part 10 repertoire and style -...

515Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria

• InCh.10.1wewill identify thecriteria for selectinga corerepertoireoforchestralworks.

• InCh.10.2wewillgiveguidelinesfortheprocessofbuildingthiscorerepertoireandcreatingastylegrid.

• InCh.10.3wewillsurveythedifferentstylesoftheorchestralrepertoireandexaminetheiruniquechallenges.

Part 10

Repertoire and Style

10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria

Askanygroupofvioliniststoidentifythekeyworksofthesolorepertoire thatanaspiringviolinist shouldpracticeandmaster.Most likelytheywillcomeupwitha list similar tothosepub-lishedby eminentpedagogues, for instance, Sassmannshaus2009.Butaskthesamegroupabouttheessentialworksoftheorchestral repertoirethateveryaspiringorchestralviolinistshouldlearn;mostlikelytherewillbehardlyanyagreementatall.Nosuchlistshavebeenpublishedeither;theavailablelistsoforches-tralrepertoiremerelyincludepassagesinpopularexcerptcollec-tionsorworkssuitableforyouthorchestras( Smith1966, Biget1996, Adey1998,793–829, Hamann2003,219-20).

Table 10.1a suggests essential orchestral repertoire both forprivatestudyandforuseinconservatoryorchestrasandorchestra-repertoireclasses.Itincludes• 1 , thirdcolumn,or 2 ,first column( R1 – R39 ): acore

repertoire of roughly threedozen representative, instructiveworks,listedbelowbygenre

3 twenty-onesymphonicworks4 onesoloconcerto5 fouroperaovertures6 sevenoperas7 twooperettasormusicals8 twooratorios9 twoballets

• 2 ,secondcolumn:asecond tier,whichexpandsthereper-toiretoaboutthreetimesthesizeofthecorerepertoire

• 2 ,thirdcolumn:athird tier,whichexpandstherepertoiretoaboutfivetimesthesizeofthecorerepertoire

• 1 ,firstandsecondcolumns:aprimer repertoireofnineorsixteenpiecesforthoseplayerswhodonothavetimetolearntheentirecorerepertoireorwhowishtodosoinstages.

Thecorerepertoire(oratleasttheprimerrepertoire)includesthepiecesthatorchestralviolinistsshouldmaster,ideallybythetimetheyauditionforanorchestra.Thesecondandthirdtiersrepre-sentthepiecesthattheyshouldmasterafterabouttenandtwentyyearsofwork,respectively.

Asyoulearnthiscorerepertoire,youshouldshouldkeepthreemain goalsinmind:(1)Learntherepertoirethatbesthelpsyoubecomeawell-round-edorchestralmusicianandbuildyourstylegrid.(2)Learnthemostfrequentlyperformedorchestralrepertoire(3)Learnsomeofthemostfrequentlyusedauditionrepertoire.

(1)Thefirstgoalistolearnrepresentativepiecesthathelpyoutomasterthechallengesoftoday’sorchestralrepertoire—thesein-cludeawiderangeofcompositionalgenres,styles,techniques,andinterpretiveapproaches.Whichrepertoirehasthegreatestmusi-cal and technical benefitsandgreateststylistic significance,andisthereforemostessentialtothestylegrid?

Such questions are subjective in nature, and one can spendmuch time arguing whether learning Figaro, as suggested be-low, has greater benefits than learning Don Giovanni, whether

©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)

516 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria

Beethoven’sEroica ismore instructive thanhisFifth,orwheth-erSacre ismore important thanFirebird.Feel free to substitutepiecesfromthesecondorthirdtiersforthoseinthefirsttierinthesamecategoryifyouseestrongreasonsfordoingso.Butdonot bypass pieces or entire genres on the sole ground that youbelieveyouwillneverplaythem.Becauseofthe“despecialization”oforchestralwork(tobedescribedinCh.11.3),itisimpossibletoknowwhatkindofrepertoirethefutureholdsforanyorchestraandanyorchestralmusician.Further,certainpieces—whetherornotyouwilleverperformthem—arehelpfulforlearningcertainorchestralskillsandstyles:

• ThoughWagner’s Siegfried is produced only at major operahouses,ithasbeenincludedinthecorerepertoirebecauseitcontainsmanytechniquesandstylesadaptedanddevelopedbygenerationsoflatercomposers.

• ThoughProkofiev’sBalletCinderellamightneverbeincludedintherepertoireofyourorchestra,studyingthepiecewillhelpyoutomastertheProkofievstyle(probablymoresothananysingleoneofhissymphonicworks).

Table 10.1a: The core repertoire: a list of suggested pieces for practice and study

Ch.10.3:essentialsecond-violinrepertoire• Tables11.4aand11.5–11.6:essentialrepertoireforconcertmastersandprincipals•http://www.orch.info/repertoire:markedparts1 Primer repertoire and core repertoire in progressive order

nine-piece primer

repertoire

sixteen-piece primer

repertoire

complete core

repertoire

Bach R1 Suite3R2 St. Matthew Passion

xx

Haydn R3 Symphony104 x x

Mozart R4 Symphony39R5 Ov.FluteR6 Figaro

x xx

xxx

Beethoven R7 Symphony3R8 Ov.Leonore3

x x xx

Rossini R9 Barber x

Verdi R10 Ov.ForzaR11 Traviata

x

x

xx

J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzandVergnügungszugPolkaR13 Fledermaus

xx

Weber R14 Ov.Oberon x

Mendelssohn R15 MidsummerR16 Elijah

x x xx

Schumann R17 Symphony2 x x

Brahms R18 Symphony4 x x

Berlioz R19 Romeo x

Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4R21 Nutcracker

x x xx

Smetana R22 Ov.Bride x x x

Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances x



nine-piece primer

repertoire

sixteen-piece primer

repertoire

complete core

repertoire

Wagner R24 TannhäuserR25 Siegfried

x x xx

Bruckner R26 Symphony4 x

Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini x

Puccini R28 Bohème x

Strauss R29 Don JuanR30 Rosenkavalier

x x xx

Mahler R31 Symphony5 x

Ravel R32 Daphnis2 x

Debussy R33 La Mer x x

Bartók R34 Concerto x x

Prokofiev R35 Cinderella x

Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 x

Stravinsky R37 Sacre x x x

Bernstein R38 West Side Story x

Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 x x

2 The core repertoire and comprehensive repertoire: complete list (cf. the genre lists 3 – 9 )

complete corerepertoire

second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)

third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)

Bach R1 Suite3R2 St. Matthew

Brandenburg3,Christmas Oratorio Mass,St. John

Handel Messiah

Haydn R3 Symphony104 Symphony83Creation

Symphony103,TrumpetConcertoSeasons

Mozart R4 Symphony39R5 Ov.Flute

R6 Figaro

Symphonies38,40–41PianoConcerto23Don Giovanni/vn.2,Flute,Così

Symphonies35–36PianoConcerto27,ClarinetConcerto,Abduction


Symphonies7,5,9,6Ov.Egmont,PianoConcerto5Fidelio

Symphonies2,4,8,1PianoConcerto4Missa

Schubert Symphonies9,5,Ov.Rosamunde Symphonies8,3–4

Table 10.1a 1 cont.






Rossini R9 Barber Ov.Gazza,Ov.TellCenerentola

Ov.Scala,Ov.SemiramideTurco,L’Italiana

Bellini Norma

Donizetti L’elisir Don Pasquale,Lucia,Fille

Verdi R10 Ov.ForzaR11 Traviata

Rigoletto,Trovatore,Requiem Nabucco, Ballo,Aida,Forza,Otello,Falstaff

Nicolai Ov.Wives

J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzandVergnügungszugPolkaR13 Fledermaus

RosenWaltz,ÉljenPolka,Auf der JagdPolka

DanubeWaltz,EmperorWaltzTritschPolka,AnnenPolka,PizzicatoPolka

Hellmesberger Ball Scene

Delibes Coppélia

Offenbach Hoffmann

Suppé Ov.Poet, Ov.Cavalry Ov.Banditen,Ov.Morgen,Ov.Galathea

Léhar Merry Widow

Weber R14 Ov.Oberon Ov.Euryanthe,Freischütz

Mendelssohn R15 MidsummerR16 Elijah

Symphony4 Symphony3,Ov.HebridesViolinConcerto

Schumann R17 Symphony2 Symphony3,Ov.Manfred Symphonies1,4,PianoConcerto,CelloConcerto

Brahms R18 Symphony4 Symphonies1,3,HaydnVaria-tions,PianoConcertos1–2

Symphony2,ViolinConcerto,DoubleConcerto,Requiem

Chopin PianoConcerto2

Gounod Faust,Romeo

Franck Symphony

Grieg Peer

Berlioz R19 Romeo Symphonie fantastique Ov.Corsaire,Ov.Carnival

Saint-Saëns Carnival,CelloConcerto1

Bizet Carmen L’Arlesienne 1–2

Mussorgsky Pictures(Ravel) Night

Glinka Ov.Ruslan

Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4R21 Nutcracker

Symph.5–6,Ov.Romeo,PianoConc.1Swan Lake

Suite3,ViolinConcerto, RococoVar.Onegin,Beauty

Table 10.1a 2cont.






Borodin Polovtsian

Rimsky-K. Scheherazade Capriccio esp.,TsarIII/1/Bumble

Smetana R22 Ov.Bride Moldau Bride

Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances Symphonies8–9,CelloConcerto Symphony7,Ov.Carnival,ViolinConcerto

Liszt Préludes Faust


Tristan,Dutchman Siegfried Idyll,Walküre,Lohengrin,Meistersinger

Schoenberg Verklärte

Bruckner R26 Symphony4 Symphony7 Symphonies6,9,8

Humperdinck Hansel

Elgar EnigmaVariations Falstaff

Reger MozartVariations

Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini Symphony2,PianoConcerto2 SymphonicDances,PianoConcerto3

Scriabin Poéme de l’extase

Dukas Sorcerer

Puccini R28 Bohème Butterfly,Tosca Turandot

Mascagni Pagliacci

Leoncavallo Cavalleria

Strauss R29 Don JuanR30 Rosenkavalier

Till,ZarathustraSalome

Heldenleben,MetamorphosesElektra

Mahler R31 Symphony5 Symphonies1,4 Symphonies2,9

Ravel R32 Daphnis2 Rhapsodie espagnole La Valse

Debussy R33 La Mer Jeux Images 1–3

Enescu RomanianRhapsody1

Sibelius Symphony5,ViolinConcerto Symphonies1–2

DeFalla Hat(ballet)

Vaughan-Williams

Fantasia

Holst Planets

Walton Ov.Portsmouth

Table 10.1a 2cont.






Britten Guide BridgeVariations,WarRequiem

Ibert Escales

Honegger Symphonie liturgique

Milhaud Bœuf

Respighi Feste,Fontane,Pini

Martinů Symphony6

Janáček Sinfonietta,Jenůfa Taras,Vixen

Nielsen Symphony4

Bartók R34 Concerto Music Mandarin,PianoConcerto3

Kodály Galánta Hary Janos

Prokofiev R35 Cinderella Symphony1,Kijé,PianoConcerto 3,Romeo, Peter

Symphony5,Scythian,ViolinConcerto2,Symphony-Concerto

Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 Symphony10,PianoConcerto1 Symphony9,CelloConcerto1,ViolinConcerto1

Hindemith Mathis Symphony PhilharmonicConcerto,Metamorphorsis

Stravinsky R37 Sacre Firebird Petrushka,Pulcinella

Orff Carmina

Gershwin American

Copland Appalachian Spring,ClarinetConcerto Symphony3,Rodeo,Salón

Tippett ConcertoforDoubleStringOrchestra

Barber Adagio,Ov.School

Bernstein R38 West Side Story SerenadeforViolin,Ov.Candide

Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 ChamberSymphony2

Webern VariationsOp.30

Berg PiecesOp.6,Wozzeck ViolinConcerto

Ives Unanswered,Three Places HolidaysSymphony,Central Park

Table 10.1a 2cont.






Carter Variations

Messiaen Turangalîla

Dutilleux Métaboles

Lutosławski Jeux,Funeral,Concerto

Ligeti Atmosphères

Berio Sinfonia

Varèse Amériques,Arcana

Penderecki Threnody

Cage PianoConcerto

3 Symphonic repertoire (cf. 2 )

Thelistincludesconcertoverturesandballetmusicthatismostoftenperformedinsymphonyconcerts(forinstance,Stravinsky’sSacreorBartok’sMiraculous Mandarin).Itdoesnotincludegenreslistedbelow:concertos(2)andoperaovertures(3)and*balletsuites(6)




Bach R1 Suite3 Brandenburg3

Haydn R3 Symphony104 Symphony83 Symphony103

Mozart R4 Symphony39 Symphonies38,40–41 Symphonies35–36


Symphonies7,5,9,6Ov.Egmont

Symphonies2,4,8,1

Schubert Symphonies9,5,Ov.Rosamunde Symphonies8,3–4

J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzVergnügungszugPolka

Rosen WaltzÉljen PolkaAuf der JagdPolka

Danube Waltz,Emperor WaltzTritschPolka,AnnenPolkaPizzicatoPolka

Hellmesberger BallScene

Mendelssohn R15 Midsummer Symphony4 Symphony3,Ov.Hebrides

Schumann R17 Symphony2 Symphonies3,Ov.Manfred Symphonies3–4

Brahms R18 Symphony4 Symphonies1,3HaydnVariations

Symphony2

Franck Symphony

Grieg Peer

Table 10.1a 2cont.






Berlioz R19 Romeo Symphonie fantastique Ov.Corsaire,Ov.Carnival

Saint-Saëns Carnival

Bizet L’Arlesienne 1–2

Mussorgsky Pictures(Ravel) Night

Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4 Symphonies5–6,Ov.Romeo Suite3

Borodin Polovtsian

Rimsky-K. Scheherazade Capriccio esp.,TsarIII/1/Bumble

Smetana Moldau

Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances Symphonies8–9 Symphony7,Ov.Carnival

Liszt Préludes Faust

Wagner Siegfried Idyll

Schoenberg Verklärte

Bruckner R26 Symphony4 Symphony7 Symphonies6,9,8

Elgar EnigmaVariations Falstaff

Reger MozartVariations

Rachmaninoff Symphony2 SymphonicDances

Scriabin Poéme de l’extase

Dukas Sorcerer

Strauss R29 Don Juan Till,Zarathustra Heldenleben, Metamorphoses

Mahler R31 Symphony5 Symphony1,4 Symphony2,9

Ravel R32 Daphnis2 Rhapsodie espagnole La Valse

Debussy R33 La Mer Jeux Images 1–3

Enescu RomanianRhapsody1

Sibelius Symphony5 Symphonies1–2

Vaughan-Williams

Fantasia

Holst Planets

Walton Ov.Portsmouth

Table 10.1a 3cont.






Britten Guide BridgeVariations

Ibert Escales

Honegger Symphonie liturgique

Milhaud Bœuf

Respighi Feste,Fontane,Pini

Martinů Symphony6

Janáček Sinfonietta Taras

Nielsen Symphony4

Bartók R34 Concerto Music Mandarin

Kodály Galánta Hary Janos

Prokofiev Symphony1,Kijé, Peter Symphony5,Scythian

Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 Symphony10 Symphony9

Hindemith Mathis Symphony PhilharmonicConcerto,Metamorphorsis

Stravinsky R37 Sacre Firebird Petrushka,Pulcinella

Gershwin American

Copland Appalachian Spring Symphony3,Rodeo,Salón

Tippett ConcertoforDoubleStringOrchestra

Barber Adagio,Ov.School

Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 ChamberSymphony2

Webern VariationsOp.30

Berg PiecesOp.6

Ives Unanswered,Three Places HolidaysSymphony,Central Park

Carter Variations

Messiaen Turangalîla

Dutilleux Métaboles

Table 10.1a 3cont.






Lutosławski Jeux,Funeral,Concerto

Ligeti Atmosphères

Berio Sinfonia

Varèse Amériques,Arcana

Penderecki Threnody

4 Concertos andotherworksforsoloinstrumentsandorchestra(cf. 2 )

Haydn Trumpet

Mozart Piano23 Piano27,Clarinet

Beethoven Piano5 Piano4

Mendelssohn Violin

Schumann Piano,Cello

Brahms Piano1–2 Violin,Double

Chopin Piano2

Saint-Saëns Cello1

Tchaikovsky Piano1 Violin,RococoVariations

Dvořák Cello Violin

Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini Piano2 Piano3

Sibelius Violin

Bartók Piano3

Prokofiev Piano3 Violin2,Symphony-ConcertoforCello

Shostakovich Piano1 Cello1,Violin1

Copland Clarinet

Bernstein SerenadeforViolin

Berg Violin

Cage PianoConcerto

Table 10.1a 3cont.



5 Overtures to operas and musicals (cf. 2 )

Mozart R5 Ov.Flute

Rossini Ov.Gazza,Ov.Tell Ov.Scala,Ov.Semiramide

Verdi R10 Ov.Forza

Nicolai Ov.Wives

Suppé Ov.Poet, Ov.Cavalry Ov.Banditen,Ov.Morgen,Ov.Galathea

Weber R14 Ov.Oberon Ov.Euryanthe

Glinka Ov.Ruslan

Smetana R22 Ov.Bride

Bernstein Ov.Candide

6 Operas (cf. 2 )

Mozart R6 Figaro Don Giovanni/vn.2,Flute,Così Abduction

Beethoven Fidelio

Rossini R9 Barber Cenerentola Turco,L’Italiana

Bellini Norma

Donizetti L’elisir Don Pasquale,Lucia,Fille

Verdi R11 Traviata Rigoletto,Trovatore, Otello Nabucco,Aida,Ballo,Forza, Falstaff

Weber Freischütz

Gounod Faust,Romeo

Bizet Carmen

Tchaikovsky Onegin

Smetana Bride


Tristan,Dutchman Walküre,Lohengrin,Meistersinger

Humperdinck Hansel

Puccini R28 Bohème Butterfly,Tosca Turandot

Mascagni Pagliacci

Leoncavallo Cavalleria

Strauss R30 Rosenkavalier Salome Elektra



Janáček Jenůfa Vixen

Berg Wozzeck

7 Operettas and musicals (cf. 2 )

J.Strauss,Jr. R13 Fledermaus

Offenbach Hoffmann*

Lehár Merry Widow

Bernstein R38 West Side Story*Thoughtechnicallynotanoperetta,forstylisticreasonsOffenbach’sTales of Hoffmannhasbeenclassifiedasanoperettahere.

8 Oratorios and other choral works (cf. 2 )

Bach R2 St. Matthew Christmas Oratorio Mass,St. John

Handel Messiah

Haydn Creation Seasons

Beethoven Missa

Verdi Requiem

Mendelssohn R16 Elijah

Brahms Requiem

Britten War Requiem

Orff Carmina

9 Ballets (worksperformedprimarilyasconcertpiecesratherthanasballetssuchasStravinsky’sSacreorBartók’sMiraculous

Mandarinarelistedunder 3 )

Delibes Coppélia

Tchaikovsky R21 Nutcracker Swan Lake Beauty

DeFalla Hat

Prokofiev R35 Cinderella Romeo

(2) Naturally, a second goal in learning a core repertoire issimplytomasterpiecesthatareespeciallypopular.Unfortunately,statistics concerning frequency of performance are difficult tocompile.ThedatasummarizedinTable10.1b• coveronlytwocountries,theU.S.andGermany• includeonlyperformancesgivenbyaselectgroupofinstitu-

tionssuchasmemberorchestrasoftheLAOorcertainoperahousespolledforsurveys

• cover only certain segments of the repertoire, in particularsymphonicmusicandopera.

Largeportionsoftheorchestrarepertoirearenotaccountedfor(for instance, the repertoireof choral societies andballet com-panies), andneither themusicperformedby semi-professional

orchestrasnorrecordingsareconsideredhere.Further,inspiteoftheglobalizationoftheclassicalrepertoire,individualcountriesandregionsstillhavetheirspecifictastesandprofiles.BarberismorefrequentlyperformedintheU.S.,justasVaughanWilliamsand Reger are popular in England and Germany, respectively.Whenitcomestomusicbylivingcomposers,thetastesareevenmorediversefromcountrytocountry.Thisiswhythesuggestionsforpost-WorldWarIIrepertoireinTable10.1a/2 aretentative.

Neverthelesstheavailabledatasuggestthatthesimilaritiesbe-tweenrepertoireindifferentcountriesareconsiderable:compare,forinstance,theAmericanandGermanstatisticsforoperaticper-formances,juxtaposedinTable10.1b/4 –5 .



(3) The third goal of learning the core repertoire—learningrepertoire that is frequently required for auditions—is givenlessimportancehere.Thereisgreatinstructionalvalueinstudyingsomeoftheorchestralrepertoirerequiredforauditions,and,nat-urally,practicingpopularauditionexcerptsfrom Table11.6/Dislikelytohelpyoutowinauditions.Buttheworksfromwhichthemostpopularexcerptsaretakendonotadduptoabalancedrepertoirethatfillsthecriteriadescribedabove.

Whetheryouareplanningtoworkasafirstorsecondviolin-ist,practicethefirst-violinpartsformostpiecesandthesecond-violin parts forafewworks,particularlyClassicalpiecessuchasDon Giovanni.Onlyifyouarealreadyworkingasafirstorsecondviolinistanddeterminedtostayinthatpositionshouldyoulimityourpracticing to theappropriateparts.—Thecore repertoireofsolosforconcertmastersandprincipalsislargelyidenticaltotherepertoirerequestedtypicallyatauditions(Table11.6/A–C).

Table 10.1b: The most frequently performed orchestral repertoire

Baroquerepertoireisexcluded.Alllists,withtheexceptionof4 ,arebasedonthenumberofperformances.Alllistsareorganizedindescendingorderoffrequency.

1 Symphonic composers most frequently performed by American orchestrasThislistisbasedon LAO2000–10.Therankingwithineachofthesixgroupsisapproximate.

Beethoven,MozartTchaikovsky,BrahmsStrauss,Ravel,Dvořák,ProkofievHaydn,Stravinsky,Shostakovich,RachmaninoffMendelssohn,MahlerSibelius,Copland,Schubert,Schumann,Bartók,Berlioz,

Debussy,Bernstein,Janáček,Rimsky-Korsakov

2 Symphonic works most frequently performed by Ameri-can orchestrasThislistisbasedon LAO2000–10.

symphonic repertoireBeethoven:Symphonies3,5,7,6,9Tchaikovsky:Symphonies6,5,4Brahms:Symphonies2,4,1Dvořák:Symphonies9,8Mussorgsky(Ravel):PicturesRimsky-K.:ScheherazadeDebussy:La Mer

piano concertosRachmaninoff2Beethoven3–5Tchaikovsky1Grieg

violin concertosTchaikovskyBeethovenBrahms

3 –5 Most frequently performed operas (and operettas)Theworksaregroupedintiersaccordingtotheirpopularity.

3 Stages worldwide in 2005–9This list is based on the number of performances as listed athttp://www.operabase.com/top.cg?lang=en&.

Mozart:FluteVerdi:TraviataBizet:CarmenPuccini:BohèmeMozart:FigaroPuccini:ToscaMozart:Don GiovanniPuccini:ButterflyRossini:BarberVerdi:RigolettoMozart:Così

Donizetti:L’elisirVerdi:AidaHumperdinck:HanselPuccini:TurandotJ.Strauss,Jr.:FledermausVerdi:NabuccoTchaikovsky:OneginDonizetti:LuciaMozart:AbductionLehár:WidowVerdi:TrovatoreVerdi:FalstaffWagner:DutchmanVerdi:BalloMascagni:CavalleriaVerdi:OtelloRossini:CenerentolaOffenbach:HoffmannVerdi:MacbethStrauss:SalomeWagner:RheingoldBeethoven:FidelioGounod:Faust



4 North-American stages in 1981–2008Thislistisbasedontheaveragenumberofproductionsaslistedin

OperaAmerica1981-2007.

Puccini:ButterflyPuccini:BohèmeVerdi:TraviataBizet:Carmen

Rossini:BarberMozart:FigaroPuccini:ToscaVerdi:RigolettoMozart:Don GiovanniMozart:FluteJ.Strauss,Jr.:Fledermaus

Donizetti:LuciaMozart:CosìPuccini:TurandotGounod:FaustVerdi:AidaLeoncavallo:PagliacciDonizetti:L’Elisir

Offenbach:HoffmannRossini:CenerentolaLehár:WidowVerdi:TrovatoreGounod:RomeoHumperdinck:HanselDonizetti:Don PasqualeSullivan:MikadoStrauss:SalomeGershwin:PorgyVerdi:FalstaffMascagni:CavalleriaWagner:Dutchman

5 German stages in 2000–5Thislistisbasedontheaveragenumberofperformancesaslistedin Mertens2006and MIZ2008.

Mozart:FluteHumperdinck:HanselBizet:CarmenMozart:AbductionMozart:FigaroVerdi:TraviataPuccini:BohèmeMozart:CosìWeber:FreischützMozart:Don GiovanniRossini:BarberPuccini:ButterflyVerdi:RigolettoOffenbach:Hoffmann

Puccini: ToscaBeethoven:FidelioWagner: DutchmanRossini: CenerentolaMascagni: CavalleriaVerdi: AidaLeoncavallo: PagliacciStrauss: RosenkavalierVerdi: Don CarloSmetana: BrideWagner: TannhäuserPuccini: TurandotDonizetti: Lucia

Ch.3.4/ G5 :establishingperformancegoalsbymeansofthestylegridLearning strategies•Learneachpiecethoroughlyaccordingtothe seven-step schemedescribed inCh. 3.3–3.10 and summa-rizedinTable3.2(p.18).Learneachpieceentirelyon your own.Indoingthis, testandrefineyourpracticestrategiesandmakethem as efficient as possible. Consult an experienced musicianonlyafteryouhavefirsttriedbyyourself.

Order•Thebestorderforbuildingyourcorerepertoireandstylegridistheprogressiveorderofcomposersandgroupsofcom-posersshowninTable10.1a/2 andpresentedinCh.10.3.Thesuggestedpathbeginswith theBaroque style; each consecutiveselectionintroducesacertainnumberofnewtechnicalandmusi-cal elements for study andmastery.The suggestedorder strikes

abalancebetweencompositionalchronology,on theonehand,andthestyleofinstrumentalwriting,ontheother.Forinstance,becausethestringwritingofRossini,Verdi,orJ.Strauss,Jr.,isdi-rectlyderivedfromVienneseClassicism,itmakessensetopracticeworks by these composers immediately after practicing Haydn,Mozart,Beethoven,andSchubert.Forthesamereason,itcanalsobeefficienttopracticeworksofdifferentgenresside-by-side:forex-ample,youshouldpracticeaMozartopera( R5 – R6 )rightafteroneofhis symphonies ( R4 ),andaTchaikovsky’sballet ( R21 )rightafteroneofhissymphonies( R20 ).

Style grid •Askanexperiencedorchestralmusician, for in-stance, about Schubert’s early symphonies, Tchaikovsky’s bal-lets, or theVerdi’smiddle-period operas. This will immediatelyevokeclearimagesinhisorherhead—apreciseideaofhowthese

10.2 Building Your Core Repertoire and Style Grid


52910 Repertoire and Style • 10.2 Building Your Core Repertoire and Style Grid

compositions sound and feel, of the challenges they pose, andoftherangeofcommonperformancestyles.Howdoyouestab-lishsuchaclear,refinedstylegrid?—Whileyouworkyourwaythroughthecorerepertoire,filleachindividual“tile”or“coordi-nate”ofyourstylegridwiththefollowinginformation:• elementsofcompositionalstyle:typicalmelodic,harmonic,and

rhythmic patterns, typical colors (including instrumentation,dynamics,articulation,andsoon),typicalformsandstructuralcharacteristics (including motivic development and melody-plus-accompanimenttextures),typicalexpressivecharacters

• technicalchallenges• elementsofperformancestyle:typicaltempos(tempogrid,p.

344),rhythmicmodifications,ornaments,dynamics,articula-tion,andtimbres(seetherepresentativeexcerptsinEx.5.1c–dand5.2i–m).

Thegoalinestablishingsuch“tiles”istounderstandthemusi-cal craft and spiritof eachcomposerand tohaveaclear ideaofhowperformers generally approach each style.There is noshortcut to thiswork. It requires spendingagreat amountoftimewith scores (including scoresofpieces innon-orchestralgenres), recordings, books, articles, and web documents. Fol-low the reading suggestions in Chapter 12.4 and look foressentialmaterialsathttp://www.orch.info/parts, for instance,downloadableeditionsofthecorerepertoire.

Two examples shall illustrate how the material from Parts5–9ofthisbookaswellasotherresourcescanaidinthisprocess(pp.21–23).Ex. 3.4a•Figaro( R6 )exemplifiesanespeciallyimportant“tile”:

Mozart’s mature style. Read both Einstein’s authoritativemonograph( 1945)andRatner’sstudyonClassical formand phrase structure ( 1985), and review the sections inChapters9.11–9.15and9.20aboutClassicalornamentationandarticulation.Oneoftheprincipalcompositionalelementsofthisstyleisaphrase structurethatrequiresappropriateshap-ingfromtheperformer(Ex.9.20k–l).EachofthetwophrasesinEx.3.4a/3–4and5–6showsacharacteristicshapewithanapexon thedownbeatof the secondmeasure: this iswhereyouhearthemost intenseharmonies—a4–3suspensioninm.4anda2–1suspensioninm.6.Theperformerisexpectedtoexpresssuchshapeswithvibrato,bowspeed,andbowpres-sure—eveniftherearenomarkingsinthepartandeveniftheconductordoesnotexplicitlyrequestsuchshapes.AnothercharacteristicofMozart’smaturestyleishishighlydif-ferentiatedarticulations,whicharenotatedmorepreciselythaninother18th-centurypartsbutstillrelyconsiderablyontheper-former’sknowledgeandfeelingforstyle.Usegentlearticulationforthetwo-noteslursinmm.34–35,andshortenallindividuallong-notevaluesinmm.1,7,9,and13–14,addingdiminuendi.ButinlateMozartsuchmodificationsmustbenomorethanslight,forthecomposeralreadyusedacomparativelypreciseno-tation:compare inm.1to inm.2andcompare inm.25to inm.13.Ingeneral,allarticulationmustbegentlebecauseanythingelsewasdifficulttoachievewiththebowsofthelate18thcentury.Thenoteswithdotsinm.10,forinstance,requireasmooth,portato-likequality.

StillanothercomponentofMozart’smaturestylewasaspe-cifictypeofornamentation.

• Theupbeattrillsinmm.7and9areonthesamepitchesasthepreviousnotesandthereforeshouldstartwiththeuppernote.

• Thetrillsinm.14,bycontrast,servetointensifyprominentpitch-esonastrongbeatandthereforeshouldstartonthemainnote.Finally, even thoughMozart’smatureworks are character-izedbyadepthof emotionand strongdramaticqualities,theyneverleavetherealmofClassicalexpression.Eventhefshouldneverbeharsh.Thesoundmayneverloseitsnoble,polished,smooth,crystallinequality,especiallybecausethetransparenttexturesexposeandmagnifyeveryblemish.Lis-tentoperformancesandrecordingsofMozart’slateoperas,symphonies,concertos,andchambermusicinordertogainabetterunderstandingofthismusicalworld.

Ex. 3.4b • The style of Strauss’s tone poems and operas( R29 – R30 ) represents another important “tile” in thestylegrid.StudythefullscoreofDon Juan,readLenau’spoemthatprovidedtheprogramforthepiece,andread DelMar1962/I,65–77.Analyzethestructureandtextureofthepieceandgetafeelingforitsspiritandcharacter.Strauss’sstyleshowsamixtureofenergy,brilliance,exuberance,andelegance—witha slight irony characteristicof thefin de siècle.TheharmonyinDon Juan,asinmostofStrauss,isstilltonalbutliesonthefringeof themajor-minor system—which createsoneof themaintechnicalchallengesofhismusic.Thecharactersarealsoextremeandsometimesrequiregreatcreativity fromtheper-former:flebile(plaintive)inm.48ismatchedbyheuchlerisch schmachtend(fakepining)orkeifend(scolding,cackling)inthefamousviolincadenzainHeldenleben/23 +4and30 +6.TheperformerofStraussisinaverydifferentpositionthanthe performer of Mozart. The appropriate performancetradition is still aliveand isdocumentedonnumerous re-cordings.AfterexploringDon Juanonyourown, listentosome performances and recordings. Compare R. Strauss’sown1929 recordingoroneofhisother recordings to thelandmarkrecordingsofthelasthalf-century,particularlytoKarajan’s(perhapsunsurpassed)1974readingwiththeBer-linPhilharmonic(andlistentorecordingsofStrauss’sothersymphonic poems and operas). Analyze the technical fea-turesoftheseperformances,andexaminehowtheperform-erscopewiththeextremelycomplex,layeredtexturesofhismusic. In the most convincing renditions, Strauss’s musicsoundslusciousandsensuousbuttransparent—eveninthethickesttexture.Exuberanceandbrillianceneverturnintolackofpolish.Inspiteofthewealthofdetailsandbreath-takingorchestralvirtuosity,Strauss’sownrecordingshaveacertainsimplicityaboutthemandanabsenceofindulgence,coupled with nobility and elegant irony. He performedhismusicatabriskpace—h =92inthefirstsectionofDon Juan—and his tempo was “more flexible than the metro-nomemarkings in the score.”As a conductor, Straussputgreatemphasisonstrongarticulation:“TheopeningofDon Juan isplayedwithimpressiveclarityofrhythmcomparedwithmanyrecordingsofthe1920s.Thedottedrhythmsare


530 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges

generallyquiteclearandincisive,”andthehalfandquarternotesinmm.29–31areclearlyseparated( Philip1992,31and83).Incidentally,thesamequalitiesthatStraussstressedinhisownperformancesarealsoevidentinPreucil’sbrilliantplaying,whichprovidesstillanothermodelforyourStraussperformance( 1998).Thisbrillianceisgeneratedparticu-

larlywithstrongleft-handarticulation,goodbowcontact,andstrong“clicks.”

Studyotherpiecesinthecorerepertoireinthesamemanner.Thiswillallowyoutobuildupastylegridthatwillhelpyoutodefineperformance-practicegoalsforyourorchestralrepertoireandtoplaythemintheappropriatestyle.

10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges: A Brief Historical Survey

Part9:performancepractice• Ch.12.4/d–h:literatureThefollowingoverviewisintended• tomapout thebest order for building your core repertoire

andstylegrid• toidentifythecharacteristicsandchallengesofeachimpor-

tantstyle• tohelpyouseetheindividualpiecesofthecorerepertoirein

theproperhistoricalcontext.(ComposerswhosenamesappearinboldfaceareincludedintherepertoirelistsinTable10.1a.)

MusicoftheBaroqueposesfewchallengesforthelefthandbutdemands a very specific bowing technique adapted to the Ba-roque bow (Ch. 9.14). Most importantly, it requires intimatefamiliarity• withvariousissuesofperformancepractice:phrasingandar-

ticulation,metricandrhythmicmodification(hemiolas,dou-ble-dotting, assimilation of dotted to triplet rhythms), andornaments(Ch.9.7,9.11–9.15,and9.20)

• withcertaintypicalidioms:forinstance,Frenchoverturestyleandvariousdances inBach’sorchestral suites ( R1 ),or thechoralestyleandaccompanied-recitativestyleintheSt. Mat-thew Passion( R2 ).

Foranyindividualviolinistaswellasforanystringsection,theViennese Classical repertoireistheprovinggroundthatallowsyoutotrainandtestyourtechniqueandplayingstyle.Thoughthemusicrarelyascendsbeyondthefifthposition,thechallengesforthebowarmareconsiderableandremainedunsurpassedduringthe19thcentury:therepertoirerequiresawiderangeofoff-the-string strokes and infinite nuances of articulation. The greatestchallengeisachievingthenecessarycrystallineclarity:thetrans-parent writing mercilessly exposes the slightest intonation slip,anyinsecureoroilyshift,thetiniestrhythmicunsteadinessoren-sembleproblem,thesmallesttraceofunpolishedsoundquality,andtheslightestlackofclarity,elegance,orhomogeneoussection-alsound.ThisiswhymostworksofHaydn,Mozart,Beethoven,Schubert,andtheircontemporariesremainchallengingevenafterasectionhasrehearsedandperformedthemmanytimes.

Mozart’sstyle—theepitomeofthisclear,elegantidiom—canbestudiedbestinhisoperas( R5 – R6 ),whichofferawidervari-etyofexpressivecharactersandmorevirtuosicwritingthanfoundin the symphonies ( R4 ). Similar virtuosity is also requiredbysomeofhisdivertimentosandserenadesandbymanyofHaydn’sfirst-violinparts( R3 ).

Beethoven’sversionoftheClassicalstringidiomshowsanin-creasingdisregardforrewardinginstrumentalwritingandfortheplayer’s comfort. Challenging dynamics, awkward articulation,andarhythmicstructurethatmakesensembleplayingextremelydifficultalwaystendtoleavetheimpressionthataperfectrendi-tion of Beethoven is near-impossible, even for the best orches-tras and conductors ( R7 – R8 ). Because the string parts wereconceivedwithoutmuchconsiderationforcontemporaryplayingtechnique, violinists should not hesitate to apply playing tech-niques that some period-instrument specialists might consideranachronistic—anuancedarticulationtechnique,avarietyofoff-the-stringbowings,andasophisticatedvibratotechnique.

SchubertaddedmorevirtuositytotheClassicalstyle,particu-larlyinthetarantellafinalesofSymphonies3and9.

The19th century•ThemodelforSchubert’sorchestralvir-tuositywasRossini,thefirstmajorcomposerofthebel cantostyle.WhatRossini( R9 ),Bellini,Donizetti,andVerdi(R10 – R11 )addedtotheClassicalViennesestyleofstringwritingwasbril-liance (especially in fast, high passages that require great left-handfacility)—incombinationwithrhythmicdrive,extremelycrisparticulation,andravishinglyricism.Butatthesametime,their music still demanded the same crystalline quality as themusicofVienneseClassicalcomposers.Onefactorthatmakestheiroperasrelativelyeasytolearn,however,isthattheyrarelyabandoned the regular phrase structure and diatonic basis ofClassicism—eventhoughVerdiaddedsomechromaticspiceinhis lateoperas.—Among themanycomposers influencedbyRossini’s stringwritingwere theprotagonistsofGerman lightopera(Lortzing,Nicolai,Flotow).

Another direct extension of the Classical style is the style of19th-centuryViennese ländler,waltzes,polkas,marches, andop-erettas ( R12 – R13 ). In themusic ofLanner, the Strauss fam-ily,Zeller,andMillöcker,wefindthesameelegance,clarity,andexposed writing as in Haydn, Mozart, and Schubert. A specialchallenge inall theseworks is rendering thearticulationgracefulyetnotharshortinny—adifficulttaskwiththesmallstringsec-tionscommonlyusedforthisrepertoire.Theviolinistfacessimilarchallengesintheoncepopularopéras comiquesbyBoieldieu,Auber,Hérold,andAdam,inFrenchballets(Delibes),andintheoperettasofOffenbach,whichprecededtheirViennesecounterparts.SuppéimbuedtheVienneseoperettastylewithRossini’sbrilliance,andinthe20thcenturyLehármergeditwithPuccini’slusciousmelodiesandharmonies,whichmakesformorerewardingstringwriting.


53110 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges

Using Viennese Classicism as their model, German Ro-mantic composersadoptedacleanstringwritingstyle,addingvirtuosic andexpressive elements.Weberdemandedespeciallyhigh facility from his violinists ( R14 )—a style continued byMendelssohn ( R15 – R16 ). Schumann ( R17 ) and Brahms( R18 )builtonthisidiom,but,astheywerenotstringplayers,theywrotemanypassagesthatareawkwardfortheviolin—Schu-mannespeciallyinhisfastrepetitionsandBrahmsintrickyleft-handpatternsandjumps.Additionally,Brahms’smusicrequiresa delicate balance between clarity and expressivity: the dangersofsoundingtoodryandthinorsoundingtooslushyareequallystrong.ThestringwritingofGermanRomanticcomposersinflu-encedespeciallyChopin,Gounod,Franck,andGrieg.

AtthebeginningofFrench Romanticismstandsauniquefig-ure,Berlioz,whoemulatedBeethovenbothinhissearchfornewmodesofexpressionandinhisdisregardforinstrumentalcomfort( R19 ).AllofBerlioz’smusic includesnovel,unidiomatic, andoftenextremeinstrumentaleffectsthatrequireingenuityandex-perimentationfromtheplayerandpavethewayforfuturecom-posers (suchasMussorgsky).Berliozalsobegantoexploreele-gant,lightstringcolorsthatbecametypicalofmanyotherFrenchcomposerswhootherwiseadheredtothestring-writingidiomofVienneseClassicism,Rossini,andMendelssohn.IntothisgroupbelongparticularlySaint-SaënsandBizet.

Beginning with Glinka, most Slavic Romantics were in-spiredintheirstringwritingbytheVienneseClassicalcompos-ers,too,aswellasbytheGermanRomanticcomposersandItal-ianopera.Tchaikovsky’srewardingviolinpartsaddednonewright-hand challenges, while the extremely fast, high passages(particularlyinhisballets)requiregreatleft-handfacility( R20– R21 ).The samebrilliancealsocharacterizes the stringwrit-ingofBorodinandRimsky-Korsakov.EvenmoredemandingfortheviolinsaretheworksofSmetana ( R22 )andDvořák.WorkssuchastheSlavonic Dancesarefullofexposedpassageswithtrickyleft-handpatterns( R23 ).

Except for that of Berlioz, the 19th-century instrumentalstyles considered so far were largely derived from theVienneseClassicism. The composer who turned string writing in a newdirectionwasWagner ( R23 – R25 ),whosepointofdepartureweremainlythecompositionsofBeethoven,Berlioz,andMeyer-beer(andwhosharedsomestring-writingtechniqueswithLiszt).The complex pitch patterns of Wagner’s operas, resulting fromtheexplorationofchromaticism,bringthedifficultyofhisviolinpartstoanextremelevelinwhichitisnearlyimpossibletoplayallthenotescleanly.Noristhisevenalwaysintended:theidealWagneriansoundisasmoothblend,asdiscussedinChapter3.11.

Legionsoflate-Romanticcomposers,includingyoungSchoen-berg,wereinspiredbyWagner’stonallanguageandstringwriting.ThemusicofBrucknerrequiresthesamekindofchromaticplay-ingyetusuallyatslowerspeeds;heoftenextendsWagner’stremolopassagestoextremelengths( R26 ).HumperdinckandElgarputWagnerianchromaticpatternsintoamorerevealing,challengingtexture. Reger carriedWagner’s chromaticism and counterpointtoextremes.AlsothekeyfiguresoflateRussianRomanticism—Rachmaninoff( R27 ),Glazunov,Scriabin—showedWagnerian

influenceintheirlusciouschromaticism,butotherwisecontinuedTchaikovsky’sandRimsky-Korsakov’sstyleofstringwriting.AlsomanyFrenchcomposers—notablyDukasandChabrier—werein-fluencedheavilybyWagnerintheirstringwriting.Italianverismocomposers, particularly Puccini ( R28 ), Mascagni, and Leon-cavallo,mergedchromaticharmonywithrewarding,opulentlyri-calwriting,inatexturethatdemandsutmostrhythmicflexibility.Theirstylebecamethemodelforthelowerspectrumoftheaes-theticsphere—lateoperettas,musicals,andmanyfilmscores.

Strauss’s tonepoemsandoperas( R29 – R30 ),whilebasedon Wagner’s chromatic language, carried the virtuosity of thestring writing to an unprecedented level and required a clarity,brilliance,anddiversityofcolorsnotfoundintheworksofanyofhispredecessors.AnadditionalchallengeoftheorchestralscoresofStrauss,hiscontemporaries,andhisfollowersarethefrequentsolopassagesassignednotonlytotheprincipalsbuteventoindi-vidualsectionplayers.

The20th century•AcombinationofWagnerianwritingwithaforward-lookingexplorationofnewtimbrescharacterizesbothMahler’ssymphoniesandtheorchestralmusicofRavelandDe-bussy.Mahler required extremes indynamics and colors, oftenchallenging for the violinist ( R31 ). The French impressionistsRavel ( R32 )andDebussy ( R33 )createdaworldofdelicate,magicalhues—antitheticaltoGermanicmonumentalism.ThesecolorsdominatedmuchofFrenchmusicthroughMessiaen.Theconcern with timbre brought composers to forge a new, moreacribicnotationalstyle:Debussy’shabittoaddsignsfordynam-ics,articulation,andexpressionvirtually toeverynote inmanypassagesrequiresfromtheplayersafargreaterprecisionfortheperformanceofthesecompositionalaspects.ThisnotationalstylewasadoptedbycomposersasdiverseasSchoenbergandEnescu.

Inaddition to theexplorationof timbre, the second inno-vation of post-Wagnerian music—especially challenging forthe orchestral string player—was the increased individualiza-tion of tonal language. True, many composers continued tocultivate more accessible harmonic styles based on traditionalnational idioms—among them Sibelius, Spanish and Latin-AmericancomposerssuchasDe Falla,Britishcomposerssuchas Vaughan-Williams, Holst, Walton, and Britten and neo-Classical composers such as Ibert, Honegger, Milhaud, Res-pighi,andMartinů.Butanumberofcomposersorgroupsofcomposerscreatedtheirown,adventuroustonalsystems,devi-ating substantially frommajor-minor tonality anddemandingtheir own left-hand techniques—often virtuosic or even awk-ward.ParticularlychallengingarethepitchpatternsinthemusicofJanáček,Nielsen,Bartók( R34 ),Kodály,Prokofiev( R35 ),Shostakovich( R36 ),andHindemith.

A third challenge emerged with the exploration of rhythm.IrregularmeterswereexploitedinthemusicofStravinsky(R37 )andhavesincebecomeacommonplaceinClassicalandpopularmusic.AmericanandBritishcomposersmergedthisstylewithjazz rhythms—in particular, Gershwin, Copland, Tippett,Barber,andBernstein( R38 ).

Meanwhile,theemancipationfromthetraditionaltonalsys-tem reached extremes. Especially far removed from traditional


532 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges

string technique were compositions in free atonality from the1910s and early 1920s by Schoenberg, Webern, and Berg, aswellastheirlatertwelve-toneworks( R39 ).

Theextremelycomplex,densestructureisthemainchallengein many 20th-century compositions. This is true not only forSchoenberg’sfollowerswhoextendedserialtechniquestorhythmandtimbre(Nono,Boulez,Dallapiccola)butalsoformanyothercomposers who wrote without comparable “systems.” Ives andCarter increased especially the level of rhythmic complexity totheextreme.Othercomposersintroducedasimilarcomplexitytoallcompositionalparameters:Messiaen,Dutilleux,Lutosławski,Ligeti,andBerio.

Acompletebreaknotonlywithtraditionalstringtechniquebutalsowiththetraditionalaestheticsof“beautiful”stringsoundcameinthemusicofVarèseandinavant-gardeworksofthepost-WorldWarIIera.Stockhausen,Penderecki,andahostofothercomposersbegantoexplorenon-traditionalplayingstyles.Theyalsopromotedanothernew trend: theybrokewith theClassic-Romanticconceptofthe“workofart”byintroducingimprovisa-tionalandaleatoricelements,whichrequiretheplayerstoplayamoreactiveroleinimportantperformancechoices.Thistendencywascarriedevenfurtherincompositionsassociatedwithindeter-minacy,notablythosebyCage.

Duringthepastdecades,however,othercomposershavere-introducedamoretraditionalconceptofperformanceandmoretraditionalstylesofstringwriting,lesschallengingfortheplayer.

Theyinclude:• minimalistcomposers(Glass,Reich,Adams,Pärt,Taverner)• composers associated with “neo-romanticism” (Del Tredici,

Corigliano,Rouse,Higdon)or“newsimplicity”(Rihm)• composers who cultivate a moderate form of modernism

(Birtwistle,Harbison)• “polystylists”(Schnittke)• composers who abandoned experimental styles in favor of

more accessible idioms (Takemitsu, Penderecki, Davies,Lachenmann).

Musicals,film scores,“pops” pieces,andcommercial musichavelargelybeenbasedontraditionalstyles(forinstance,PucciniandStravinsky),aswellasonjazzidiom.Themainchallengeofthismusic is rathermundane:manyparts arehandwritten anddifficulttoread(Ch.9.1).

The second violins were still largely relegated to repetitiveaccompanimentsinmanyClassicalworksaswellasinbel cantooperas,Viennesewaltzes andoperettas, andmanyballet scores.Someaccompanimentalpatterns—notablythoseinMozart’sDon Giovanni, Figaro, and Così, and in Rossini’s operas—require apolishedspecializedbowingtechnique.Extendedpassagesonthelowerstringsrequiretrickystringcrossingsandcoordination.Thisposesspecialchallenges:• youmust achieve the smoothness that is expected fromanac-

companyingpartwithoutsacrificingclarity(Ex.5.30a,k–m,dd)• youmustcopewithexhaustingliftsforyourrightarm(Ch.4.14).Duringthe19thcentury,however,thesecondviolinsweregrad-ually emancipated and elevated to an equal position with thefirsts.Oftentheywereassignedanindependentorleadingrole.InmanyscoressinceBrahms,Wagner,Mahler,andStrauss,thechallengesforthesecondshavebeensimilartothoseofthefirsts(exceptfortheexplorationofthetopregister).


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