Pedagogy – Is It Sound and Pedagogy – Is It Sound and Suitable for the Needs of Your Suitable for the Needs of Your

Learners?Learners?

Bernard ScottHead of Flexible Learning

Cranfield UniversityDefence Academy

ShrivenhamWilts SN6 7HL

B.C.E.Scott@cranfield.ac.uk

Jerome BrunerJerome Bruner

..the curriculum of a subject should be determined by themost fundamental principles that give structure

to that subject.The Process of Education, 1960, p. 31

Outline of PresentationOutline of Presentation

• The problem of quality• JISC approaches to e-pedagogy• Developing a unified framework for e-

pedagogy• Course design principles and processes• Case study ‘Military Knowledge’• Comparison of HE and MOD approaches

The Problem of QualityThe Problem of Quality

Coopers and Lybrand (1996):Up to two thirds of TLTP materials can

be deemed amateurish due to the lack of sound pedagogy and instructional design

UK Teaching and Learning Technology Programme (1990 – cont), c. £40m

JISC Approaches to e-PedagogyJISC Approaches to e-Pedagogy

• The associative view• The cognitive view• The situative view

“These are not mutually exclusive but imply a different set of priorities for learning and teaching”, Designing for Learning, JISC

The Associative ViewThe Associative View

• Routines of organised activity• Clear goals and feedback• Individualised pathways• Task analysis• Progressive sequencing of components• Clear instructional approaches for units• Highly focussed set of objectives• Accurate reproduction of knowledge or

skill

The Cognitive ViewThe Cognitive View

• Conceptual development • Ill-structured tasks and problems• Opportunities for reflection• Ownership of the task• Experimentation and discovery• Coach thinking skills• Develop learner autonomy• Crediting varieties of excellence• Developing self- and peer-evaluation skills

The Situative ViewThe Situative View

• Participation in social practices of enquiry and learning

• Development of identities as capable and confident learners

• Safe environments for participation• Development of practitioner identities• Facilitating learning dialogues and relationships• Crediting participation• Authenticity of practice• Involving peers

LeLearning Theory (1)arning Theory (1)

Please note down your thoughts

What is learning?

What do we learn?

What helps us to learn?

Organisms are Organisationally Closed/Autopoietic Organisms are Organisationally Closed/Autopoietic SystemsSystems

A self-organising system is “A coherent space-time structure at the macro level” (Prigogine)

Organisational closure/autopoiesis: “Processes produce products that embody processes” (Maturana)

Energy/matter Waste products

Perturbations Adaptive reactions

Learning Learning TTheory: First Principles (1)heory: First Principles (1)

• “The environment contains no information. It is as it is.” “Everything that is said is said by or to an observer.” Heinz von Foerster

• Learning is constructive and conversational

Heinz von FoersterHeinz von Foerster

Learning Learning TTheory: First Principles (2)heory: First Principles (2)

• “Man is a system that needs to learn.” “Teaching is the control of learning.” Gordon Pask

• Adaptive, conversational systems that provide support (scaffolding)

The Dynamics of LearningThe Dynamics of Learning

• Need for variety• Uncertainty reduction• Awareness/consciousness• Proceduralisation• Remembering and forgetting – the

roles of practice and story telling

Gordon PaskGordon Pask

Self-Adaptive Keyboard Self-Adaptive Keyboard Instructor (SAKI)Instructor (SAKI)

Classroom of the Future (1961)Classroom of the Future (1961)

Behaviour ModificationBehaviour Modification

Complex behaviours

Simple behaviour

Sequencing rules

Conditioning rules

Discriminating stimuli

Reinforcement

Response

Stimulus

Complex concepts

Concept

Concept classes

Concept exemplars

Problems

Solutions

Knowledge of results

Concept labels and rules

Cognitive ConstructionCognitive Construction

Socially Situated LearningSocially Situated Learning

Socially embedded activity

Discursive practices

Emergence of individual identity, acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes

Emergence of reflective practitionersand learning communities

Learning as ConversationLearning as Conversation

Conceptual system

Concept or skill

Topics analysed andmapped as knowable

wholes

Tasks analysed for a particular topic

Tasks set

Tasks performed

Questions and answers about

how

Questions and answers about

why

Learner Teacher

Course Assembly System and Course Assembly System and Tutorial Environment (1972)Tutorial Environment (1972)

A ‘Full’ Learning Conversation A ‘Full’ Learning Conversation

How and why of topicHow and why of topic

How of learning

Why of learning

Teacher Learner

After Harri-Augstein and Thomas

The Learning Community: Learning As The Learning Community: Learning As Iterative, Recursive, Propagative Processes Iterative, Recursive, Propagative Processes

of Reflection and Communicationof Reflection and Communication

v

IterationPropagate

Recurse down

Recurse up

Propagate

Learning Theory (2)Learning Theory (2)

Please note down your thoughts

How do subject areas differ?

How do learners differ?

How do we learn to learn?

Course DesignCourse Design

Please note down your thoughts

What makes for a good course?

How do we ensure the learning designs within a course support effective learning?

Course Design: PrincipleCourse Design: Principless

A clear mapping between course components

Course Design: ProcessesCourse Design: Processes

Curriculum developmentPedagogical model

Course design, developmentand delivery on a project basis

Support and trainingQA

Knowledge and Task AnalysisKnowledge and Task Analysis

Task structure (Precedence Chart)Task structure (Precedence Chart)

Learning from Expository TextLearning from Expository Text

• Genre or text object type signposted• Legible (font, background, location)• Readable (grammar, sentence length,

vocabulary)• Comprehensible (local and global

coherence of argument structures)• Learnable (promotes active learning

and reflection)

Using Activities and Formative Using Activities and Formative AssessmentAssessment

Using Activities to Promote Learning

Introductory Activity Follow-on ActivityLesson ContentFeedback Feedback+ +> >

RaiseAwareness

Prepare,Motivate

ExplainConcept

Demonstrateskill

Consolidate,Elaborate

Practice,Reinforce

The “tutorial in print” (after Rowntree)

MK2 Knowledge MapMK2 Knowledge Map

Delivering Capability

PART AINTRODUCTION

A1STRUCTURES

Factual Area

Procedures

Part

Module

Section

Relationship

Link

Structures

KEY:

A2.1Joint Doctrine

A1.5Management of

DefenceResources

A1.1MOD

A1.2Civil

Service

A1.3Allies

A1.4PJHQ

A2.2Campaign Planning

A2 - DOCTRINE

PART CAPPLYING CAPABILITY TO OPERATIONS(THE BATTLESPACE)

C5THE OPERATIONAL

PLANNING PROCESS

C6CONDUCT OFOPERATIONS

C1THE BDE IN

THE DIV

C7MEASURINGCAPABILITY

C5.1 - BdePlanning Process

Ouput ismeasured in

terms ofOperational

Effectiveness

Operationsuse

Capability

C6.1Offensive Ops

C6.2Defensive Ops

C6.3Delay Ops

C6.4Transitional Ops

C6.5OOTW

C2BRITISH APPROACH

TO OPS

PART BDELIVERING CAPABILITY(THE BUSINESS SPACE)

B2.1Project

ManagementB2.2

ResourceManagement

B2.3Change

Management

B2.5Personnel

Management

B2.4Risk Management

B2.6R&M

B1DELIVERINGCAPABILITY -PROCESSES

B1.2Defence

Plannning Process

B1.3EquipmentProgramme

B1.4Acquisition

Process

B1.5Measurement

B2DELIVERINGCAPABILITY -

PROCEDURES

C4SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY

C3 - EQUIPMENTCAPABILITY

Capabilityuses

technology

C3.1

CIS

C3.2

ISTAR

C3.3

DBE

C3.4

IBE

C3.5

ManouevreSupport

C3.6

AD

C3.7

CBRN

C3.8

Tactical andStrategic Mob

C3.9

CSS

C3.10 -Mod and

Sim

TSO

C4.1STATISTICS

C4.2EQPT

DESIGN

C4.3CIS

TECHNOLOGY

C4.4ISTAR

TECHNOLOGY

C4.5MANOEUVRETECHNOLOGY

C4.6LETHALITY

TECHNOLOGY

C4.7SURVIVABILITYTECHNOLOGY

Technologyreferences

TSO

How a Divmeasures

effectiveness ofcomponent Bdes

C1.1Structure ofDiv and Bde

HQsB1.1

Capability

Measurement ofOperational

effectiveness feedsback into

the planning process

Created and managed by Systems Consultants Services Ltd and the MOD

MK Module TemplateMK Module Template• Modules, Sections and Lessons have titles• Module contents listing• Module Learning Outcomes (LOs)• Module Introduction

• Section LOs• Section Introduction

• Lesson LOs• Lesson Introduction• Lesson Content

• Activities• Examples• Figures, Tables

• Lesson Summary• Section Summary• Recommended further reading

• Module Summary• Self Assessment Questions (SAQs), organised by Section• SAQ answers, organised by Section• References

Advance Organiser: MK2 Advance Organiser: MK2 Interactive Knowledge MapInteractive Knowledge Map

Concept Maps: Fighting PowerConcept Maps: Fighting Power

Process Maps: The Doctrinal Process Maps: The Doctrinal CycleCycle

MK2 Lesson IntroductionMK2 Lesson Introduction

Delivering MK2 – The Full Pedagogic Delivering MK2 – The Full Pedagogic ModelModel

• Searching and learning about resources, knowledge management

• Mentor support• Peer-peer learning• Student tracking and assessment• Student records• Integration with residential courses –

blended learning• Evaluation studies

Designs for Collaborative Designs for Collaborative LearningLearning

• Group or individual tasks• Dissemination to peers• Exchange of critical reviews• Revise, iterate• Tutor as learning facilitator, learning

coach, subject matter expert, assessor

HE and MOD ApproachesHE and MOD Approaches

• CU has been tasked to consider how the Defence Systems Approach to Training (DSAT) maps to HE procedures

• Overall pedagogic model (CU) = instructional strategy (MOD)

• Learning designs (CU) = instructional design tactical solutions (MOD).

• Academic QA <= DSAT QA

References and ResourcesReferences and Resources• Von Foerster, H and Poerksen, B (2002). Understanding Systems, Kluwer,

Dordrecht.• Harri-Augstein, S and Thomas, L F (1991). Learning Conversations,

London, Routledge.• Laurillard, D (2002). Rethinking University Teaching: A Conversational

Framework for the Effective Use of Learning Technologies (2nd Ed), Routledge, London

• MOD (2005). Army e-Learning Guidelines.• Pask, G (1975). Conversation, Cognition and Learning, Elsevier,

Amsterdam.• Pask, G and Scott, B (1973). "CASTE: a system for exhibiting learning

strategies and regulating uncertainty", Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, 5, pp. 17-52.

• Reigler, A (ed) (2005). Radical Constructivism, http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/

• Rowntree, D (1990). Teaching Through Self-Instruction: How to Develop Open Learning Materials, Kogan Page, London.

• Ryan, S, Scott, B, Freeman, H and Patel, D (2000). The Virtual University: The Internet and Resource Based Learning, Kogan Page, London.

• Scott, B et al (2005). The Online Learning Knowledge Garden, http://ollkg.rmcs.cranfield.ac.uk/.