre de andron]] [p baahar]]]

(16a) uh [pp ikkdaml aain / Thiik mere pichche] aa rahii sii.

she exactly/ right! precisely/ me after commg was

('She was coming exactly/ right! precisely after me.')

(I6b) (pp [SPEC ikkdaml aain / Thiik] [pI [COMP mere] [p pichche]]]

07a) uh hameshaa [pp laaibrerii vic] hundaa hai.

he always library m be-prst.ms is

('He is always in the library.')

(I7b) [pp [pI [COMP laaibrerii] [p vic]]]

(I 8a) usde maape [pp ikkdam Tuur de virndhdh] san.

his parents totally tour GEN against were.

(,His parents were totally against the'tour.')

(18b) [PP [SPEC ikkdam] [pI [cOMP [Tuur de]] [p virudhdh]]]

(I9a) Ronki taan kall [pp laaibrerii vic] sii.

Ronki certainly yesterday library in was

(,Ronki was certainly in the library yesterday.')

122

(19b) [pp [pI [cOMP laaibrerii] [p vic 1]m

(20a) uh [pp haRtaal de kaaraN] [pp mandir vic] Thahiriaa.

he strike of because temple in stayed-pst.ms

('He stayed in the temple because of the strike.')

(20b) [pp [p'[COMP [haRtaalde]] [p kaaraN]]]

As can be seen from above examples, the Specifier in an PP can either be a

Determiner Phrase (DETP) (such as aain ('right') (see, for example, the sentences (2),

(6), and (16) above), or an Adverb Phrase (ADVP) (like Thiik ('precisely'), ikkdam

('totally'), hi/kul ('exactly'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences, (6), (18), and (16)

above). Both of these types of Specifiers are head-first. The details of each of DETP

and ADVP will be given in the subsequent sections.

A PP has no Adjuncts. In other words, the Adjunct Rule (1) or (3) is not

applicable to PPs.

The parameter settings for the Postpositional Phrase are summarized as

follows. The direction of each of the Specifier/ Adjunct is shown by an L or R within

brackets following the type of the Specifier/ Adjunct.

Postpositional Phrase <PPl

Number = 2

Typel = DETP (L) [aain ('righC)]

Type2 = ADVP(L) [Thiik ('precisely'), ikkdam ('exactly'), hi/kul (,totally'), etc.]

A4i~'?~:

Number = 0

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4.5 The Verb Phrase (VP)

A Verb Phrase (VP) is a phrase having a Verb as its head and other optional satellites

(constituents) namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). A Verb Phrase

typically functions as a Complement in an Inflectional Phrase (IP) (such as, for

example, the VP 'cangaa DaakTar hai' ('is a good doctor') in IP 'uh cangaa

DaakTar hai.' ('He is a good doctor.'), the V~ 'shaamii aaegaa' ('will come in the

evening') in IP 'uh shaamii aaegaa.' (,He will come in the evening.'), or the VP

'kihaa kiLobiyal kall Poonajaaegaa' ('said that Lobiyal will go to Poona tomorrow')

in IP 'Girish ne kihaa ki Lobiyal kall Poona jaaegaa.' ('Girish said that Lobiyal will

go to Poona tomorrow.'), etc.).

A VP may be positive (the one that does not contain negation elements nahiinl

naa ('not'», negative (the one containing negation elements), or emphatic (the one

containing' emphatic words hii ('only'), bhii/ vii ('also') etc.). F4rther a VP may

contain both negation and emphatic words. In such a case, the negation word occurs

after the emphatic word.

A verb may be either a main verb (also called full or action verb) or the

auxiliary verb (like hai, sU, inflected for number and person). In case a VP has no

main verb, the Auxiliary verb acts as main. verb (head) of the phrase.

The main verb in a verb phrase is subcategorized into simple, conjunct and

compound verbs (Bhatia [1993: 85]). A simple verb consists of only one verbal root.

A conjunct verb consists of a Noun! Ad.i~ctive/ Pronoun! Adverb followed by Verbs

such as karnaa ('to do'), hoNaa ('to be'), aauNaa ('to come'), deNaa ('to give'),

laiNaa ('to take') (e.g. pasand ('choice') + karnaa ('to do') = pasand karnaa ('to

/ike'), pasand hoNaa ('to /ike'), pasand aauNaa ('to /ike'); cangaa ('good') +

karnaa = cangaa karnaa ('to cause someone to recover'), cangaa hoNaa ('to

recover'); aapNaa ('self) + karnaa = aapNaa karnaa ('to malce someone one's

own'), aapNaa hoNaa ('to become one's own');jaladii ('quickly') '+ karnaa = jaladii

karnaa ('to hurry'), jaladii hoNaa ('to be in a hurry'), etc.). Compound verbs (also

called serial verbs) involve a sequence of two or more verbs. The first verb in the

sequence is termed as the 'main' verb. The remaining verbs are called as explicators

124

(also referred as operators, auxiliaries, reinforcers, or vectors). The primary meaning

of the sentence is determined by the lexical meaning of the main verb. The' explicator

verbs add specific abstract meaning to the meaning of the main verb. The number of

verbs used as explicators is very limited (around a dozen or. so). The explicators

include aauNaa ('to come'), jaaNaa ('to go'), laiNaa ('to take'), deNaa ('to give'),

suttNaa ('to throw'), maarnaa ('to kill'), chaDDNaa ('to leave'), and baiThNaa ('to

sit'). Modal verbs (such as sakNaa ('to be able to'), cukkNaa ('to complete'), dassNaa

('to tell', hoNaa ('to be'), karnaa ('to do'), caahuNaa ('to want to'), caahiidaa

('ought to'), deNaa ('to give'), paiNaa ('to have to'), laiNaa ('to take'), aauNaa ('to

come'), etc. fall in this class of compound verbs. Therefore they are also treated as

explicators in' Punjabi grammatical literature (Bhatia [1993: 324-28], and Puar

[1990]). The compound verbs in a sentence provide information about the aspect,

mood and tense (Bhatia [1993: 272]). As far as the simple or conjunct verbs are

concerned there is no difficulty in handling them. The question comes how one will

handle the compound verbs. Radford takes Aspectual auxiliaries (denoting

Progressive be and Perfective have) as Specifiers ofVP (see, Radford [1988: 230-41]

and the references sighted therein). Radford [1988: 241] notes

though we should point out that by no means all X-bar syntacticians are

happy to treat Aspecluals as Specifiers which expand V-bar into V-double­

bar: some prefer to treat them as Verbs which head their own VP.

Radford presents different syntactic structures for the same example sentence 'He

might have been writing a letter.' involving a serial verb due to different works (see,

Radford [1988: 162-64,281-82], and the references sighted therein). If Aspect were to

be tr~ted as a Specifier of VP, then we would have to introduce the corresponding

'Aspect Phrase' in requirement with the Modifier Maximality Constraint. But, do we

really have the concept of an Aspect Phrase? If Aspectuals are" really different from

the main verb in a serial verb, then taking Aspectual (i.e. the auxiliary) as the head of

the VP will violate the Endocentricity Constraint. There is a difference of opinion

between different works regarding the head of a VP involving a serial verb. Warner

[1993: 22] states that auxiliary within such a VP is the head, and that the non­

auxiliary verb in VPs containing an auxiliary is not even a serious candidate for the

125

head. On the other hand, Napoli [1985: 293] asserts that the auxiliary cannot be the

head of a VP. In such a situation, itis really a difficult task to handle VPs involving

compound verbs which contain explicators giving information about tense, aspect and

mood. A possible alternative could be to handle explicators (denoting aspect, mood

and tense) in a compound verb within the syntactic analysis is by taking these

constituents as Adjuncts in the Verb Phrase, as they are optional constituents. Dorr

suggests that the non-lexical knowledge (i.e., the tense, aspect and mood) must be

handled separately within the semantic component, not within the syntactic

component (see Dorr [1991e, 1992b,c, 1993b: 319-50], Dorr and Gaasterland [1992],

Dorr and Lee [1992], and the references sighted therein). We intend to follow exactly

this approach and hence decide to limit this study to simple and conjunct verbs only.

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in a VP. The VPs

are shown "in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure) using

bracketed notation immediately following them.

(la) Dhaliwal [VP baRaa vadhiiaa cittarkaar hai].

Dhaliwal very. good painter IS

(,Dhaliwal is a very good painter.')

(1 b) [VP [V'[COMP [baRaa vadhiiaa cittarkaar]] [V hail]]

(2a) RaNii [vp baRii sohNii sii].

RaNii very beautiful was

(,RaNii was very beautiful. ')

" (2b) [VP [V'[COMP [baRii sohNii]] [V sii]]]

(3a) us dii caal [VP tej hai].

He GEN speed fast is

(,His speed is fast.')

126

(3b) [yp [V'[COMP tej] [v hai]]]

(4a) Gulshan [VP kamare vic hail.

Gulshan room III IS

('Gulshan is in the room.')

(4b) [VP [V'[COMP [kamare vic]] [V hai]]]

(5a) ih penn [VP Ram daa hai].

This pen Ram GEN is

('This pen is of Ram.')

(5b) [VP [V'[cOMP [Ram daa]] [V hai]]]

(6a) uh [VP shaamii sauvengaa].

he evening sleep-fut.ms

('He will sleep in the evening.')

(6b) [VP [V'[ADJNCT shaamii ] [V' [V sauvengaa]]]]

(7a) uh [VP ajj shaamii sauvengaa].

he today evening sleep-fut.ms

('He will sleep in the evening today.')

(7b) [VP [V'£ADJNCT ajj ] [V'[ADJNCT shaamii ] [V' [V sauvengaa]]]]]

(8a) uh [VP ajj shaamii jaavegaa].

he today evening go-fut.ms

(,He will go in the evening today.')

(8b) [VP [V'lADJNCT ajj ] [V'[ADJNCT shaamii] [V' [V jaavegaa]]]]]

(9a) uh [VP ajj do dinaa baad manje te sauvengaa].

127

he today two days after cot on sleep-fut.ms

(' He will sleep today on the cpt after two days.')

(9b) [Vp [V' £AnJNCT ajj] [V' [ADJNCT do dinaa baad] [V' [ADJNCT manje tel

[ V' [V sauvengaa ]]]]]]

(lOa) Suman ne [vp kall ikk sohNii ghaRii khariidii].

Suman ERG yesterday a beautiful watch buy-pst.fs

('Suman bought a beautiful watch yesterday.')

(lOb) [VP [V'£AnJNCT kall] [V' [COMP ikk sohNii ghaRii] [V khariidii]]]]

(11a) Suman ne [VP kall Navneet laii ikk sohNii ghaRii khariidii]..

Suman ERG yesterday Navneet for a beautiful watch buy-pst.fs

(,Suman bought Navneet a beautiful watch yesterday. ')

(lIb) [VP [V' [ADJNCT kaU] [V' [COMP Navneet laii] [V'

[COMP ikk sohNii ghaRii] [V khariidii]]]]]

(l2a) us ne [VP bazaar vic choTe bacce nuun ikk sunder kitaab dittii].

he ERG bazaar in small child DATa beautiful book give-pst.fs

(,He gave the small child a beautiful book in the bazaar.')

(l2b) [VP [V'[ADJNCT bazaar vic] [V' [COMP choTe bacce nuun] [V'

[COMP ikk sunder kitaab] [V dittii]]]]]

(l3a) us ne [yp ManindernuunciThii bhejii].

he ERG Maninder DA T letter send-pst.fs

(,He sent Maninder a letter.')

(13b) [Vp [V' [cOMP Maninder nuun] [V' [COMP ciThii] [V bhejii]]]]

(14a) us ne [vp Maninderlaii ciThii bhejii].

128

he ERG Maninder for letter send-pst.fs

(,He sent a letter for Maninder. ')

(I4b)[Vp [V' [COMP Maninder laii] [V' [cOMP ciThii] [V bhejii]]]]

(I5a) main [VP kall Jyoti ton Renu nuun ciThii bhijvaaii].

I yesterday Jyoti inst.pp Renu DAT letter send-caus-pst.fs

('I caused Jyoti to send Renu a letter yesterday.')

(I5b) [VP [V' lADJNCT kall] [V' [COMP Jyoti ton] [V' [COMP Renunuun] [V'

[COMP ciThii] [V bhijvaaii]]]]]]

(I6a) main [VP vii ihkitaab liaavaangaa].

I also this book bring-fut.ms

(' I shall also bring this book.')

(l6b) [VP [V' [ADJNCT vii] [V' [COMP ih kitaab] [V liaavaangaa]]]]

(l7a) main [VP vii kall ih kitaab liaavaangaa].

I also tomorrow this book bring-fut.ms

('I shall also bring this book tomorrow. ')

(l7b) [VP [V' [ADJNCT vii] [V' [ADJNCT kall] [V' [COMP ih kitaab]

[V liaavaangaa]]]]

(18a) Ravi [VP vii kall nahiin giaa].

Ravi also yesterday not go-pst.ms

(,Ravi also did not go yesterday. ')

(I8b) [VP [V' [ADJNCT vii] [V' [ADJNCT kall] [V' [ADJNCT nahiin]

[V' [V giaa]]]]]]

(19a) main [VP vii parson paark vic kulphii khaavaangaa].

129

I also day-after-tomorrow park in ice-cream eat-fut.ms

('I shall also eat ice-cream in the park day after tomorrow.')

(19b) [VP [V' [ADJNCTvii] [V' £ADJNCTparson] [V' £ADJNCTpaark vic]

[V' [COMP kulphii] [V khaavaangaa]]]]]]

(20a) us ne [VP dassiaa ki Ram kall aaegaa].

he ERG tell-pst that Ram tomorrow come-fut.ms

(,He told that Ram will come tomorrow.')

(20b) [VP [V'[V dassiaa] [COMP ki Ram kall aaegaa]]]

(21a) us ne [VP ajj Komila nuun dassiaa ki Ram kall aaegaa].

he ERG today Komila DAT tell-pst that Ram tomorrow come-fut.ms

('He told Komila that Ram will come tomorrow.')

(21b) [VP [V'[ADJNCT ajj] Iv' [COMP Komila nuun] [v' [v dassiaa]

[COMP ki Ram kall aaegaa]]]]]

As can be observed from above examples, there are no Specifiers in a VP.

The Adjuncts in a VP can be any of the Adverb Phrase (ADVP) (such as

shaamii ('in the evening'), ajj ('today'), kaJi (,yesterday/ tomorrow'), parson ('day

after tomorrow'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (6)-( 11), (15), (17)-(19), and

(21) above), Postpositional Phrase (PP) (like 'do dinaa baad' ('after two days'),

'manje Ie' ('on the cot'), 'bazaar vic' ('in the bazaar'), 'paark vic' ('in the park'), etc.)

(see, for example, the sentences.(9), (12), and (19) above), Emphatic Phrase (EMPP)

(like vii ('also'» (see, for example, the sentences (16)-(19) above), or Negation Phrase

(NEGP) (like nahiin ('noC» (see, for example, the sentence (18) above). Each of the

Adjuncts ADVP, PP, EMPP, and NEGP are head-first. We have already discussed the

PP. The details of ADVP, EMPP, and NEGP will be covered later in the following

sections.

130

The parameter settings for the Verb Phrase are summarized as follows. The

direction of each of the Specifier/ Adjunct is shown by an L or R within brackets

following the type of the Specifier/ Adjunct.

Verb Phrase <VP)

Number = 0

A~i~~.~:

Number = 4

Typel = ADVP (L) [/call ('yesterday/ tomorrow'), shaamii ('in the evening'), ajj

('today'), parson Cday after tomorrow'), etc.]

. Type2 = PP (L) ['mez uppar' ('on the table'). 'baag vic' ('in the garden'), 'do

dinaa baad' Cafter two days'), 'manje thalle' (,under the cot'),

etc.]

Type3 = NEGP (L) [nahiin Cno1'), etc.]

Type4 = EMPP (L) [vii ('also'), bhii ('too'), etc.]

4.6 The Case Phrase (CASEP)

A Case Phrase (CASEP) is a phrase having a CASE as its head and other optional

satellites namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). A Case Phrase typically

functions as a Specifier in a Noun Phrase (NP) (such as, for example, the CASEP

'Mohan daa' ('Mohan's') in NP 'Mohan daa bharaa' ('Mohan's brother'), the

CASEP 'merii choTii kuRU daa' ('my younger daughter's') in NP 'merii choTii kuRii

daa munDaa' ('my younger daughter's son'), etc.), as a Specifier in an Inflectional

Phrase (lP), as will be seen later, (such as, for example, the CASEP 'Ram ne' ('Ram')

in IP 'Ram ne kitaab khariidii' ('Ram bought a book.'), the CASEP 'merii choTii

kuRii ne' ('my younger daughter') in IP 'merii choTii kuRii ne kitaab khariidii' ('My

younger daughter bought a book. '), the CASEP 'merii vaDDii bhaiN de munde ne'

('my elder sister's son') in IP 'merii vaDDii bhaiN de munde ne kitaab khariidii' ('My

elder sister's son bought a book.'), etc.), as a Complement in an NP (such as, for

example, the CASEP 'Taiksaan daa' (,abolition of') in NP 'Taiksaan daa khaatmaa'

131

(,abolition of taxes'», as a Complement in a VP (such as, for example, the CASEP

'Ram daa' ('of Ram') in VP 'Ram daa hai' ('is of RAM'), the CASEP 'choTe bacce

nuun' ('to a small child') in VP 'bazaar vic choTe bacce nuun ikk sunder kitaab

dilti;', etc.), and as a Complement in a PP (such as, for example, the CASEP 'Mohan

de' ('Mohan') in PP (,Mohan de kolon') (,from Mohan'), the CASEP 'terii vaDDii .

bhaiN de munde de' ('your elder sister's son') in PP 'ter;; vaDDii bhaiNde munde de

baare' ('about your elder sister's son', etc.). We have identified three Case markers

namely daa (GEN), ne (ERG), and nuun (DATI ACC), and treat them separately from

the rest of the Postpositions for the reasons mentioned earlier. As remarked earlier, the

Case markers must be handled differently from the Prepositions! Postpositions

(Jackendoff [1977: 80-81], and Gill and Gleason [1962: 54-5])~ The handling of Case

Phrase in this study is based on the treatment of Case Phrase as introduced by

Berwick and Fong for Warlpiri language (Berwick and Fong [1990: 302]).

Let us considet some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in a CASEP. The

CASEPs are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar

structure) using bracketed notation immediately following them.

(1a) [CASEP Mohan daa] bharaa bahut hushiaar hai.

Mohan GEN brother very intelligent is

(' Mohan's brother is very intelligent.')

(lb) [CASEP [CASE' [COMP Mohan] £CASE daa]]]

(2a) [CASEP merii choTii kuRii daa] munDaa bahut hushiaar hai.

my younger daughter GEN son very intelligent is

(,My younger daughter's son is very intelligent.')

(2b) [CASEP £CASE' [cOMP merii choTii kuRii] £CASE daa]]]

(3a) [CASEP Ram ne] kitaab khariidii.

Ram ERG book buy-pst.fs

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(,Ram bought a book.')

(3b) [cASEP [CASE' [cOMP Ram] [cASE ne]]]

(4a) [CASEP merii choTii kuRii ne] kitaab khariidii.

my younger daughter ERG book buy-pst.fs

(,My younger daughter bought a book. ')

(4b) [CASEP [cASE' [cOMP meriichoTii kuRii] [CASE nell]

(5a) [CASEP merii vaDDii bhaiN de munde ne] kitaab khariidii.

my elder sister GEN son ERG bookbuy-pst.fs

(,My elder sister's son bought a book. ')

(5b) [CASEP [CASE' [COMP merii vaDDii bhaiN de munde] [cASE ne]]]

(6a) [cASEP Taiksaan daa] khaatmaajaruurii hai.

taxes GEN abolition essential is

(,The abolition of taxes is essential. ')

(6b) [CASEP [CASE' [cOMP Taiksaan] [cASE daa]]]

(7a) ih kitaab [CASEP Ram dii] hai.

this book Ram GEN is

('This book is of RAM. ')

(7b) [CASEP [CASE' [cOMP Ram] [cASE dii]]]

(8a) Navneet ne [CASEP Diipe nuun] khiDaauNaa dittaa.

Navneet ERG Diipe DA T toy give-pst.ms

('Navneet gave Diipe a toy. ')

(8b) [CASEP [CASE' [cOMP'Diipe] [cASE nuun]]]

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(9a) main [CASEP Mohan de] kolon terii kitaab lavaangaa.

1 Mohan GEN from your book take-fut.ms

('I shall take your book from Mohan.')

(9b) (CASEP [cASE' [COMP Mohan] [cASE de]]]

(lOa) us ne Komila nuun [cASEP Ram de] baare dassiaa.

he ERG Komila ACC Ram GEN about tell-pst

('She told Komila about Ram.')

(lOb) [CASEP [cASE' [cOMP Ram] [CASE de]]]

From above sample sentences, we observe that a Case Phrase has no Specifiers

and Adjuncts.

The parameter settings for the Case Phrase are summarized as follows.

Case Phrase (CASEP)

.~p~.~.i.f!~r:

Number = 0

A~J~~.~~:

Number = 0

4.7 The Adverb Phrase (ADVP) An Adverb PhraSe (ADVP) is a phrase having an Adverb (ADV) as its head and other

optional satellites namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). An Adverb

Phrase typically acts as a Complement in a Verb Phrase (VP), as an Adjunct in an

Adjectival Phrase (ADJP), as a Specifier in a· Postpositional Phrase (PP), as an

Adjunct in a Verb Phrase (VP), as an Adjunct in an Inflectional Phrase (IP), and as a

Specifier in Determiner Phrase (DETP) (for examples, consult the sections on

134

respective phrases).

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in an ADVP. The

ADVPs are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure)

using bracketed notation immediately following them.

(la) Ram [ADVP andar] hai.

Ram inside is

('Ram is inside.')

(l b) [ADVP [ADV' [ADvandar]]]

(2a) us dii caal [ADVP tej] hai.

he GEN speed fast is

(,His speed is fast. ')

(2b) [ADVP [ADV' [ADV tej]]]

(3a) uh [ADVP bilkul] muurkh hai.

he absolutely foolish is

('He is absolutely foolish.)'

(3b) [ADVP [ADV' [ADV bilkul]]]

(4a) uh [ADVP ikkdaml Thiik] mere pichche aa rahii sii. .

she exactly/ precisely/ me after coming was

(,She was coming exactly/precisely after me. ')

(4b) [ADVP £ADV' [ADV ikkdaml Thiik]]]

(5a) usde maape £ADvp ikkdam] Tuurde

his parents totally tour GEN

135

virudhdh san.

against were

(,His parents were totally against the tour.')

(5b) [ADVP [my' [my ikkdam]]]

(6a) uh [ADVP shaamii] sauvengaa.

he evening sleep-fut.ms

('He will sleep in the evening.')

(6b) [ADvp [ADV' [ADV shaamii]]]

(7a) uh [ADVP ajj]· do dinaa baad manje te sauvengaa.

he today two days after cot on sleep-fut.ms

('He will sleep today on the cot after two days.')

(7b) [ADVP [ADV' [ADvajj]]]

(8a) main vii [ADVP kall] ih kitaab liaavaangii.

I also tomorrow this book bring-fut.fs

(,I shall also bring this book tomorrow.')

(8b) [ADVP lADY' [ADV kall]]]

(9a) main vii [ADVP parson] paark vic kulphii khaavaangii.

I also day-after-tomorrow park in ice-crearn eat-fut.fs

(,I shall also eat ice-cream in the park day after tomorrow.')

(9b) [ADVP [my' [ADV parson]]]

(10a) main [ADVP kall] Jyoti ton Renu nuun ciThii bhijvaaii.

I. yesterday Jyoti inst.pp Renu DA T letter send-caus-pst.fs

('I caused Jyoti to send Renu a letter yesterday.')

(lOb) [ADVP lADy' lADy kall]]]

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(Ila) [ADVP kall] usne Mohan nuun ikk sunder ki~b dittii].

yesterday he ERG Mohan DATa beautiful bo'ok give-pst.fs

('Yesterday, he gave Mohan a beautiful book.')

(11 b) [ADVP [ADV' [ADV kall]]]

From above sentences, we observe that an Adverb Phrase has no Specifiers

and Adjuncts.

The parameter settings for the Adverb Phrase are summarized as follows.

Adverb Phrase (ADVP)

Number = 0

Number = 0

4.8 The Determiner Phrase (DETP)

A Determiner Phrase (DETP) is a phrase having a Determiner (DET) as its head and

other optional satellites namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) andComplement(s). A

Determiner Phrase typically acts as a Specifier in a Noun pIJase (NP), and as a I

Specifier in a Postpositional Phrase (PP) (for examples, consUlt the sections on

respective phrases). The treatment of Determiner Phrase presentoo here is based on

that given in Radford (Radford [1988: 263-64]).

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in a DETP. The

DETPs are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure)

using bracketed notation immediately following them.

137

(la) [nETP ih/ meraa] baccaa bimaar hai.

this/ my child sick IS

('This !My child is sick.')

(1 b) [nETP [nET' [nET ihl meraa]]]

(2a) huN [nETP ikk] baccaa giit gaaegaa.

now a child song sing-fut.ms

('Now, a child will sing a song. ')

(2b) [DETP [nET' [nET ikk]]]

(3a) [nETP kujh] bacce huN giit gaauNge.

some children now song sing-fut.mp

('Some children will sing songs now. ')

(3b) [nETP [nET' [nET kujh]]]

(4a) [nETP inaah] kitaabaan te Taiksaan daa khaatmaajaruurii hai.

these books on taxes of abolition essential is

('The abolition of taxes on these books is essential. ')

(4b) [DETP [nET' [nET inaah]]]

(5 a) us tie [nETP do] projaikTaan dii riporTjamhaan-kiitii.

he ERG two projects of report submitted

('He submitted the report of two projects.')

(5b) [DETP [nET' [nET do]]]

(6a) [DETP is] thiuuram daa sabuut bahut mushkil hai.

this theorem of proof very difficult is

(,The proof of this theorem is very difficult. ')

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(6b) [OETP [OET' [OET is]]]

(7a) [OETP balki/ lagbhag saare] bacce gairhaajar san.

rather/ nearly/ all children absent were

('Rather/Nearly all children were absent.')

(7b) [OETP [SPEC balki/ lagbhag] [OET' [OET saare]]]

(8a) [OETP sirph (keval)/ takriiban tinn] bacce gairhaajar san.

only/ approximately three children absent were

('Only/ Approximately three children were absent.')

(8b) [OETP [SPEC sirph (keval)/ takriiban] [OET' [OET tinn]]]

(9a) us ne [OETP bilkul inaah] satraan te jaavaab-dittaa

he ERG essentially these lines on answer-pst

('He answered on essentially these lines.')

(9b) [OETP [SPEC bilkul] [DET' [OET inaah]]]

(lOa) caaabii [DETP aain] khuunje vic sii.

key right comer in was

('The key was right in the comer. ')

(lOb) [DETP [OET' [DET aain]]]

(11a) uh [OETP aain] mere pichche aa-rahii sii.

she right me after corning was

(,She was coming right after me.')

(lIb) [OETP [OET' [OETaain]]]

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From above examples, we observe that the Specifier in a DETP can be an

Adverb Phrase (ADVP) (such as lagbhag ('nearly'), sirph/ keval ('only'), takriiban

('approximately'), bi/leul ('essentially', balld ('rather'), etc.) (see, for example, the

sentences, (7), (8), and (9) above). This Specifier is head-firsL

There are no Adjuncts in a Determiner Phrase.

The parameter settings for the Determiner Phrase are summarized as follows.

The direction of the Specifier is shown within brackets following the type of the

Specifier.

Determiner Phrase IDETP)

~p~<?i.f~~~:

Number = I

Typel = ADVP (L) [Iagbhag ('nearly'), sirphl keval ('only'), takriihan

('approximately'), bilkul ('essentially')~ halki ('rather'), etc.]

A~i~<?~~:

Number = 0

4.9 The Conjunct Phrase (CONJP)

A Conjunct Phrase (CONJP) is a phrase having a Conjunct (CONJ) as its head and

other satellites namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). A Conjunct Phrase

typically acts as a Specifier in an .Inflectional Phrase (lP) (for example, the CONJP

'Ram ate Sham' ('Ram and Sham') in IP 'Ram ate Sham bahut hushiaar han' ('Ram

and Sham are very intelligent.'», and as a Complement in a Case Phrase (CASEP)

(for example, the CONJP 'Ram te Sham' ('Ram and Sham') in CASEP 'Ram te Sham

ne' ('Ram and Sham' in ERG Case) in 'Ram te Sham ne leulphii khaadhii' ('Ram and

Sham ate the ice-cream.'), the CONJP 'Ram te Sham' ('Ram and Sham') in CASEP

'Ram te Sham daa' ('Ram and Sham's'), or the CONJP 'Ramjaan Sham' ('Ram or

Sham') in CASEP 'Ram jaan Sham nuun' ('to Ram or Sham'), etc.). The treatment of

Conjunct Phrase presented here is based on the one given in Larson (see Larson

140

[1990: 596] and the references sighted therein).

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in a CONJP. The

CONJPs are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar

structure) using bracketed notation immediately following them.

(la) [CONJP Ram te Sham] baRe hushiaar han.

Ram and Sham very intelligent are

('Ram and Sham are very intelligent.')

(lb) [CONJP [SPEC Ram] (cONJ' [CONJ tel [COMP Sham]]]

(2a) [CONJP meraa munDaa ate usdii choTii kuRii] pakke dosat han.

my son and her younger daughter fast friends are

(' My son and her younger daughter are fast friends.')

(2b) [CONJP [SPEC meraa munDaa] [CONJ' (cONJ ate]

[CaMP usdii choTii kuRii]]]

(3a) [CONJP Ram te Sham] daa bharaa baRaa samajhdaar hai.

Ram and Sham GEN brother very wise IS

('Ram and Sham's brother is very wise.')

(3b) [CONJP [SPEC Ram] [CONJ' [CONJ tel [COMP Sham]]]

(4a) ih phuThaal (cONJP Ram te Sham] daa hai.

this football Ram and Sham GEN is

('This football is of Ram and Sham.')

(4b) [CONJP [SPEC Ram] [CONJ' [CONJ tel [caMP Sham]]]

(Sa) [cONJP Ram ate Sham] ne kulphii khaadhii.

141

Ram and Sham ERG ice-cream eat-pst.fs

('Ram and Sham ate the ice-cream.')

(5b) [cONJP [SPEC Ram] [CONJ' [cONJ ate] [cOMP Sham]]]

(6a) us ne [CONJP Ramjaan Sham] nuun kitaab dittii.

He ERG Ram or Sham DAT book give-pst.fs

('He gave Ram or Sham the book.')

(6b) [cONJP [SPEC Ram] [CONJ' [cONJ jaan] [COMP Sham]]]

From above examples, we observe that a CONJP has Noun Phrase (NP) as a

Specifier (such as Ram ('Ram'), DaakTar (,doctor'), 'meraa muriDaa' ('my son'),

'usd;; choT;; kuR;;' ('her younger daughter'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences

(1 )-( 6) above). This Specifier is head-first.

There are no Adjuncts in a Conjunct Phrase.

Note that both of Specifier and Complement in a Conjunct Phrase are of the

same type and none of them is optional.

The parameter settings for the Conjunct Phrase are summarized as follows.

The direction of the Specifier is shown within brackets following the type of the

Specifier.

Conjunct Phrase (CONJP)

.~~i~~~:

Number = 1

Typel = NP (L) [Ram ('Ram'), 'meraa munDaa' ('my son'), 'usdU choTii .

kuRU' ('her younger daughter'), etc.]

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Number = 0

4.10 The Quantifier Phrase (QP)

A Quantifier Phrase (QP) is a phrase having a Quantifier (Q) as its head and other

optional satellites namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). A Quantifier

Phrase typically acts as a Specifier in an Adjectival Phrase (ADJP) (for ex~ples, see

the section on ADJP).

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in a QP. The QPs

are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure) using

bracketed notation immediately following them.

(la) kuRii [QP bahut] sohNii hai.

girl very beautiful is

(,The girl is very beautiful. ')

(lb) [QP [Q' [Q bahut]]]

(2a) Meenaa [QP innii] moTii hai.

Meenaa this fat IS

('Meenaa is this fat.')

(2b) [QP [Q' [Q innii]]]

. (3a) Meenaa [QP ghaTT] moTii hai.

Meenaa less fat IS

(,Meenaa is less fat. ')

143

(4a) uh [QP balki kaaphiil thoRiil bahutl innii] moTii hai.

she rather quite/ less/ very/ this fat IS

(,She is rather quite/ less/ very/ this fat.')

(4b) [QP [SPEC balki] [Q' [Q kaaphiil thoRiil bahutl innii]]] .

(5a) main nuun [QP balkil lagbhagl takrii~anI bilkull keval innii ]

I ACC rather/ nearly/ approximately/ precisely/ only this

patalii painsil caahiidii hai.

thin pencil want-prst.fs is

(,I want rather/ nearly/ approximately/ precisely/ only this thin pencil.')

(5b) [QP [SPEC balki/ lagbhag/ takriibanl bilkull keval] [Q' [Q innii]]]

From above examples, we observe that the Specifier in a QP can be an Adverb

Phrase (ADVP) (such as balki ('rather'), lagbhag ('nearly'), lakriiban

('approximately'), bi/kul (,precisely'), keval ('only'), etc.) (see, for example, the

sentences (4) and (5) above). This Specifier is head-first.

There are no Adjuncts in a Quantifier Phrase.

The parameter settings for the Quantifier Phrase are summarized as follows.

The direction of the Specifier is shown within brackets following the type of the

Specifier.

Ouantifier Phrase lOP)

Number = 1

Typel = ADVP (L) [balld (,rather'), lagbhag ('nearly'), lakriiban

('approximately'), hi/kul ('precisely'), keval ('only'), etc.]

144

b~J~~~:

Number = 0

4.11 The Negation Phrase (NEGP)

A Negation Phrase (NEGP) is a phrase having a Negation (NEG) as its head and other

optional satellites namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). A Negation

Phrase (NEGP) typically acts as an Adjunct in a Verb Phrase (VP) (for examples, see

the section on VP).

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in a NEGP. The

NEGPs are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure)

using bracketed notation immediately following them ..

(la) Ravi kall shahir [NEGP nahiin] giaa.

Ravi yesterday city not go-pst.ms

('Ravi did not go to the city yesterday. ')

(1 b) [NEGP [NEG' [NEG nahiin]]]

(2a) us ne dassiaa ki Ram kall [NEGP nahiin] aaegaa.

he ERG tell-pst that Ram tomorrow not come-fut.ms

(,He told that Ram will not come tomorrow.')

(2b) [NEGP [NEG' [NEG nahiin]]]

(3a) us ne Satbir nuun sakuul [NEGP naf naa] aauN laii kihaa.

he ERG Satbir ACC school not come-inf.obl for say-pst

('He asked Satbir not to come to school. ')

(3b) [NEGP [NEG' [NEG nal naa]]]

145

(4a) us ne Ram nuun dillii [NEGP naf naa] jaaN . dii salaah-dittii.

he ERG Ram ACC Delhi not go-inf.obl GEN suggest-pst

('He suggested Ram not to go to Delhi.')

(4b) [NEGP [NEG' [NEG naf naa]]]

(5a) Ram daa uthe [NEGP naa] jaaNaa Thiik hai.

Ram GEN there not go-inf right is

('it is right for Ram not to go there.')

(5b) [NEGP [NEG' [NEG naa]]]

(6a) maan ne amb [NEGP nahiin] liaande.

mother ERG mangoes not bring-pst

('The mother did not bring mangoes.')

(6b) [NEGP [NEG' [NEG nahiin]]]

(7a) main amb [NEGP nahiin] khaavaangii.

mangoes not eat-fut.fs

(,I shall not eat mangoes.')

(7b) [NEGP [NEG' [NEG nahiin]]]

From above examples, we observe that there are no Specifiers and Adjuncts in

a Negation Phrase.

The parameter settings for the Negation Phrase are summarized below.

Neeation Phrase (NEGP)

~~.iJ!~~:

Number = 0

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Number = 0

4.12 The Emphatic Phrase (EMPP)

An Emphatic Phrase (EMPP) is a phrase having an Emphatic word (EMP) as its head

and other optional satellites namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). An

Emphatic Phrase (EMPP) typically acts as an Adjunct in a Verb Phrase (VP) (for

examples, see the section on VP).

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in an EMPP. The I

EMPPs are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure)

using bracketed notation immediately following them.

(I a) main [EMPP viii bhii] kall ih kitaab liaavaangaa.

also tomorrow this book ~ring-fut.ms

('I shall also bring this book tomorrow.')

(1 b) [EMPP [EMP' [EMP viii bhii]]]

(2a) Ravi [EMPP vii] kall nahiin glaa.

Ravi also yesterday not go-pst.ms

('Ravi also did not go yesterday. ')

(2b) [EMPP [EMP' [EMP-vii]]]

(3a) main [EMPP bhii] ih kitaab kall khariidaangii.

1 also this book tomorrow buy-fut.fs

('I shall also buy this book tomorrow.')

.(3b) [EMPP [EMP' [EMP bhii]]]

147

(4a) main kaH [EMPP viii bhii] pikcar dekhaangii.

I tomorrow too movie see-fut.fs

('I shall see the movie tomorrow, too. ')

(4b) [EMPP [EMP' [EMP viii bhii]]]

From above examples, we observe that there are no Specifiers and Adjuncts in

an Emphatic Phrase.

The parameter settings for the Emphatic Phrase are summarized below.

Emphatic Phrase <EMPP)

.~~.~.iJ~~~:

Number = 0

A4J~~.~~:

Number = 0

4.13 The Inflectional Phrase (IP)

An Inflectional Phrase (lP) is a phrase having the non-lexical element Inflection (I) as

its head and other optional satellites namely Specifier, Adjunct(s) and Complement(s).

The inflectional Phrase corresponds to what is referred as the declarative sentence in

traditional studies on grammar. An Inflectional Phrase (lP) typically acts as an

Adjunct in a Noun Phrase (NP) (for example, the IP 'jo gii/ gaaegaa' (,who will sing

a song') in NP 'mundaajo gUt gaaegaa' ('the boy who will sing a song'), the IP 'jis

ne caaval nahiin khaadhe' ('who did not take rice') in NP 'kuRU jis ne caaval nahUn

khaadhe' ('the girl who did not take rice'), the IP 'jo parinciipal kolon inaam laegaa'

('who will receive the prize from principal') in NP 'uh vidiaarthii jo parinciipal kolon

inaam /aegaa' ('that student who will receive the prize from principal'), etc.), and as a

Complement in the Complementizer Phrase (CP), as shall be seen in the next section.

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the parameter

148

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in an IP. The IPs

are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure) using

bracketed notation immediately following them. The element 'e' denotes the empty

head I which indicates that there is no lexical item corresponding to I. This is

compatible with Dorr [1993b].

(la) IIp Mohan DaakTar hail·

Mohan doctor IS

('Mohan is a doctor. ')

(l b) [IP [SPEC Mohan] [I' [COMP DaakTar hail [I [ell]]

(2a) IIp lagbhag saare bacce ~ gairhaajar san].

nearly all children absent were

('Nearly all children were absent. ')

(2b) IIp [SPEC lagbhag saare bacce] [I' [COMP gairhaajar san] [I [ell]]

(3a) [IP main kall Jyot'i ton Renu nuun ciThii bhijvaaii].

I yesterday Jyoti from Renu DA T letter send-caus-pst.fs

('1 caused Jyoti to send Renu a letter yesterday. ')

(3b) [IP [SPEC main] [I' [COMP kall Jyoti ton Renu nuun ciThii bhijvaaii] [I [e]]]]

(4a) IIp inaah kitaabaan te Taiksaan daa khaatmaajaruurii hai].

these books on taxes of abolition essential is

('The abolition of taxes on these books is essential.')

(4b) IIp [SPEC inaah kitaabaan te Taiksaan daa khaatmaa] [I' [COMP jaruurii hail

[I [ell]]

(Sa) IIp uh aainI Thiik samen te saaDe ghar pahunciaa].

he right! precisely time on our home reach-pst.ms

149

('He reached our home right! precisely in time. ')

(5b) hp [SPEC uh] [I' [COMP aainI Thiik samen te saaDe ghar pahunciaa]

h [e]]]]

(6a) [IP Ram kitaabaan daa shaukiin hai].

Ram books of fond IS

('Ram is fond of books.')

(6b) hp [SPEC Ram] [I' [cOMP kitaabaan daa shaukiin hail h [e]]]]

(7a) hp uh balki kaaphiil thoRiil bahut! innii moTii hai].

she rather quite/ less/ very/ this fat IS

('She is rather quite/ less/ very/ this fat. ')

(7b) [IP [SPEC uh] [I' [cOMP balki kaaphii/ thoRii/ bahut! innii moTii hail

h [elm

(8a) hp main ajj shaamii nahiin sauvaangaa].

I today evening not sleep-fut.ms

('I shall not sleep in the evening today. ')

(8b) [IP [SPEC main] [I' [cOMP ajj shaamii nahiin sauvaangaa] h [ell]]

(9a) fIp uh ajj do dinaa baad manje te sauvengaa).

he today two days after cot on sleep-fut.ms

('He will sleep today on the cot after two days. ')

(9b) hp [SPEC uh] [I' [COMP ajj do dinaa baad manje te sauvengaa] h [ell]]

(lOa) hp merii choTii kuRii daa munDaa bahut hushiaar hai].

my younger daughter GEN son very intelligent is

(,My younger daughter's son is very intelligent. ')

150

(1Ob) hp [SPEC merii choTii kuRii daa munDaa] [I' [cOMP bahut hushiaar hail

[I [ell]]

(Ila) [IP main vii parson paark vic kulphii khaavaangii] . I

I also day-after-tomorrow park in ice-cream eat-fut.fs

('I shall also eat ice-cream in the park day after tomorrow. ')

(II b) [IP [SPEC main] [I' [cOMP vii parson paark vic kulphii khaavaangii] h [e ]]]]

(I2a) [Jp uh vidiaarthiijo parinciipal kolon inaam laegaa Remidaa

that student who principal from prize receive-fut.ms Renu of

bhaaii hai].

brother is. I

('That student who will receive the prize from principal is Renu's brother.')

(12b) hp [SPEC uh vidiaarthiijo parinciipalkolon inaam laegaa] h' [COMP Renu daa bhaaii hail [I [e]]]]

(13a) hpmerii choTii kaalii billii jisdii puuch b&Rii moTii hai bahut

my small black cat whose tail very fat

sharaartii hai].

naughty is

IS very

('My small black cat whose tail is very fat is very naughty. ')

(13b) IIp [SPEC merii choTii kaalii billiijisdii puuch baRii moTii hail [I' I

[COMP bahut sharaartii hail h [ell]] I

(14a) IIp Ram daa bharaa, Lachaman, baRaa mahaan yodhaa sii].

Ram of brother Laxman very great warnor was

('Ram's brother, Laxman, was a great warrior.')

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(I4b) bp [SPEC Ram daa bharaa, Lachaman] [I' [COMP baRaa mahaan yodhaa sii]

[I [e]]]]

(l5a) bp Suman ne kall ikk sohNii ghaRii khariidii].

Suman ERG yesterday a beautiful watch buy-pst.fs

('Suman bought a beautiful watch yesterday.')

(I5b) [IP [SPEC Suman ne] [I' [cOMP kall ikk sohNii ghaRii khariidii] b [ell]]

(16a) [IP merii cho Tii kuRii ne . kitaab khariidii].

my younger daughter ERG book buy-pst.fs

('My younger daughter bought a book. ')

(16b) hp [SPEC merii choTii kuRii ne] [I' [cOMP kitaab khariidii] h [em]

(17a) hp us ne Ramjaan Sham nuun kitaab dittii].

he ERG Ram or Sham DA T book give-pst.fs

(,He gave Ram or Sham the book. ')

(17b) IIp [SPEC us ne] [I' [COMP Ram jaan Sham nuun kitaab dittii] [I [e]]]]

(18a) IIp us ne dassiaa ki Ram kall nahiin aaegaa].

he ERG tell-pst that Ram tomorrow not come-fut.ms

(,He told that Ram will not come tomorrow. ')

(ISb) IIp [SPEC us ne] [I' lcOMP dassiaa ki Ram kall nahiin aaegaa] 1I [ell]]

(l9a) IIp us ne aJJ Komila nuun dassiaa ki Ram kall aaegaa]. I

he ERG today Komila DA T tell-pst that Ram tomorrow come-fut.ms

(,He told Komila today that Ram will come tomorrow. ')

(l9b) [yp [SPEC us ne] [I' [COMP ajj Komila nuun dassiaa ki Ram kall aaegaa]

[I [ell]]

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(20a) bp us ne Komila nuun Ram de baare dassiaa].

he ERG Komila ACC Ram GEN about tell-pst

('She told Komila about Ram.')

(20b) [IP [SPEC us ne] [I' [COMP Komila nuun Ram de baare dassiaa] h [elm

(21a) hp us ne botal de naal

he ERG bottle GEN with

('He drink milk with a bottle.')

dudh piitaa].

milk drink -pst.ms

(2Ib) hp [SPEC us ne] [I' [cOMP botal de naal dudh piitaa] h [e]]]]

(22a) (Jp us ne Mohan nuun do panj fuT lamiiaan painsilaan dittiiaan].

he ERG Mohan DA T two five feet long pencils give-pst.ms

(He gave Mohan two five feet long pencils.')

(22b) hp [SPEC us ne] [I' [COMP Mohan nuundo panj fuT lamiiaan painsilaan

dittiiaan] [I [e]]]]

(23a) hp·Ram ate Sham ne kulphii khaadhii].

Ram and Sham ERG ice-cream eat-pst.fs

('Ram and Sham ate the ice-cream.')

(23b) [IP [SPEC Ram ate Sham ne] [I' [COMP kulphii khaadhiilh [ell]]

(24a) [yp Ram te Sham baRe hushiaar han].

Ram and Sham very intelligent are

('Ram and Sham are very intelligent.')

(24b) [yp {SPEC Ram te Sham] [1' [cOMP baRe hushiaar han] [y [ell]]

(25a) [yp meraa munDaa ate usdii cho Tii kuRii bahut pakke dosat han].

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my son and her younger daughter very fast friends are

('My son and her younger daughter are very fast mends. ')

(25b) [IP [SPEC meraa munDaa ate usdii cho Tii kuRii] [I'

[COMP bahut pakke dosat han] [I [e]]]]

(26a) [IP Ram te Sham ajj aauNge].

Ram and Sham today come-fut.mp

('Ram and Sham will come today.')

(26b) hp [SPEC Ram te Sham] h' [COMpajj aauNge] h [e]]]]

(27a) IIp Ram te Sham kaIl bazaar vicon kitaabaan

Ram and Sham tomorrow bazaar from books

(,Ram and Sham will come tomorrow. ')

khariidaNge ].

bUY7fut.mp

(27b) IIp [SPEC Ram te Sham] [I' [COMP kall bazaar vicon kitaabaan ,

. khariidaNge] h [elm

(28a) [IP katl us ne Mohan nuun ikk sunder kitaab dittii].

yesterday he ERG Mohan DATa beautiful book give-pst.fs

('Yesterday, he gave Mohan a beautiful book.')

(28b) (Jp lADJNCT katl] hp [SPEC us ne] [I' [COMP Mohan nuun ikk sunder

kitaab dittii] h eel]]]]

(29a) hp huN, mere choTe bharaa daa mundaa giit gaaegaa].

now my younger brother of son song smg-fut.ms

('Now~ my younger brother's son will sing a song. ')

(29b) hp lADJNCT huN] hp [SPEC mere choTe bharaa daa mundaa] [I"

[COMP giit gaaegaa] h [elm]

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(30a) [IP haan, Ram nahiin aaegaa].

yes Ram not come-fut.ms

(,Yes, Ram will not come.')

(30b) [IP [ADJNCT haan] [IP [SPEC Ram] [I' [COMP nahiinaaegaa] h [ell]]]

(31a) [IP aaho/ haan, ajj Ram aaegaa].

yes today Ram come-fut.ms

(,Yes, Ram will come today.')

(31b) [IP [ADJNCtaahO/haan] [IP [mJNCTajj] [Ip [SPEC Ram] [I'

[cOMP aaegaa] h [e]]]]]]

(32a) [IP nahiin, savere Ram aaegaa].

no in-the-moming Ram come-fut.ms

(,No, in the morning Ram will come. ')

(32b) [IP [ADJNCT nahiin] IIp [ADJNCT savere] [IP [SPEC~] [I'

[COMP aaegaa] h [elm]]

(33a) IIp nahiin, ajj Ram nahiin aaegaa].

no today Ram not come-fut.ms

(,No, Ram will not come today.')

(33b) hp [ADJNCT nahiin] IIp lADJNCT ajj] [Ip [SPEC Ram] [I'

[COMP nahiin aaegaa] [I [e]]]]]]

From above examples, we observe that the Specifier in an IP can be a Noun

Phrase (NP) (such as, Mohan ('Mohan'), main ('1'), uh ('he'), 'lagbhag saare bacce'

('neearly all children'), 'inaah kitaabaan te Taiksaan daa khaatmaa' ('the abolition of

taxes on these books'), 'merii choTii kuRii daa munDaa' ('my younger daughter's

son'), 'uh vidiaarthii jo parinciipai kolon inaam laegaa' ('that student who will

receive the prize from principal'), 'merii choTii kaalii billii jisdii,puuch baRii moTU

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hai' ('my small black cat whose tail is very fat'), 'Ram daa bharaa, Lachaman'

('Ram's brother, Laxman'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (1)-(14) above), a

Case Phrase (CASEP) (such as, 'us ne' ('he' in ERG), 'Suman ne' ('Suman' in ERG),

'merii choTii kuRU ne' ('my younge~ daughter' in ERG), 'Ram ate Sham ne' ('Ram

and Sham' in ERG), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (15)-(23) above), or a

Conjunct Phrase (CONJP) (such as, 'Ram tel jaan Sham' ('Ram and! or Sham'),

'meraa munDaa ate usdii choTii kuRU' ('my son and her younger daughter'), etc.)

(see, for example, the sentences (24)-(27) above). Each of these Specifiers is head­

first.

There are no inner Adjuncts in an Inflectional Phrase. An Inflectional Phrase

can have an Adverb Phrase (ADVP) as its outer Adjunct (such as, kall ('yesterday/

tomorrow'), aJj ('today'), savere (,in-the-morning'), huN ('now'), aaho/ haan ('yes'),

nahiin ('no'), etc.) (see, for example, the sentences (28)-(33) above). This Adjunct is

always head-first i.e. left-branching.

The parameter settings for the Inflectional Phrase are summarized as follows.

The direction of the Specifier and outer Adjunct(s) is shown within brackets following

the type of the Specifier/ Adjunct.

Inflectional Phrase OP)

Number = 3

TypeI = NP (L) [Mohan ('Mohan'), main ('1'), uh ('he'), 'lagbhag saare bacce'

('neearly all children'), 'inaah kitaabaan te Taiksaan daa

khaatmaa' ('the abolition of taxes on these·· books '), 'meraa

choTaa bharaa' ('my younger brother'), 'merii choTii kuRU

daa munDaa' ('my younger daughter's son'), 'uh vidiaarthiijo

parinciipal kolon i1'}Dam laegaa' ('that student Who will receive

the prize from principal'), 'merii choTii kaalii billii jisdii puuch

baRiimoTii hai' ('my small black cat whose tail is very fat'),

'Ram daa bharaa, Lachaman' ('Ram's brother, Laxman'), etc.]

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Type2= CASEP(L) ['us ne' ('he' in ERG), 'Suman ne' ('Suman' in ERG), 'mer;;

choTii kuRii ne' ('my younger daughter' in ERG), 'merii

vaDDii bhaiN de munde ne' ('my elder sister's son' in ERG),

'Ram ate Sham ne' ('Ram and Sham' in ERG), etc.]

Type3 = CONJP(L) ['Ram tel jaan Sham' ('Ram and! or Sham'), 'meraa munDaa

ate usdii choTii kuRU' ('my son and her younger daughter'),

etc.]

A.4J~~.~:

Number = 1

Typel = ADVP (L) [kall ('yesterday/ tomorrow'), parson (,day-after-tomorrow'),

ajj (,today'), savere (,in-the-morning'), huN ('now'), aahol

haan ('yes'), nahiin ('no'), etc.]

4.14 The Complementizer Phrase (CP)

A Complementizer Phrase (CP) is a phrase having the non-lexical element

Complementizer (C) as its head and other optional satellites namely Specifier,

Adjunct(s) and Complement(s). A Complementizer Phrase corresponds either to a

yes-no question (like, for example, 'kii uh gariib hai?' ('Is he poor?'), 'k;; Ram

aaegaa?' ('Will Ram come?'), 'ldi Ram ne Komila nuun kitaab dill;;?' ('Did Ram

give Komila the book?'), 'kii lusiin ajj kahaaNii suNaavoge?' ('Will you tell a story

today?'), etc.), or to a clause headed by the Complementizer ki ('that') (such as, for

example, the embedded clause 'Id uh uthe jaavegii' (,that she will go there.') in

sentence ~Indira ne aakhiaa ki uh uthe jaavegii ' ('Indira said that she will go there. '),

the embedded clause 'Id uh daa bharaa kad aavegaa . • (,when his brother would

come.') in sentence 'Ram ne puchiaa Id uh daa bharaa kad aavegaa . • ('Ram asked

when his brother would come. '), etc.). In the latter case, the Complementizer Phrase

(CP) acts as a Complement in a Verb Phrase (VP) headed by the verbs such as

dassNaa ('to tell'), kahiNaa/ aakhNaa ('to say'),jikar karanaa ('to mention'), salaah

deNaa{'.to suggest'),jaanNaa ('to know'),puchchNaa ('to ask'), socNaa ('to think'),

etc. Observe that the type of sentence is determined by the nature of the

Complementizer. In case the Complementizer corresponds to yes-no question marker

'ldi' (referred as Q-word), the sentence is a yes-no interrogative sentence. If the

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Complementizer is 'Id' ('that') then the sentence is a declarative sentence i.e. the IP.

Let us consider some example sentences in Punjabi and find the. parameter

settings for each of Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter in a CP. The CPs

are shown in square brackets with their internal structure (i.e. X-bar structure) using

bracketed notation immediately following them.

(la) [cp kii uh gariib haiJ?

Q-word he poor IS

('Is he poor?')

(1 b) [CP [C' [C kiiJ [COMP uh gariib hai]]]?

(2a) [cp kii Ram aaegaa]?

Q-word Ram come-fut.ms

('Will Ram come?')

(2b) [cp [C' [C kii] [COMP Ram aaegaa]]]?

(3a) [CP kii Ramne Komila nuun kitaab dittii]?

Q-word Ram ERG Komila DA T book ,give~pst.fs

('Did Ram give Komila the book?')

(3b) [CP [C' [C kii] [COMP Ram ne Komila nuun kitaab dittii]]]?

(4a) [cp kii tusiin ajj kahaaNii suNaavoge]?

Q-word you today story tell-fut.ms

('Will you tell a story today?')

(4b) [cp [C' [C kii] [COMP tusiin ajj kahaaNii suNaavoge ]]]?

(5a) Girish ne kihaa [cp ki Lobiyal kal1 Poona jaaegaa].

Girish ERG say-pst that Lobiyal tomorrow Poona go-fut.ms

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('Girish said that Lobiyal will go to Poona tomorrow.')

(~b) [CP [C' [c ki] [COMP Lobiyal kall Poonajaaegaa]]]

(6a) Indira ne aakhiaa fep ki uh uthe jaavegii].

Indira ERG say-pst that she there go-fut.fs

('Indira said that she will go there.')

(6b) [cp [C' [c ki] [COMP uh uthe jaavegii]]]

(7a) Ram ne

Ram ERG

puchiaa [CP ki usdaa bharaa kad aavegaa].

ask-pst that his brother when come-fut.ms

CRam asked when his brother would come. ')

(7b) [CP [C' [C ki] [COMP usdaa bharaa kad aavegaa]]]

(8a) us ne dassiaa [cp ki Ram kall aaegaa].

he ERG tell-pst that Ram tomorrow come-fut.ms

CHe told that Ram will come tomorrow.')

(8b) [cp [C' [C ki] [COMP Ram kall aaegaa]]]

(9a) us ne dassiaa [CP ki Ram kall nahiin aaegaa].

he ERG tell-pst that Ram tomorrow not come-fut.ms

(,He told that Ram will not come tomorrow.') J

(9b) [cp IC' [C ki] [cOMP Ram kall nahiin aaegaa]]]

(l Oa)us ne aJJ Komila nuun dassiaa [CP ki Ram kall aaegaa]. I

he ERG today Komila OAT tell-pst that Ram tomorrow come-fut.ms

('He told Komila today that Ram will come tomorrow.')

(lOb) [CP [C' [C ki] [COMP Ram kall aaegaa]]]

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From above sample sentences, we observe that a Complementizer Phrase has

no Specifiers and Adjuncts.

The parameter settings for the Complementizer Phrase are summarized as

follows.

Complementizer Phrase (CP)

~p~.~m~~:

Number = 0

A~J~~~~~:

Number = 0

It may be observed that definitions of various phrases discussed above are highly

recursive (interactive) - e.g., IP may call CP, which may call IP which may call NP,

which in turn may call JP, and so on. This representation makes the grammar

compact, precise and more expressive in nature.

4.15 Conclusions

Keeping in conformity with three universal constraints namely the Endocentricity

Constraint, the Modifier Maximality Constraint and the Category Neutrality

Constraint, and also with the Binary Branching Requirement, the chapter worked out

the parameter settings for Punjabi for each of the Specifier Parameter and the Adjunct

Parameter associated with the X-bar rule schemata (In fact, the same parameter

settings are applicable to Hindi and we have also worked out parameter settings for

English on these lines with the hope to develop a generalized parser.). Each of the

Noun Phrase (NP), Adjectival Phrase (ADJP), Postpositional Phrase (PP), Verb

Phrase (VP), Case Phrase· (CASEP), Adverb Phrase (ADVP), Determiner Phrase

(DETP), Conjunct Phrase (CONJP), Quantifier Phrase (QP), Negation Phrase

(NEGP), Emphatic Phrase (EMPP), Inflectional Phrase (lP), and Complementizer

Phrase (CP) corresponding to their respective lexicall non-lexical heads is considered

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in tum. For each of these phrases, we considered a typical set of sample examples,

and, based on them, determined the parameter settings for each of the Specifier

Parameter and the Adjunct Parameter. This amounted to discover the possible number

of values a Specifier/ Adjunct (inner or outer) can assume along with their types and

directions. The parameter settings for each of the phrases considered are summarized

to make them readily available for later use in the parser. Only the Noun Phrase and

the Inflectional Phrase are found to have outer Adjuncts. Due to difference of opinion

regarding the handling of information about tense, aspect and mood associated with

compound (serial) verbs in different works, we decided to limit the study to simple

and conjunct verbs only. The parameter settings worked out in this chapter along with

the Argument Structure for various lexical and non-lexical items (considered in

Chapter 3) and the X-bar rule schemata gives us the grammar for Punjabi. As one can

observe, there are only three parameters namely the Complement Parameter

(discussed in Chapter3), the Specifier Parameter, and the Adjunct Parameter with a

limited set of values for each phrase. Moreover, the definitions of various phrases

considered in this chapter can be seen to be highly recursive. This makes the grammar

compact, precise and more expressive in nature and eliminates the need to write

individual set of thousands of rules for each phrase otherwise required in a rule-based

grammar.

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