paul pulewka founder of turkey’s pharmacology … no.10 pdf/04.pdf · refugees from germany...

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IntroductionThe political tug of war in Turkey today pits the

staunchly secular Republicans against the Islamistscurrently in power. A debate is emerging about theworth of pursuing the EU membership. Injected intothe media discussions are memories of Turkey’semerging years. Those years are often glorified as ha-ving been full of ideological pursuits and good deeds.In some respects there is a basis for the glorifications.In 1923 Turkey became a secular state with all its ra-mifications. A new alphabet1 was created to increaseliteracy and most significant to the subject at hand isthe fact that Turkey’s system of higher education inc-luding medical education was thoroughly revised.The Istanbul Darülfünun was abolished by the Uni-versity Reform Law No. 2252 which was passed on31 May 1933 and Istanbul University was founded on1 August 1933. 157 of the 240 professors of the Da-rülfünun were relieved of their duties and were reti-red. 2

Because there were few Turkish citizens suffici-ently educated to accomplish these medical/educati-onal reforms, the new government turned the tragedybeginning in 1933 when Nazi Germany expelledmany of its citizens from their positions into an op-

portunity for the new Republic. Some 190 eminentintellectuals were invited to Turkey and were rescuedthereby3 – a fact hardly known outside of that co-untry. 4

Their collective impact on all aspects of Turkey’shigher education system, was monumental. “In its es-sence, the affair that we call or understand as Musta-fa Kemal Atatürk’s (1881–1938) Üniversite Reformuwas not merely a university reform, but the ultimateapex of the Atatürk cultural movement started in theyears 1925 to 1926.” 5

It should be mentioned if but parenthetically thatduring the 1930s for many of the displaced Germanintellectuals America was out of reach because of res-trictive immigration laws and wide spread anti-Semi-tic hiring bias at its universities. The fact is that du-ring the 1920s the University of Breslau faculty wascomprised of a large number of Jewish professors,25% in the Arts, 45% in Medicine and 48% in Law.The University of Berlin had 45% in Medicine alo-ne; Gottingen had 34% in Mathematics, and Medici-ne respectively, 40% in the Arts , 47% in Law andKonigsberg had 7% in the Arts, 14% in Law , and25% in Medicine 6 while Harvard, Yale, Brown, andPrinceton combined had not a single Jewish faculty

Paul Pulewka Founder of Turkey’s Pharmacology

While in Exile from the Nazis: 1935-1955

Arın NAMAL*, Arnold REISMAN**

* Assoc.Prof., Istanbul University Istanbul Medical Faculty Department of Medical History and Medical Ethics Horhor Cad. 1 / 34260 Istanbul e-mail: [email protected]

** PhD PE / 18428 Parkland Drive, Shaker Heights, Ohio 44122 (216) 561-1763 e-mail: [email protected]

Refugees from Germany transformed and modernized the teaching and the practice of pharmacology in Turkey. One of these wasPaul Pulewka. For him and his colleagues at those times America was out of reach because of restrictive immigration laws and wi-de spread anti-Semitic hiring bias at its universities. Turkey saved a large percentage of those fired from their academic posts by theNazis in Germany and later in Austria. Yet this significant chapter of 20th Century history has fallen beyond the Anglophone histori-ans’ radar horizon. This paper discusses that episode, its legacy, and perceptions thereof in Turkey today.

Key words: Turkey; Pharmacology; Medical History; History of Pharmacology; Educational Policy; Educational Policy; Govern-ment Policy; Nazi persecution; Nazism; Holocaust; Migration; Diaspora; Exile; Higher education.

Summary

member up to and through the 1940s. These Ameri-can Ivy League schools had each kept their facultyJudenfrei 7

The Turkish nation, including members of its Di-aspora, remember and continue to acknowledge theémigrés multifaceted impact on Turkish society. Se-veral stories documenting the gratitude felt for theémigrés’ contributions have recently been publishedin Turkish media. 8 There are memoirs written by theémigrés themselves and by their progeny who wereold enough top remember. 9 Yet in the English lan-guage literature this episode/epoch remains history’smonumental blind spot. 10

Paul PulewkaOrd. Prof. Dr. Paul Pulewka was the foundation

stone in the establishment of pharmacology andpharmacological controls in our country. 11

Paul Pulewka was born on February 11, 1896 inElbing.12 He graduated from the Humanistic Gymna-sium Atheneum Elbingiense in 1914 was conscriptedinto the Prissian army and sent to the eastern front.He learned to care for patients during the war andwas himself injured. Later on, he cared for injuredsoldiers on the western front as a corpsman and pro-vided other first aid service. His war experiences andfamily advice directed him to qualify for medicine.He began his medicine education in Munich and gra-duated from Konigsberg (Kaliningrad) Prussia, Me-dical Faculty, in 1923. He went on to receive docto-rates in both pharmacology and toxicology from thePharmacology Institute of the same university.

In the Pharmacology examination an outside exa-miner Prof. Dr. Hermann Wieland coming from Frei-burg impressed Pulewka with his wonderful know-ledge. After graduation, Professor Wieland workingin Konigsberg offered Pulewka an assistantshipwhich he accepted and while working with Prof. Dr.Wieland Pulewka attended to the doctorate program.He won a scholarship from the USA in order to con-tinue his research there but he did not go. This deci-sion also determined his later destiny.

Pulewka went to Tubingen in 1929 on the invita-tion of Professor Felix Haffner and began to lecturethere on toxicology of gases, dusts, war chemicals

and industrial toxic materials. In Tubingen, he beganstudying microtoxic effects of air pollution on thenervous system which he resumed after coming toTurkey 19 years later.

While Pulewka was working with Professor Wie-land, he learned to always consider the therapeuticand toxicological aspects and began his famous stu-dies of toxic effects of alkalisulphide and alkalicya-nid reactions. Wieland was trying to direct him to beversatile and independent. Pulewka performed toxi-cological studies for the Forensic Medicine Instituteas well. He tried to develop methods which had lowermargins of error as well as analyzing toxics with clas-sical methods. These studies would be very useful forhim when he came to Turkey. When Wieland left Ko-nigsberg, Prof. Haffner took his position and Pulew-ka became associate professor. After Prof. Haffnerwent to Tubingen, Pulewka became deputy directorof the Konigsberg Pharmacology Institute in 1927-1928. However Pulewka came down with exudativepleuritis a serious illness, shortly before Hitler cameto the power and his position was reduced to lectu-ring. He was faced with a sanction even before Hit-ler came to power. Later Pulewka would took a standagainst National Socialism.

Pulewka is on record sardonically saying whilemimicking Hitler’s voice, that “German society canonly be cured by German plants, synthetic drugs arefound by Jews who want to destroy Germans!”. Pu-lewka explained how his students applauded him assmiling including some who began wearing brownshirts. He tells us that: “… however, I will explainyou their pharmacology in order to show how harm-ful synthetic drugs are…” Through these speeches,Pulewka described the situation: “My warnings didnot work out, I was kept lonely.”13

He was forced to leave Germany also because hiswife was Jewish.

Behrend Behrens, Paul Pulewka’s former assis-tant whom Pulewka and his wife had once savedfrom drowning in a sea accident, warned him that hewas in serious danger because of his political beliefs.He resigned or was released from his professorship ofpharmacy at the University of Tubingen but with helpof an anti-nazi official in the German foreign mi-

Arın NAMAL, Arnold REISMAN PAUL PULEWKA FOUNDER OF TURKEY’S PHARMACOLOGYWHILE IN EXILE FROM THE NAZIS: 1935-1955

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nistry the Pulewka’s found their way by train to Tur-key in October of 1935 (his mother-in-law came An-kara later).

At first he worked for the Central Hygiene (Pub-lic Health) Institute of the Ministry of Health in An-kara (founded in 1928). In 1940 his contract was notrenewed and he stayed jobless in Turkey until 1941when he was rehired and in 1946 became Director ofthe Pharmacy Institute at the University of Ankara.He worked there until 1954 at which time he returnedto Germany. Upon return to Germany, he was appo-inted Professor of Pharmacology at Tübingen Uni-versity in 1955 and served as the founding director ofthe Baden Würtemberg Toxicology Institute.

While in Turkey, Paul Pulewka founded the phar-macology departments at the Refik Saydam Public He-alth Institute in Ankara and the Medical Faculty of An-kara University. He also administered the Materia Me-dica Institute and served as a member of the TurkishCodification Commission. The most important charac-teristic of his pharmacolocal studies is that they wereall directed at local and national problems in Turkey.

Front Cover of Pulewka’s Turkish Pharmacology Book14

The following provides an interestıng example ofthe way Pulewka’s identified a local need, analyzedthe problem, and suggested a simply implemantablesolution.

Honey has been a popular local foodstuff since ti-me immemorial. Honey from yellow flowers, Rhodo-dendron honey (commonly called crazy honey), ac-cording to popular belief along the Black Sea Coast,was more poisonous than that from purple flowers.Hundreds of samples from Rhododendron honey we-re sent to the institute to be analyzed in order deter-mine the degree of poison contained each year. Sincethe amount of andromedotoxin in the honey, the poi-son in rhododendron, varied greatly, poisoning caseswere frequent. Pulewka’s experiments performed onthe commonly used Plugge color reaction test, sho-wed that this reaction was caused not only by andro-medotoxin, but also by non-poisonous products. Hetherefore switched to a test using mice. Pulewka wasthus able to determine the level of poison in a few mi-nutes and with a very small margin of error by thecharacteristic reflex test on mice. Experiments furt-her showed that in order to eliminate the poison in thehoney by heating, the medium had to be sufficientlyacidic. Pulewka therefore recommended that the ho-ney be boiled with some vinegar or citric acid added.

Pulewka’s work in TurkeyThough there was a clause “He shall work in An-

kara University” in the contract, Pulewka was neverassigned for such an employment because, the Anka-ra University was still in the planning process andwould open until 1946. In the interim Pulewka foun-ded his own laboratory in the new building of CentralHygiene Institute a part of the Ministry of Health.Since Ataturk wanted to make science strong not onlyin universities but also in other agencies of the statePulewka succeeded in obtaining significant amountsof financial support. The Institute was to be a modelInstitute for the country and a showcase for foreignvisitors. Pulewka requisitioned tools from Switzer-land, Germany and England for the laboratory. Therewas a section within the building in which vaccineswere being produced. Turkish government wanted toentrust Pulewka for the production of hormone pre-parations (particularly insulin). The governmentwanted to be independent of foreign countries for

Arın NAMAL, Arnold REISMANPAUL PULEWKA FOUNDER OF TURKEY’S PHARMACOLOGYWHILE IN EXILE FROM THE NAZIS: 1935-1955

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hormone preparation and to reduce the risk of usingineffective preparations.

Such was not in the purview of pharmacology. Ho-wever Pulewka developed a tool (since the vacuumdistillation mechanism required for industrial producti-on could not be provided in a short time) and managedto obtain relative pure insulin in small amounts.

Establishment of drug controlsystem in Turkey

Since 1927 Turkey had a drug control system. Ho-wever, the system only controlled the chemical com-position of drugs. The usage and hazards of drugswere not being controlled. Real drug controls in Tur-key only began with the Pulewka initiatives. Coun-terfit drugs (it was very popular in Turkey as in thewhole world in these years) were prohibited. A con-trol system was established step by step. Hormone,vitamin, digitalis and salvarsan preparations wereevaluated pharmacologically and drugs effective overautonomous nervous system or drugs including subs-tances such as aconitine, veratrine or andromethodo-toxin were under custody of the state.

Pulewka was developing quantitative study met-hods, which were better than known microchemicalanalysis methods, and these methods later would becombined with newer chromatographic and spectrog-raphic methods.

Toxicity problem of drugs or other consumptionmaterials required more comprehensive animal expe-riments. Characteristic reaction of iris or respirationsystem reaction at rats was giving required results interms of approval or rejection of many pharmacy gro-ups. Pulewka would continue to apply this methodsuccessfully in Tubingen later on.

Many drugs were being examined not only chemi-cally and pharmacologically but also serologically,microbiologically or clinically. A final report was be-ing prepared including all these examinations at theRefik Saydam Hifzisihha Institute of which Pulewkawas director and the final report was being submittedto the Ministry of Health. The Ministry was appro-ving or rejecting the drug on the basis of this expertreport. Since analyses were performed by the instatevery strictly, it was seen that many drugs did not inc-

lude qualities declared by the manufacturers and hadextremely toxic or other kinds of harmful qualities.

Pulewka was rejecting various drug combinationsnot having therapeutic worth. For example, takingadrenalin orally or lithium salt orally that its solventeffect for kidney stone was only proved clinically.Pulewka authored a negative report for drugs that we-re not proven in the literature or in his own Instituteand clinic for their benefits.

Of course, drug manufacturers whose productswere rejected had great antipathy against Pulewka.However, in a short time they too recognized the be-nefits of these controls to society . Drugs examined inthe Institute of Pulewka were not only new drugs.The Institute was also examining drugs existing inthe market for years. Thus, Pulewka established anofficial pharmacological control system in Turkey.While establishing this system, he relied not only onhis scientific power but also on his character traits.

Pulewka’s Toxicological studies in TurkeyPerformance of toxicological studies and consu-

tancy oion the subject were among services Pulewkarendered in accordance with his contractual obligationsto Turkey. Within this realm fell finding reasons of in-toxication and poison sources. Intoxications caused byharmful weeds (weeds including Datura stramoniumL., Secale cornutum L.., lolium temulentum L., Agros-temma githago L., rhinantin etc.) mixed with cereals ormercury or thaillium mixed with cereals.

As indicated rhodedondron honey samples weresent to Pulewka’s laboratory from the various Turkishseashores for examination of their toxicicity. Andro-medotoxin as rhodedondron toxic could exist in the-se honeys in various amounts. Pulewka could easilymake decisions by evaluating typical reactions of ratsto the honey samples. 15

His toxicological examinations revealed massiveintoxications among these are: Intoxications due toarsenic contamination of drinking water, findingstrychnine in a vaccine prepared for children thatcaused nine deaths, finding high rates of morphine inbread, finding pilocarpine in a hair growth drug sentfor examination when it caused nausea and emesisfor Ataturk himself and for others, etc.


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Narcotic drugs were also examined in this Institute.Police departments kept sending many suspicioussubstances to the Institute for examining whether theyare narcotics or not. Pulewka found that the hemp plantmight form various levels of tetrahydrocannabinol re-sin (opium poppy) when grown in some ground andunder certain climate conditions. Thus, he protectedmany hemp producers against false accusation.

Pulewka also fulfilled the demand of the Turkishmilitary for developing a filter for use in cases of awater poisoning.

He developed many effective incest killing drugsand rat poisons. He examined the climate and air con-ditions whether they affect toxicity of narcotics andlocal anesthetics or not. He also studied unexpecteddeaths during surgical operations. He was a memberof the Turkey Drug Commission, a commissionmember at intercollegiate associate professorshipexaminations, and publication council member inmedical journals. Pulewka was one of the editors ofthe Türk İjiyen ve Tecrübi Biyoloji Dergisi [TurkishBulletin of Hygiene and Experimentale Biology]which was published by the Central Hygiene (PublicHealth) Institute of the Ministry of Health.

Pulewka’s Activities at the UniversityWhen the Ankara Medicine Faculty was founded,

Pulewka was named Director of its Pharmacology Ins-titute as well as his director at Refik Saydam Institute.He was also the director of Materia Medica Institute.

He was teaching his students in this Institute to prepa-re simple drugs and pharmaceuticals as well as synthe-tic or chemical drug types. Lectures in this institute we-re being given by pharmacy professors.

Although Pulewka learned Turkish well in a shorttime, he gave his lectures in German due to the fact thathe was afraid of making any terminological mistake.

Pulewka is on record17 as saying that he had dif-ficulties in keeping his position after the death of Ata-turk. The Health Minister Refik Saydam who was Pu-lewka’s protector lost much political force after Ata-turk’s death. His agreement ending on November1940 was not renewed.18 However “miracuosly [his]residence permit was not cancelled.”19 Although Pu-lewka received an invitation from Dartmouth Colle-ge at Hanover (Mass./USA) he rejected it because theUnited States was preparing for war. Later Pulewkatried to go to the USA or Canada but he could not sohe considered himself lucky since his residence per-mit for Turkey was not taken away. Refik Saydam be-came the Prime Minister in 1941 and called himback. As can be seen from the exhibit below, Pulew-ka’s sojourn in Turkey was not at all times smooth.His problems with university administration becameevermore acute following Ataturk’s passing in 1938.

A Pulewka letter to the Dean datedFebruary 23, 195120

Where Pulewka explains to the Dean why he didnot provide course notes to students. According to


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The original Ankara University Medical Faculty Professor Pulewka is second from the right16

Pulewka, students should take their own notes andshould expand their knowledge by reading other so-urces. Memorizing notes given to students is a wrongmethod of teaching. These explanations show that theDean asked Pulewka for an expalanation.

Pulewka, called himself a “Constrained Scientist.”While in Turkey Pulewka had difficulty in doing origi-nal scientific studies, as he was expected to serve Tur-kish society. There was little interest for original scien-tific studies during the 1930s and 1940s in Turkey. 21

One day, while Pulewka was examining the effectof substances including andromedotoxin, the Minis-ter of Education visited the Refik Saydam Instituteand told Pulewka in no uncertain terms that he sho-uld not do basic research on rats because he was ex-pected to serve Turkish society and to transfer hisknowledge to his students. 22

During the 19 years that Pulewka lived in Turkeyhe traveled widely within the country.

Yet Pulewka was not pleased with Turkey afterAtaturk’s passing and in 1953 his tenure there wassummarily ended as is shown next.

A December 30, 1953 letter toPulewka from the Dean 23

Dear Honorable Professor,

A Board decision about not renewing your agre-

ement for 1954 was conveyed to the Senate and itwas approved in the session of Senate in 15.12.1953.It was also accepted by Ministry of National Educa-tion.

You have worked in our Faculty with great devo-tion for years. We appreciate your good qualities aswell as being a superior scientist. Thus, your departu-re will create a huge gap. Your name will always ha-ve an outstanding position in the medicine history ofour country. You can always use your title as extraor-dinary professor given by our faculty. I present mydeep respects and wish you a long and happy life.


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Dean of Ankara Medicine Faculty,

A letter from Pulewka dated July 12 1953 tothe Deanship of the Medicine Faculty24

I have been working as a pharmacologist for theMinistry of Health in Turkey since November 1935,in other words for more than 18 years. I have been amember of Ankara Medicine Faculty since December1946, namely for more than 7 years.

During this period, I both performed public healthservice in Refik Saydam Institute of Ministry of He-alth, taught courses, and did research at the Medici-ne Faculty as a whole. I heartily encouraged students,assistants, and my colleagues to develop within thepharmacology field. My studies on pharmacology inTurkey became the most important part of my life.However, I found out that my agreement which willexpire in the end of February was decided not to beextend at the board meeting of professors dated as5.12.1953.

A professor in any university within the free worldis dismissed from his position only for serious rea-sons. An individual who worked honestly and loyallyfor long years desires to know the reasons. Thus, Iask you to inform me about these reasons.

For various socio-political and economic reasonsprevalent in the country Pulewka’s latter years in Tur-key were not smooth to wit. “In the year of 1944,Turkey renounced it’s political relations with Ger-

many and declared war. Meanwhile, the non-JewishGermans were arrested. In order to be protected, Tur-kish Nationality was suggested to me. However, I re-fused this proposal. In the end of a long period of un-certitude, it was decided that the German Doctors inthe country were needed and for the that reason, theidea for their arrests was given up.”

Nonetheless, my status in the University becamedifficult. It was stated that after the Turkish educatorswere brought up, the foreigners were to be drawn backor become Turkish Citizens. A guard was provided tome after I received un-signed letters threatening mewith death unless I become a Turkish Citizen…”

“I wrote a book on Pharmacology. The publicati-on of the textbook was a main reason for my loss ofjob. This was also true with the other emigres. Beca-use the successor professors were now able to use thepublished books.” 25

“The students were generally on respectful andfriendly behaviours. However, I did encounter de-monstrations in which the hostilities for the foreig-ners were.”

Pulewka became guest professor at Tubingen Uni-versity in 1954 and was appointed to the newly foun-ded toxicology professorship in 1957. The rapidgrowth of industry required toxicity to be studied.Pulewka retired in 1964.

Perceptions of the Émigrés inTurkey Today

Memories of the émigré professors and the appre-ciation of their contributions to Turkey’s moderniza-tion linger on in that country and among the educatedTurkish Diaspora. Recently several symposia weredevoted to keeping the memories alive. One confe-rence organized by the Turkish Academy of Science(TÜBA), was devoted to “The Evolution of the Con-cept of University in Turkey (1861-1961)” (Novem-ber 18, 2006). At the meeting, the evolution of the“university” concept during a 100-year time span wasdiscussed. Much of the discussion focused on Ata-türk’s university reforms, the realization of whichwas attributed to the émigrés from Germany. Signifi-cantly on April 7, 2006, the University of Istanbulconducted a symposium on the 1933 University Re-


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form. The conference opened with a welcoming spe-ech by Dr. Mustafa Keçer, the dean of the IstanbulMedical Faculty, who reiterated that “Turkey owes agreat debt to the émigrés. They did great work here,although some jealous colleagues tried to denigratethem.” Reiner Möckelmann (b. 1941), the recentlyretired German consul general in Istanbul, organizedtwo symposia at the consulate. One, on November29, 2005, dealt with the contributions to Turkey’s le-gal system by the émigré contingent of legal scholars.26 The other, on August 6, 2006, dealt with the con-tributions of the medical contingent. 27

A student presenting a bouquet to Ord. Prof. Dr. Pulewka28

Concluding remarksSince Stephen L. Parente and Edward C. Prescott

used the words “ideas,” “knowledge,” and “technolo-gies” interchangeably in their Nobel-winning deve-lopment rationale29 it can be concluded that thetransfer of 190 intellectuals/professionals while at thecutting edge of knowledge in their respective fields,and providing them with all necessities to adapt andcontinue their work in a rather different society istantamount to the transfer of much technology. So itwas in this situation. Pulewka alone transferred muchknowledge and technology to a country thirsting forsame.

When the émigrés arrived, Turkey had two fledg-ling universities. 30 It now has over seventy and mostoffer medical curricula. At least two generations ofeducated Turks owe their positions to the implemen-tation of those reforms and Turkey’s entire populati-on owes its health status to those reforms. Turkey’sunfortunate brain-drain has contributed to medicaleducation and practice in all western countries.

Decades later, it is fair to say that while theémigrés’ sojourn in Turkey was an episode, their le-gacy is an epoch. Significantly, it is so recognized byknowledgeable people in Turkey and among the edu-cated in the Turkish Diaspora today. Because all theabove is true for all of the intellectuals and professi-onals saved by Turkey this paper offers a “story” to“create a context of origin, that the people may not li-ve alienated from their ancestry and in ignorance ofthe events that have given shape to their present.” 31

EpilogueDecades later at the March 5-7, 1996 Congress

Ord. Prof. Dr. Paul Pulewka: On the 100th Anniver-sary of his Birth held, in Uludağ, Bursa, the TurkishPharmacological Society recorded its recognitionthat the “founders of pharmacology in Turkey wereProf. Dr. Akil Muhtar Özden, İstanbul University,and Prof. Dr. Paul Pulewka, Ankara University”

ExplanationThis paper is partially based on Arnold Reisman,

TURKEY’S MODERNIZATION: Refugees from Na-zism and Atatürk’s Vision. New Academia Publishers,Washington, DC. (2006). However much of the fac-tual materials on Pulewka’s work while in Turkeyand all correspondence documents are from more re-cently discovered sources obtained from AnkaraUniversity Personnel Office Archives.

REFERENCES1. In 1928, the Grand National Assembly passed a law pro-

mulgating use of international numerals. The new alphabetwas adopted by law, on November 1, 1928. http://www.tur-kishembassy.org/countryprofile/history.htm. For an essayand 17 photos depicting the process of implementing theedict, see M. O. Williams, “Turkey Goes to School,” TheNational Geographic Magazine (January 1929): 94–108.

2. Ilhan ELMACI “Dr. Rudolph Nissen” Journal of Neurologi-cal Sciences (Turkish), NOROL BIL D 18:4,2001 http://www.med.ege.edu.tr/norolbil/ 2001 /NBD17901.html

3. One way to recognize the caliber of people involved is tonote that prior to, during, and after their exile in Turkey atleast sixteen of them are known to have corresponded withNobel laureates including Max Von Laue, James Frank, Li-nus Pauling, Max Planck, Max Born, Erwin Schroedinger,Neils Bohr, Enrico Fermi, Herman J. Muller, Albert Szent-Györgyi, Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein.


28 JISHIM 2006, 5

4. A. Reisman “Turkey’s Invitations to Nazi Persecuted Intel-lectuals Circa 1933: A Bibliographic Essay on History’sBlind Spot.” Working paper, 2007. Available on requestfrom its author.

5. A. Kazancıgil, I. Ortaylı, and U. Tanyeli, “Türkiyenin Ya-bancıları,” Cogito, (Istanbul:Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Üç aylıkdüşünce dergisi, Sayı:23, Yaz, 2000), 119-132.

6. M. Walsh, Witness to History, (Uckfield, UK Historical Re-view Press 1996)

7. Arnold Reisman, TURKEY’S MODERNIZATION: Refuge-es from Nazism and Atatürk’s Vision. (Washington, DC,New Academia Publishers, 2006) p312

8. See Cimen Gunay-Erkol and Arnold Reisman “The Foun-ders of Turkey’s System of Modern Higher Education: AnAnthology of Testimonials from First, Second, and ThirdGeneration of Students.” (2007) Working paper. Availablefrom the authors.

9. Most of these are discussed or fully captured in Arnold Re-isman, Turkey’s Modernization: Refugees from Nazism andAtatürk’s Vision (Washington, DC:New Academia Publis-hers, 2006. .

10. A. Reisman “Turkey’s Invitations to Nazi Persecuted Intel-lectuals Circa 1933: A Bibliographic Essay on History’sBlind Spot.”

11. Sütlüpınar and Ergun (2003) “ Prof. Paul Pulewka’nın Tür-kiye’de yaptığı farmakognozik araştırmalar”[Paul Pulew-ka’s pharmachognozic research conducted in Turkey]. Afi-fe Mat (Ed.): Eczacılık Tarihi Araştırmaları [Pharmacologi-cal Historical Research] (VI. Türk Eczacılık Tarihi Toplan-tısı’nda sunulan bildiriler, İstanbul, 5-7 Haziran 2002). İs-tanbul.

12. Pulewka’s father was a pharmacologist who grew up in a re-fugee family from Salzburg. His mother was a Dutch Men-nonite (Theologian Menno Simons lived between 1496 and1561. He interpreted Christianity in a different way; He re-fused to join the army). Thus Pulewka was born to a refu-gee family.

13. Wienfried Kruppa (1988) Deutsch-türkischer Wissenschaft-saustausch in der Pharmazie. Würzburger Medizinhisto-rische Forschungen Band 44. Patentsen/Hannover

14. Courtesy Ankara National Library Archives

15. Paul Pulewka (1949) “Andromedotoxin ihtiva eden bal vebunun zehirliliğini tayin için bir biyolojik metod hakkında”.Türk İjiyen ve Tecrübi Biyoloji Dergisi (9) 3: 7-16

16. Baskan S, Kuruluşunun 60. Yılında Ankara Tıp Fakültesi.[Journal of Ankara Faculty of Medicine.] 2006;59 (Suppl1):11.

17. Wienfried Kruppa, p. 313

18. Similarly, the agreements of the Institute Director EmilGotschlich and Ankara Numune Hospital Ear-Nose-ThroatClinic Director Max Meyer were not renewed neither. Ibid

19. Paul Pulewka (1980) “Neunzehn Jahre als Pharmakologe inder Türkei”. Therapie der Gegenwart 119: 199-211.

20. Courtesy Ankara University Personnel Office Archives.

21. Winfried Kruppa, p. 318

22. Ibid.

23. Courtesy Istanbul University Personnel Office Archives.

24. Ibid

25. Pulewka P: “Neunzehn Jahre als Pharmakologe in der Tür-kei” [Nineteen years in Turkey as Pharmacolog.]. Therapieder Gegenwart 1980; 119: 199-211.

26. Reiner Möckelmann, Diskussionsabend im Generalkonsu-lat am 29.11.2005. Exil und Bildungsreform: DeutscheRechtsprofessoren in der Türkei ab 1933. Generalkonsulatder Bundesrepublik Deutschland in Istanbul. The conferen-ce proceedings are summarized in a limited edition bookletavailable from the Consulate.

27. Reiner Möckelmann, Diskussionsabend im Generalkonsu-lat am 06.08.2006 zum Thema Exil und Gesundheitswesen:Deutsche Mediziner in der Türkei ab 1933. Generalkonsu-lat der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in Istanbul. The confe-rence proceedings are summarized in a limited edition bo-oklet available from the Consulate.

28. An annotation below the photograph states: “He gave us somany things and we could only present him a bouquet fromhearts. Baskan S, Kuruluşunun 60. Yılında Ankara Tıp Fa-kültesi. [Journal of Ankara Faculty of Medicine.] 2006;59(Suppl 1):20.

29. Parente, S.L. and Prescott, E.C. (2000). Barriers to Riches,The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

30. Strictly speaking there was only one University i.e.,the Uni-versity of Istanbul. The other was a higher school of Engi-neering the Yuksek Muhendis Mektebi- like the GermanHochschule It had entirely different statute. The degree gi-ven was of course a university level degree. It acquired uni-versity status much later.

31. Staudenmaier, J.M. (1985), Technology’s Storytellers. MITPress, Cambridge, Massachusetts.


29JISHIM 2006, 5

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