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Pedagogic discourse: contexts of schooling1 JRMartin&DavidRose

InNNørgaard[Ed.]RASKInternationaljournaloflanguageandcommunication,SpecialvolumeinhonourofCarlBache,2013,1-46

Abstract

Inpursuitofdemocratisingeducationoutcomes,thispaperanalysescontextsofschoolingfromtheperspectivesoftwopowerfulmodelsofsocialcontext:themodeloftext-in-contextdevelopedwithinsystemicfunctionallinguistictheory(SFL),andthemodelofpedagogiccontextsdevelopedinthesociologicaltheoryofBasilBernstein(1975,1990,2000).Inthefirstsection,amodelofsocialcontextaslevelsofmeaning,includingbothgenreandregister,isoutlinedandarguedfor,andthenappliedtoanalysingvarietiesof‘knowledgegenres’writtenintheschool.Inthesecondsection,Bernstein’smodelofpedagogicdiscourseisre-configuredintermsofregisterandgenretheory,todescribethecontextsofclassroomlearningas‘curriculumgenres’,throughwhichknowledgeisacquiredintheschool.Thismodelisthenappliedtoanalysingvarietiesofclassroomdiscourse,torevealtheenactmentofauthorityandidentitiesinthepedagogicrelationsoftheclassroom.

Introduction

BuildingonHalliday’sviewoflinguisticsasanideologicallycommittedformofsocialaction,amajorgoaloflanguageresearchintheSydneySchool(Hyon1996,Johns2002,Martin2000,Rose2008,2011,Rose&Martin2012)hasbeentoanalyseandredesignthepedagogiccontextsthroughwhichschoolknowledgeisacquiredandevaluated.Theresearchhasdrawnontwocomplextheoriesofsocialcontext,includingthemodeloftext-in-contextdevelopedwithinsystemicfunctionallinguistictheory(SFL),andthemodelofpedagogiccontextsdevelopedinthesociologicaltheoryofBasilBernstein(1975,1990,2000).TheSydneySchoolmodelstratifiessocialcontextasregister,includingfieldsofactivity,tenorofsocialrelations,andmodeofsemiosis,woventogetheratthelevelofgenre,definedas‘goal-orientedsocialprocess’(Martin1992,2001,Martin&Rose2008).Bernstein’smodelstratifiespedagogiccontextsintermsofproduction,recontextualisationandreproductionofknowledge.Ononehand,theSydneySchoolresearchhasappliedthemodeloftext-in-contexttodescribethesystemsof‘knowledgegenres’thatstudentsareexpectedtoreadandwriteinschool.Ontheother,ithasadaptedBernstein’stheoryofpedagogicdiscoursetodescribethe‘curriculumgenres’(Christie2002)throughwhichcontrolofthewrittengenresofschoolingareacquiredandevaluated.

1AnearlydraftofthispaperwasradicallyrevisedasRose&Martininpress;onlythefirstfiveparagraphsoftheearlydraftsurvivedtherevisionandhavebeenrepeated,veryslightlyadjusted,here.

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ThischapterbeginsbyoutliningthemodeloflanguageandcontextthathasevolvedinSFLtheory,andappliesthismodeltoanalysingsomeofthetextsthatstudentswriteinschool.ItthenintroducesBernstein’smodelofpedagogicdiscourseandarticulatesitwiththeSFLmodelofgenreandregister.Thisderivedmodelisappliedtoanalysingcurriculumgenres,attheleveloftheirgenericstructuringandtheclassroomexchangesthatrealisethem.Theanalysisisappliedtoredesigningcurriculumgenres,toenhancetheirpotentialforenablingallstudentstoachievesuccess.Thearticulatedmodelofpedagogicdiscourseisasignificantdevelopmentinthefield,thatoffersresearchersnewtoolsforinterpretingpedagogiccontexts.

ModellingcontextinSFL

Halliday(inMartin2013:215)rehearsesthequestion‘Canweactuallymodelandrepresentandinterpretcontextwithintheframeworkofwhatisgenerallyinvolvedasatheoryoflanguage?’,notingthathisteacherFirththoughtyoucouldandthathethinkssotoo,‘ifonlybecauseit'sthebestchanceyou’vegot.’HisremarksreflectthelongstandingconcerninFirthianandneo-Firthianlinguisticswithmodellingcontextasalevelofmeaning(Monaghan1979).AsFirthcomments(1968:200-201),‘Themeaningoftextsisdealtwithbyadispersalofanalysisatmutuallycongruentseriesoflevels,beginningwithcontextsofsituationandproceedingthroughcollocation,syntax(includingcolligation)tophonologyandphonetics…’.Halliday,moreinfluencedbyHjelmslev(1961)andWSAllenthanFirthinthisregard,hadmodelledthisdispersalasarealizationhierarchysuchasthatoutlinedinFig.1,withphonologyrealizinglexicogrammar,lexicogrammarrealizingsemantics,andsemanticsrealizingcontext.ThisprivilegescontextasastratumofmeaninginHalliday’smodel(akintoHjelmslev’sconnotativesemiotics),realizedthroughpatternsoflanguagechoice(e.g.Halliday2005).

Fig.1:Contextasastratumofmeaning

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Halliday’slinguisticperspectiveoncontext,inwhichlanguageconstrues,isconstruedbyandovertimereconstruesandisreconstruedbycontext,canbetermedsupervenient.Itcontrastswiththecircumvenientperspectivewherebylanguageisconceivedasembeddedincontext,wherecontextistreatedasextra-linguisticandnotitselfmodelledinlinguistictermsasasystemofmeaning.ThetwoperspectivesareoutlinedinFig.2,usingco-tangentialcirclesforthesupervenientperspectiveandconcentriccirclesforthecircumvenientone.2

Fig.2:Supervenienceandcircumvenience

Martin(e.g.1985,1992)furtherdevelopsthesupervenientperspective,suggestingthatHalliday’sstratumofcontextneedsitselftobestratifiedintotwolevelswhichhecallsregisterandgenre(Fig.3below).IndoingsoMartinisproposingamodelinwhichcontextcanbemappedasasystemofgenres(Christie&Martin1997,Martin&Rose2008),realisingthroughfield,tenorandmodesystems(collectivelyreferredtoasregister).OneofhisreasonsforstratifyingcontextasgenreandregisteristofosterHalliday’sproposals(e.g.1978)forusingintrinsicfunctionality(ideational,interpersonalandtextualmeaningwithinlanguage)tomapextrinsicfunctionality(field,tenorandmoderespectively)asdimensionsofcontext(Martin2001),withouthavingtoincorporateconsiderationsofgenrethatmuddythewaters(forargumentationseeMartin1999,2001).AlsosignificantisMartin’srecontextualisationofHalliday’ssemantics(cf.Fig1)asdiscoursesemantics(e.g.Martin1992,Martin&Rose2003),bywayofemphasisingthatregisterandgenrearerealisedthroughmeaningrelationsintextwhichregularlyextendbeyondtheclause.Contextisnotinotherwordsapatternoflexicogrammaticalpatterns,butapatternofpatternoflexicogrammaticalpatterns–thebasicunitofanalysisincontextuallinguisticshastobetext,notclause.

2WeareindebtedtoChrisCleirighforthisterminology(whichhenolongerdeploys);wearenotusingthetermsinquitethewayheoriginallyintended.

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Fig.3:Martin’ssupervenientmodeloflanguageandsocialcontext

Martin’ssupervenientmodeldiffersfromthatdeployedbyHalliday,Hasan,Matthiessenandothersinthatitstratifiescontextasregisterandgenre,ratherthanworkingwithasinglestratumcalledcontext.AsexploredinMartin1992,1999,2001perhapsthecrucialissueherehastodowithhowrelationsamonggenresaremodelled.InMartin’smodeltherecurrentconfigurationsoffield,tenorandmodevariablesconstitutinggenrearerelatedtooneanotheratthelevelofgenre–ashighlevelsystemsofmeaning.Theserecurrentconfigurationsofmeaningarethenfactoredintoideational,interpersonalandtextualperspectivesatthelevelofregisterasfield,tenorandmoderespectively.Insinglestratummodelsontheotherhandrelationsamongtheserecurrentconfigurationsofmeaningareeitherignoredoraredevelopedwithinonecontextualvariableoranother.Forexample,Hasan1985derivesobligatoryelementsofgenrestructurefromfield,therebyarguingthatrelationsamonggenresareprimarilyamatteroffield.SimilarlyMatthiessen(e.g.Matthiessenetal.2008)mapsrelationsamongthesocialprocessesmodelledbyMartinatthelevelofgenreasamatteroffield.

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IfHasanandMatthiessenarefollowingHallidayasfarastherelationofintrinsictoextrinsicfunctionalityisconcerned,thenwhattheyaresuggestingisthatgenresareprimarilyrelatedtooneanotherthroughideationalmeaning.Martinarguesontheotherhandthatgenresarerealisedthrougharecurrentmappingofideational,interpersonalandtextualmeaningontooneanother,unfoldingthroughrecurrentstages3indiscourse.Hismodeldoesnotprivilegeideationalrelationsasfarasgenrerelationsareconcerned.Asnotedabove,thismakesHalliday’ssuggestionthatfieldisbyandlargeconstruedideationallyfarmoreplausiblethanwouldbethecaseifgenrerelationswereamatteroffield.Decadesofworkonstorygenresforexamplehasfocussedontheinteractionofideationalandinterpersonalmeaningasfarasthepointofastorygenreisconcerned(e.g.Labov&Waletzky1967,Martin&Plum1997,Martin&Rose2008).Hasan(e.g.1999:294onnarrating)andMatthiessen(e.g.Matthiessenetal.2008:191onrecreating)exploretheserelationswithinthecontextvariablefield,placingthemselvesinthepositionofeitherhavingtoarguethatrelationsamongtherelevantgenresrelationsaremainlyideational,orthatHalliday’scorrelationoffieldwithideationalmeaningcannotbesustained.4

Themajorchallengeforsupervenientmodellingofthiskindismultimodality,sincegenresaretypicallyrealisedintextsthatinvolvemorethanonesemioticsystem(Bateman2008).ConsequentlySFLresearch,inspiredbyKress&vanLeeuwen1996andO’Toole1994,haspushedhardatthefrontiersofwhatcanbemodelledassystemsofsigns,usingarangeoftheoreticaltools–axis,metafunctionandrankinparticular(forasynopsisoftheseparametersseeMatthiessen&Halliday2009).AlongsideKress&VanLeeuwen’sandO’Toole’slandmarkstudiesofimage,sculptureandarchitecture,systemicfunctionalsemioticshasalsogainedapurchaseonmusic(e.g.vanLeeuwen1999),space(e.g.Stenglin2009),gesture(Hood2011),picturebooks(Painteretal2012),film(Baldry&Thibault2006),Bateman2007),webpages(Martinec&vanLeeuwen2009)andaction(Martinec1998,2000,2001).Martinec2005reviewsthesedevelopments;forsurveysofrecentworkseeDreyfusetal.2011,O’Halloran2004,O’Halloran&Smith2011,Royce&Bowcher2007andVentola&Guijarro2009.Bateman(2005,2009)andMartin(2011)offercriticalreviewsofthetheoreticalassumptionsunderlyingsomeofthiswork;Martin2010proposesdevelopinginstantiationtheoryindirectionsthatwillfacilitatethemodellingofinteractionamongmodalitiesastheyconstrue,enactandcomposegenres.

Acrudemapofwhatisatstakehere,fromtheperspectiveofrealisation,isofferedasFig.4,whichpositionscontextualsystems(i.e.genreandregister)asrealisedthoughlanguageandothersemioticsystems.Forallitslimitationsasfarasinstantiationisconcerned,Fig.4reinforcesthesupervenienceperspectiveoncontextoutlinedabove.Superveniencemeansthatcontextisbeingmodelledasexhaustivelyaspossibleasconfigurationsofmeaning,avoidingasfaraspossibletheneedtoconsiderrelationsbetweensemiosisandcontextual3TheimportanceofstagingasfarasmappinggenrerelationsisconcernediscentralforbothHasan(e.g.1977,1979,1984,1985)andMartin(1985,2002,Martin&Rose2008).ForMartinstagingcanbeusefullyexploredfromtheperspectivesofparticulate,prosodicandperiodicstructure(e.g.Martin1994,1995,1996).4TreatinggenrerelationsasamatteroffieldalsoraisesquestionsabouthowdisciplinarityismodeledinSFL,whichwillnotbepursuedhere.ForworkonfieldinrelationtoknowledgestructureseeChristie&Martin2007,Christie&Maton2011.

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variablesmodelledinotherterms.Thisistoadoptaradicalsocialsemioticperspectiveoncontext,conceivingitinlinguistictermsassystemsofmeaning.Ultimatelythisispushingtowardsamodelofmeaningandmatterinwhichsocialsemioticiansworkonaninterdisciplinarybasiswithneurobiologistsasfarastheembodimentoflanguageandsemiosisinbrainsisconcerned,bypassingasfaraspossiblephilosophicalandpsychologicalaccountsofconceptsandcognitionintheirvariouscharacterisationsofmind(fordiscussionofthisbypassstrategyinrelationtoEdelman’sworkseeHalliday1994).

Fig.4:Themultimodalrealisationofgenre

Analysingtextincontext–studentwriting

Contextualsemioticsasjustoutlinedcanbeusedineducationalarenastoexploreboththeknowledgegenresthatstudentsreadandwritealongsidethecurriculumgenresthroughwhichtheylearntoreadandwrite.Inthissectionwe’lldeploythemodeltoexploresomestudentwritingfromprimaryschool,andturnourattentiontoclassroompracticeinthefollowingsection.Webeginwithanexpositionarguingaboutacommunityissue,andthenturntoareportandexplanationaboutascientificphenomenon.

Conal,thenage8inYear3,wrotethefollowingtextastheoutcomeoftheindependentconstructionstageofagenre-basedliteracyprogramteaching/learningcycle(Rose&Martin2012,Chapter2).Hispunctuationandspellingisreproducedbelow;theissueaddressedwasprovidedbyhisteacher.

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[1]ShouldweeatoutatMcDonaldsregularly?IthinkweshouldenteatatMcDonaldsItisnothealthybecause,ithasaloteoffatinit.Andyoushouldeeatathomebecauseyoucouldofmadeithealthy.McDonaldshaslotsofpigsfatintheirice-cream.ItisoktoeatMcDonaldsaccationallybutitisnothealthytoeattherealote.

Asfarasideationalmeaningisconcerned,thetextdealswithstudents’everydayunderstandingoftheirworld–whethertoeatathomeoratMcDonaldsfastfoodrestaurantinparticular:

Actor Process Goal Locationstudents eat atMcDonaldsstudents eat athomeyou(family) make food athome

Thespecialisedknowledgeinthetext,learnedatschool,hastodowiththecompositionofMcDonalds’food–theamountoffatingeneral,andtheamountofpigsfatintheicecream:

Carrier Process Attribute LocationMcDonalds’food have aloteoffat init(McDonalds’food)McDonalds have lotsofpigsfat intheirice-cream

Thefieldthusbridgesacrosseverydayandschooledexperience(acrosshorizontalandverticaldiscourseinBernstein’sterms(Bernstein1996/2000).

Interpersonally,theargumentforegroundspersonalopinion(Martin&White2005)–whatConalthinksandwhatheproposespeopleshouldorshouldn’tandcoulddo:

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IthinkShouldweeatoutatMcDonaldsregularlyweshouldenteatatMcDonaldsAndyoushouldeeatathomebecauseyoucouldofmadeithealthy.HowoftenpeopleshouldeatatMcDonaldsisgradedalongascaleofhightolow:ShouldweeatoutatMcDonaldsregularly?ItisoktoeatMcDonaldsaccationallybutitisnothealthytoeattherealote.ButtheamountoffatinMcDonalds’foodisscaledashigh:because,ithasaloteoffatinit.McDonaldshaslotsofpigsfatintheirice-cream.Asfarasattitudeisconcerned,ConalappreciatesMcDonald’sfoodasunhealthy,comparedtofoodmadeathome,butlegitimatesanoccasionalfastfoodmealasacceptable:Itisnothealthyyoucouldofmadeithealthybutitisnothealthytoeattherealote.ItisoktoeatMcDonaldsaccationally

ThetenorthusnegotiatedpositionsConalassomeonearguingpersonallywithpeers,usingtherangeofinterpersonalresources(i.e.implicitlysubjectiveandobjectivemodalitiesofobligationandusuality,gradedquantity,polarityandattitude)heshareswithfellowstudents.

Textually,ConalbeginswithunmarkedtopicalThemesreferringtostudentsandMcDonaldsrestaurants,andcomplementstheseorientationstohissubjectmatterwithNewsaboutstudenteatinghabitsandthequalityandcompositionofMcDonalds’food.Hislasttwoclausesusethemepredicationtoforegroundattitude(ok,nothealthy)asThemeandNews,therebyhighlightinghisconsideredopinion.

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TopicalTheme (extended)Newwe (eatoutatMcDonalds)regularlyI thinkwe (eat)atMcDonaldsIt[=McDonald’sfood] healthyit[=McDonald’sfood] (has)aloteoffatyou (eat)athomeyou (madeit)healthyMcDonalds (lotsofpigsfat)intheirice-creamok (toeatatMcDonalds)accationally(not)healthy (toeatthere)alote

Asfarashigherlevelperiodicityisconcerned,thetitleoftheexpositioncanbetakenasmacro-Theme,Conal’sinitialrecommendationthatweshouldn’teatatMcDonaldsashyper-ThemeandhiscompromisesuggestionsthateatingthereoccasionallyisOKashyper-New.Hisrhetoricalsandwich,reflectiveasitisofplannedediteddiscourseinwrittenmodeisoutlinedbelow.

macro-ThemeShouldweeatoutatMcDonaldsregularly?hyper-ThemeIthinkweshouldenteatatMcDonaldsItisnothealthybecause,ithasaloteoffatinit.Andyoushouldeeatathomebecauseyoucouldofmadeithealthy.McDonaldshaslotsofpigsfatintheirice-cream.hyper-NewItisoktoeatMcDonaldsaccationallybutitisnothealthytoeattherealote.

Fromtheperspectiveofgenre,thesepatternsofideational,interpersonalandtextualmeaningarephasedontooneanotherinstagesastheyconstruethefield,enactthetenorandcomposethemodeofConal’sexposition.Theactualscaffoldingdeployedinhisclassforthestagingofthegenreisprovidedbelow,beginningwithnameofthetexttypeinquestion(Exposition)andcontinuingwiththestagesofConal’stext(Statement,numberedArgumentsandConclusion).

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ExpositionShouldweeatoutatMcDonaldsregularly?StatementIthinkweshouldenteatatMcDonaldsArguments1.Itisnothealthybecause,ithasaloteoffatinit.2.Andyoushouldeeatathomebecauseyoucouldofmadeithealthy.3.McDonaldshaslotsofpigsfatintheirice-cream.ConclusionItisoktoeatMcDonaldsaccationallybutitisnothealthytoeattherealote.

Fromatheoreticalperspective,genrethusaccountsforthefield,modeandtenorcombinationsacultureallowsandthestagingthatmapsonevariableintoanother.AsFig.5outlines,itthusaffordsanintegratingmonocularperspectiveonHalliday’strinocularmetafunctional(ideational,interpersonal,textual)worldview.Thestratifiedmodelofcontextenablesustomaptogetherwhatintrinsicfunctionalityhaspulledapart.

Fig.5:Genreasapatternoffield,modeandtenorpatternsrealisedthroughlanguage

Theteacher’spromptintext1above(ShouldweeatoutatMcDonaldsregularly?),infactpositionsConal’stextasaresponse–therebyrecontextualisinghisexpositionproperasaninstanceofpedagogicdiscourse.ThismeansthatBernstein’s(e.g.1975)notionsofregulativeandinstructionaldiscoursearebothatplay.Inthenextsectionwere-interprethisconceptionofpedagogicdiscoursefromtheperspectiveofthemodelofcontextbeingintroducedhere.AtthispointwesimplynotethattwoinstructionaldiscoursesareatplayinConal’stext,onehavingtodowitheatingatMcDonald’s(foodcompositionandquality)andtheotherwiththelinguisticallygroundedtheoryofgenre(texttypes,stagesandlinguisticfeatures)informingConal’sapprenticeshipintowrittendiscourse.Martin1999referstotheformerofthesesimplyasinstructionaldiscourse(ID)andthelatterassocialsemioticinstructionaldiscourse(SSID).AsnotedabovetheinstructionaldiscourseinConal’s

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expositioninvolvesonlyalittleuncommonsense(i.e.thefatinMcDonald’sfood).Intexttwoontheotherhand,areportonvolcanoes,muchmoreverticaldiscourseisatplay.Thistextwasalsowritteninyear3,whenConal’sbrotherHamishwas8yearsold.Aswecansee,Hamish’steacherexplicitlyinviteshimtodisplayhisknowledgeoftechnicaltermsencodinggeologicalknowledgeaboutvolcanoes.

[2]WhatisaVolcano?Inpairswriteyourowndefinition.Youmightliketousesomeofthesewords:openings,

surface,earth,gas,hot,moltenrock,magma,escapelandseafloor,lava,cools,hardens,ash,cinders,pile,vent,cone.

AvolcanoisanopeningintheEarth’scrustwerelavaashandhotgassesdevelopandeventuallyshootout.Butnotallvolcanoesareactiveallthetimemostofthevolcanosintheworldaredormantwhichmeansinactive.Notallvolcanoesareonlandmanyvolcanoesareundertheseaandbeliveitornotmanyvolcanoesundertheseaeruptallthetime.Whenavolcanoeruptsundertheseathelavahardensanditturnsintorock.InfactthatishowtheHawianislandsweremadeandthatwhytheresomanyvolcanoesintheHawai.ThatiswhytheHawianspraisethefiregoddessandtheythatsheisinthevolcanoesinHawaiandthatiswhypeoplepraisethevolcanoesifthey’refromHawai.

InresponseHamishbeginsbydefiningvolcanoesasanopeningintheearth’scrustwherelaveandhotgasesdevelopandeventuallyshootout.Hethendistinguishesbetweenactiveanddormantvolcanoes,notesthatvolcanoescanbefoundonlandorundertheseaandthatifenoughlavahardensintorockwhenvolcanoeseruptundertheseathenislandssuchasHawaiiareformed.Atthispointheswitchesfields,fromgeologytosocialstudies,andcommentsonthesacredstatusofvolcanoesintraditionalHawaiianreligiouspractices.

Thisreportonvolcanoescontrastswiththeexplanationintext3.ThistimeroundHamishbeginswithacomparabledefinition(invitedonceagainbytheteacher’squestion)butwhatfollowsisastep-by-stepgeologicalexplanationofhowvolcanoesareformed,notaclassificationoftypesofvolcanoandtheirculturalsignificance.Manyofthesametechnicaltermsareinvolved(volcano,Earth’scrust,hotgases,ash,rock,erupt,lava)butasthecausalandtemporalslinkersindicate(caused,although,if,when,eventually,after,then,as),ascientificimplicationsequenceisforegroundedovertaxonomyhere(Unsworth1997,Veel1997).

[3]WhatareVolcanoes?AvolcanoisanopeningintheEarthscrustcausedbyamixtureofhotgases,ashand

moltenrockgushingupandbreakingaweakspotintheearthscrust.Theearth'scrustismadeupofhugeplatesofsolidrock.Althoughtheseplatesonlymove

onetotencentimetresayear,iftheybumptogetheritcancauseearthquakesorvolcanoestoerupt.

Whentheplatesbumptogetheritpushesmagmafromthemantleintotheearthscrust.Whenit'sintheearthscrustitformsaliquidpoolofmagmacalledamagmachamber.

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Themagmachamberisfullofmovinggaseswhichmovesthemagmaaroundandeventuallypushesthemagmatothesurfaceoftheearth.Afterthishappensiteventuallymakesatunnelcalledavent.

Theventisfullofmagmaandeventuallythemagmareachesthesurface.Whenthemagmaisonthesurfaceoftheearthitisthencalledlava.

Thecanflowoutlikeastreamorexplodeoutwithash,smokeandhardbitsoflava.Asthelavakeepsmovingitcollsandhardensintosolidrock.

Asthehardenedlavaandashupitformsintoaconeshape.Thisconecanbuildupaftermanyeruptionsandmakeavolcanicmountain.

Volcanicmountainsusuallyhaveaverywideholeinthetop.Thisholeiscalledavent.

Genresareconfigurationsofmeaning,recognisablebytheirparticularconfigurations.Globallythisincludestheirstaging,suchastheStatement^Arguments^ConclusionstagesofConal’sexposition.Suchstagingrealisesthegenre’ssocialgoals,inthiscasestatingapositionandarguingforit.Differenttypesofsocialgoalsproducedifferenttypesofgenericstructuring.Forexample,explainingasequenceofcausesandeffectsproducesaserialstructure,suchasHamish’sexplanationofvolcanoformation,consistingofaseriesofsteps,distinguishedbyparagraphing.Conal’sargumentontheotherhandbeginswithapositionstatementasitsnucleus,fromwhicheachsupportingargumentradiates,inanorbitalstructure,illustratedinFig6.Similarly,Hamish’sreportbeginswithageneraldefinitionofvolcanoes,fromwhichsub-typesradiateorbitally.

Fig6:OrbitalstructureofConal’sexposition

Onestrategyformappingthegenresofacultureistogroupthemaccordingtotheirbroadsocialgoals,anddistinguishthembytheirlocalorganisation(Martin&Rose2008).Fig7presentssuchamapofgenresthatstudentsareexpectedtoreadandwriteinschool,identifiedinSydneySchoolresearch,thatwehavereferredtoas‘knowledgegenres’.Theyareclassifiedfirstlyintermsofthreegeneralfunctions:engagingreaders,informingthem,orevaluatingtextsorpointsofview.Ofcourseanytexthasmultiplepurposes;itisitsprimarysocialgoalthatgeneratestherecognisablestagingofthegenre.Forexample,wemightassumethatthefunctionofnewsstoriesistoinformreaders,butinfacttheytypicallybeginwithaLeadstagewhosefunctionistoengagereaderswiththenubofthestory,beforereviewingitfromvariousAnglesthatservetoengageaswellinform.Thisgenreisthereforegroupedwithotherstories,butdistinguishedasnon-timestructured.

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Fig7:Knowledgegenresintheschool

Teachingtextincontext–curriculumgenres

Onthefaceofit,therespectivesocialsemioticfunctionsofConal’sandHamish’sexposition,reportandexplanationweretoargueforaposition,describetypesofvolcanoes,andexplaintheirformation.Butwithinthepedagogiccontextsinwhichtheywerewritten,theyservedadifferentfunction,thatistodemonstratetheknowledgethatConalandHamishhadacquiredthroughactivitiesoftheschool.

Theseclassroomactivitieswouldhaveincludeddiscussionoffieldssuchasfastfoodconsumptionandthegeologyofvolcanoes,readingassociatedinformationtexts,andwritingnewtextswithguidancefromtheteacher.Boththefieldsdiscussedandwrittenabout,andthegenresinwhichtheywerecomposed,originatedinothercontexts,otherfieldsofsocialactivity–everydayfieldssuchaseatingoutatMcDonald’s,politicalfieldsofpublicdebate,andspecialisedfieldsofhealthsciencesandearthsciences.

Knowledgeoriginatingintheseothercontextsisrecontextualisedintheschoolaspedagogicknowledgeandpractices,withnewfunctions.Wherethegoalsofresearchinfieldssuchashealthandearthsciencesaretounderstandandmanageaspectsofthenaturalandsocial

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worlds,theirrecontextualisedfunctionsintheschoolaretoapprenticechildrenintothestructuresofschoolknowledge.Thefunctionsofchildrenwritingaboutthesefieldsincludedemonstratingtheknowledgetheyhaveacquired,sothatteacherscanevaluatetheiracquisition.

TointerpretthesepedagogiccontextsweturnnowtothesociologicaltheoryofBasilBernstein(1975,1990,2000),lookingforpotentialarticulationswiththeSFLtheoryofsocialcontextoutlinedabove.Bernsteinprovidestwocomplementaryperspectivesonpedagogiccontexts,asinstitutionalstructures,andasrulesgoverninginstitutionalpractices.Fromthestructuralperspective,hedescribeseducationsystemsasa‘pedagogicdevice’operatingatthreelevels:1)fieldsofproductionofknowledge,primarilyintheupperechelonsofacademe;2)recontextualisingfields,wherethisknowledgeistransformedforpedagogicpurposes,e.g.teachertrainingortextbookpublishing;3)fieldsofreproduction,whererecontextualisedknowledgeistransmittedandacquiredbylearners.Fromtheperspectiveofsociologicalrules,Bernsteindistinguishes1)distributiverulesregulatingthedistributionofresourcestosocialgroups,includingdiscursiveresourcesdistributedbyeducation;2)recontextualisingrulesregulatingthetransformationofknowledgeintopedagogicdiscourse;3)evaluativerulesregulatingtransmissionandacquisitionofknowledge.

Thesethreelevelsofrulesareinterrelated.Evaluationregulatesthedistributionofdifferenttypesandlevelsofeducationtodifferentgroupsofstudentsthroughtheirschoolyears,andhencetoprofessional,vocationalormanuallevelsofoccupations.Distributiverulesinturnshapetheformsinwhichknowledgeisrecontextualisedfordifferentgroupsofstudents,accordingtotheirevaluations,forexampleasdetailedscientificknowledgeforstudentsdestinedforsciencebasedoccupations,orassimplehands-onscienceactivitiesforlesssuccessfulstudents.

AllthesedimensionsofthepedagogicdevicearerealisedintheschoolaswhatBernsteintermspedagogicdiscourse,inwhichhedistinguishestwoaspects:aninstructionaldiscourse“whichcreatesspecialisedskillsandtheirrelationshiptoeachother”,andaregulativediscourse“whichcreatesorder,relationsandidentity”(2000:46).Bernsteinemphasisesthattheinstructionalisembeddedinanddominatedbytheregulative,thattheacquisitionofknowledgeisregulatedbythesocialorderandrelationsunderpinningpedagogicdiscourse.

Fromthestandpointofgenreandregistertheoryoutlinedabove,Bernstein’suseofthetermdiscoursereferstofieldsofsocialactivity,colouredbytenor.5Thuspedagogicdiscoursecanbeinterpretedintermsofpedagogicregister,includingsequencesoflearningactivities(field),pedagogicrelationsbetweenlearnersandteachers(tenor),andmodalitiesoflearning–spoken,written,visual,manual(mode).ThesethreedimensionsaresummarisedinFig8.Inthisperspective,itisthesocialrelationsenactedovertimeinpedagogicactivitiesthatcreate‘order,relationsandidentity’.

5Theterm‘discourse’isalsousedsimilarlybycriticaltheoristsanddiscourseanalystssuchasGee(e.g.2005),torefertofieldscolouredbytenor.

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Fig8:Pedagogicregister

Theinstructionaldiscoursethusincludesthefieldsofknowledge(orskills)acquiredthroughthesepedagogicactivities,relationsandmodalities.Insocialsemioticterms,fieldsofknowledgeare projectedbythepedagogicregister,astheactofsayingprojectsalocution,orthinkingprojectsideas(inHalliday’s1994/2004terms).Onthismodel,knowledgeisprojectedbyactivitiesofteachingandlearning.TherearethustwofieldsinBernstein’sinstructionaldiscourse:thefieldofpedagogicactivity,andthefieldofknowledgeprojectedbyit.Theentireconfigurationofpedagogicactivities,relations,modalitiesandprojectedknowledgeconstitutesagenrethatChristie(2002)hastermedacurriculumgenre,illustratedinFig9.

Fig9:Curriculumgenre

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AsFig9suggests,itisnotonlyknowledgethatlearnersacquirethroughpedagogicactivities,relationsandmodalities,butidentitiesaslearnersthataremoreorlesssuccessful,andmoreorlessincludedinthecommunityoflearningintheschool.Differentiationinlearneridentitiesisaproductof1)continualevaluation,whichpositionsthemonahierarchyofsuccessandfailure,2)varyingdegreesofengagementinlessonactivitiesandclassroominteractions,and3)varyingcontrolovermodalitiesoflearning,particularlyreadingandwriting.Bythesemeans,pedagogicdiscoursecreatesanunequalsocialorderandasymmetricsocialrelations.Thecreationofdifferentiallearneridentitiesinternalisesandthusnaturalisesthesocialorderproducedbythepedagogicdevice.AsBernstein(2000:5)asks“Howdoschoolsindividualizefailureandlegitimizeinequalities?Theanswerisclear:failureisattributedtoinbornfacilities(cognitive,affective)ortotheculturaldeficitsrelayedbythefamilywhichcometohavetheforceofinbornfacilities.”

Curriculumgenres

Wearenowinapositiontodistinguishtwosetsofgenresassociatedwitheducation:theknowledgegenresthroughwhichacademicknowledgeispresented,suchasConal’sandHamish’sexposition,reportandexplanation,andcurriculumgenresthroughwhichknowledgegenresareacquiredintheschool.

Withrespecttogenericstructuring,wecanidentifyageneralisednuclearstructuretocurriculumgenres.Atthecoreofeachcurriculumgenreisalearningtask,throughwhichlearnersacquirethetargetknowledge.Inaformalpedagogiccontext,eachlearningtaskisinitiatedbyataskfocus.Thismaybeaquestionordirection,suchasthequestionheadingtext[1]above,ortheteacher’sdirectionintext[2].Inaddition,eachlearningtaskisultimatelyevaluated,eitherimmediatelyoroncetheproductispresentedtoothers.Bernsteinemphasisesthat“thekeytopedagogicpracticeiscontinuousevaluation…evaluationcondensesthemeaningofthewholedevice”(2000:42-50).Thenucleusofeachcurriculumgenrethusconsistsofthreephases–Focus,Task,Evaluate,asinFig10.

Fig10:Nuclearphasesofcurriculumgenres

Thesenuclearphasesaretypicalcomponentsofacurriculumgenre,butoptionalcomponentsmayincludeapreparationphasethatsupportslearnerstoperformthetasksuccessfully.Forexample,manualtasksaretypicallyfirstmodelledbyanexpertwhomaythenobserveandguideaslearnerspractisethetask.Furthermore,theknowledgeacquiredthroughthelearningtaskmaybeelaborated,followingsuccessfulcompletion.Forexample,acommonlearningtaskinschoolistoreadpassagesoftextaloud,ortolistenasthetextisread.Suchreadingsaretypicallyelaboratedbydiscussingkeymeanings,andevaluatedwith

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comprehensionquestions.TheseoptionalphasesofPrepareandElaboratearepresentedasmarginalelementsinFig11.

Fig11:Marginalphasesofcurriculumgenres

Anypedagogicactivitymaybeanalysedintheseterms,tobringoutnotonlyitsgenericstructuring,butitsvaluesinfield,tenorandmode.Forexample,atthetimegenre-basedliteracypedagogy(hereafter‘genrepedagogy’)wasfirstdevelopingintheearly1980s,‘processwriting’wasbeingwidelyadoptedinanglophoneprimaryschoolsasanappropriateapproachforchildrenlearningtowrite.Theprogressivist/constructivistprinciplebehindthisnowendemicapproachisthatlearningemergesfromwithineachindividual,andshouldnotbeconstrainedby‘teacherinterventions’.Itsleadingexponent,DonaldGravesconsideredthat“Themostimportantthingchildrencanlearniswhattheyknowandhowtheyknowit”(1991:116).Theinstructionalfieldisthusrecontextualisedfromthechild’sexperienceofhomeandcommunity;thechild’staskistodiscoverherownknowledge.6

Thecoretaskintheprocesswritinggenreiswidelyknownas‘drafting’,precededby‘pre-writing’inwhichchildrenaretoldto‘thinkaboutwhatyouwanttowrite’,andfollowedby‘editing’inwhichthedraftisshowntoothersforsuggestionstoimproveit.Theidealwritingtopicinthisapproachis“asubjectthechildisawarethatheknowssomethingabout”(Graves1985:118),soonecommonFocusforwritingis‘Whatyoudidonyourholidays/weekend’.Aslearningisexpectedtoemergefromwithinthechild,teacherevaluationisreconstruedas‘conferencing’,inwhichthedraftisshowntoteacherandpeersfor‘suggestions’.Theprogressivist/constructivistidealistoreversetherolesofchildlearnerandadultteacher,bymeansofprescriptionssuchasGraves(1994:59)“thepurposeofthewritingconferenceistohelpchildrenteachyouaboutwhattheyknowsothatyoucanhelpthemmoreeffectivelywiththeirwriting.”Evaluationisthusreconstruedas‘childrenteachingtheteacherwhattheyknow’.Thestagesoftheprocesswritingcurriculumgenrecanbeanalysedasfollows.

Prepare Focus Task Evaluate ElaboratePre-writing Choosetopic Drafting Conferencing Editing

6Thepedagogicprincipleof‘self-discovery’seemstobeoriginallyrecontextualisedfromreligiousfields,whereknowledgeisacquiredthroughintrospectionandrevelation.

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Onethingglossedoverbyprogressivist/constructivistidealsisthevastlydifferentexperienceswithwrittentextsthatchildrenbeginschoolwith,fromupto1000hoursofparent-childreadinginliteratemiddle-classfamiliestolittleornoneinlessliteratefamilies(Adams1990,Williams1995).Where‘thinkingaboutwhatyouwanttowrite’maybesufficientforsomechildrentoprepareforwriting,forothersitisplainlyinadequate.Thehugedisparityinthequalityoftextsthatchildrenareabletoproduceinprocesswritingactivitiesexposesthefallacythatlanguagemerelyemergesfromwithinthechild.Text[4]illustratesacommonstandardforsomestudentsinupperprimaryschool,afterfourorfiveyearsofprocesswriting(Gray1987,Martin1990,Rose1999,Rose,Gray&Cowey1999).

[4]Processwritinginupperprimary

Graves(1985:120)celebratessimilarwritingstandardsintheearlyyearsofschool,followedbyanexampleofteacher/student‘conferencing’.

[5]MyGrdan

IhelpmyDadwiththegrdanferstyouhavetodigitupanthanyourakeangettheracksoutofit.Thanyoumakerosanyouhavetobecerfulltomakeitdeepenuffsotheletiswillcomeup.

Gravescategorisedthischildwith‘learningdisabilities’,claimingthat“Billy'sbreakthroughasawritercamewhenhisteacherdiscoveredhisinterestinandknowledgeofgardening”.Histeacher“helpedhimtoteachheraboutthissubject”(ibid).

Graves’‘conferencing’exchangeisanalysedhereusingthesametermsoutlinedaboveforcurriculumgenres.Herehowever,theanalysisisappliedtomicro-phasesoftheexchangethatconstitutesthegenericstage,bringingoutfractalrelationsbetweenthestructureofcurriculumgenresandtheinteractioncyclesthatrealisethem(Rose2004,2005,Martin2007,Martin&Rose2007,Rose&Martin2012).

TheexchangebeginswiththeteacherevaluatingBilly’seffortsinwriting,andelaboratingonwhathehaswritten,byre-interpretingitinstandardEnglish.

[6]Exchangeinprocesswriting(Graves1985:120)

Teacher Evaluate You'vebeenworkinghard,Billy. Elaborate Iseethatyouworkwithyourdadonyourgarden.

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Evaluate Youknowjustwhatyoudo; Elaborate youdigitup,rakeittogettherocksout,andthenyouhavetobe

carefulhowdeepyouplantthings. Check DidIgetthatright?Billy Yup.

Thistaskevaluationisfollowedbyaseriesoffocusquestions,forwhichBilly’staskistoproposearesponsefromhisknowledge,whichtheteacherthenevaluates.Eachexchangethusconsistsofthelearner’stask,precededbyafocus,andfollowedbyevaluation.

Teacher Focus Well,Iwaswondering,Billy.Yousaythatthelettucehastobeplanteddeepenoughsothelettucewillcomeup.Couldyoutellmemoreaboutthat?Ihaven'tplantedagardenforalongtime.

Billy Propose Well,Ifyouplantittoodeep,itwon'tcomeup.Lettuceisjustnearthetop.

Teacher Evaluate Oh,Isee. Focus Anddidyouplantsomeotherthingsinyourgarden?Billy Propose Yup,carrots,beans,turnips(Ihate'em),spinach(that,too)beets,and

tomatoes;Iliketomatoes.Teacher Evaluate That'squiteagarden,Billy. Focus Andwhatwillyoubewritingherenext?Billy Propose Youhavetowateritonceyouplantit.Teacher Evaluate Thenyoualreadyknowwhatyou'llbedoing,don'tyou.

Theteacher’slastmoveheresimultaneouslyevaluateswhatBillyhassaid,anddirectsthenext‘editing’stageofhiswritingtask,towritemoredetail.ThistaskfocusisphrasedasthoughthedirectioniscomingfromBilly,yettheteacherclearlyhastheauthoritytodirectandevaluatethelearner’sutterancesaswellashiswritingproducts.Howevertheonlycriteriatheteacherprovidesareto‘dowhatyoualreadyknow’.Noothercriteriaforevaluationarerevealedtothechild.

Bernstein(1975:119-120)contraststhistypeofpedagogywithoneinwhichcriteriaaremadeexplicit:7

Aninvisiblepedagogyiscreatedby:(1)implicithierarchy;(2)implicitsequencingrules;(3)implicitcriteria.Theunderlyingruleis:‘Thingsmustbeputtogether.’Avisiblepedagogyiscreatedby: (1)explicithierarchy(2)explicitsequencingrules

7ForusefulbreakdownsofthisoppositionseeAlexander2000:548-9andBrophy2002:ix,bothofwhomargueforajudiciouslyinclusivepedagogyinplaceofcrusadingadversarialism.

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(3)explicitandspecificcriteria.Theunderlyingruleis:‘Thingsmustbekeptapart.’

Theconsequenceofapparentlyinvertingteachingauthority,andleavingevaluationcriteriaimplicit,isthatstudentslikeBillymaybewritingatasimilarstandardyearafteryear,astext[4]illustrates.Meanwhile,othersuccessfulstudentsprogresssteadilythroughthecurriculumsequenceoftheschool,byintuitingitsimplicithierarchy,criteriaandsequencingrules.

Incontrast,genrepedagogyaimstomakethecriteriaforsuccessfulwritingasexplicitaspossible,tobothteachersandstudents,inordertogiveallstudentsequalopportunitiestoprogress.Afoundationforthisistheteacher’sexplicitauthorityasanexpertinthestructuringandlanguagepatternsofknowledgegenres.ThecurriculumgenredesignedbyJoanRotheryforteachingwriting(e.g.1994)consistsofasequenceofexplicitpreparationphases,beforestudentsareexpectedtowriteforevaluation.

Inthefirstpreparationphase,theteacherguidestheclasstodeconstructamodeltext,identifyingandnamingitsstages,andsalientlanguagepatterns.Inthesecondpreparationphase,theteacherguidestheclasstojointlyconstructanewtext,followingthesamestaging,andincorporatingsimilarrelevantlanguagepatterns.TheFocusthenspecifiesthegenreandregisterthatstudentsareexpectedtowrite.Thestudents’Taskisanindependentconstructionofanewtextofthesamegenre.Evaluationcriteriaarethusexplicitlyframedasthespecifiedgenreandregister.Elaborationmayincludetheclassreviewinghowcriteriawereachievedinstudents’texts(seeexampleinRose&Martin2012,Chapter2).Thesestagesareanalysedasfollows.

Prepare Focus Task Evaluate ElaborateDeconstruction^JointConstruction

Specifygenre&register

IndependentConstruction

Bygenre&registercriteria

Reviewcriteria

ThefollowingexampleofaJointConstruction[7]iswithaclassofjuniorsecondarystudentswhoseliteracyskillsarecomparablewiththeauthoroftext[4].Scienceeducationforthesestudentswouldtypicallyberestrictedtosimplehands-onactivities,thatavoidedengagingwithsciencetextbooks.

However,withtheteacher’sguidance,theclasshasreadanexplanationonthewatercycleinatextbook.Aseachparagraphwasread,theteacherguidedstudentstoidentifykeyinformation,whichtheythenwroteontheboardasnotes.Astheyreadthetextandmadethenotes,theteacherhasalsoguidedthemtolabeleachstageandphaseofthetext,tomakeitsstructureexplicit(seeexampleinRose&Martin2012,Chapter4).

TheteachernowbeginstheJointConstruction,bypointingtothenotesandthelabelstheyhavewrittentoorganisetheinformation.Shethenasksastudenttoscribeontheboard(labelledbelowasDirect),assheguidestheclasstoputthenotesintonewsentences.Inresponsetoherfocusquestions,variousstudentsproposewordings,whichsheacceptsand

21

adjustsastheyarescribedontheboard.Eachexchangecycleisdistinguishedwithbordersarounditsnuclearphases(Focus-Propose-Evaluate).

[7]ExchangeinJointConstruction

Teacher Prepare Sowhatwe'regoingtodonowiswriteourownexplanation,makingsurethatwerememberaboutthesequenceofsteps.Sowe'regoingtofollowthesamepatterninourwritingasthetextthatwe'vejustread.Weneedtohavethesameintroduction,identifywhatitiswe'regoingtotalkabout,movethroughthesteps,andfinishitwithaconclusion.

Direct HowaboutPeter?Canyoucomeupandstartthefirstsentenceplease?

Focus We'regoingtostartwithwater.Student Propose 'moving'Teacher Evaluate It'smoving.OK,good. Focus Whatdoesitdo?Ican'tsay'watermoving',canI?We'vegotto

changetheword.Student Propose 'keepson'Teacher Evaluate Wecouldsay'keepsonmoving'.Soyep'keepson'. Direct SoPeter,ifyoucanwriteup,remembercapitaltostartthesentence.

'Waterkeepson'.[studentscribes] Focus What’sitkeepingondoing?Student Propose 'moving'Teacher Evaluate 'keepsonmoving'Soit'smoving.[studentscribes] Focus Whatelseisitdoing?Jeremy,fromournotesuphere,whatelseisit

doing?Student Propose 'changing'Teacher Evaluate Changing.Good. Focus What'sitchanging?Student Propose 'state'Teacher Evaluate State, Elaborate …fromsolid,liquid,gas,OK. Focus Sowe'regoingtotrytobuildthatintothesentence.Student Propose 'Itconstantlychangesstate'Teacher Evaluate OK,greatideaTrent.'Itconstantlychanges'.[studentscribes] Direct [spellsout'constantly''changesstate'.] Focus Whatifwesaid,hereinournotes,thatit'sgoingfrom...Student Propose 'liquidwater'Teacher Evaluate Liquidwater,yep, Focus to...Student Propose 'tovapour,toice,toliquid'Teacher Evaluate OK,excellent.Student Propose 'backtosolid'Teacher Elaborate Maybetoasolid.

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Student Propose 'maybetoasolid'[studentscribes]Teacher Direct [spellsout'solid'] Evaluate You'redoingwell,that'salright. Prepare Andwewanttogetthisideaofacycle. Focus Wherediditfinish?Student Propose 'backtotheliquid'Teacher Evaluate OK.[studentscribes]

Inthisexchange,teacherandstudentsarenegotiating,notjustthewordingstowritenewsentences,butthescientificconceptsassociatedwiththewatercycle,ofwatermovingthroughtheenvironmentandsimultaneouslychangingstate.Theparagraphtheycreateisasfollows:

TheWaterCycle

Waterkeepsonmovingtodifferentplacesinthewatercycle.Itconstantlychangesstatefromliquidtogas,maybetoasolid,andbacktoaliquid.

Theythenreturntotheirnotestonegotiatethenextparagraph.Theteacherpreparesbydrawingtheirattentiontothetopicofthenextstepintheexplanation,andasksthestudentstorepeatthetechnicaltermfortheprocess.

Teacher Prepare Sothemainideawe'vegottoconveyinthisparagraphisthatit'sabout‘evaporates’.

Focus Orthewordfortheprocessis…Canwesaythattogetheragain?Students Propose 'Evaporation'Teacher Evaluate Exactly.Teacher Focus What'sthisthirddotpoint?Whichsectionofourwritingdidwelabelit

as?Student Propose 'Step1'Teacher Evaluate It'spartofStep1,yeh. Focus SohowamIgoingtoshowthatinourrewrite?Student Propose 'Startanewparagraph'Teacher Evaluate Startanewparagraph,fantastic.

Alongwiththetechnicaltermsinthescientificfield,theteacherusesexplicitmetadiscoursetorefertoelementsofthetext,suchasintroduction,steps,conclusion.Afterlabellingtheoriginaltextandthenotes,thestudentscannowconfidentlynametextphasessuchas‘Step1’,andrecognisethatsuchphasesofmeaningareexpressedasparagraphs(Rose2006).Nowtheteacheragainpointstothenotes,tonegotiatetheparagraph.

Teacher Prepare Startingfromhere, Focus Whatwasitaboutthesunthatactuallycausestheevaporation?Students Propose 'theheat'Teacher Evaluate Theheat.

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Direct Solet'sstartwiththat,Zac,'evaporates'[studentscribes] Focus Andwhatwasitwewereevaporating?Student Propose 'fromthewatersurface'Teacher Elaborate So'waterfromthesurface'.[studentscribes]Teacher Focus SowhatdoIwanttosayaboutthevapour?Ng,Where'sitcoming

from,thistime?Student Propose 'treesandotherplants'Teacher Evaluate Treesandotherplants.Student Propose 'Watervapouriscomingfrom'Teacher Evaluate Absolutely.Greatidea,Nathan.Student Propose 'Watervapourcomesfromtreesandotherplants'Teacher Elaborate It'snottheonlyplace,isit?Solet'sincludetheword'also'.[student

scribes] Focus We'regoingtokeepthetechnicalterm.Student Propose 'sothisiscalledtranspiration'Teacher Evaluate It'snotreallya'so'link.Student Propose 'whichiscalled'Teacher Evaluate Whichiscalled.You'reright.Goodone.Student Propose 'whichiscalledtranspiration'.Teacher Evaluate Nametheprocess.WelldoneRodney.Student Direct [spellsout'transpiration']Teacher Direct Soinyourbooks,canwelabelitagainsowecanstillseethissection. Focus Sowhatwasthisparagraphcalled?Students Propose 'Phenomenon'Teacher Evaluate Yep. Focus Andthisparagraph?Students Propose 'Step1'Teacher Elaborate Thisparagraph,we'vestartedoursequentialexplanation.

Theparagraphisscribedasfollows:

Theheatfromthesunevaporateswaterfromthesurfaceofrivers,lakes,streamsandthesoil.Thechangefromliquidwatertogasiscalledevaporation.Watervapouralsocomesfromtreesandotherplants,whichiscalledtranspiration.

Thecombinationofexplicitguidance,withincreasinghandovertothestudents,andtheuseofmetadiscourseforelementsofthetext,ensuresthatallstudentswillultimatelybeabletosuccessfullywritetheirowntextsinthesamegenre,usingthekindsofscientificlanguagetheyhavenegotiatedintheJointConstruction.Teachersconsistentlyreportthatstudentswhowouldpreviouslyproduceonlyafewlinesinwritingtasks(asintext[4])nowwriteextendedcoherenttexts.Theyalsoconsistentlyreportthatstudentswhorarelyparticipate

24

inclassdiscussionnowactivelyrespond.8Byembeddingscientificliteracyinscienceteaching,studentswhowouldotherwisebeexcludedfromsuccessinsecondarysciencelearntocontrolboththetechnicalfield,andthelanguagethatrealisesthefield.

Thiskindofpedagogyemergesfromaviewoflanguagethattreatsitscontextsasstrataofmeaning,includingbothregisterandgenre,asweoutlinedabove.Theinstructionalfieldofthiscurriculumgenreincludesboththescientificfieldunderfocus,andthemetadiscoursethatteacherandstudentsusetonegotiateit.Inthisbriefextract,metadiscoursehasincludedtermssuchassequentialexplanation,Phenomenon,Steps,sequenceofsteps,text,section,paragraph,introduction,conclusion,process,technicalterm,mainidea,notes,dotpoints,sentence,capital.

Thegoalofthistypeofpedagogyistoaddresstheinequalitiesinparticipationandoutcomesthatcontinuetoplagueeducationsystems.CurriculumgenressuchasGravesadvocatesfor‘processwriting’above,haveservedtomaintaintheseinequalities,byindividuatinglearningtasks,andleavingevaluationcriteriaandsequencingrulesimplicit.Asaresultstudentsprogressatdifferentrates,successfulstudentstacitlyacquiretheknowledgeaboutlanguage(KAL)theyneedtoreadandwritetheknowledgegenresofthecurriculum,whileweakerstudentsacquireonlylowlevelknowledgeaboutlanguageandcurriculumfields.ThistypeofbifurcatedcurriculumgenreisdiagrammedinFig11.

Fig11:Standardcurriculumgenrecreatesinequalities

Incontrast,thecurriculumgenresofgenrepedagogy9aredesignedtoemphasiselearningasasocialactivityguidedbyexpertteachers.Thelocationofknowledgeinwrittentextsis

8Inourprofessionallearningprograms,teacherstypicallyreportthatonly2-3or4-5studentsconsistentlyrespondinclassroomexchanges.Nuthall(2005:920)concurs:“Teachersdependontheresponsesofasmallnumberofstudentsasindicatorsandremainignorantofwhatmostoftheclassknowsandunderstands.”

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madeexplicit,asistheknowledgeaboutlanguagethatstudentsneedtoreadandwritethesetextssuccessfully.Outcomesincludeaccessforallstudentstothesamelevelofcurriculumfieldsandmetadiscourse,andpotentiallysuccessfullearneridentitiesforall,diagrammedinFig12.

Fig12:Genrepedagogyfostersequalityofpedagogicactivities,relations,knowledgeandidentities

Conclusion:pedagogicidentities

Tothispointinourdiscussionoflanguage/contextrelations,wehavefocusedonthehierarchyofabstractionfromlanguagetoregistertogenre.Wehavealsoincidentallytouchedoninstantiation,ahierarchyofgeneralityfromlanguagesystemstoactualtexts,byexemplifyingsystemsofknowledgegenreswithactualtextswrittenbychildreninschool,andsystemsofcurriculumgenreswithactualteacher-studentexchanges.

Alongsideinstantiation,anotherhierarchyofgeneralitywehaveincidentallyaddressedisindividuation,fromlanguagecommunitiestoindividualusers.Inthisregardwehavebeenconcernedwithdifferencesbetweenlearnersintheirengagementincurriculumgenres,theirmasteryofknowledgegenres10,andtheiridentitiesaslearners(cfMaton9SydneySchoolcurriculumgenreshavenowevolvedoverseveraldecades.Rose&Martin2012reviewvariousdevelopments;seealsodeSilvaJoyce&Feez2012.10Ourfocusonthemasteryofgenreisbasedonourconviction,followingBakhtinamongothers,thatcreativitydependsonmasteryofthegenre:““Thebetterourcommandofgenres,themorefreelyweemploythem,themorefullyandclearlywerevealourownindividualityinthem...themoreflexiblyandpreciselywereflecttheunrepeatablesituationofcommunication-inaword,themoreperfectlyweimplementourfreespeechplan.”(Bakhtin1986:80).ExamplesofstudentsrecontextualisinggenresforcivicanddomesticpurposesaregiveninMartin1999,Rose&Martin2012,Martin&Matthiesseninpress.SydneySchoolcurriculumgenresregularlyincludeafocusonthecreativeexploitationofandcriticalorientationtogenres(cf.

26

forthcoming).InBernstein’sterms,individuationrelatesthereservoirofmeaningsinaculturetotherepertoireavailabletoaperson.

Ishallusethetermrepertoiretorefertothesetofstrategiesandtheiranalogicpotentialpossessedbyanyoneindividualandthetermreservoirtorefertothetotalofsetsanditspotentialofthecommunityasawhole.Thustherepertoireofeachmemberofthecommunitywillhavebothacommonnucleusbuttherewillbedifferencesbetweentherepertoires.Therewillbedifferencesbetweentherepertoiresbecauseofthedifferencesbetweenmembersarisingoutofdifferencesinmembers’contextandactivitiesandtheirassociatedissues(2000:158).

Eachpersonpossessesasetofstrategiesforrecognisingcontexts,andforrealisingthetextsexpectedinacontext,forwhichBernsteinusesthetermsrecognitionandrealisationrules.Intermsofgenreandregistertheory,astudentmaybeabletorecognisethecurriculumgenrethattheirclassisengagedin,butmaynotbeabletorealisetheresponsesneededtoparticipatesuccessfullyintheclassroomexchange.Ortheymaybeabletoneitherrecogniseaknowledgegenre,suchasanexplanationofnaturalprocesses,nortorealiseitsuccessfullyasawrittentext.

Bernstein'srecognitionandrealisationrulesarerelatedtohisnotionsofclassificationandframing;classificationreferstothestrengthofboundariesbetweencategories,framingtothenatureofcommunicationwithinthem.Furthermore,classificationandframingareassociatedwithpowerandcontrolrespectively.Differencesinpowerarelinkedtoone’smembershipofsocialcategories,mostgenerallythemasteridentitiesofclass,ethnicity,gender,ageanddis/ability.Sopowerisassociatedwiththerecognitionofsuchcategories,ofboundariesbetweenidentities.Conversely,individualsexercisecontrolwithinacontextthroughtheircapacitytorealiselegitimatecommunication,tonegotiatetheiridentities.Martin2010referstothisperspective,ofpersonsidentifyingthemselvesinsocialgroupings,as‘affiliation’.Intheschool,evaluationisthepivotonwhichindividuationandaffiliationturn.Studentsarecategorisedontheircapacitytorecogniseandrealisethegenresoftheschool,andovertimetheycometoaffiliatethemselvesandeachotherwiththecategoriesdecidedbytheirevaluations.Learneridentitiesareaproductofbothindividuationandaffiliation.

YetBernsteinalsopointsoutthateachpersonpossessesananalogicpotential,whichweunderstandasthepotentialforexpandingone’srepertoirefromtheknowntothenew.Acentralfunctionoftheschoolistofacilitatetheexpansionofeachstudent’srepertoiretoincorporatemoreandmoreoftheculture’sreservoirofpotentialmeanings.Forsomestudentstheexpansionoftheirrepertoirebuildssteadily,yearbyyear,insyncwiththecurriculumsequenceoftheschool,whiletherepertoireofotherslagsbehind,sometimesfarbehind.Macken-Horarik2002),aspartofanyteaching/learningapprenticeship.Thepointofthepedagogyisnotreproduction,butrathertocreatepossibilitiesfordeployment,creativeexploitationandre-contextualisationbystudentswhowouldotherwisenothavebeenabletoaccesstherelevantdiscourse(withoutitmustbesaidprescribingforthe‘other’whattheyhavetodowithgenresoncetheycontrolthem).

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Thesedifferencesintherealisationofstudents’analogicpotentialarenotincidentaltothefunctioningoftheschool;theyarecentraltothecreationandmaintenanceofsocialinequalities,notonlyintheresourcesthateducationaffords,butinthepersonalidentitiesthatareshapedbyeducation,asBernstein(2000:5)warns:“Biasesintheform,content,accessandopportunitiesofeducationhaveconsequencesnotonlyfortheeconomy;thesebiasescanreachdowntodraintheveryspringsofaffirmation,motivationandimagination.”

Tocounterthesebiases,Bernstein(2000:8)proposesforeachstudent,three“pedagogicdemocraticrightsof‘enhancement’,‘inclusion’and‘participation’asthebasisforconfidence,communitasandpoliticalpractice.”‘Enhancement’weinterpretastheexpansionofeachstudent’srepertoire,buildingconfidentidentitiesassuccessfullearnersastheyprogressthroughtheschool’scurriculumsequence.Intermsofgenreandregister,thisincludesaccumulatingknowledgeofcurriculumfieldsthroughreading,andcontrolofknowledgegenresinwriting.‘Inclusion’weinterpretasactiveengagementinthecurriculumgenresoftheschool,buildingidentitiesasauthoritativemembersofacommunityoflearners.Thisrequiresenablingallstudentstorespondsuccessfullyinclassroomexchanges,tobecontinuallyaffirmed,andsobenefitequallyfrompedagogicactivities.‘Participation’wewillinterpretasanoutcomeofenhancementandinclusion,sincebothknowledgeandbelongingarenecessaryconditionsforexercisinginformedcitizenship;theyareasBernsteinsays,‘thenecessaryandeffectiveconditionsfordemocracy’.

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