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Part One: Nimishomiss Wigwass Grandfather Birch

This guide will aid in recognition of a Birch tree garden ecosystem of medicine which facilitates Polypore, Chaga and Amanita.

Jazmin C.M.J. RomaniukMaiingan Ahnungkwe

GARDEN ECOSYSTEMS OF

Part One: Garden Ecosystems of Medicine Romaniuk 1

Personal Declaration

Herein, this is original work. I have credited those where due. I am

Anicinabekwe, I study science and I practice my connection with the plants.

This work is a new returning to our teachings.


Table of Contents

I Preface 3

II Birch 5

III Polypore 11

IV Chaga 15

V Amanita 18

VI Conclusion 23


Preface

Anishnabeg see the land as a living, breathing organism unto its own,

and each being of the land is as integral to the survival of the whole as

every other being, known as Gidakiiminaan, our connection and relation

to the land. The waters are our blood, the trees and the wind are our lungs

and plants and animals are our bodies. It is known that we, the Anishnabeg,

will return to the earth and feed those individuals who have fed and

nurtured our lives. This is the agreement of life, and this is part of mino

bimaadziwin, the good life.

If we focus more on economics rather than on our place within

ecosystems, we lose humility and respect for the Earth that supports us.

The most well-known example of our collective forgetfulness is of our most

sacred teacher, Nimishomiss Ahsayma, Grandfather Tobacco. Tobacco has

been altered and manipulated in order to be used recreationally.

Recreational tobacco use has become industry and therefore tobacco

commercialisation has taken respect away from the sacrament. The removal

of ceremony from this teacher ends in killing thousands of people each year,

leaving us with an unfortunate example of the power of Ahsayma.

Each being of the land is reliant upon the health and well-being of

others within an ecosystem. The individual ecosystems of plants create and


gain nourishment within the ecosystem they have collectively constructed,

which is referred to as a garden herein. This work is presented to teach

individuals how to recognize the specific garden ecosystem of Nimishomiss

Wigwass, Grandfather Birch. This plant, as well as itself having analgesic

properties, houses powerful medicines known to the Anishnabeg and

peoples across the world: Polypore fungus, Chaga, and Miskwedo. The

following chapters intend to teach the amateur or expert botanist to

recognize the unique garden of Nimishomiss Wigwass.

This guide combines both traditional and western biological terms to

examine the medicines of four organisms, beginning with Nimishomiss

Wigwass, Birch, and following with the organisms from the highest to the

lowest point of the tree. The names, distribution, botanical description,

main active compounds, as well as known medicinal uses are explained. The

close of each chapter includes recommended foraging and preparation

methodologies with each associated organism. Illustrated in the final

chapter is how this garden ecosystem of medicine is both physically and

chemically interconnected. The discussion contains the comparisons of

chemical constituents of each organism, which allows the reader to see a

perspective of a microcosm of medicine.


Birch: Host of a system of fungal medicine

Fungi living parasitically with the medicinal birch tree, produce

bioactive constituents that have been rendered and used medicinally for

thousands of years across the world. The subject of the nature of the

medicinal fungi growing from a detritus birch and other trees has given

science valuable data regarding the continued research and contemporary

use of the medicinal fungi in modern medicine. This medicinal information

included in review focusses on the Betula sp. and three members of the

taxonomic class Agaricomycetes.


CHAPTER I: Nimishomiss Wigwass, Betula papyfera Marsh.

Nimishomiss wigwass grow in communities, or stands, that the following

illustrates as being a garden unto itself. We use the word “Nimishomiss,”

grandfather, to show respect for our traditions and medicine when referring

to the birch tree. The garden of Nimishomiss holds the medicinal organisms

that rely on the life of the tree to form their unique characteristics. Below is

an Anishnabeg legend of the origin of Nimishomiss.


Long ago and not far away, a boy was born into a nice family. Before he could

walk, a ceremony was held in his honor, a naming ceremony. He was given the

name Wigwass. Wigwass was given many gifts from the creator. One of those

gifts was to help others in a good way. He not only helped his father hunt and

fish, he also helped his mother pick wild berries and tend the garden. He

helped the elderly not only in his village, but in other villages. He would help

make canoes and houses.

One day when he became a young man he had to go to battle. In this battle he

lost his life. His brothers brought his body home and buried him, after they

held a farewell ceremony. He was buried in pure white buckskin on a hill just

beyond his village. The following spring his people noticed that a little tree

began to grow at the site of his grave. As this tree grew tall a dream came to

the father of Wigwass. In this dream he was told that Wigwass was still able to

help his people and the dream showed him how.

In the springtime you can take the sweet sap from him and you can make

syrup. You can peel the bark off to fashion food containers for keeping food

and eating. You can make canoes and you can use the bark to make lodges.

You can make boxes and baskets. From the strong wood you can make

daabaagan, sleighs and lodges. You can make fires, so the people can keep

warm and cook food. So, even in his death, Wigwassis still helping his people.

[1]


Common names Birch, Paper Birch, Canoe Birch, and White Birch

Distribution

Common throughout

the Great Lakes St.

Lawrence and Boreal

forest region. Lives in

moist, open upland

forests. Considered a

pioneer species, readily

coming up after a fire

[2].

Botanical description

(1) The flower [strobili] arrives in late spring. Samaras (winged fruit bodies)

complete in the late summer, as broad as or slightly larger than the fruit

body. (2) Leaf: Blade ovate, base rounded, venation of 9 or fewer pairs of

lateral veins. Margins coarsely to sharply serrate, covered with scattered

small resinous glands (3) Stem: Strong odor is absent, slightly to

moderately pubescent, infrequently with scattered, small resinous glands.

(4) Young trunks have reddish bark, older trees have chalky white paper.

Thin with peeling bark, and a high oil content makes the matter waterproof.

(5) Entire tree is 30m avg. Trunks often single, at times two or more.

Mature crowns are narrowly rounded [2].


Main active constituents

Betula plants have long in been dispute over distinct species in their naming

taxonomy Betula ssp. vary in their morphological traits and their frequent

hybridization [9]. Below is a list of some active chemical constituents of the

highest concentration of five Betula species [4].

Figure 2 Betula species main constituents [4] [9]

Constituent ActivityMethyl salicylate Fragrance, pain reliefCaryophyllene Neuroprotective, anxiolytic,

antidepressant, and anti-alcoholismα-betulenol acetate Water impermeability, Antifungal Humulene Scent of hopsα-betulenol Antifungalβ-betulenol Antifungal

Medicinal uses

Birch trees are cold tolerant and considered pioneer species, being

one of the first to arise after forest fires. This Genus inhabits many


ecosystems across the world, making this plant a convenient and highly

available medicine for many cultures around the globe. Oils have been

known to be rendered and utilized for centuries across the world, and in

seasonal forests, the benefit of cold tolerant plants allows for medicine to be

available all year long [4].

Ethnopharmacologically, Betula sp. have been found to be antifungal

as well as antimicrobial; however, this has been found to be variable

depending on the active constituents in each individual species of Betula

[4]. The most prevalent ethnomedical use of this tree has been for bone

related ailments including arthritis, gout and rheumatism [6]. An infusion of

the inner bark was used in enemas, used to treat blood diseases, and a

compound of the root bark was used as a gastrointestinal aid [7].

Harvesting and preparation methodologies

The author compiled and refined the following collection techniques.

Important note on harvesting and preparation: assure that you have

sufficient research and/or are guided by a practitioner knows any medicines

in this writing herein. The harvesting and preparation techniques below are

samples from ethnographic accounts [per.com].

Harvest

Summer paper harvest:

At the end of June and July, the sap of the birch is flowing easily. To

harvest the bark, for either craft or medicine, hatchet the bark in a

vertical line of the desired height.


Be sure to only cut to the depth of the bark, about ¼ cm.

Leave the tree for a short time, approximately an hour.

The tree releases the bark with ease making this method the safest for

a living tree.

Accounts of use and preparation

Every part of the birch tree can be used for craft and as medicine. The bark

is used for making dishes, canoes, medicine pouches, writing paper, and

liquid containers. Leaves and twigs of this tree can be collected and used in

medicinal teas and salves. One can learn the medicine best by drinking an

infusion of any part of this tree. Use approximately 1 tablespoon of cut birch

bark into one cup of boiling water. Use this ratio when exploring each part

of the tree, either of root, leaf, twig or bark.

References-Chapter I

[1] http://www.anishinaabemdaa.com/legend-2eng.htm

[2] Botanical description: http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=233500260

[3] Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Vol. 2(5), pp. 098-110, May, 2008 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR ISSN 1996-0875© 2008 Academic Journals


[4] Journal Article 2000 0009-3130 Chemistry of Natural Compounds36210.1007/BF02236421 The composition and antifungal bioassay of the essential oils of different Betula species growing in Turkey, Kluwer Academic Publishers-Plenum Publishers2000-03-01Betula species essential oil GC/MS antifungal activities Cephalosporium aphidicola Drechslera sorokinianse Fusarium solani Phizoctonia cerealis Demirci, F.Demirci, B.Baser, K.H.C.Guven, K.159-165English

[5] Rastogi, Subha. "Review: Medicinal plants of the genus Betula—Traditional uses and a phytochemical–pharmacological review." Journal of ethnopharmacology 159(2015):62-83.

[6] Rastogi, S., Pandey, M. M., & Kumar Singh Rawat, A. (2015). Review: Medicinal plants of the genus Betula—Traditional uses and a phytochemical–pharmacological review. Journal Of Ethnopharmacology, 15962-83. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2014.11.010

[7] Plants used by the Great Lakes Ojibwa

[8] Mshvildadze, V., Legault, J., Lavoie, S., Gauthier, C., & Pichette, A. (2007). Anticancer diarylheptanoid glycosides from the inner bark of Betula papyrifera. Phytochemistry, 682531-2536. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.05.018

[9] Atkinson, M. D. (1992). Betula pendula Roth (B. verrucosa Ehrh.) and B. pubescens. Journal Of Ecology, 80(4), 837-870

CHAPTER II: Birch Polypore


Piptoporus betulinus (Bull. ex Fr.) P. Karst.

Common names Polypore, birch bracket, razor strop [1].

Physical description

Formerly called Polyporus betulinus, Piptoporus betulinus fruiting

bodies can be 3 to 25cm width. Polypore can be hood or dome shaped, the

pileus begins growth as a white edible mushroom, aging to a brown shade

and finally to grey in later stages. The hymenium, or pores underneath the

hood vary from angular to circular [6]. The flesh can be 1-5cm in thickness

and is tough and corky. P. betulinus specifically grows on decaying or dead

Figure 3 http://www.medicalmushrooms.net/piptoporus-betulinus/


birch trees; however, it can appear on nearby trees, although this is not in

its ideal habitat.

Main active chemical constituents

Figure 4 Piptoporus betulinus [7] [8] [9]Constituents Known activity*Piptamine 1 (C₂₃H₄₁N) Antibiotic,

Antimicrobial*3-hepatanone*1-octen-3-ol*3-octanol*limonene

Tested for volatile compounds

*3β-acetoxy-16 α hydroxyl-24-oxo 5α-lanota-8-ene-21-oic acid

Antibacterial

6 Lanostane-type acids*Polyporenic acid A*Polyporenic acid C*3 derivatives of polyporenic acid A*(+)-12α,28-dihydroxy-3α-(3‘-hydroxy-3‘-methylglutaryloxy)-24-methyllanosta-8,24(31)-dien-26-oic acid

Anti-inflammatory,

suppresses induced edema in

mouse ears

*(3a,12a,25s)-3-[(carboxyacetyl)oxy]-12-hydroxy-24-methylene-Lanosta-8-en-26-oic acid

Unknown

Medicinal uses


Medicinal uses of this fungus are widespread throughout the world.

Since the mushrooms need to synthesize antibacterial and antimicrobial

medicines in order to survive in their natural environments, peoples can

utilize these compounds for a medicinal purposes. In European

ethnomedicine, polypore is used to treat cancer and stomach diseases [8].

In traditional Chinese medicine, polypore has been used medicinally for its

anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and immune system enhancing effects [9].


Harvesting: Polypore is known to come easily off of Birch trees. Choose

polypore mushrooms that have not been hardened by age as this makes

preparation easier.

Preparation:

The following preparation method has been recommended by Willow

Harvest Organics [10]:

8oz of dried mushroom material can make 4 litres of tonic

Place the measured material into a slow cooker or boiling pot.

Allow to sit at a minimum of 200 F.

Willow hardest suggests adding a meat brothe so the tonic can be

multi-use.

Allow to simmer for 72 hours, adding water when below the 4 litre

mark.

Note: Woodier mushrooms require a longer hot bath.


Pour liquid through a cheese cloth to strain and squeeze the

remaining mushroom material as well. The mushroom will take on

a portion of water.

Suggestion: pour liquid into ice cube trays for convenient use.

Melt one cube into food twice daily

Recommended dosage of Piptoporus betulinus: Tea, tonic, or

tincture. Dosage: Tea: 3-12 g. of mushroom in tea/day. Tonic: 1

cube twice daily. Tincture: 1 tsp. twice daily [10].

References-Chapter II

[1] https://insectamonarca.wordpress.com/category/polypore-birch-mushroom/

[2] http://www.first-nature.com/fungi/piptoporus-betulinus.php

[3] Grienke, U., Zöll, M., Peintner, U., & Rollinger, J. M. (2014). European medicinal polypores – A modern view on traditional uses. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 154(3), 564-583. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.030

[4] http://mushroomobserver.org/name/show_name_description/613

[5] Rajala, Tiina, Mikko Peltoniemi, Taina Pennanen, and Raisa Mäkipää. 2010. "Relationship between wood-inhabiting fungi determined by molecular analysis (denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) and quality of decaying logs." Canadian Journal Of Forest Research 40, no. 12: 2384-2397. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed August 24, 2015).


[6] Tom Volk, Jered http://mushroomobserver.org/name/show_name_description/613

[7] Wangun, H. K., Berg, A., Hertel, W., Nkengfack, A. E., & Hertweck, C. (2004). Anti-inflammatory and anti-hyaluronate lyase activities of lanostanoids from Piptoporus betulinus. The Journal Of Antibiotics, 57(11), 755-758

[8] Alresly, Z. et al., Bioactive Triterpenes from the Fungus Piptoporus betulinus, Academy of Chemistry of Globe Publications, Rec. Nat. Prod. 10:1 (2016) 103-108

[9] Dresch, P., et al., (2014), Fungal Strain Matters: colony growth and bioactivity of the European medicinal polypores Fomes fomentarius, Fomitipsis pinicola and Piptoporus betulinus

[10] http://www.willowharvestorganics.com/catalog.php?category=26


CHAPTER III: Chaga, Inonotus obliquus (Ach. ex Pers.) Pilát

Common names: Black birch fungus, Conk fungus, Chaga.

Physical description: Along with the Amanita ssp. and

Piptoporus ssp., Obliquus belongs

to the Agaricomycetes family.

Obliquus is a parasitoid fungus that

grows on host trees but most

favourably Betula trees [1].

This fungus is a hyperplastic conk

composed of mycelium that occurs

on the host tree post infection and

continuing as an invasive growth on the tree [3]. The conk grows on the

host tree and has the appearance of

burned matter on its exterior. The interior is orange coloured with a granule

texture when rasped. The shapes of this conk are variable, depending on

multiple factors such as infection region and wood type.

Main active chemical constituents

Figure 5 Courtesy of Jazmin Romaniuk


The main active chemical constituents that make this fungus

favourable for herbal extraction or infusion are multiple differing alkaloid

substances including triterpenes, which are precursors for many steroid

compounds [8]. The following table summarizes some of the main known

active constituents of the fungus Inonotus obliquus.

Figure 6 Inonotus obliquus [4] [5] [6] ActivityLanostane Triterpenes AnticancerOleanane Triterpenes AnticancerInonotusic acid Anti-cancerBetulin Antifungal, antiinflammatoryCaffeic acid Multi-use, antiinflammatoryEumelaninMelanin Skin pigmentation Sterols AnticancerPhenolics AntioxidantFlavanoids Antioxidant

Medicinal usesThis black birch fungus is best known by the name Chaga, likely stemming

from the old Slavic word “gaga” [5]. Chaga has a wide range of medicinal

applications across the world. In Russia, according to legend, the duke

Vladamir Monomach was cured from lip cancer by Chaga fungus [5]. As

well, Chaga was used as a gastrointestinal aid and as a treatment for

duodenal ulcers and other gastritis. Chaga is considered antimicrobial,

antitumor, and it possesses anti-inflammatory activity [6]. The above table

summarizes some of the known constituents of this medicinal mushroom.



Chaga grows into the wood of the birch tree. When one finds Chaga, it is

best to gently separate the fungus from the tree as much as possible.

Preparation for this fungus can vary.

1 TBSP of Chaga fungus for each cup of water. Steep the tea for a

minimum of 15 minutes.

References-Chapter III

[1] Ham, S., Kim, S., Moon, S., Chung, M. J., Cui, C., Han, E., & ... Choe, M. (2009). Antimutagenic effects of subfractions of Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) extract. Mut.Res.-Genetic Toxicology And Environmental Mutagenesis, 67255-59. doi:10.1016/j.mrgentox.2008.10.002

[2] Liang, L., Zhang, Z., & Wang, H. (2009). Antioxidant activities of extracts and subfractions from Inonotus Obliquus. International Journal of Food Sciences & Nutrition, 60175-184. doi:10.1080/09637480903042279

[3] Cha, J. Y., Lee, S. Y., & Chun, K. W. (2011). Basidiocarp formation by Inonotus obliquus on a living paper birch tree. Forest Pathology, 41(2), 163-164. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0329.2010.00687.x

[4] Zhao, F., Mai, Q., Ma, J., Xu, M., Wang, X., Cui, T., Han, G. (2015). Triterpenoids from inonotus obliquus and their antitumor activities. Fitoterapia, 101(Complete), 34-40. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2014.12.005

[5] Shashkina, M. Y., Shashkin, P. N., & Sergeev, A. V. (2006). Chemical and medicobiological properties of chaga (review). Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal, (10), 560.

[6] Liu, C., Zhao, C., Pan, H., Kang, J., Yu, X., Wang, H., & ... Chen, R. (2014). Chemical constituents from Inonotus obliquus and their biological activities. Journal Of Natural Products, 77(1), 35-41. doi:10.1021/np400552w

[7] Triterpenes and steroids: http://www.life.illinois.edu/ib/425/lecture23.html


CHAPTER FOUR: Miskwedo, Amanita muscaria

The legend of the Miswedo

-an excerpt of the legend written by Keewaydinoquay

“There he sees younger brother standing in the centre of an open space, a large group of people around him. Younger brother’s arms are open wide, spread like the umbrella of a mushroom. His robes are beautiful, glowing red, and tufts if white feathers adorn his head. In a high, humming voice of happiness, like the song of uncountable bees, he sings to the people.”

“Because of my supernatural experience,


In the land of the Miskwedo

I have a cure to alleviate your

ills,

To take away all your

unhappiness.

If only you will come to my

penis

And take the quickening

waters flowing from it

You, too, can be forever happy.”

“Way-ay-eah, poor elder brother! He did not understand the ways of the red-topped mushroom. He did not

understand the use of the golden mushroom liquid and the penis elixer. He continued to be filled with foreboding.

Neither did Younger brother understand the workings of the sacred mushroom. But he went on being happy, and

all the people following him continued in a state of bliss.”

Common names: Fly agaric, Amanita, Mario mushroom

Origin and distribution:


A. muscaria variations are found across North America, and Eurasia [3].

Botanical description:

The pileus 80-240mm broad, stipe long and can be 20-30mm thick. Colour

can be yellow, orange to red with the characteristic white ‘warts’. Gills

covered by a veil of early erupted specimens. Stipe is covered with fine

hairs, volva prominent and bulbous with several concentric rings around the

stipe. Flesh of the pileus and stipe are white throughout; leaves a white

spore print [4].

Main active chemical constituentsThe main active component, ibotenic acid, acts as an excitatory amino acid

at glutamate receptors, and muscimol is a g-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

receptor agonist [2], and is found to be the cause of the entheogenic effects

of A. muscaria. The atropine alkaloids are noted at the bottom of the

following table. These constituents have been found in low amounts in

various studies; however, other analyses have contested that these

chemicals are part of the action associated with the effects of this

mushroom.

Figure 8 Amanita muscaria Main Active constituents [3] [4] [5]Constituents Known activity

Figure 7 http://web.stanford.edu/~siegelr/fungi/amanitamuscaria.


Ibotenic acid PsychoactiveMuscimol PsychoactiveMuscazone Trace amounts, minor

action(-)-R-4-hydroxy-pyrrolidone-(2) -Choline -Acetylcholine Biogenic amineBetain -Muscaridin -Hercynin -Uracile -hypoxanthin -Xanthin -adenosin -Atropine* Central nervous system

(CNS) actionScopolamine* CNS actionBufotenine* CNS action

*Arguable constituents found in some specimens and not others

Medicinal usesThis well known, attractive mushroom has a long history of use throughout

history around the world. People from many cultures have used this

medicinal mushroom to experience visual distortions, produce dreams, as

well as to gain insights [6]. This mushroom has had much attention in fairy

tales, myths, legends and religion as well. Clark Heinrich, in his book Magic

Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy, describes many different theories on

the long-time use of this mushroom throughout history. Heinrich refers to

Wasson’s theory of the soma, summarizes the mushroom motifs of story of

Jesus, the amanita and the philosophers stone, and the mushroom as the


Miskwedo of the Anicinabeg [6]. As well, Jonathan Ott in the 1970s wrote

Hallucinogens of North America, highlighting known entheogenic plants, as

well as preparing and ingesting some of these plants himself [4]. R. Gordon

Wasson hypothesized that the A. muscaria mushroom is the plant “Soma”

presented in the Rg Veda of India [4] using the descriptions given in the Rg

Veda to formulate his hypothesis [1]. Wasson had studied the mushroom

extensively, even as an active participant in ingestion [4].

One note to highlight is the Indigenous Canadian use of the Amanita

muscaria. Due to cultures’ oral history being the main connection to

learning the past, information about ancient medicinal use of the amanita

would be lacking. Thankfully, Heinrich adds to his book the story of the

Miskwedo as told by the medicinal woman and ethnobotanist

Keewaydinoquay [6].

Harvesting and preparation The time of year of Miskwedo harvest can vary depending on your regions

seasonality. Amanitas in Canada can arise as early as August, however, the

best collection time is early to mid-fall. Though this writing highlights that

the Amanita muscaria arise around Birch host trees, the Miskwedo can

appear with other hosts, like pines such as spruce. As noted by mycologist

Dr. Hutchinson, the most prevalent species of Amanita in Northwestern

Ontario is the Amanita muscaria var. Formosa [7]. To harvest the

Miskwedo, one must only gently bend the terminal nodule of the amanita

pileus that is just beneath the ground. It is important to fully dry the


mushroom, as the chemical ibotenic acid can be in too high of concentration

for safe ingestion. The drying process turns ibotenic acid into muscimol, the

chemical thought to be the reason for the effects on the CNS. In a like

manner, it is well known that the human body manufactures muscimol from

ibotenic acid, hence the inclination for urine ingestion [3].

Note of caution: Eating fresh specimens of A. muscaria can produce nausea

and vomiting. Collect specimens with a knowledgeable individual in order to

avoid mistaken species identification (ie. Angel of Death, Death cap, A.

phalloides). It is unlikely that one would find a death cap in Northwestern

Ontario, however, Dr. Hutchinson noted one Angel of death located in

Thunder bay in the fall of 2015 [7].

References-Chapter IV

[1] Feeney, K. (2010). Revisiting Wasson's Soma: Exploring the Effects of Preparation on the Chemistry of Amanita Muscaria. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(4), 499-506. doi:10.1080/02791072.2010.10400712

[2] Li, C., & Oberlies, N. H. (2005). Minireview: The most widely recognized mushroom: Chemistry of the genus Amanita. Life Sciences, 78(NATURECEUTICALS (NATURAL PRODUCTS), NUTRACEUTICALS, HERBAL BOTANICALS, AND PSYCHOACTIVES: DRUG DISCOVERY AND DRUG-DRUG INTERACTIONS Volume I: Natureceuticals (Natural Products), Herbal Botanicals, Psychoactive Hallucinogens and Related Products), 532-538. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.09.003

[3] Michelot, D., & Melendez-Howell, L. M. (2003). Review: Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology. Mycological Research, 107131-146. doi:10.1017/S0953756203007305

[4] Ott, Jonathan (1976), Hallucinogenic plants of North America


[5] Tsujikawa, K., Mohri, H., Kuwayama, K., Miyaguchi, H., Iwata, Y., Gohda, A., & ... Kishi, T. (2006). Analysis of hallucinogenic constituents in Amanita mushrooms circulated in Japan. Forensic Science International, 164172-178. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.01.004

[6] Heinrick, C. (2002), Magic Mushrooms in religion and alchemy, Park Street Press, Rochester, Vermount

[7] Dr. Hutchinson, Department of forestry, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada.

CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusion

The system of medicine of Nimishomis Wigwas is expansive.

Researchers continue to test and gather data regarding the birch tree and

each associated species of fungi because of the growing collection of

knowledge of the medicine contained within each species illustrated in this

guide. The Birch tree host houses all of these active medicines, each fungal

organism living from the dying or detritus tree. The birch tree medicines in


and of itself, have been used in many cultural traditions across the world.

The importance of knowing the active medicines used culturally, presently

and in the past, can allow for scientists to narrow down biological medicinal

actions and compare to molecular data. The compounds identified can lead

to further western medical applications for ailments that scientists have yet

to find cures or treatments that are applicable.

In comparison at the level of phytochemicals, because of the systemic

appearance of similarities in chemicals, one could speculate that this

similarity is likely due to the common the environment, the birch ecosystem.

Birch, holding antimicrobial and pain relieving medicines, appear correlated

with the fungal medicines growing upon the host. To name a few, terpenes,

steroid components, and betulenol compounds are found in association with

each fungal species mentioned in the previous chapters.

In the words of author and anthropologist Jeremy Narby, “shamans

and scientists agree about the nature of nature, they just do not know it yet”

[1]. At first review, it seems that western scientific knowledge is

incompatible with indigenous knowledge about plant and fungal medicines.

However, in a comparison of the scientific literature to the known

indigenous uses across the world as described in this guide, one can see

that the literature is in agreement with what has been known for millennia

about these medicinal organisms.


Reference-Chapter V

[1] Sanders, J. Clement, A., (2014), Tonkiri: Chapter One

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