pedestrian archeology in singapore experiences from the past

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Pedestrian archeology in Singapore: experiencesfrom the past

P.P. Koh, Y.D. Wong & G. Menon

To cite this article: P.P. Koh, Y.D. Wong & G. Menon (2014) Pedestrian archeology in Singapore:

experiences from the past, The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering, 7:4, 297-305

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TECHNICAL PAPER

Pedestrian archeology in Singapore: experiences from the past

P.P. Koh*, Y.D. Wong and G. Menon

Centre for Infrastructure Systems, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,50 Nanyang Avenue N1-B1b-09, 639798, Singapore

( Received 11 June 2014; accepted 31 July 2014)

Walking is an important part of the transportation system, as everyone walks. Providing an adequate infrastructure network promotes walking. Additional walking facilities encourage longer walks, especially in the tropical climate of Singapore.This paper provides a good documentation of the historical infrastructural developments to enhance the walkingexperience in Singapore, from post World War II to present. Lessons learnt from these past experiences are highlighted.

Keywords: pedestrian history; pedestrian infrastructure archive; lessons learnt

1. Introduction

Everybody walks everyday. Hence, walking forms part of

everyday life. As technology advances from wheels to

motor, walking is still a necessity for people to travel

from one place to another. Technology only helps one to

travel longer distance but all other modes of transport still

require some form of walking to connect with the origin/

destination.

Walking has been perhaps involuntary in the past as

there were no other means of affordable transport. Hence,

people in the past tended to walk a lot more as compared

to nowadays (with a variety of options available). It has

now evolved to a transport mode that requires transporta-tion practitioners to provide an enhanced walking experi-

ence to “attract” people to walk more. By making the

walking experience more enjoyable and safer, people will

walk more.

Recently, Singapore has been often ranked to be one

of the most walkable cities in the world, having a good

public transportation system and adequate facilities for

pedestrians (Ng et al. 2012; Sanyal 2013; UN Habitat

2013). This is likely attributed to the early recognition of

pedestrians as an important contributor of the transport

system and the continual effort made by the authorities

from decades ago. It is interesting to know more about the

explorations and decisions made in the past and how theyhave impacted the way it is now. Valuable lessons could

be learnt from the planning, implementation and post-

implementation stages.

This paper serves to document the historical develop-

ments on urban planning, with focus on providing for

pedestrians in Singapore. A list of schemes is summarised

in Table 1.

2. Factors affecting walking

Past researches have been trying to quantify walkability;

however, the way pedestrians feel about their walking sys-

tem differs by culture and climate influences. Hence, it is

very difficult to have a universal walkability evaluation

matrix and it has to be calibrated to suit the needs of each

country. Koh and Wong (2013) introduced a (11 infra-

structural compatibility C distance factors) spider web

representation of the current walking needs in local con-

text (see Figure 1). From face-to-face street survey with

1146 respondents, it was found that weather protection

supplants distance as the most important factor (Tier 1)

for walking, and hence shall be provided after the con-struction of the basic fundamentals (walkway network).

The next tier (Tier 2) comprises secondary factors for

walking, and should be provided as much as possible.

This includes comfort of walking (smoothness of the

pavement), security (perceived feeling of pedestrians on

theft and crimes around the neighbourhood), traffic acci-

dent risk (how well the pedestrians are protected from

motorised vehicles), detour (whether there is good perme-

ability of the neighbourhood where pedestrians can get to

the destination in the shortest path), and lastly the road

crossing delays (whether prioritisation is given to pedes-

trian instead of the motorised traffic). Tier 3 comprises

“good-to-have” factors that are usually provided onlywhen the basic and secondary factors are provided or

when there is surplus budget. They are related to the

topography (stairs/slope) of the land area which is usually

expensive to level, installing comprehensive directional

signs that provide useful real-time information, providing

pleasant landscaping (good scenery) and integrating with

shops.

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

2014 The Institution of Engineers, Singapore

The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering , 2014

Vol. 7, No. 4, 297305, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19373260.2014.951187

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Table 1. List of pedestrian improvement schemes implemented (by chronological order).

Year Scheme implemented Tier Purpose

1822 Five-foot-ways below shophouses 1 Basic walking infrastructure

1960s Multi-storey public housing with void decks

1950 Zebra crossings 2 Time-separate pedestrians fromvehicles

1964 Underpass for pedestrians (1st installed: Connaught Drive) 2 Tier-separate pedestrians from vehicles

1964 Overhead bridge for pedestrians (1st installed: Collyer Quay) 2 Tier-separate pedestrians from vehicles

1974 Anti-jaywalking campaign 2 Reduce pedestrian accidents

1977 Pedestrian crossing rules and anti-jaywalking signs

1976 Traffic signals for pedestrians

Early 1980s Pedestrian audio signals 3 Assist visually impaired pedestrians tocross signalised pedestrian crossings

Convert to audio tactile signals

1989 Master plan for pedestrians Phases 1 and 2 (creating pedestrian-friendly walkways)

3 Encourage more people to walk

1992 Countdown pedestrian timer 2 Improve pedestrians’ safety

Convert to single modular signals

Mid 1990s Floodlight at zebra crossings (1st installed: slip road from Fort

Road into ECP (Changi))

2 Improve pedestrians’ visibility

1997 Art in Transit (North East Line) 3 Improve pedestrians’ walkingexperience

2008 Art in Transit walking tours

1997 Raised zebra crossings (1st implemented: Jurong East Street 24next to Yu Hua Primary School)

2 Improve pedestrians’ visibility

1998 Convert the tiny green push button to large push buttonswith LED at pedestrian signal crossings

3 Improve pedestrians’ walkingexperience

1999 Safe Drive Zone at schools 2 Improve pedestrians’ safety

2004 Enhanced School Zone (ESZ)

2013 Further improvement to ESZ

2000 Red-amber-green arrows at junctions (1st installed: two junctionsat Yishun new town)

2 Provide exclusive phase for rightturning motorists, improve safety for pedestrians

2005 Intelligent road studs for right-turning vehicles 2 Warn right-turning motorists to look out for pedestrians

2005 Convert light bulb to LED flashing beacons at zebra crossings 2 Improve flashing beacon reliability

2006 Barrier free accessibility at least 1 BFA route from Mass rapid transit(MRT) station

3 Improve accessibility of pedestrianswith diverse needs

2008 Lifts are added to 16 MRT stations, BFA enhancement added to 10stations

2011 BFA to 95% of pedestrian walkways within 400 m radius of MRT/Lightrail transit (LRT) stations, all taxi and bus shelters and all public roads

2008 Expand more sheltered linkways to transport nodes and overhead bridges 1 Provide pedestrians with shelters

2013 Walk2Ride programme to construct sheltered linkways near transportnodes (expand from 200400 m)

2009 Green Man Plus at traffic signals 3 Assist people with diverse needs

2011 Extend to another 500 locations2009 Convert solid signalised pedestrian crossing lines to dashed lines 2 Improve designated crossing area

visibility

2009 Pedestrian Crossing Ahead Markings 2 Warn motorists to give way to pedestrians at zebra crossings

2009 Pedestrian Crossing signs at zebra crossings 2 Warn motorists on the presence of zebra crossing ahead

2011 Lifts to overhead bridges 3 Assist people with diverse needs to useoverhead bridge

2012 Extend to six other overhead bridges

(continued )

298 P.P. Koh et al.


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Table 1. (Continued )

Year Scheme implemented Tier Purpose

2013 Extend to 40 other overhead bridges

2011 Flushed LED road studs at zebra crossings 2 Warn motorists to give way to pedestrians at zebra crossings

2012 Look Markings at zebra crossing 2 Remind pedestrians to look out for vehicles before crossings

2013 Extend to 50 more locations

2013 Silver Zone 3 Warn motorists to look out for elderly

Note: Dates are tagged to the public announcement made; actual completion dates are later; information obtained from Factiva (Archive of news articles)[1980current] and News release (LTA) [2008current].The bold items indicate the start of the scheme.

Addressing diverse needs

• Doing the extra miles for pedestrians

• Connecng people between opposite sides

of the road

• Enhancing pedestrian safety

• Providing what was best available

• Combang the local climate

Tier 3 -

'Good to

have' factors

Stairs/slope, signs,

scenery, shops

Tier 2 - Secondary

factors

Comfort, security, accident risk,detour, road crossing delays

Tier 1 - Primary factors

(the fundamental provision)

Weather protecon, distance

Crowdednes

Stairs/slope

Distance

Accident

risk

1

2

3

4

Comfort

Weather

protecon

Detour

Security

Road crossing delay

Shops along

route

Good scenery

Direconal signs

Figure 1. Walking factors and pyramid.

The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering 299


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2.1. Providing from what was best available

Pedestrian walkway is the basic form of infrastructure that

is required for walking. In the past, people used to walk

along muddy tracks (famously known as dirt roads) without

any segregation from the motorised vehicles. There were

no proper systems and people have to watch out for one

another (see Figure 2). As far back in 1822, Sir Stamford

Raffles (founder of modern Singapore), stipulated in the

Town Plan that shophouses should have a covered

walkway of about five feet (equivalent to 1.5 m) along its

street front (see Figure 3). These walkways were meant to

protect pedestrians from the hot tropical sun and rain.Some serve to allow people to window-shop or stop by for

some refreshments. Till today, some of these five-foot-

ways are conserved as part of the heritage of Singapore.

The 14 storey shophouses typically found near the

city area (which are the depopulated Chinatown, Little

India and Kampong Glam districts of today) could not

cater to the burgeoning growth of population at that time.

This led to the building of the first batch of 23,000 public

multi-storey apartment units in 1959. However, this first

attempt to re-house the population was inadequate till the

formation of Planning Department and the founding of

Housing Development Board (HDB) in the 1960s. HDB

constructed more than 50,000 multi-storey housing units

within five years. Over the years, the layout of these hous-

ings adopted a “checkerboard” principle with grid-like

precincts. Each new town comprises a transit station/bus

interchange, a town centre, neighbourhood centres

(40006000 units) and precincts (78 blocks of housing).

A neighbourhood centre contains shopping (some still

keeping the “five-foot-way” shophouse concept of cov-ered walkways) and communal activity for residents

within walking distance. The concept of a precinct has the

intent to foster community ties among the residents

through the use of open spaces and streetscapes under-

neath and between residential blocks. This unique local

residential layout provides a very permeable environment

suited for walking as the ground level is typically a void

deck and the blocks are not fenced up.

Figure 3. Then (left); Now (centre, right): Five-foot-way.

Figure 2. Chinatown in the 1900s (Chinatownology 2014).

300 P.P. Koh et al.


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With the introduction of the high-rise residential

setup, walkways need to be constructed to link residents

from homes to amenities. It is not uncommon to spot

cement-paved 1.5 m wide walkways along all arterial

roads. These provide dedicated, protected paths that sepa-

rate pedestrians from the motorised traffic. The rationale

of why footpaths are constructed along roads was to

enhance pedestrian safety within the road reserve and it

was a possible option to slab over some of the open drains

next to roads and not damaging the tree-lines alongsidethe roadway. It was also very cost-effective as there is no

need to provide additional street lighting which has been

properly laid out along the roadside. However, this conve-

nient solution then leads to some unforeseeable issues

being faced at present.

When walkways are provided by slabbing over of

open drains, there is a need to provide iron gratings at

intervals for aeration of the water in the drain and for

cleaning. Sometimes, these gratings may pose a tripping

hazard when not maintained properly. Furthermore,

cyclists nowadays tend to leverage on this existing com-

prehensive network of walkways for their convenience.

The likely reason that cyclists prefer walkways over roadsis that they provide bi-directional and ostensibly safer

travel.

2.2. Combating the local’s climate

In Singapore, the tropical (hot, humid and sometimes wet)

weather is one of the major considerations for one to walk

longer (Koh et al. 2011; Koh and Wong 2013). Being a

garden city, sidewalks are often planted with trees that

provide some shade. Also, the sheltered five-foot-ways

below shophouses and corridors/void decks below public

housing shelter pedestrians from the rain and sunshine. To

connect to the major bus stops, transit stations and ameni-

ties, walkways are built with shelters. Recently, LTA has

announced the provision of sheltered walkways from

within the radius of 200400 m of the transit stations and

other major pedestrian generating amenities like schools

and community centres (Sim 2013).

2.3. Connecting people between opposite sides

of the road

As population of motorised vehicles increases, roads get

wider, and pedestrians will find it challenging to cross to

the other side. One form of crossing is grade-separated

the underpass and overpass (pedestrian overhead bridge).

The first walk-through underpass that was built in 1964

was across Connaught Drive, to ease the congestion of

traffic. The underpass provides a seamless, undisturbed

walk to the pedestrians. However, constructing an under-

pass is costly and difficult. Consequently, underpasses

have not been widely constructed after that (54 number asof 2012) (LTA 2013b). Shortly after the first underpass

was built, Singapore’s first overhead bridge was built at

Collyer Quay in the same year (see Figure 4). This seemed

to provide a better (“safer”) option as the pedestrians are

visible to other road users nearby. The minimum require-

ment of 5.4 m height clearance results in about 36 steps to

climb. Close to 500 overhead bridges are built, as of

2012, but as the population ages, their usage poses prob-

lems. As walkways get their shelters, overhead bridge

Figure 4. The first overhead bridge at Collyer Quay (Memories of Singapore 2012).



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connecting to these walkways are also provided with shel-

ters to provide a seamless covered walking journey.

Time-separated schemes were introduced, to allow

pedestrians and motorists to share the road space safely in

an orderly manner. The very first form of time-separated

traffic control at junctions was controlled by officers with

whistle and flags. This was soon replaced by automatic

General Electric Company traffic lights in 1948 (Remember

Singapore 2013). The traffic lights with incandescent bulbs

used up to the 1970s, were replaced by halogen bulbs and

later superseded by light-emitting-diodes (LEDs) since

early 2000s. LEDs are well-known for its reliability and

energy conservation.

The turning traffic give way to crossing pedestrians

was introduced in 1976, which allowed turning traffic and

crossing pedestrians (controlled by green man and red

man signals) to share the green time. This resulted in

almost any signalised junction becoming a safe pedestrian

crossing. The first and only scramble walk (whereby all

vehicles are stopped to give pedestrians an exclusivegreen time when they can cross in any fashion within the

junction) was implemented in Singapore in 1997 at Boon

Tat Street/Robinson Road junction. The experiment did

not prove successful as most pedestrians were used to the

main system where they share the green time with turning

traffic. Hence, it was not applied elsewhere. Nevertheless,

scramble crossing can be very effective at locations with

heavy pedestrian traffic crossing in more than one direc-

tion, for example at a junction in vicinity of the transit

station.

2.4. Enhancing pedestrian safetyThe many basic schemes are not accident-proof. With

erroneous behaviour of the pedestrians/motorists, acci-

dents do happen. Hence, much has been done to enhance

the safety of pedestrians.

Countdown pedestrian timer was introduced at the

signalised pedestrian crossings in 1992 to display the

amount of time left to cross once the flashing green man

starts. This reduces the number of unintentional violators,

hence enhancing safety.

Singapore has adopted the permissive right-turn (left-

hand driving) system at junctions. In this configuration,

pedestrians are released with the straight through traffic.

Most of the pedestrians would have cleared the crossing before the right-turning vehicle can find gaps in the oppo-

site stream. However, sometimes during low traffic, there

could be some conflicts between the motorists and pedes-

trians. Hence, there are several schemes implemented to

warn right-turning motorists to give way to pedestrians.

These include right-turn pockets, intelligent road studs

that will blink with the green man, give-way-to-pedes-

trians signs and Red-Amber-Green arrows (exclusive

right-turn phase).

At the uncontrolled zebra crossings, motorists need to

give way to pedestrians. Many of these crossings are

located along the slip roads at junctions or mid-block

between junctions along minor roads with low traffic vol-

umes. Zebra crossings are demarcated with white strips

with two flashing beacons and the blue pedestrian crossing

signs. Initiatives to enhance safety at such locations

include attaching flood lights to improve the visibility of

crossing pedestrians, attaching luminous orange discs

below the flashing beacons, converting flashing beacons

from light bulbs to more reliable LEDs, lowering of the

flashing beacon pole to become more conspicuous to the

motorists, raising the zebra crossings (with humps and

painted checkered yellow rectangles at both sides) to

improve visibility, installing LED road studs across the

crossing and painting the “Look” markings to warn pedes-

trians to look out for oncoming traffic.

2.5. Addressing diverse needs

There are segments of the population with mobility con-

straints such as the elderly, caregiver with prams, people

with trolleys and other mobility challenged groups.

Barrier free accessibility (BFA) requirements started

as early as late 1990s. The very first efforts involved a

taskforce set up in 1999 to identify footpaths with high

kerbs found in public places such as town centres, schools,

bus interchanges and MRT/LRT stations (LTA 2000).

These kerbs were reconstructed with kerbcut ramps to

reduce the height from 75 to 25 mm to facilitate the

elderly and those in wheelchairs. Until recently, the BFA

requirements were stipulated to have at least two BFA

access routes from transit stations (LTA 2011b). BFA isalso available in all public housing estates (Siong 2012)

and some private estates. The programme includes con-

structing on/off ramps with handrails at locations with

stairs, installing drop kerbs at crossing points, removing

obstacles from walkways and upgrading major transport

nodes with tactile-guidance system. The overhead bridges

which have been built to solve congestion problem now

become hurdles to the people with mobility constraints to

climb. Subsequently, ramps were built as alternative to

the stairs to connect to the overhead bridges as part of the

BFA initiatives. However, these ramps tend to be overly

long and take up a lot of space. Most of the other overhead

bridges are built with stairs. To cater to the mobility chal-lenged group, the most recent initiative by LTA is to pro-

vide lifts at some of the overhead bridges (LTA 2013a).

To assist the elderly to cross the road safely, traffic sig-

nal timing are extended to cater to their slower crossing

speeds. An elderly by tapping his/her senior citizen travel

concession card on a card reader below the push button is

able to extend up to 13 seconds of the green man timing.

The initiative, Green Man Plus, was piloted in 2009 and has

received numerous favourable feedback from the public and

302 P.P. Koh et al.


8/10

now it is being expanded to include other mobility chal-

lenged users with added features (LTA 2011a).

Pedestrian audio signal is the beeping sound that

pedestrians hear at pedestrian crossings. These signals are

to help the visually handicapped pedestrians to know the

location of the crossing, onset and ending of green man

and the opposite end of the crossing. In the early 1980s,

pedestrian audio signals were mounted as loudspeakers on

top of the pedestrian signal heads (Koh et al. 2012). At

that time, the audio signals were meant to signify the

crossing period for all pedestrians. The crossing tones

from the loudspeakers are often quite annoying to nearby

residents. Hence, the new version of the beeping audio

signals are mostly installed at mid-block crossings and

selected junctions based on demand.

Another group of vulnerable pedestrians are the school

children. They are the less experienced ones who need

attention from the other road users. Many schemes have been implemented to target at these young users. All

school children in Primary Five need to spend half a day

at the Road Safety Community Park, supervised by the

Traffic Police to learn the essentials of road safety includ-

ing the kerb drill on how to cross a road safely. One of the

pioneer efforts includes the School Zone before 1998,

where School Zone, speed limit (40 kph) and prohibitory

signs were put up based on Traffic Police/school requests

(LTA 1998). After that, Safe Drive Zone was imple-

mented in 1999 (LTA 2004). Under the scheme, parent

and resident volunteers serve as community wardens to

guide children across the road outside their schools. There

were also painted footprints to guide the pedestrians tolook out for traffic. In 2004, LTA launched the Enhanced

School Zone which bears the conspicuous red pavements

and enhanced school zone signs at all primary schools.

Recently, the scheme is further enhanced by lowering the

speed limit to 40 kph along roads fronting the schools,

installing a warning “When lights flash” sign with flashing

amber lights to warn motorists of the part time speed limit

and incorporating a new safety toolkit with traffic calming

measures and reminder messages.

2.6. Doing the extra mile for pedestrians

In 1989, the Public Works Department rolled out a

$122 million master plan to make walking an attractive

option (Soh 1989). Phase I of the programme focused on

walkways in the Civic/Business District and Orchard Road areas. Phase II concentrated on other city spots

like Chinatown, Boat Quay and Little India. The pedes-

trian-friendly schemes include more attractive tiles and

wider pavements, improving landscaping like fountains,

pools, small parks and sculptures, and using new designs

for all street furniture such as rest points, traffic signs,

bus shelters, lighting, street directories and ramps for

disabled.

Closing streets to solely pedestrian use (known as

pedestrianisation) was also one of the proposed plans in

the programme. It started as early as mid 1990s with the

first street at Pagoda Street to turn into a car-free mall.

Pagoda Street in the Chinatown is bustling with commer-cial activities with shophouses at both sides of the street

(see Figure 5). There is also the Sri Mariamman Temple

and it is a popular tourist spot. To convert it to a pedes-

trian mall, the road is paved with tiles with specially

designed benches, lights, street signs and dustbins (The

Straits Times 1992). The next pedestrianisation includes

the plaza next to People’s Park Complex, New Bridge

Road, Eu Tong Sen Street, Clarke Quay and Boat Quay.

Yuen and Chin (1998) provide a good literature on pedes-

trian streets in Singapore.

Partial pedestrianisation (in terms of partial closure by

timing or lanes) is also common in Singapore. For exam-

ple, a portion of the Boon Tat Street, which is a one-waystreet in the central business district (CBD), is now offi-

cially closed to traffic every evening after 7 pm. Food ven-

dors occupy the space and open for business and it has

since been a popular food alley in the CBD area. Another

form of partial pedestrianisation is the partially cordoned

road closure to events like cycling and marathons, held

usually during the weekends. Cycling races began as early

as 1934, one of which was organised by the Singapore

Cycling Club (SCC 1933).

Figure 5. Pagoda street market in the 1960s (source: Old postcard of Singapore) and present (2010s).



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To provide pedestrians with excellent shop-while-

walking experience, the first air-conditioned overhead

bridge was converted from the open overhead bridge

across Shenton Way in 1971. This bridge (Change Alley

Aerial Plaza) with shops on both sides, links Raffles Place

to shops in Clifford Pier (URA 2013). However, with the

development of surrounding commercial buildings, the

crowd using the shops has dropped drastically. Subse-

quently, overhead bridge connections (second storey

links) are only considered when the surrounding develop-

ments have an extended network of pedestrian decks at

the second storey or when there are constraints to build

underground links. The first underground pedestrian link

mall (City Link) was opened in 2000 to link up Raffles

City, Marina Square, the Padang and future Singapore

Arts Centre (now known as Esplanade). Other recent

underground pedestrian link malls include Dhoby

Xchange, Tanjong Pagar Xchange, Esplanade Xchange

and Marina Bay Link Mall. All of these are linked to

MRT stations with great pedestrian flows. At the new resi-dential towns, new urban design concept incorporating

green community spaces such as sky-rise greening, garden

walk and non-motorised infrastructure network, for sus-

tainable living characterises the next generation. This is

evident in the latest HDB housing projects such as Pung-

gol Matilda, Tampines North and Bidadari.

3. Discussions and conclusions

This paper provides a comprehensive documentation of

the historical development of Singapore’s pedestrian

infrastructure from post World War II till present. Lessons

learnt from the past allow others to “build it right” fromthe start. Fortunately, Singapore has paid sufficient atten-

tion in the distant past such that major retrofitting is not

required now to rectify the existing infrastructure to meet

the changing diverse needs of road users.

As the paper has demonstrated, Singapore’s pedestrian

network can be graded to be at the top of the walking pyr-

amid. The fundamentals have been provided with great

quality and the secondary level has also been provided at

great length. The only part that needs improvement will

be greater accessibility for the mobility disadvantaged to

use pedestrian overhead bridges and the “good-to-have”

factors like landscaping the walking environment and pro-

viding the walking route with shops nearby. Pedestrianisa-tion could be extended further to mimic European car-free

town zones on a larger scale basis instead of the current

single road conversion.

The planning/construction of pedestrian infrastructure

network can be said to encourage cycling revival indi-

rectly. Many cyclists today leverage on the availability of

existing pedestrian walkway network, out of convenience

(bi-directional) and a safer option than riding along the

roadways. With the implementation of BFA, this indi-

rectly provides cyclists to greater advantage of smoother,

continuous travel on walkways. The availability of this

defacto “cycle” network works well too with the recent

implementation of off-road cycling tracks, especially at

locations with no available space where the existing walk-

ways serve as transition segments.

While greenery provides shade for users and adds to

the landscape of the environment, it may hinder the retro-

fitting of additional infrastructure to the road network. For

example, there often exists space constraints when con-

structing a cycling track between the pedestrian footpath

and building boundary line.

In the long run, more prioritisation should be given to

pedestrians and other non-motorised transport to convert

the motor-centric environment to a sustainable transport

system.

Acknowledgements

The first author would like to thank Dr. Chin Kian Keong for hismoral support of the work.

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